Sona College of Technology,Salem-5

Department of EEE
Technical Question Bank

S.No Subject Page No

1 Electron Devices 2

2 Electronic Circuits 6

3 Electrical Machines-I 10

4 Special Electrical Machines 13

5 Control System 20

6 Transmission &Distribution 23

7 Digital Systems 26

8 Electrical Machines-II 39

9 Design of Electrical Apparatus 44

10 Electromagnetic fields 47

11 Linear Integrated Circuits 50

12. Measurements &Instrumentation 54

13 Protection & Switchgear 58

14 Solid State drives 61

15 Digital Signal Processing 66

16 High Voltage Engineering 68

17 Power Electronics 71
 ELECTRON DEVICES

1. Why transistor is named so?

It is because the transfer of signal is from low resistance to high resistance.

2. Why the emitter of a transistor is heavily doped?

The emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so it can inject large number of
majority charge carriers into the base.
Why: to improve the gain

3. Why base is made thin in BJT?

It forms middle section between collector and the emitter in a transistor hence it is very thin
and lightly doped.

4. Why is the collector made wider than emitter and base?

In order to dissipate much power due to the amplified signals at the collector terminal,
collector is made wider than emitter and base.

5. Why transistor is called low power device?

Transistor is a temperature sensitive device, so high power leads to destruction of function
due to thermal runaway problem.
Where: amplifier and oscillator circuit

6. What is early effect?

Increase in collector current increases the charge width at the output function causing
decrease in effective base width is early effect.
What are its impacts?
- less chance for recombination within the base region, increases with increase
in Vcb
- charge gradient increases increasing minority carrier current injected across base
emitter junction.
- Even voltage breakdown occurs
-
7. When a transistor does act as a switch?
A transistor acts as a switch when it is operated in saturation region and cut off region.

8. Why is CE transistor mostly used?

CE transistors are mostly preferred because it has high current gain.
Where: for audio frequency circuits

9. What is pinch off voltage?

As drain to source voltage is increased a voltage is reached where ID approach constant
value, the corresponding VDS is called pinch off voltage.

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 How: as Vds is increased the cross sectional area of the channel will be reduced to a
minimum value and attains saturation that voltage is pinch off voltage

10. What are the handling precautions for MOSFET?

It is kept with its terminals shorted by a ring.
To avoid static electricity and high voltage, a pair of zener diodes are connected
back to back between the gate and source of MOSFET.
Why: MOSFET has the drawback of being susceptible to overload voltage and gets
damaged easily if not properly handled, a thin layer of SiO2 between gate and channel is
damaged due to high voltage and even by static electricity

11. What is latching current?

It is the minimum current required to trigger the device from its OFF state to its ON state.

12. What is holding current?

It is the minimum value of current to hold the device in ON state.

13. Why is SCR made of silicon and not germanium?

Leakage current in silicon is very small as compared to germanium.

14. What is triac?

Triac is Triode AC switch which can control alternating current in a load.
Where: illumination control, temperature control, liquid level control, motor speed control,
as static switch to turn ac power ON and OFF

15. What is diac?

Diac is Diode AC switch which can be switched from its off state to on state for either
polarity of applied voltage.
Where: used as triggering device in triac phase control circuits used for light dimming,
motor speed control and heater control

16. Why is DIAC preferred to trigger a triac?

Triac may be fired into the conducting state by a resistive triggering device but diac has
faster turn on of triac than a resistive triggering device.

17. What is dark current?

In photo diode even when there is no light applied to the diode, there is a minimum reverse
leakage current called dark current.
Where: light detectors, demodulators, encoders, optical communication systems, high speed
counting and switching circuits, computer card punching and tapes, light operated switches,
sound track films

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18. What is LED?
LED is Light Emitting Diode is a PN junction device which emits light when
forward biased, by a phenomenon called electroluminescence.
Where: burglar alarm systems, picture phones, multimeters, calculators, digital meters,
microprocessors, digital computer, electronic telephone exchange

19. What is the difference between LED and photo diode?

In LED visible light is emitted due to the recombination of minority carriers when
an electron falls from conduction into valence bond.
In photo diode the function is reverse biased and by illuminating the function, reverse
current is increased which is the working current of the device.

20. What is depletion region?

The area within a semiconductor diode where no mobile current carrier exists is depletion
region.
How: as free electrons move from N-type to P-type, the donor ions become positively
charged building a positive charge on the N-side of the junction and a net negative charge is
build on the P-side preventing further diffusion of electrons and holes making a barrier

21. What is avalanche breakdown?

Upon collision of electrons with valence electrons covalent bonds are broken and electron
hole pair is generated which is accelerated by electric field resulting in more collision.

22. What is the difference between PN diode and zener diode?

PN diode conducts in forward bias whereas zener diode conducts in reverse bias conditions.

23. What are the practical applications of a diode?

Rectifier in power supplies
Signal diode in communication circuits
Voltage stabilizing circuits (zener diode)
Radio and TV receivers (varactor diode)

24. What is the difference between ideal diode and practical diode?
In practical diode there will be power loss due to its internal resistance whereas ideal diode
is lossless.

25. Why FET is called so?

Drain current ID is controlled by electric field that extends into the channel due to reverse
biased voltage applied to gate hence it is called FET.
Where it is used: RF amplifiers, measuring instruments, FM tuners, communication
equipment, cascade amplifiers, mixer circuits in FM and TV receivers

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26. What is the symbol of varactor diode and zener diode?

Varactor diode zener diode

27. What are the applications of UJT?

Saw tooth generator, wave generator, pulse generator and control circuits

28. What are the applications of photo diode?

Light detectors, demodulators, optical communication systems, high speed switching
circuits.

29. What is the V-I characteristics of PN diode?

30. What are the applications of varactor diode?

Used in FM radio and TV receivers, self adjusting bridge circuits, adjustable band pass
filters, tuning of LC circuit.

31. Why h-parameters are preferred for transistor modeling?

They are real numbers, easy to measure, easily convertible from one configuration to other,
can be obtained from V-I characteristics.

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ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

1. What is biasing?
To use the transistor in any application it is necessary to provide sufficient voltage and
current to operate the transistor. This is called biasing. Types are
Fixed bias
Self bias or voltage divider bias
Need for biasing:
To establish the quiescent operating point so that the device operates in the linear region.
Requirements of biasing circuit:
The Emitter base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse
biased.
The circuit design should provide a degree of temperature stability
The operating point should be made independent of the transistor parameters

2. What is stability factor?

It is the measure of stability provided by the biasing circuit.
Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect to the
rate of change of reverse saturation current.
It should be perfectly zero to keep operating point stable.
Practically stability factor should have the value as minimum as possible

3. What is the necessary of the coupling capacitor?

It is used to block the AC signal to the transistor amplifier. It allows AC &blocks the DC.

4. What is an op-amp?
The operational amplifier is a multi-terminal device, which is quite complex
internally. An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier
usually consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and usually followed by a
level translator and an output stage. An operational amplifier is available as a single
integrated circuit package. It is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as
well as ac input signals and was originally designed for computing such mathematical
functions.
The operating point should be fixed on the load line. The upper end of the load line lies on
the saturation region &lower end lies on the cutoff region.

5. Define slew rate?

Slew rate can be defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage of op-amp
with respect to time.

The methods to improve slew rate

The slew rate can be improved with higher closed-loop gain and dc supply voltage. But the
slew rate also varies with temperature. i.e., slew rate decreases with increase in
temperature.
Another method for improving slew rate is, the rate at which voltage across the capacitor
increases is gain by,
dVc/dt = I / C. where, I is the maximum current furnished by the op-amp to the capacitor
C. From the equation it is clear that for a higher slew rate, op-amp should have either a
higher current or a small value of capacitor.

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6. Oscillators:
An Oscillator is an amplifier ,which uses appositive feedback and with out any external
input signal,generates an output waveform at desired frequency.
The conditions for oscillation-
The total phase shift of an oscillator should be 360 degrees. For feedback oscillator it
should satisfies Barhausen criterion.
The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier(A) and the
magnitude of the feed back factor () i.e A =1
Types:
RC Phase shift oscillator
Wein-bridge oscillator
Hartley oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Crystal Oscillator

7. Define Piezoelectric effect.

When applying mechanical energy to some type of crystals called piezoelectric crystals, the
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy is called piezoelectric effect.
Substances exhibiting piezo electric effects are quartz, Rochelle salt, tourmaline.

8. What is a Schmitt trigger?

Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It is a square wave generator
It converts sinusoidal input into square wave output.
The output of Schmitt trigger swings between upper threshold voltage and lower threshold
voltage, the reference voltages of the input waveform.

11. What is neutralization?

The effect of collector to base capacitance of the transistor is neutralized by introducing a
signal that cancels the signal coupled through collector base capacitance. This process is called
neutralization.

12. What is a stagger tuned amplifier?

It is a circuit in which two single tuned cascaded amplifiers having certain bandwidth
are taken and their resonant frequencies are adjusted that they are separated by an amount equal to
the bandwidth of each stage. Since resonant frequencies are displaced it is called stagger tuned
amplifier.

13. What are the advantages of stagger tuned amplifier?

The advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is to have better flat, wideband characteristics.

14. What are the advantages of double tuned over single tuned?
1. Possess flatter response having steeper sides
2. Provides larger 3 db bandwidth
3. Provides large gain-bandwidth product.

15. Define Quality factor.

Quality factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across the inductance and voltage
across the resistance.

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16. What is a tuned amplifier?
The amplifier with a circuit that is capable of amplifying a signal over a
narrow band of frequencies are called tuned amplifiers.
Types:
Single tuned
Double tuned
Stagger tuned
Synchronously tuned

17. What are the types of feedback oscillators?

RC-Phase shift Oscillator,
LC-Oscillators
1.Clap Oscillator
2.Tuned Emitter
3.Tuned collector base
4.Hartley Oscillator
5.Colpitts Oscillator

18. What are the advantages of double tuned over single tuned?
1. Possess flatter response having steeper sides
2. Provides larger 3 db bandwidth
3. Provides large gain-bandwidth product.

19. Define Sensitivity

It is the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with feedback to the percentage change
in voltage gain without feed back

20. What is Oscillator circuit?

A circuit with an active device is used to produce an alternating current is
called an oscillator circuit

21. List the important characteristics of a voltage regulator.

The output voltage is fixed at a specified value, The unregulated voltage must be at least 2V
more than the regulated voltage.

22. What are the DC characteristics of an op-amp?

a. input bias current b. Input offset current
c .Input offset voltage d. Thermal drift

23. List the applications of instrumentation amplifier.

a. Temperature indicator b. Temperature controller c. Light intensity meters
d. Water flow meter e. Thermal conductivity meter f. Analog weight scale

24. What is a Multivibrator?

Multivibrator is a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square wave
output. It has two states. They may be either stable or quasi stable depends upon the type of the
Multivibrator.

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25. What is meant by voltage follower?
If the output voltage of an op-amp follows the input i.e., if the output voltage is equal to the
input voltage it is called as a voltage follower.

26. Define loading?

A large value of Rc cannot be used in a circuit since,a large value of resistance
requires a large chip area. For large Rc, quiescent drop across it increases and hence a larg
power supply is required. These difficulties removed by using a current source. Hence,
current source can also be used as an active load for an amplifier to obtain a largevoltagegain.

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ELECTRICAL MACHINES I
1. What is electromechanical energy conversion?
It involves the transfer of energy between electrical and mechanical system via electric field
or magnetic field.
How: using translatory motion, vibrating motion, rotational motion

2. Why i- relationship of a magnetic circuit is almost linear?

As i is similar to H while i.e. N is similar to flux density B hence i- relationship is
similar to B-H relationship which is linear till saturation.

3. What are the causes of irrecoverable energy loss in the magnetic circuit?
When a magnetic field undergoes a cycle 1 to 2 to 1 it undergoes a cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization. The hysteresis and eddy current effects are dominant
under such condition. Thus there is a irrecoverable energy loss due to hysteresis and eddy
currents.

4. State the assumptions made for analyzing singly excited system?

1. The Coil is lossless and ideal.
2. The leakage flux does not take part in energy conversion process so it is neglected
3. The leakage inductance is negligible.
4. There is no energy loss in the magnetic core. The reluctance of the iron path is
neglected.
Why: to derive the expressions of electrical input energy, magnetically stored field
energy, mechanical force in easy and simple way and also time consuming

5. What are the two types of magnetic systems? State their examples.
1. Single excited system (Ex: Electromagnetic relay, reluctance motor, toroid coil,
hysteresis motor, solenoid coil)
2. Multiple excited system (Ex: Alternator, synchronous motor)

6. State the essential parts of any rotating machine?

Stator, Rotor, Shaft, Slip ring, Brush assembly, Bearings.

7. What is the function of commutator and brush in DC machine?

Commutator: It is used to convert alternating emf to Direct emf
Brush : Convey current to windings/current to load

8. What is Rotating magnetic field?

Magnetic field having constant amplitude but whose axis continuously rotates in a plane
with a certain speed.

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 9. State the Necessary condition for production of steady torque by the interaction of stator and
rotor fields in an electric machine.
1. The two fields, stator and rotor, must have same number of poles.
2. The relative motion between the two fields must be zero.
3. The space phase angle is the angle between the two field axis must remain constant
with time.

10. What does speed voltage mean?

When the magnetic flux is constant and stationary and the coil rotates to cut the flux then
e.m.f gets induced due to relative speed between the flux and coil. This e.m.f is called speed e.m.f ,
rotational e.m.f, motional e.m.f or dynamically induced e.m.f

11. State the number of parallel paths in a lap and wave connected armature winding.
No. of parallel paths in a lap winding = No of poles
No. of parallel paths in a Wave winding = 2
Application: Lap - preferable for high current low voltage capacity generator, used for
generators of capacity more than 500A.
Wave preferred for low current high voltage capacity generator, used for
generators of capacity less than 500A.

12. What are the causes of failure to excite self excited generator?
1. Absence of residual magnetism due to ageing.
2. Wrong field winding connection
3. The field resistance is more than the critical resistance
4. Generator is driven in opposite direction.

13.What are the characteristics of DC generator?

1. Magnetization characteristics also called no-load characteristics, plotted between no load
voltage E against the field current If.
2. Load characteristics (External & Internal Characteristics)
External char- graph of terminal voltage Vt against load current IL
Internal char graph of generated induced emf E against the armature current Ia.
14. What is Armature Reaction?
The armature current will set up its own magnetic field. The effect of this armature flux on
the distribution of main field flux is called armature reaction.

15. What are the arrangements to be done for satisfactory parallel operation of D.C series
generator?
The equalizer bars must be used which will prevent the condition of short circuit loop forming
between the two generators connected in parallel and prevent the indefinite rise of current in
generators.

16. What are the important parts of Transformer.

Winding, Magnetic Core.

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17. What is EMF equation of Transformer.
E1 = 4.44 f m N1 volts.
E2 =4.44 f m N2 volts.

18. What is Leakage flux.

Some primary flux links with Sy. Flux to complete the path through air. Such flux called
leakage flux.

19. What is voltage regulation of Transformer.

The decrease in Sy. Terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of no load sy. Terminal
voltage is called voltage regulation.

20. What are the losses occurring in Transformer.

Core loss, Cu. Loss

21. Why Transformer does not works on DC supply.

There is no change in flux in DC

22. What is efficiency of Transformer.

It has max efficiency = power o/p / power i/p

23. Why we need OC & SC test?

To predetermine the efficiency and regulation of Transformer at any load and
powerfactor condition, without actually loading the Transformer.

24. What are the diff. types of Transformer connections

Star Star, Delta Delta, Star Delta, Delta Star connection

25. Which rule DC motor Rotates?

Flemings left hand rule Fore finger- flux, Middle findger Dir. Of current,
Thumb dir of motion of the conductor.

26. What is Back EMF?

When a motor armature rotates the arm conductor also cuts the flux. As per
electromagnetic induction, emf produced and just opposite to supply voltage.

27. Why we need starter?

When motor is connected to supply, heavy current is flow through armature,
because of arm. Resistance is very low. More over there is no back emf at the time of
starting.

28. What is voltage equation of DC motor.

V= Eb + Ia Ra

29. What is speed regulation

% speed regulation = ( N n.l - N f.l )/ N f.l * 100

30. What are characteristic of DC motor

T vs Ia (electrical char), N vs Ia , N vs T (Mech char)

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 Special Electrical Machines

SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

1. Where the synchronous reluctance motor is used?

It is widely used for many constant speed applications such as recording
Instruments, time devices. Control apparatus, regulation and phonograph
Turntables.
* Proportioning devices on pumps or conveyors.
* Synthetic fiber manufacturing equipment.
* Wrapping and folding mechanism.
* Processing continuous sheet or film material.
* Auxiliary time mechanism.
* Synchronized conveyors.
* Metering pumps.

2. What is reluctance torque?

T = 3V2/s Xsd Xsq sin2

2XsdXsq
3. What are the primary design consideration for synchronous Reluctance Motor?
Ability of the rotor to withstand high speeds.
Negligible zero-torque spinning losses.
High reliability.
High efficiency.
Low cost.
High output power capability

STEPPER MOTOR

4. What is step angle of stepper motor?

Step angle is defined as the angle though which the stepper motor shaft rotates for each
command pulse. It is denoted as .
Formula for step angle ()
= Ns Nr * 360
Ns.Nr
= 360
mNr
Where
Ns - No. Of stator poles or stator teeth
Nr - No. Of rotor poles or rotor teeth
m - No. Of stator phases

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5. What is slewing in stepper motor?.
The stepper motor may be operate at very high stepping rates i.e, 25000 steps per second. A
stepper motor operates at high speeds is called slewing

6. How you define resolution.

It is defined as the number of steps needed to complete one revolution of the rotor shaft.
Resolution = No. of steps
revolution
= 360

7. Where the stepper motor is used?
Where the step by step rotation is required, like
1. Floppy disk drives
2. Quartz watches
3. Camera shutter operation
4. Dot matrix and line printers
5. Machine tool applications
6. Robotics

8. What are the different types of stepper motor?

1. Variable reluctance stepper motor
2. Permanent magnet stepper motor
3. Hybrid stepper motor

9. What are the different modes of excitation in a stepper motor?

1. Full step operation
2. Half- step operation
3. Micro stepping operation

10. What is meant by micro stepping in stepper motor?

Micro stepping means, the step angle of the VR stepper motor is very small. It is also called
mini-stepping. It can be achieved by two phases simultaneously as in 2-phase on mode but with the
two currents deliberately made unequal

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11. What is hybrid stepper motor?
A hybrid stepper motor combines the features of both PM and VR stepper motor.

12. Draw the typical static characteristics of a stepper motor?

13. How you define holding torque?

Holding torque is the maximum load torque which the energized stepper motor can
withstand without slipping from equilibrium position.

14. How you define dtente torque?

Dtente toque is the maximum load torque which is unenergized stepper motor can with
stand without slipping. It is also known as cogging torque.
15. Draw the typical dynamic characteristics of a stepper motor?

15
 SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS
16. Why rotor position sensor is essential for the operation of switched reluctance Motor?

It is normally necessary to use a rotor position sensor for commutation and speed
feed back. The turning ON and off operation of the various devices of power semiconductor
switching circuit are influenced by signals obtained form rotor position sensor.
17. What are the drawbacks of switched reluctance motor?
1. Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying magnetic current.
2. For high speed operation developed torque has undesirable ripples is a result
develops undesirable noises (or) acoustic noises.
3. For high speed current wave form has undesirable harmonics to suppress this
effect large size capacitor is to be connected.
4. It requires position sensors.
18. What are the advantages of switched reluctance motor?
1. Construction is very simple
2. Rotor carries no windings. No slip rings.
3. No brushes, it requires less maintenance.
4. Ventilation system is very simple because of losses in the stator.

19. Where the SRM is used?

1. Washing machines 2. Vacuum Cleaners 3. Fans
4. Future automobile applications & 5. Robotics control applications.
20. What are the two types of current control techniques?
1. Hysteresis type control 2. PWM type control

21. What is the torque equation of SRM.

Torque developed due to variable reluctance principle.

L
T= i 2

22. What are the essential difference between SRM and Stepper Motor?
SRM Stepper Motor
1. SRM is designed for continuous Stepper motor is designed to rotate in step
rotation. by step rotation.
2. SRM requires a rotor-position It does not require rotor-position sensor.
sensor.

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 PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of brushless dc motor drives?

Advantages

1. There is no winding in the field so copper loss is minimized

2. Length of the motor is very small as there is no mechanical commutator, so that size
becomes very small.

3. Better ventilation because of armature accommodated in the stator

4. Regenerative braking is possible.

5. Speed can be easily controllable.

6. Motor can be designed for higher voltages subjected to the constraint caused by the power
semi conductor switching circuit.

7. It is possible to have very high speeds.

Disadvantages
1. Motor field cannot be controlled

2. Power rating is restricted because of the maximum available size of permanent magnets,

3. It requires a rotor position sensor. :

4. It requires a power semi conductor switching circuit.

24. Where the PMBLDC motor is used?

1. Power alternators 2. Automotive applications
3. Computer and Robotics application 4. Textile and Glass industries

25. Why is the PMBLDC motor called electronically commutated motor?

The PMBL DC motor is also called electronically commutated motor because the phase
windings of PMBL DC motor is energized by using power semiconductor switching circuits. Her,
the power semiconductor switching circuits act as a commutator.

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26. What are the differences between mechanical and electronic commentators?

Mechanical Commutator Electronic Commutator

Commutator is made up of commutator
segments and mica insulation. Brushes are
made up of carbon or graphite.
Commutator arrangement is located in the
rotor.
Shaft position sensing is inherent in the
arrangement
Number of commutator segments is very
high.
Sliding contact between commutator and
brushes.
Sparking takes place.
Power electronic switching devices are used
in the commutator.
Commutator arrangement is located in the
stator.
It requires a separate rotor position Sensor.
Number of switching devices is limited to 6
No sliding contacts.
There is no sparking

It requires a regular maintenance
Difficult to control the voltage available
across tappings.
High reliable
It is possible to get the feed back from the
stored energy in the magnetic field to the
mains. It requires less maintenance.
Voltage available across armature tappings
can be controlled by PWM techniques.
Reliability can be improved by specially
designed devices and protecting circuits.

27. Why is the PMBLDC motor called electronically commutated motor?

The PMBL DC motor is also called electronically commutated motor because the phase
windings of PMBL DC motor is energized by using power semiconductor switching circuits. Her,
the power semiconductor switching circuits act as a commutator

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 PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
28. What are the features of permanent magnet synchronous motor?
i) Robust, compact and less weight.
ii) No field currents or rotor current in PMSM, unlike in induction motor.
iii) Copper loss due to current flow which is largest loss in motors is about half that of
induction motor.
iv) High efficiency
29. Where the PMSM is used?
i) Used as a direct drive traction motor.
ii) Used as high speed and high power drives for compressors, blowers, conveyors, fans,
pumps, conveyors, steel rolling mills, main line traction, ship-propulsion, aircraft test
facilities.
30. Why PMSM operating in self controlled mode is known commutator less dc motor?
Load side controller performs some what similar function as commutator in a dc machine.
The load side converter and synchronous motor combination functions similar to a dc machine.
First, it is fed from a dc supply and secondly and like a dc machine. The stator and rotor field
remain stationary with respect to each other at all speeds. Consequently, the drive consisting of
load side converter and synchronous motor is known as Commutator less dc motor.

19
 CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

1. Open Loop System

What -Output has no effect on input.
Why - No feedback.
Where (Application) - Open loop temperature control

2. Closed Loop System

What-The output has effect on input.
Why- Feedback is from output to input.
Where (Application) - Open loop temperature control

3. What is transfer function?

Laplace transform of output to the input with zero initial conditions

4. What is block diagram?

The pictorial representation of a system is called block diagram.

5. What are the basic components of a control system?

1. Error detector.
2. Amplifier.
3. Actuator.
4. Plant.
5. Sensor.

6. What is PI controller?
The PI controller is a device producing a control signal consisting
of two terms. One proportional to error signal and other
Proportional to integral of error signal.

7. What is PD controller?
It produces a signal proportional to error signal and other
Proportional to derivative of the error signal.

8. What is PID controller?

It produces a signal consisting signals proportional to error
signal, integral of error signal, derivative of error signal.

9. What is synchro?

A synchro is a device used to convert an angular motion to an electrical signal or vice versa.

10. What is time response?

The time response is the output of a closed loop system as a function of time.

11. What is steady and transient response?

Steady state : system tends to infinite.
Transient state: Output varies continuously.

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12. What are the types of the test signals?
Unit step, Impulse, Parabolic.

13. What is a pole?

The pole of a function is the value at which the function becomes infinite.

14. What is Zero?

The zero of a function is the value at which the function becomes zero.

15. Rise time?

What- It is the time taken to reach 100% of the final value.

Where (Application)- Stability analysis

16. What is delay time?

It is the time taken to reach 50% of the final value.

17. What is peak time?

It is the time taken to reach peak value for very first time.

18 What is settling time?

It is the time taken to reach stay within a specified error.

19. What is peak overshoot?

It is defined as ratio of maximum peak value measured from final value to final value.

20. What is Type and Order of a system?

*Type-Number of poles of a open loop transfer function lying in the right half of the
S- Plane.
*Order-Number of poles of transfer function.

21. What is frequency response?

It is the steady state output of a system, when the input is a sinusoidal signal.

22. What are frequency domain specifications?

Resonant peak.
Cut-off rate.
Resonant frequency
Band width
Gain margin
Phase margin

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23. What is resonant peak?

The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is resonant peak.

24. What is resonant frequency?

The resonant frequency at which resonant peak occurs is called resonant frequency.

25. How you define bandwidth?

The bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which the system gain is more than -3db.

26. What is gain margin?

The gain margin is the reciprocal of magnitude of open loop transfer function.

27. What is phase margin?

It is the amount of additional phase lag at gain cross over frequency.

28. What is the condition for stability?

The necessary condition is all the coefficient of characteristic polynomial is positive.

29. How you define phase cross-over frequency?

The frequency at which the phases of the open loop transfer function is 180 degree.

30. How you define gain cross-over frequency?

The frequency at which the phases of the open loop transfer function is unity.180 degree.

22
Transmission & Distribution
1. What are all the components of an electric power system.
a. Generators b. Transformers c. Transmission lines d. Control equipments

2. Why we go for EHV Transmission.

To provide adequate grid system capacity, the electricity Transmission lines need to
operate at 400 kv (or) 765 kv.

3. What are the limitations of EHV AC transmission

a. More insulation is required for the conductors and towers
b. Long distance bulk power transmission is not possible
c. The transformers switch gears and other terminal equipment should be designed to
handle such high voltage.

4. What are the various types HVDC system.

Monopolar, Homopolar, Bipolar

5. Which is the first HVDC link in the world.

Swedish main land line- island of gotland in 1954.

6. Why HVDC line donot require any reactive power compensation.

HVDC line do not require any reactive power compensation because of changing
currents and unity power factor operations.

7. What are the objectives of FACTS?

Rabbit control of reactive power flow and voltage profile using series and shunt
connected controllers.
Improve power stability, transient stability and dynamic stability during fault
switching etc.,

8. What is Transposition? Why are Transmission lines transposed?

To avoid the unbalancing effect due to unsymmetrical spacing, the position of the
line conductors are interchanged at regular intervals along the line, so that each conductor
occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance. This
exchanging of positions of conductors is called Transpositions.

9. What is skin effect? It is applicable to DC current also?

The tendency of AC current to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. This
phenomenon is called skin effect. It is not applicable to DC current.

10. What is a bundled conductor? What are the advantages of using bundled conductors?
A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more sub conductors and is
used as one phase conductor
Adv: a. reduced reactance b. reduced radio interference c. reduced corona loss d. reduced
inductance

23
11. How capacitance effects are taken into account in medium transmission lines?
Medium Transmission lines have a sufficient length (80-250km) in such lines the
capacitive current is appreciable and hence cannot be neglected. So to get accuracy, the
effects of capacitance must be taken into account.

12. How to improve power handling capacity of long lines?

The increase power handling capacity, series capacitors to be added in long lines.

13. On what factors does the skin effect depends?

Nature of material, resistivity, frequency, conductor size

14. What are the main objectives of compensation?

To improve the system stability,
To increase power transfer capability.

15. What are the primary constants of transmission lines or what are line parameters?
Resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance distribute uniformly along the
length of the line are called constants or parameters of transmission lines.

16. What are the types of insulators.

Pin type insulator, Suspension type insulator, Strain insulator,Shackle insulator, Stay
insulator.

17. Which disc has the max voltage over a string of suspension insulator.
Disc near the line unit.

18. How will you improve the string efficiency?

1. Use of guard ring
2. Use of longer cross arm.

19. What are the advantages of underground cables when to compared to overhead lines?
1. It ensures non-interrupted continuity of supply due to lighting, storms & other
weather conditions.
2. It requires less maintenance
3. The life of underground cables is long compared to over head lines.

20. What are the types of substation?

Indoor substation, Outdoor substation, Pole-mounted substation, underground substation.

21. Name some equipment used in substation?

Busbar, Insulator, Isolating switches, circuit breakers, Power Transformer,
Instrument Transformer, Indicating & Measuring Instruments.

22. What are the various types of arrangements of Busbars?

Sinple Busbar system, Single Busbar with sectionalization, Double Busbar with
single breaker, Double bus with Double breaker, Main & Transfer Busbar, Double Busbar
with Bypass isolator, Ring Bus

24
23. What are the properties of Insulators?
1. Insulators must be mechanically very strong.
2. To resist any leakage current. So it must have very high insulation resistance.
3. The insulators must be free from internal impurities such as holes, cracks ,
laminations etc.,
4. Should not affect by changes in temperatures.

24. What is meant by sub mains?

Various connections of consumer can be taken from one service mains

25. What is stepped and Tappered mains?

The current along the length of distributor will vary when a series of loads are tapped off
from the mains. If the area of cross section is same through out the length of distributor
from the current carrying pt. of view, then the requirement of Cu is large. In practice it is
not possible to manufacture conductors which are having varying cross sections. If the
conductors of diff. cross sections are used then it involves more joints. Technically, it is
better to have Min. No. of joints.

26. What are necessary requirements of Good distribution?

1. Continuity in power supply must be ensured.
2. Efficiency of line must be high
3. The system should be safe from consumer pt. of views, there should not be leakage.
4. Lines should not be over loaded.
5. The system should be economical.
6. The layout should not affect the appearance of site (or) locality.

27. What is the Disadv. Of Radial system?

1. End of distributor near to substation gets heavily loaded
2. As consumers are dependent on single feeder, a fault occurs, interruption of supply
to all consumers.

28. How will you eliminate disadv. In Radial system?

1. Modified Radial system
2. Ring main distribution system

29. What is 3 3 wire & 3 4 wire system?

1. 3 conductors
2. 4 conductors (Neutral)

30. What are types of cables

L.T cables, Belted cables, Screened types cables, supertension cable, Gas pressure
cables.

25
DIGITAL SYSTEMS

1. Inter Conversion Table

From To Procedure
Decimal Binary Divide / multiply by 2
Decimal Octal Decimal / multiply by 8
Decimal Hex Decimal / multiply by 16
Binary Decimal Sum-up positional values using 2n wts.
Octal Decimal Sum-up positional values using 8n wts.
Hex Decimal Sum-up positional values using 16n wts.
Binary Octal
Use 3 bit grouping
Octal Binary
Binary Hex
Use 4 bit grouping
Hex Binary
Octal Hex
Convert through binary
Hex Octal

2. State the rule for obtaining 2s complement.

Scan the given number from LSB toward MSB and complement all bits appearing after
the first appearance of a 1.

3. State the representation of zero in 1s and 2s complement.

In 2s complement it is unique and is 0000
In 1s complement + 0 is represented by 0000
and 0 is represented by 1111
This is the main disadvantage in 1s complement representation.

4. Characteristics of 8421 code.

This code is easier in converting to and from decimal numbers.
This code is identical to natural binary code up to decimal 9 but differs beyond it.
This code is a weighted code using natural binary weights of 8, 4, 2 & 1
This code has the disadvantage that the addition of 8421 numbers is difficult when their
decimal sum exceeds 9 as explained.

5. What is a self-complementing code?

1s complement of a code number directly gives the 9s complement of the encoded
decimal number.
Eg. Excess 3 code.
The 9s complement of 3 is 1001
Which is a decimal number 6 is excess 3 code.

26
 6. What are the characteristics of excess 3 codes?
Excess-3 code is an unweighted code because no fixed weights are assigned to the
bit-positions in it.
Excess-3 code is a self-complementing code in which the complement of a number is
the 9s complement of the encoded decimal number.
Excess-3 code is advantageous because the addition operation in it follows the simple
binary rules. The subtraction operation, too, can be done by using 1s and 2s
complements. These properties are not found in the 8421 code.
Excess-3 code is so named, because each 4-bit group is the binary equivalent of a
decimal, which is 3 larger than the encoded decimal digit.
Excess-3 code is used in arithmetic circuits.

7. What are the characteristics of Gray code?

It is an unweighted code
Gray number differs from the preceding number only in a single bit. The hamming
distance between two successive gray numbers is unity.
The Hamming distance between the first and last no is also 1 (0000 and 1000). So it is
also named as cyclic code.

8. What is a parity bit ?

To detect errors an extra bit is attached to the word which is called as parity bit.
If the no. 1s in the word including the parity bit is odd, the bit is called odd parity bit
and if even, it is called even parity bit.
Eg. Odd Parity - 0110100
Even Parity - 1110100

9.Why binary nos are used?

All the digital components like switches, cores, punched cards, tape, transistors etc
are based on binary operation. So it convenient to use binary nos when analyzing or
designing digital etc.

10. What is an ASCII CODE?

ASCII is American Standard Code for Information Interchange pronounced as
askee.
It uses Seven bits to code 128 characters.
It contains 94 graphic characters that can be printed and 34 non printing characters
used for various control functions.
The graphic characters consist of 26 upper case letters (A through Z), 26 lower case
letters (a through z), the 10 numerals (o through 9) and 32 special printable
characters such as %, * and #.
34 control characters are of three types
1. Format effectors
2. Information separators and
3. Communication control characters.
Format effectors are characters that control the layout of printing
Eg:- Back space, carriage return (CR) etc.

27
 Information separators are used to separate the data into divisions such as
paragraphs and pages eg: record separator (RS), file separator (FS)
Communication control characters are useful during the transmission of text
between remote terminals. Eg: Start of text (STX), End of text (ETX), which are used to
frame a text message when transmitted through telephone wires. ASCII is a 7 bit code.
The eight bit is always set to 0. The additional 128 8 bit characters with the MSB set to 1
are used for other symbols such as Greek alphabet or italic type font.
When used in data communication, eight bit indicates the parity of the character.

11. What is a Logic gate ?

A Logic gate is an electronic switching circuit which allows the applied electrical signals to
pass through it only under certain specified logical conditions. Generally, a gate has two or
more inputs but a single output.

12. What is a buffer / driver ?

A buffer or driver is the circuit that is designed to provide a larger current than exists in a
normal circuit. Such circuits are often needed to drive heavier loads that require larger
current and / or voltage. IC buffer / driver units are available in totem pole and open-
collector outputs.

13. Define Boolean function

A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, Boolean operators and
the equality sign. The function can be either 1 or 0 for a given set of value of the variables
in terms of 0s and 1s. For example, in the equation
F = AB + AC
F is a function of the variables A, B and C which can be equal to 1 or 0 depending on the
values of A, B, C in terms of 0s and 1s.

14. State the fundamental laws of Boolean Algebra.

Logical Sum Logical Product
1. A + B = B + A A.B=B.A Commutative
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C Associative
3. A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C A + B . C = (A + B) . (A + C) distributive
4. A + 0 = A A.1=A basic identity
5. A + 1 = 1 A.0=0 ,,
6. A + A = A A.A=A ,,
7. A + A = 1 A .A = 0 ,,
8. A = A A = A double complementation
9. A + A . B = A A . (A + B) = A derived law
10. A + A . B = A + B A . ( A + B) = A . B ,,
11.(A+B) = A.B (A.B) = A+B De Morgans law

28
15. Define Minterm.
n variables forming and AND term with each variable bring primed or unprimed provide 2n
possible combinations called minterm or standard product. Eg. For two variables minterms
are x y, xy, x y, x y.

16. Define a Max term.

n variables forming an OR term with each variable being primed or unprimed provide 2n
possible combination called max term or standard sum.
Eg. For two variables max term are
(x + y), (x + y), (x + y), and (x + y)

17. What is meant by dont care condition?

An input output condition that never occurs during normal operation is called a dont care
condition. Since the condition never occurs, x is used on the K-map. It can be 1 or 0.

18. Define Fan-in ?

Fan-in of logic gate is the maximum number of inputs that the gate can handle properly.

19. Define Fan-out ?

Fan-out of a logic gate is the maximum no. Of load gates that can be connected to
its output without overloading it.

20. Define propagation delay of a gate.

Propagation delay of a gate is the time taken for the electrical signal to travel from the input
of the gate to its appearance at the output.

21. State the Characteristics of DTL family.

a. Lower speed
b. Better noise immunity
c. Propagation delay of 30 ns
d. Fan-in of 8
e. Fan-out of 5

22. State the Characteristics of RTL family

a. Slow speed
b. Poor noise immunity
c. Low fan-in of 4
d. Fan-out of 6
e. More expensive due to fabrication of resistors.

23. What are the TTL Series ?

TTL Series Temp-range P.S.-range Appn
7400 00C to 700C 5V(+/-) 0.25V Commercial
5400 -550C to 1250C 5V (+/-)0.25V Military
24. What are the types of TTL devices?
1)Standard TTL (74)
2) High Speed TTL (74 H)
3) Low Power TTL (74 L)
4) Schottky TTL (74 S)
5) Low Power Scottky TTL (74 LS)

29
25. State the Characteristics of TTL Family.
1) Greater speed of operation
2) Noise margin of 0.4 V
3) Average propagation delay of 9 ns per gate
4) Average power dissipation of 10 m W
5) Fan-in of 6
6) Fan-out of 10

26. State the Characteristics of ECL Family.

1) Highest speed (because of the transistors never going to saturation or cut-off)
2) Noise immunity of 0.4 V
3) Propagation delay time of 1 ns per gate
4) Increased power dissipation 30 m w (because of transistors always being in the
active region)
5) Fan-in of 5 and fan-out of 50
6) Not directly compatible with other logic families (because of all its logic levels
being negative)

27. What is Tri-state Logic.

The output of a logic circuit which has three states is called tristate logic
a. High state
b. Low state
c. High impedance state
The logic has simplified the wiring and designing.

28. Classification of Logic families.

1) RTL
2) DCTL Saturated bipolar logic families
3) TTL
4) DTL
5) Schottky TTL Non Saturated bipolar logic families
6) ECL
7) PMOS
8) NMOS and Unipolar logic families
9) CMOS
29. What are the various Characteristics of digital ICs used to compare their performances.
1. Speed of operation 5. Noise immunity
2. Power dissipation 6. Power Supply requirement
3. Fan out 7. Operating temperature
4. Current and voltage parameters 8. Flexible available

30. What are the three configurations of TTL?

1) Open collector output
2) Totem pole output & 3) Three state output

31. What are the applications of decoders ?

- Decoders are used in memory system of a computer to activate the storage
locations.
- in the conversion of binary data into a form suitable for display readouts
- To detect various states of a counter.

30
32. What are the decoder Ics?
4511 B - BCD to 7 segment
7442 - BCD to decimal
7445 - BCD to decimal with high current capacity which can directly
drive loads like LEDs, lamps, relays or dc motors.
7446, 7447 - used in 7 segment applications
74138 - 3 to 8 line decoder

33. What are the applications of demultiplexers ?

- Used when a given data is to be transmitted to one of many channels.
- Widely used as binary to decimal decoders.
- Security monitoring system, such as in industrial plants to open / close
many access doors.
- used in synchronous data transmission systems such as serial transmission of
several data words from a transmitter to a remote receiver.

34. What are the advantages of CMOS ICs.

i) Low power consumptions
ii) Low cost
iii) Simplicity of design
iv) Low heat dissipation
v) Good fan-out
vi) Wide logic swings
vii) Good noise margin performance
viii) Operates in a wide range of temperature

35. What are the applications of CMOS ICs?

1) Electronic wristwatches
2) Calculators
3) Portable computers
4) Space vehicles

36. What is a magnitude comparator?

It compares the magnitudes of two quantities and determines the relationship
between them. When both the inputs of an XOR gate are 0 or 1 the output of XOR gate is 0
and when they are different the output is 1.

37. What is a parity generator and checker ?

Parity bit is for useful for error detection and correction. The circuit that generates the
parity bit in the transmitted, is called a parity generator.
The circuit that checks the parity in the receiver is called a parity checker.

38. List out the various families of CMOS ICs.

CMOS series prefix example
i. Original CMOS 40 4009
ii Pin compatible with TTL 40C 40C04
iii High speed and pin compatible with TTL 74HC 74HC04
iv High speed and electrically compatible
with TTL 74HCT 74HCT04

31
39. Construct a full adder from two half adder circuits.

40. On the basis of storage of digital information classify the digital circuits and define each of
them.
a. Combinational Logic Circuits
b. Sequential Logic Circuits
Combinational Logic Circuits: The O/p at a given instant depends only on the states of the
inputs at the same instant, the previous states of the inputs being immaterial. These circuits
have no memory function and unable to store any information.
Sequential Logic Circuits: In sequential circuits, the O/p not only depends on the present
states of the inputs, but also on their previous states. This makes these circuits to possess a
memory function, which enables them to store digital information.

41. What are the types of sequential circuits?

i. Synchronous (clocked or strobed)
ii. Asynchronous (unclocked or free running)

42. Differentiate synchronous and asynchronous sequential circuits.

Logic diagram
1. Operation occurs in synchronism
with a clock
2. More reliable
3. Races and hazards are absent
4. More flexibility in design
5. Comparatively slower
6. Requires more hardware
7. Higher cost
Truth table
Operates without depending on any
timing, the output, of one circuit
immediately becoming the I/p to the next.
less reliable
Always races & hazards occur.
Special care in design is required to
avoid them
Less flexibility
Comparatively faster
Hardware can be minimized
Lower cost

43. What is a Flip Flop?

The flip-flop is basically a bistable device that has two stable states. A flip-flop is,
therefore, capable of storing a 0, when it remains in one state, and a 1, when it remains in
the other state. As a result, a flip-flop has got wide applicability as a basic (1-bit) storage-
element in various memory systems, shift registers and counters.

32
44. Type of the Flip Flop, logic diagram and truth table.

a. RS flip flop using NOR gates

b. RS flip flop using NAND gates

c. Clocked RS flip flop using NAND gates

d. Clocked RS flip flop using NOR gates

33
e. JK flip flop using NAND gates

f. JK flip flop using NOR gates

g) D flip flop

34
45. What does edge triggering mean?
Edge triggering is preferred, in which the flip-flop is made to trigger only at the
positive or negative-edge of the clock pulse, instead of the entire pulse duration.

46. Which is referred as bistable latch?

D flip-flop is referred to as bistable latch.
Because it retains the output Q at the level it had just before the clock pulse changed
fro high to low, until it again changes from low to high.

47. What is PRESET and CLEAR?

When it is required to keep certain flip-flops initially in a specified state, separate
input signals, called PRESET (P1) and CLEAR (Cr) are applied directly to the flip-flop regardless
of what the clock or other inputs are doing. These inputs, being the dc signals, are often termed as
direct set (Pr) and direct reset (Cr). They are also referred to as asynchronous inputs.

48. State the application of flip flops.

Flip-flops are commonly used in the following applications.
1. As a debouncer switch 2. As a latch
3. In registers 4. In counters
5. In memories

49. IC Flip Flops

7470 Edge triggered Jk flip-flop
7472 M-S JK flip-flop
7473 Dual M-S JK flip-flop
7474 Dual D flip-flop
7475 Quad D latch
7476 Dual M-S JK flip-flop
74100 4-bit bistable latch
74104 M-S JK flip-flop 74109 Dual JK positive-edge triggered
74105 M-S JK flip-flop 74175 Quad D flip-flop
74107 Dual M-S JK flip-flop 74276 Quad JK flip-flop

50. What is the difference between Mealy and Moore models?

Mealy Model Moore Model

The outputs are functions of both
present state and its input.
Requires less number of states for
implementing a function.
Input changes may affect the output of
the circuit.
The outputs are functions of present
state only.
Requires more number of states for
implementing the same function.
Input changes does not affect the
output.

51. What is a shift register? What are the four modes of operation of shift register?
When the data is shifted into or out of a register, it is called a shift register. The four modes
of operation are,
i. Serial in Serial out (SISO)
ii. Serial in Parallel out (SIPO)
iii. Parallel in Serial out (PISO) & iv.Parallel in Parallel out (PIPO)

35
52. IC shift registers
a) 74164 8 bit SIPO
b) 74165 8 bit serial / parallel input but only parallel output
c) 74174 6 bit PIPO
d) 9300 (Fairchild) 4 bit universal shift register
e) 74178 serial / parallel input but parallel output
f) 74194 4 bit bi-directional universal shift register
g) 4731B quad CMOS single chip that contains 4 identical SISO shift
registers of 64 bits each.

53. State the applications of shift registers.

a) Storage and shifting binary data
b) Introducing time delays
c) Sequence generators
d) To make ring counters

54. What is a counter?

A counter is a register capable of counting the number of clock pulses arriving at its clock
input.

55. State the applications of ring counters.

a) As a gating waveform generator.
b) As a stepping switch.
c) As a divide by N counter.
d) As Johnson, twisted ring counter.

56. State the applications of counters.

a) Direct counting.
b) Dividing the frequency of a wave.
c) Measuring a frequency and time.
d) Measuring the distance or speed of an object.
e) Counting the sequence of operations in a computer.

57. What are the two types of memories?

i. Non-volatile memory called the ROM ROMs are combinational circuits.
ii. Volatile Memory called the RAM RAMs are sequential circuits.

58. State the types of ROMs.

a) Mask programmable ROMs Programmed by the manufacturer at the
factory itself during the manufacturing of IC.The customer gives the truth
table and the manufacturer according it does suitable masking during the
manufacturing.
b) Field Porgrammable ROMs Incorporate suitable fusible links at various
nodes and the user can program by employing special PROM writers.
c) EPROMs Erasable programmable ROMs. Stored data can be erased under
ultraviolet.

36
59. Compare SRAM and DRAM.

Aspect SRAM DRAM

Technology Bipolar, MOS MOS
Storage element Flip-flop Capacitor
Cell structure Complex Simple
Refreshing Not required Required
Clock signal Not required Required
Storage capacity Smaller, larger Larger
Speed Higher, lower Lower
Cost per bit Higher Lower
Power consumption Larger Smaller
Expansion Straight forward Not so simple

60. What are the advantages of EEPROM over EPROM?

a) Allows in-circuit erasing by electrical means instead of using UV light..
b) Any selected cell or cells can be erased within about 10ms as compared to 30
min for an EPROM.
c) The programming time is also about 10 ms per word compared with 50 ms
required for an EPROM.

61. What are the types of RAM?

NMOS RAM
CMOS RAM
Schottky TTL RAM
ECL RAM

62. Commercially available ROMs.

74S188 256 bits organized as 32 x 8
74S287 1024 bits organized as 256 x 4
74S472 - 4096 bits organized as 512 x 8

63. What is an excitation table?

A table that lists the required inputs for a given change of state. Such a list is called
an excitation table.

64. Commercially available PALs.

10H8 : 10 input, 8 output, AND OR
16H2 : 6 input, 2 output, AND OR
14L4 : 14 input, 4 output, AND OR INVERT

37
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS-ALTERNATORS (CYLINDRICAL-TYPE)

%REGULATION-EMF METHOD

1. Define Voltage Regulation.

Voltage Regulation is defined as change in terminal voltage when the full load is thrown off
keeping the excitation and speed constant divided by the ratted terminal voltage.
%R={(Eph-Vt)/Vt}X 100

2. What do you mean by synchronous speed?

The speed at which the required frequency of the induced emf is obtained is synchronous
speed.

3. What is the relationship between speed and frequency?

f=(PNs/120)
i.e one cycle of emf generated per every pair of poles

4. What is the emf equation of an alternator?

Eph=4.44 f Tph Kw

5. What is winding factor?

Kw=Kd Kc
Where Kd-distribution factor
Kd=(vector sum of emf/arithmetic sum of emf)
={sin (m/2)} / {m sin(/2)}
where -slot angle.
m-number of slots per pole per phase. And

Kc-Coil span factor or pitch factor

Kc=(emf of a chorded winding)/(emf of a full pitch winding)
=cos ( /2)
= chorded angle

6. What is the difference between ordinary impedance and synchronous impedance?

Impedance may relate to any frequency.But synchronous impedance relate only to a
particular frequency obtained from synchronous speed.Actually the word synchronous
relate to reactance.
i.e
Xs= XL+Xar
where
XL-leakage reactance
Xar-fictitious armature reaction reactance

7. Why the EMF method is called as pessimistic method?

The value of synchronous impedance is always higher.Hence the voltage regulation is also
higher and hence it is called as pessimistic method.

38
8. How will be the type of connection of stator winding normally?Why?
The type of connection of stator winding is star connection.Since it is a generator and to
supply different types of electrical loads(3 phase star or delta) and also single phase loads,it is
always connected in star.

9. What is meant by armature reaction?

Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux over the main field flux.

10. How does power factor influences the armature flux?

Armature flux is proportional to armature current and the position depends on power factor.

%REGULATION-MMF METHOD

11. What are the other names for the MMF method?
i)Ampere Turns Method,
ii)Rotherts MMF Method.

12. What is the status in short circuit condition of the machine?

As resistance and leakage reactance of armature do not play any significant role,the
armature reaction is dominating and hence the power factor of such purely reactive circuit is zero
lagging.Hence Far gives demagnetizing ampere turns.

13. What are the two components of MMF?

i)MMf necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
ii)MMF equal and opposite to that of armature reaction MMF,when loaded.

14. Why MMF method is called as optimistic method?

The regulation obtained will always be lower than that of actual. Hence it is called as
optimistic method.

%REGULATION-POTIER AND ASA METHOD

15. What is the drawback in potier method?

The only drawback is that the separate curve for every load condition is necessary to plot if
other potier triangles for various load condition are required.

%REGULATION-SLIP TEST

16. What is the main difference between salient and non-salient type pole alternators?
i)Non salient (cylindrical) air gap is uniform.
ii)Salient air gap is not uniform.

17. How does the value of Xd and Xq vary?

Since length offered for the flux path varies, reluctances and hence reactance vary.

39
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR-V & INVERTED V CURVES

18. What are the special features of synchronous motor?

i)It is not self starting.
ii)If it runs it run only at synchronous speed.
iii)It may be operated over a wide range of power factors both lagging and
leading.

19. What do you mean by magnetic lock?

Rotating magnetic field is rotating at synchronous speed. Rotor is made to rotate nearer to
synchronous speed by some auxiliary device such us dc motor, small induction motor, etc., Then
the rotor poles are excited with the help of dc supply creating magnetic poles. The stator rotating
magnetic field pulls this rotor poles which is known as synchronism and the motor is subjected to
magnetic locking and rotates at synchronous speed.

20. Why synchronous motors are not self starting?

Normally synchronous motors are large in size. Due to large inertia, it is unable to self start.

21. What is hunting and how to prevent it?

The momentary oscillation of rotor when there is a sudden change in loading conditions is
hunting. Hunting can be prevented by using damper pole bars on the poles which are short
circuited.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR-LOAD TEST

22. Why most of the industrial loads are induction motors only?
i)Robust construction.
ii)Self starting.
iii)Constant speed.(approximately)
iv)Good power factor.
23. What is Slip?
Slip is the ratio of slip speed to the synchronous speed. It is normally expressed in
percentage.
%s = (Ns N)/Ns X 100
24. What are rotor parameters?
i)Rotor frequency.
ii)Magnitude of rotor induced emf.
iii)Rotor reactance.
iv)Rotor power factor.
v)Rotor current.
25. Name main types of losses.
1.Constant loss.
i)Stator core or iron loss.
ii)Rotor core or iron loss.(neglected since fr =sf)
iii)Mechanical friction and windage loss.
2.Variable loss
i)Stator copper loss.
ii)Rotor Copper loss.

40
26. What is synchronous watt?
Synchronous watt may be defined as the torque developed by the motor such that the power
input to the rotor across the air gap is 1watt while running at synchronous speed.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR-SEPERATION OF NO LOAD LOSSES

27. What happens to power under no load condition?

Since normal rated voltage is given to the motor there exists,
1. Stator core loss,
2. Rotor core loss.(Negligible since no load current is small)
3. Friction and windage loss.
4. Stator copper loss.(Negligible since no load current is small)

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR-STARTERS

28. What is the necessity of starter?

At start N = 0 s = 1. Therefore under transformer action, the current at the start in the rotor
will be high, the corresponding input stator current will be high. It may be 5 to 8 time of the full
load current. It may damage the motor winding, similarly due to this sudden inrush current,
there will be large line voltage drop which may affect other appliance connected in this line.
Hence in order to avoid such circumstances starter is necessary.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR-LOAD TEST & EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

29. What do you mean by shaded pole?

A portion of the pole is surrounded by a copper conduction band. It is highly inductive in
nature. This portion is called is shaded pole.

30. What are the applications of capacitor start motor?

Compressors, Conveyors, grinders, fans, blowers, refrigerator, air conditions etc, since it is
having more starting torque.

41
DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
1. What is design?
Design is creative physical reaslisation of theoretical concepts.

2. What is the main concept for all electrical machines?

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

3. What is faradays law of electromagnetic induction?

Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic lines of forces,an emf is induced in the conductor.
This is the basic principle of a generator.

4. What is the principle of a motor?

Whenever a current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field, a force is developed by
the conductor due to the interaction between the current and magnetic flux.This is known as biot
savarts law.the magnitude of force, F=BlI Newtons.

5. How do you divide an electric machine while designing?

1.Magnetic circuit 2.Electric circuit 3.Dielectric circuit 4.thermal circuit 5.Mechanical
parts.

6. What is the material used for preparing commutator?

Cadmium copper, an alloy of copper with 1.1% cadmium.

7. What is the material used for sliprings?

Slip rings are made of either brass or phosphor bronze.

8. Mention the type of magnetic material used in electrical machines,transformer,etc.

Soft magnetic materials which has narrow hysteresis loop with less area.

9. Name the classification of soft magnetic material used in electrical machines

Electrical sheet and strip called laminations

10. How do you call low carbon steel?

0.3% or0.4% by weight is known as low carbon steel and is called as Dynamo Grade
steel,which is used in rotations electrical machines.

11. What is transformer grade steel?

Sheet steel possessing higher silicon content (4-5 % silicon)is called astransformers where
magnetizing current is not of importance.

12. What is the other name for transformer grade steel?

High resistance steel(H.R.S) on account of its high resistivity and consequently low eddy
current loss.

13. What is IS:648-1970?

IS 648-1970 gives specifications of all non-oriented steel of various grades or electrical
sheet steel that are for macines and transformer working at power frequency. this sheet steel may
be cold or hot rolled.

42
14. Mention the properties of insulating materials?
An ideal insulating material should have i)high dielectric strength,sustained at elevated
temperature ii)High resistivity or specific resistance ii)low dielectric hysteresis iv)good thermal
conductivity v)high degree of thermal stability , ie it should noy deteriorate at high temperatures.

15. Mention the classifications and temperature of insulating materials.

Class Temperature
Y 90 c
A 105c
E 120c
B 130c
F 155c
H 180c
C Above
180c

16. Mention the factor on which the rating of a machine depend.

The main factor is temperature rise.the rating of a motor is the power output or the
designated operating power limit based upon certain definite conditions assigned to its by the
manufacture.

17. How will you select a motor?

A motor is selected based on load diagrams(time sequence graphs)which indicate steady
and transient loads.

18. Mention the types of duties and ratings.

As per IS:4722-1968 specification for rotating electric machinery,the following types are
available i)s1-continuous duty ii)s2-short time duty iii)s3-Intermittent periodic duty iv)s4-
Intermittent periodic duty with starting v)s5- Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking
vi)s6-continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading vii)s7-continuous duty with starting and
breaking viii)s8-continuous duty with periodic speed changes.

19. What is duty factor?

Duty factor, =tn/tn+tc; where tn=heating period and tc=period of rest.the duty factor is
determined on the basis of a cycle 10 minutes long.

20. Mention the methods used for the determination of motor rating for variable load drives.
i)method of average losses; ii)equivalent current method;
iii)equivalent torque method iv)equivalent power method

21. Mention the types of d.c windings

i)lap windings ii)wave windings

22. Mention the types of a.c windings

i)concentric windings which has two types a)hemitropic or half coil windings and b)whole
coil windings ii)mush windings (or) basket windings the above are single layer windings,the other
type is iii)double layer windings.it may have a)Integral slot lap winding b)integral slot wave
windings c)Fractional slot windings.

43
23. Why the a.c resistance is higher than d.c resistance?
The frequency in d.c is zero;hence the current is uniformly distributed over the entire area
of the conductor.the resistance is inversely proportional to the area.whereas in the case of a.c with
power frequency,the flux linkage and hence inductance or reactance in the central portion of the
conductor is high.the current takes outer layer of the conductor ,where the area is effectively
reduced.Therefore the a.c resistance is high than that of d.c resistance.this is known as skin effect.

24. How to classify transformers?

i)step-up transformers ii)step-down transformers.fyrthor it may be a)power transformers
and b)distribution transformers.

25. What will be thickness of laminations?

0.33 to 0.5mm thick.

26. How should be the cross section of yoke in a transformer?

Yoke cross section should be 15 % greater than that of core in transformer using hot
rolled steel.

27. What are the conditions for design for i)minimum cost ii)minimum volume iii)minimum height
and iv)minimum loss.
For minimum design, i)cost of iron=cost of copper(for cost)
ii)volume of iron=volume of copper(for volume) iii)weight of iron=weight of copper(for weight)
iv)iron loss=copper (for loss)

28. What is the commercial name for a two stepped core of a transformer?
A two stepped core is known as CRUCIFORM core.

29. What is the difference between a core type and a shell type transformer?
In core type windings surround the core and in shell type core surround the windings.

30. What is the purpose of providing cooling tubes in transformers?

To increase the surface area dissipate heat quickly in the atmosphere.

44
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

1. Express Gausss law

Gausss law states that the total number of electric flux lines coming out of a closed surface
normally is equal to the net charge enclosed within the closed surface.

2. Express divergence theorem.

Divergence theorem states that

3. Express Stokes theorem.

Stokes theorem states that

4. Express Coulombs law.

Coulombs law states that the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 obeys the
relation

The proportionality constant

5. What are the applications of Gausss law in electric field?

a) point charge
b) line charge
c) surface charge
d) spherical charge

6. Why is electric field is zero inside a conductor?

Always the charge tend to distribute over the surface of a conductor, so the charge inside
the conductor is zero and hence the electric field inside the conductor is also zero.

7. What are the requirements of a permanent magnet material.

a) Area of BH loop must be large
b) Retentivity should be high
c) Coercivity should be high

45
8. Express Laplace equation and Poissons equation.
Laplace equation states that

Poissons equation states that

9. State advantages of transposition of conductors.

a) Proximity and corona effects can be reduced
b) Line parameters like inductance can be balanced.

10. Express Amperes circuital law.

11. What is the difference between Faradays theory of magnetic field and Amperes theory of
magnetic field?
Faradays law says that the time varying magnetic field causes the electric field and
Amperes law says that time varying electric field causes magnetic field.

12. State Lenzs law.

Lenzs law states that the induced emf in a circuit produces current, which opposes the
change in magnetic flux producing it.

13. What is meant by eddy current loss?

Whenever magnetic field varies cyclically through a metallic object, currents are
induced inside the metal by virtue of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. These
currents are called eddy currents and the energy loss caused by these currents is called eddy
current loss.

14. What is meant by Biot-Savarts law.

Magnetic field intensity produced by a current carrying conductor element at any point
in space or medium around it is governed by Biot-Savarts law and is given by the relation.

15. Whom with the Magnetic field is not associated ?

Stationary charge

46
16. Give some differences between solenoid and toroid.
1) solenoid is a cylindrical shaped coil consisting of a large number of closely spaces
turns of insulated wire wound usually on a non-magnetic frame.
2) If a lond slender solenoid is bent into the form a ring and thereby closed on itself it
becomes toroid.

17. Why transformer core is laminated?

To minimize the current loss.

18. How hysteresis losses reduced in machine?

Using the high permeable materials like silicon steel for core construction.

19. State the importance of Maxwells equations.

It describes the fundamental loss of electromagnetic field theory in a generalized,
elegant and precise form.

20. Give important properties of plane waves.

1) The fields vary harmonically with time and the same frequency everywhere in
space.
2) At every point in space E and H are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of waves.

21. What is the angle of intrinsic impedance for good conductors?

45 degrees.

22. What is magnetic dipole?

Every atom of a material such as Iron behaves like a tiny magnet. Such magnets are
called magnetic dipoles.

23. What is meant by electrostatic shielding?

It means providing a metallic sheath around conductor through which electrical signal is
being transmitted.

24. Mention the two numerical methods of field computations.

FEM and FDM

25. Which equation is used for solving the potential of charged regions?
Poissons equation.

26. What is equipotential line?

The line along which the value of potential is same.

27. Mention the applications of Gauss law in electric field.

Point charge, Line charge, Surface charge and Spherical charge.

28. What is the main difference between absolute electric potential and relative electric
potential?
Absolute potential at any point in electric field is the potential at that point with respect
to infinity. Relative potential is the potential at one point with respect to another point within
the given electric field.

47
29. What is meant by Azimuthal angle?
A half plane in X,Y and Z planes which is perpendicular to X, Y plane and angle with
respect to X,Z planes. This angle is called azimuthal angle.

30. What is meant by Conservative property of electric field?

48
 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (LIC)

1. Define CMRR?
The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) can be defined as the ratio of deferential
mode gain to the common mode gain.

2. Why integrators are preferred over differentiators in analog computers?

Since the gain of differentiators increases linearly with frequency and it tends to
amplify noise, a drift which may result in spurious oscillations, integrators are preferred
over differentiators in analog computers.

3. What is a voltage follower?

Voltage follower is a differential amplifier circuit with unity gain. Therefore
whatever signal applied at input will be obtained output signal..

4. What is compensated op-amp?

A network consists of resistors and capacitors are connected to modify the
performance of an op-amp circuit over the desired signal range by controlling its gain and
phase shift.

5. What is sample and hold circuit?

The sample and hold circuit samples an input signal and holds on to its last sampled
value until the input is sampled again.

6. What are the important ic technologies used?

a. Bipolar monolithic circuit
b. Metal oxide silicon Ics
c. Hybrid integrated circuits

7. What is scale changer?

It is a circuit in which the output voltage is equal to the input voltage multiplied by
a constant scale factor K.Where V0 = -KVin, K = Rf/R1

8. What are the uses of log and antilog amplifiers?

Antilog computation may need functions such us ln(X), log(X) or sinh(X). These
can be performed continuously with log amps. It can be possible to have direct dB display
on digital voltmeter and spectrum analyzer. Log amp can also be used to compress the
dynamic range of signal.

9. What is a comparator?
Comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage on one input of an op-amp
with an known voltage called reference voltage on the other input.

10. What is a monostable multivibrator?

A monostable multivibrator is a square wave shaping circuit having one stable state
and another quasi stable state. It is often referred as single shot multivibrator. It is also used
as gating circuit and delay circuit.

49
11. Give the merits of a regenerative comparator?
In regenerative comparator, the feedback enhances the comparator input. The phase
difference or out of phase conditions is not visualized due to positive feedback.

12. What is zero crossing detectors?

The zero crossing detectors is known as a sine to square wave generator. Whenever
the
input crosses the zero value, output makes a transition between Vsat and +Vsat.

13. What are the two types of regulators and how they differ in operation?
1. Series regulator.
2. Switching regulator.
The series regulator uses a series pass transistor which functions linearly and gives dc
output, switching regulators operate the power transistor as a high frequency on / off
swit.ch.

14. Why series regulators are called linear voltage regulator?

The series pass transistors used in series regulator conducts in the active or in the
linear regions. These regulators are called linear voltage regulators.

15. What is the voltage reference, why is it needed?

A comparator consists of two inputs at one input a reference voltage is given for
another input the signal to be processed is applied. Comparator compares the applied signal
to the reference voltage and gives appropriate voltage.

16. What is RPS?

Regulated Power Supply (RPS) is a circuit which gives regulated dc output. The
unregulated dc voltage is given as input to the regulated power supply.

17. Name any two IC voltage regulators?

LM 340 positive voltage regulators.
LM 320 negative voltage regulators.

18. What is the need for voltage regulator?

It provides a stable dc voltage for power electronic circuits, a voltage regulator is
needed.

19. Distinguish between general purpose and precision type voltage regulators.
The general purpose regulators can be adjusted over a wide range of either positive
or negative regulated voltage. They are inherently low. The general purpose regulator has
short circuit protection.

20. define the term ripple factor.

The ripple factor of a circuit can be defined as the ratio of the rms value of ac
component of the output voltage to the dc component of output voltage.

21. Write two commercial applications of 555 timers.

1. Frequency shift keying generator. & 2. Pulse-position modulator.

50
22. Why electric filters used?
Electric filters are the selective network which is are allowing certain frequencies
and stop the remaining signals. As per the requirements, filters can be classified in low-
pass,high-pass,band-pass and band-stop modes.

23. Define duty cycle of a periodic pulse wave form.

The duty cycle is the ratio of the time to during which the output is high to the total
period T. % Duty cycle= (tc/T)*100

24. What is a counter timer? and name one counter timer IC?
When a timer circuit is connected as an oscillator and is used to drive a counter then
it is known as counter timer. XR2240 is a one counter timer IC.

25. What are the advantages of active filter over the passive filter?
Active filter are more economical over the passive filter. It is very easy to tuned or
adjust an active filter. Op-amp has high input impedance and low output impedance.
Therefore the active filter does not suffer from loading of the source or load.

26. What is the maximum delay of 555 timers?

Microseconds to hours.

27. Cite an application for the sample and hold circuit.

Digital to analog converter.

28. What is PLL?

PLL- Phase locked loop. It is basically a closed loop feedback system. The action of
PLL is to lock or synchronize the frequency of a oscillator to that of an incoming signal.

29. What does PLL consists of?

It consists of.
a. Phase detector/comparator
b. A low pass filter
c. An error amplifier
d. A voltage controlled oscillator.

30. What is the role served by VCO in a PLL chip?

The VOC present in the phase locked loop continues to change frequency till its
output frequency is exactly the same as the input signal frequency.

31. Name any two type of ADC?

1. The parallel comparator.
2. Successive approximation type

32. Define Pull in time.

It is the total time taken by the PLL to establish lock. This depends on the initial
phase and frequency difference between the two signals as well as on the overall loop gain
loop filter characteristics.

51
33. What do you understand the Integrated circuit?
An integrated circuit is a circuit which consists of component such as transistors
diodes, resisters, capacitors, and they are formed as part of a small semiconductor chip.

34. What is Metallization?

Metallization is a process by which the components of IC are connected together by
Aluminum.

35. What is Isolation?

In the fabrication process, the components must be separated electrically. The
reason is the resistivity of silicon is low which results in low impedance path between the
components. Hence to separate components, the isolation process is employed.

36. What is epitaxial growth?

The word epitaxial growth is derived from greek.Epi means upon and teinein means
arrange. Epitaxial growth is process of chemical reaction to form a thin film of a single
crystal. The epitaxial layer may by either p type or n type.

37. What are the draw backs of discrete circuits?

1. It occupies large space.
2. It has poor circuit reliability.

52
 MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

1. What is measurement?
Comparison of an unknown quantity with another quantity of the same kind chosen
as a unit.

2. Define signal to noise ratio.

The ratio of desired signal to the unwanted noise is called signal to noise ratio.
= Signal power / noise power
= (signal interest expressed in volt)2 / (unwanted noise expressed in volt)2

3. What are the functional elements in measurements and instrumentation systems.

1. primary sensing element
2. Data presentation element
3. variable conversion element
4. Data transmission element
5. variable manipulation element

4. What do you mean by Relative eliminating error ?

It is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified (nominal)magnitude of a
quantity,
r = (Aa As) / As = (Actual value nominal value) / nominal value

5. Why are multimeters provided with separate scale for low ac voltages?
To take into account the high value of resistance of rectifier at low voltages and also
the fact that at low voltages the value of rectifier.

6. What are the dynamic characteristics of an measuring instrument?

1. speed of response
2. measuring lag
3. fideling
4. dynamic error

7. What are the static characteristics of an measuring instrument?

1. accuracy
2. drift
3. sensitivity
4. static error
5. reproducibility
6. dead zone

8. What is static error?

Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true
value of the quantities

9. What do you mean by Accuracy in measuring system?

It is the closeness with which can instrument reading approached the true value of
the quantity being measured

53
10. What are the types of errors?
1. gross error
2. systematic error
3. random error

11. What are the applications of measurement systems?

1. monitoring of processes and operations
2. control of processes and operations
3. experimental engineering analysis

12. What are the errors occur in moving iron instruments?

1. hysteresis errors
2. temperature error
3. stray magnetic field error
4. frequency error
5. eddy current error

13. What are the emf standards?

1. primary standard of emf
2. secondary standard of emf
3. working standard of emf

14. What is calibration?

The calibration is the procedure for determining the connect values of measurand by
comparison with the standard ones. The standard of desire with which comparison is made is
called a standard instrument. The instrument which is unknown and is to be calibrated is
called test instrument.

15. What are the advantages of PMMC ?

1. the scale is uniformly divided
2. the power consumption is very low as 25MW to 250MW.
3. the torque-weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy

16. How the moving iron instruments are classified?:

1. attraction type
2. repulsion type
radial vane type
co-axial vane type

17. What are the errors in moving iron instruments?

1. Hysterisis error
2. temperature error
3. stray magnetic fields

18. What are the errors in electrodynamometer instruments ?

Low torque to weight ratio
Eddy currents
Frequency
External magnetic fields
Temperature changes

54
19. What are the types of power factor meter?
1. Electrodynamometer type
2. Moving iron type

20. What are the types of frequency meters?

1. Mechanical resonance type
2. Electrical resonance type
3. Electrodynamometer type
4. Weston type
5. Ratio meter
6. Saturable core type

21. What are the types of tests in magnetic measurements ?

1. Ballistic tests
2. Arc testing
3. Steady state test

22. What is phase meter?

The device which measures the phase difference between the signals is called phase
meter.

23. Which torque is absent in energy meter? why?

The controlling torque is absent in energymeter. In energymeter continuous rotation
of disc is required and it is not necessary to resent it to zero every time hence controlling
torque is absent. Only for adjusting speed of rotation of disc, braking magnet is provided.

24. What are the various types of digital voltmeters?

The non integrating type and integrating type
The non integrating type are further classified as :
1. Potentiometric type
Servo potentiometric type
Successive approximation type
2. Null balance type
3. Ramp type
Linear
Staircase
The integrating type are further classified as :
Volage to frequency converter type
Dual slope integrating type
Potentiometric type

25. What is Potentiometer?

A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by
comparing it with a known voltage. The known voltage may be supplied by a standard cell
or any other known voltage reference source.

55
26. What are the applications of DC potentiometers?
1. calibration of voltmeter
2. calibration of ammeter
3. measurement of resistance
4. measurement of power
5. calibration of wattmeter

27. What are the main parts of CRT ?

1. Electro gun assembly
2. deflection plate assembly
3. glass envelope
4. Base through which connections are made to various parts.

28. What is transducer?

Transducer is defined as a device which converts energy from one form to another.

29. What are the major components of transducer?

1. input device
2. signal conditioning or processing device
3. output device

30. What are the factors influencing the choice of transducers ?

1. operating principle
2. sensitivity
3. operating range
4. accuracy
5. cross densitivity
6. errors
7. loading effects
8. stability and reliability
9. static characteristics

56
Protection Switchgear

1. Differentiate between a fuse and protective relays.

Both relays & fuses: Protects the overloading and fault. The fuse isolates the circuit
by melting. The relay isolates the fault by means of a circuit breaker.

2. What is the protective zone?

The power system is divided into no of zones from the protection point of view the
elements with comes under a protective scheme are said to be a zone of protection.
Example : Transformer protection, Feeder protection.

3. Explain time grading.

The time setting of over current relays is adjusted in slow a way that faster the relay
from the generating station, the lesser the time of operation.

4. Differentiate between primary protection and back-up protection.

The primary protection is instantaneous protection.
The back-up protection is with time lag and acts when the primary protection fails.

5. Explain the term selectivity of a protective relay.

The selectivity is the ability of the protective system to identify the fault part
correctly and disconnect that part without affecting the rest of the healthy part of the
system.

6. What is relay coordination?

The relay co ordination means that the downstream device should activate before the
upstream device.

7. Give two advantages of a numeric relay.

1. Its very effective and reliable
2. Highly accurate.
3. Very fast operation.
4. Programmable in nature.
5. Economical for large system.

8. What is numeric relay?

The microprocessor based relays which works on numbers representing
instantaneous value signals is called as numerical relays.

9. Define the following terms 1. Pick-up current 2. Reset value.

1. Pick up current- the threshold value of the actuating quantity current above which
the relay operates.
2. Reset value the maximum value of the actuating quantity below which contacts
are
opened is called reset value.

10. What is the different type of faults expected in an alternator?

1. Stator ground fault
2. Rotor ground fault
3. Loss of excitation

57
11. What is carrier transfer?
Instantaneous tripping of the circuit breakers at both the ends of the feeder is
achieved by sending a carrier signal to the remote end.

12. What is merz-price system?

The merz-price system is a simple differential protection scheme.

13. Explain the use of gas accumulator relay. Where it is used?

The gas accumulator relay (Buchholz relay) provides protection against incipient
faults. It is used in transformer protection.

14. What is under reach?

Sometimes a relays may fail to operate even when the fault point is with in its set
reach. This is called under reach.

15. What is over reach?

Sometimes a relays may operate even when the fault point is beyond its set reach.
This is called over reach.

16. Define fault-clearing time.

It is sum of the relay operating time and the circuit breaker time to clearing the
fault.

17. Give any two method of protection of transformer.

1. Over current protection.
2. Percentage differential protection.
3. Bucholz protection.

18. State two method of protection of feeder.

1. Over current protection.
2. Carrier current protection.
3. Distance protection.

19. Explain in brief DC circuit braking.

In ac circuit, current passes through natural current zero and the circuit is interrupted
at it is current zero. This feature is not available in dc. An artificial current zero is created
by an additional external circuit.

20. Give two advantages of HRC fuses.

1. The capability of clearing high value of fault current.
2. Fast operation.
3. Reliability, discrimination.

21. State any two ratings of a circuit breaker.

1. Breaking capacity
2. Making capacity
3. Current rating.
4. Voltage rating.

58
22. Give two advantages of vacuum circuit breaker.
1. High dielectric strength.
2. Less maintenance.

23. Give two advantages of SF6circuit breaker.

1. The size of the SF6 circuit breaker is smaller than conventional circuit breaker
of same rating
2. The SF6 gas is non inflammable and has high dielectric strength.

24. What is mean by rupturing capacity of a circuit breaker?

This expresses the current that the circuit breaker is capable of breaking at a given
recovery voltage. It is also expressed as 3*I*V*10-6 MVA

25. What are the requirements of lighting arrester?

1. Its breakdown voltage must be more than the system nominal voltage.
2. The breakdown discharging current should be diverted to earth without getting
damaged.

26. What is mean by insulation coordination?

It is the correlation of the insulation of electrical equipment with the characteristics
of protective device the insulation strength of the equipment should be higher then that of
protective device.

27. Give two advantages of neutral earthing.

1. Arcing ground are prevented.
2. Earth fault can be sensed by the protective relay.

28. Explain arcing ground in protective system.

Persistency of the arcing due to flow of capacitance fault current is called arcing
ground.

29. Why do you require earthing in power system?

When the earth is provided then it ensures the safety of the personal against the
electrical shocks and avoids the accidents. The equipment is also protected against lightning
and voltage surges.

30. What are the causes for over voltage?

1. External over voltages:
1. lightning stroke
2. Internal over voltage:
1. Switching over voltage

59
Solid state drives
1. What is a torque motor?
A DC motors which is designed to run for long periods in a stalled or a low speed condition
is known as torque motors.

2. What is amortisseur winding?

A synchronous motors which have an additional winding known as damper or amortisseur
winding which is provided to damp hunting oscillations which occur during transient
operation of the motor.

3. What is Hystersis synchronous motor?

Small Hystersis motors tape recorders, fans, office equipments etc.
High inertia applications gyro compasses, small centrifugues etc.

4. What is meant by critical speed in phase controlled DC drives?

Critical speed in phase controlled DC drives is the speed which separates continuous
conduction and discontinuous conduction for a given firing angle and denoted mc .

5. What is synchronous condenser?

When the over excited synchronous motor is used only for power factor improvement (i.e
does not drive any load) then it is known as synchronous condenser.

6. What causes poor input power factor in phase controlled DC drives?

Phase controlled converter requires power for control and commutation. The harmonics do
not contribute to the active power loading. But they contribute to the reactive power
loading of the line. Because of this the line power factor is poor.

7. What are the features of good power factor in electric drives?

Helps in stabilizing the system voltage
Decreases the copper loss in transformer, distribution cables and transmission lines, thus
allowing considerable saving in energy consumptions.
Reduces the load on transmission and distribution equipments and transformers and thus it
allows transmission of large power and its full utilization.
Avoids large penalty often imposed on low pf.

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8. What are the advantages of static var compensator?
Low cost, low losses, fast response, lower maintenance, quite operation.

9. How the power modulators are replaced by semiconductor convertors?

Replacement of resistance controller choppers, triac, thyristor voltage controllers.
Replacement of eddy current couplings converter fed DC drives, variable frequency or
static voltage controlled IM drives.
Replacement of ward Leonard drives any semiconductor converters.

10. What is electric drive?

An electric drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy. To impart motion to different machines and mechanisms of
various kinds of process control.

11. What is burning of track?

When wheel of a train slips at start, it slides against the same point on the rail. Due to
friction and heat produced, rail surface is damaged at the point of contact commonly called
burning of track.

12. What is braking?

It is defined as the motor which works as a generator developing a negative torque which
opposes the motion of the motor.

13. Why thyristors are not preferred now a day for chopper fed DC drives?
Generally transistor choppers are preferred over thyristor because they can be operated at a
much higher frequency (2.5 to 10 khz) whereas thyristor can be operated upto 1khz only.

14. Constant torque loads are not suitable for AC voltage controller fed inductor motor drive.
Why?
Constant torques is not suitable for ac voltage controller fed induction motor drive because
of increased loss and heating.

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15. What is load commutation?
When the thyristors are commutated by using induced voltage of load (here load is a motor)
then it is said to be load commutation.

16. What is pull-in?

The process of pulling rotator into step with the rotating field is called pull-in or
synchronization.

17. What is rheostatic braking?

The supply to the field winging is maintained, but the armature is disconnected from the
supply voltage and reconnected to a external resistor. The machine now acts as a generator,
converting kinetic energy stored in its moving parts to electrical energy, which is dissipated
as heat in the resistor. This method of braking is called the dynamic or rheostatic braking.

18. How is the direction of rotation reversed in a brushless dc motor?

The direction of rotation in a brushless dc motor can be reversed by shifting the transistor
base pulses by 180(degree).

19. What is plugging?

If the polarity of the supply voltage to the armature is reversed while the motor is running,
the type of braking in the motor is termed counter current braking or plugging.

20. Why forced commutation is needed for the drive which is commutated by machine (line
commutation)?
Due to machine commutation, the working speed range starts typically above 10% of base
speed and extends upto base speed. By using forced commutation, the lower speed limit can
be extended to 0.

21. Where is closed loop control schemes of induction motors preferred?

The closed loop control scheme of induction motor is preferred because
Stabilization is readily obtained.
Speed regulation on load may be reduced by mans of a high gain speed control
amplifier.
22. Name the different modes of operation of a synchronous motors drive.
The modes of operation of a synchronous drive
1. True synchronous mode 2. Self controlled mode.

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23. What is cyclone?
The gas output of the separator is carried to a device called the cyclone. In which the
cement product is separated from air dust. The cyclone drive is normally slip ring
induction motor.

24. What are line surge suppressors?

It is used to protect the semiconductor converter against voltage spikes produced in the line
due to on and off switching of loads connected on the same line.

25. What is discontinuous mode conduction?

In a dual converter one converter operates as rectifier and another as inverter. In this mode,
only one converter operates at a time and carries the load current. In this mode the response
is low due to discontinuous current operation.

26. What are the salient features of cycloconverters used to control the synchronous motor
speed?
Absence of gears reduced the cost and maintenance.
The cycloconvertor is ideally suitable for such a low frequency supply.

27. What is load equalization?

A fly wheel is mounted on the motor shaft so that, non utilized power during non peak
hours is stored in it. During peak hours, the stored energy is supplied in order to compensate
the requirement. So that, load fluctuations is very little during peak hours. Thus it is load
equalization.

28. What is DC link?

It consists of L & C components, which acts as a LC filter in order to filter out the ripples
from the pulsated DC input.

29. What is voltage source inverter?

In this inverter, output voltage is controlled by input voltage, which is kept constant while
output current depends upon the type of load.

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30. Bring out the limitations of the above speed control scheme.
Maximum torque available from the motor decreases with reduction in stator voltage.
At low speeds, motor currents are excessive and special arrangements should be
provided to limit this.

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 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

1. What will be the power for energy signal and energy for power signal?
Ans : For energy signal P= 0 , For power signal E = infinity.

2. What is the difference between discrete time signal & digital signal?
Ans : Discrete time signal discrete in time but continuous in amplitude.
Digital signal discrete in time & amplitude.

3. Which filter is said to be anti-aliasing filter?

Ans : Analog low pass filter

4. What will be the fourier transform of a discrete & aperiodic sequence?

Ans : Continuous & Periodic

5. Where will be the ROC of the causal signal & anticausal signal in the circle?
Ans : Causal exterior of circle & anticausal interior of circle

6. When the DFT X(k) of a sequence x(n) is imaginary?

Ans : if x(n) is real & odd (or) imaginary & even.

7. What is the use of Zero padding?

Ans : (i) get better display of the frequency spectrum. (ii) with zero padding the
DFT can be used in linear filtering.

8. Which type of convolution can be used to find the response of a linear filter?
Ans : Linear Convolution.

9. In which domain sampling is performed for DTFT?

Ans : Time

10. Why FFT is needed?

Ans : To reduce the no. of computations.

11. What is FFT?

Ans : Algorithm used to compute DFT.

12. What about the input & output in DIT?

Ans : I/P is bit reversed & O/P is natural order.

13. What is meant by radix-2 FFT?

Ans : O/P points N is expressed as power of 2. i.e. N = 2M.

14. What is meant by in-place in DIT & DIF algorithm?

Ans : Use of same location to store both the I/P & O/P sequence.

15. Application of FFT algorithm.

Ans : Linear Filtering , Correlation , Spectrum Analysis.

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16. Mention any 2 procedures for digitizing the transfer function of an analog filter.
Ans : Impulse Invariance method , Bilinear transformation.

17. What is the effect of warping on magnitude & phase response?

Ans : Compresses magnitude & phase response at high frequencies.

18. By which method warping effect can be compensated?

Ans : Prewarping.

19. What is the advantage of cascade realization?

Ans: Quantization errors can be minimized.

20. What are the different types of filters based on impulse response?
Ans: IIR & FIR filters.

21. What are the different types of filters based on frequency response?
Ans: Low pass, High pass, Band pass, Band reject.

22. Why errors due to round off noise are less severe in FIR filters?
Ans: Because Feedback is not used.

23. What are the design techniques of designing FIR filters?

Ans: Windows method, frequency sampling, minimax design.

24. What is the reason that FIR filter is always stable?

Ans: Because all its poles are at the origin.

25. When cascade form realization is preferred in FIR filters?

Ans: When complex zeros with absolute magnitude less than one.

26. What is Gibbs phenomenon?

Ans: Abrupt truncation of series will lead to oscillation both in pass band & stop
band.

27. What is window?

Ans: Multiplying infinite impulse response with a finite weighting sequence w(n).

28. For what type of filters frequency sampling method is suitable?

Ans: For narrow band frequency selective filters.

29. What are the methods of quantization?

Ans: Truncation & Rounding.

30. What is truncation?

Ans: Process of discarding all bits less significant than least significant bit that is
retained.

31. What is the cause of Limit cycle oscillations?

Ans: Due to Non Linear nature of the arithmetic quantization.

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 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

1. What is BIL (basic impulse level).

Minimum insulation impulse withstand voltage of any power apparatus
What: flash over occurs if exceeds

2. Switching over voltage in power system network are of the order of.
to 3.5 p.u.
where: switching of lines,breakers etc

3. Corona discharge is.

Partial discharge around a high voltage conductor.
Where: around high voltage conductor
What :losses,radio interference.

4. Device that is used to detect partial discharges.

Partial discharge detector.
Where:cables

5. How to locate faults in HV cable.

By partial discharge scanning tests.
How: by partial discharge detector.

6. Breakdown strength of transformer oil is about.

20Kv/mm.
What: above the strength break down occurs

7. Examples for electronegative gases.

SF6, CO2, CCl2F2.
Where:breakers
What:have high break down strength

8. Most commonly used liquid for transformer insulation.

Mineral oil.

9. What is ASKAREL?
Polychlorinated biphenyl (liquid dielectric).

10. Application of high DC voltage.

Electrostatic precipitator, particle accelerator.
Where: thermal plants

11. What is tesla coil?

High frequency resonant transformer to generate high ac high frequency voltage.
What: core absent in transformer,cost,size reduces

12. Sphere gaps are used to measure.

DC, AC peak and impulse voltage.

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13. The peak value of lightning stroke currents are of the order of.
10 to 100 KA.

14. Material that is used in surge arrestors in EHV systems.

Aluminum oxide.

15. Standards for impulse voltage.

IS2071(1973),1.2/50s wave with 20-30% tolerances in front and tail time.

16. Permanent break down takes place in.

Solid dielectrics

17. The class of insulator that is used for generator coil.

Class F.

18. List some solid insulating materials.

Paper ,wood, mica, glass, pvc ,bakelite, synthetic polymer.

19. Application of composite dielectrics.

In cables,transformers,oil filled switchgears
How: solid/liquid

20. What is ionization of a gas.

Liberation of electron and postive ion from a gas molecule.

21. Give example for electrostatic machines.

Vande gaarf generator.
What:to generate very high voltages with small currents
Where: used in voltage control applications

22. The best shunt that is used to measure high impulse current.
Co axial tubular type shunt.

23. Types of potential dividers used for impulse voltage measurements.

Resistive, capacitive and mixed element type.

24. What is rogowski coil?

Device used to measure high impulse currents.
What: have large bandwidth

25. List some break down mechanisms in solid

Intrinsic break down, electromechanical break down, thermal breakdown

26. What are the advantages of van de gaarf generator?

Ripple free output, very high voltages can be generated.

27. What is photo ionization?

Ionization due to radiation.
Where: gaseous dielectrics

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28. Causes for over voltages in power systems
Internal causes (switching, resonance, arcing grounds), external causes(lightning).

29. List some types of lighting arrestors.

Rod gap, horn gap, multi gap, expulsion type, valve type.
Where : protection due to lightning

30. What is spark break down?

Transition from non-sustaining discharge to self sustaining discharge.
Where: gaseous dielectric

31. Post breakdown phenomenon in gaseous dielectrics

Glow discharge, arc discharge
Where: welding, lightning source in carbon arc lamps.
How: temperature ranging from 1000C and more.

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 POWER ELECTRONICS

1. List the modern power semiconductor devices.

TRIAC
power BJT
LASCR
MOSFET
IGBT
GTO
FCT
RCT
SIT
DIAC
SCR

2. Name the family of power transistor.

Bipolar Junction transistor
Metal oxide field effect transistor
Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction transistor.

3. Name the types of power diode.

Diode is classified according to their reverse recovery characteristics. The tree types of
power diode
General purpose diode
Fast recovery diode
Schottky diode

4. What are the requirements of fuse link?

Fuse must carry continuously the device rated current.
Its thermal storage capacity must be les than that of the device being protected.

5. What are merits of GTO as compare to SCR?

Higher voltage blocking capability
Gate has full control
Low on state loss

6. What are the methods of turn ON of Thyristor?

Gate triggering
Temperature triggering
Dv/Dt triggering
Forward voltage

7. How the radio interference phenomenon minimized in gate protection

shielding
RF Filter
Zero voltage switching

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8. What are methods employing in Thyristor commutation?
Natural commutation
Line commutation
Forced commutation

9. Why the power factor is better in semi converter than full converter.
In semi converter diode itself act a as Free wheeling diode.
There is no negative output voltage .

10. What is effect of source impedance in the converter?

Over lap angle reduce the output voltage
Efficiency decrease

11. What is the application of Inverter?

Induction heating
Stand by power supplies
Uninterruptible power supply
Variable speed AC drives

12. List the types of multilevel inverters.

Diode clamped multilevel inverter
Flying capacitor multilevel inverter
Cascade multilevel inverter

13. In TRIAC which of the modes the sensitivity of gate high?

First quadrant Gate current is positive
Third quadrant Gate current is negative

14. Under what condition a single phase fully controlled converter gets operated as an inverter.
Firing angle is greater than 90 degree
Induced EMF feeds back to ac supply.

15. State the principle of phase control in AC- Dc converter.

Constant AC input voltage is converted to controlled DC output voltage.

16. Define the term duty cycle in Dc Dc converter.

Ratio of on period/ chopping period

17. Define the term Inverter gain?

Inerter gain is the ratio of ac output voltage to DC input voltage.

18. Mention the different types of HVDC link.

Mono polar link
Bipolar link

19. List the parameters for controlling power in a transmission line.

Increasing / decreasing the value of firing angle
Regulating magnitude of sending and receiving end voltage

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20. Name any five FACTS devices?
TCSC
TCR
STATCOM
SVC
UPFC

21. What are the advantages of PWM inverter?

Harmonic reduction
Smooth output voltage

22. What are the applications of IGBT

AC motor drives
UPS system
Harmonic compensators

23. What are the applications of TRIAC?

Ac voltage controllers
Triggering devices foe SCR.

24. What is the application of power Electronic system?

HVDC
FACTS
UPS system
AC and DC drives
Industrial automation
Renewable energy sources

25 .What is the function of snubber circuit connected across an SCR is to

Ans : Decrease dv/dt

26. A single phase HWR has 400sin 314t as a input voltage and R as a load , for firing
angle of 60 degree for the SCR, What is output voltage

Ans: 300/

27. In a 3 phase semi converter, what is triggering angle of three SCR.

Ans: 120

28 . A single phase full bridge VSI has inductor L as a load. For a constant source voltage,
what is the wave form of the Current through the inductor.
Ans: triangular Wave

29 .A steps up chopper has Vs as the source voltage and as the duty cycle what is the output
voltage.
Ans: Vs/ ( 1- )

30. In a thyristor, holding current is ___ Ans : Less than IL

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