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Andrew M. Rockett
Long Island University
Greenvale, NY 11548
G
eometric interpretations of algebraic quantities provide an essential motivation
for elementary calculus. The calculus with analytic geometry titles of many
introductory texts allude to the reliance on pictorial images in the development
of the derivative and the definite integral. While geometric considerations dominate most
presentation of the trigonometric functions and their derivatives, there is a near universal
switch to algebraic methods for the introduction and study of the inverse trigonometric
functions (see [6], [3], and so on). This note shows how the geometric ideas used in the
definitions of the definite integral, the trigonometric functions, and their derivatives may
be continued in the discussion of the corresponding inverse functions. Reference will be
made to the relation of these geometric ideas to the development of the theory of elliptic
functions and to Eulers method of finding algebraic addition theorems for circular,
hyperbolic, and lemniscate sines.
Typical calculus versus the arcsine as arc length
Taking [6] and [3] as our models, we note that in the typical modern textbook, after
the definite integral has been defined, the applications include the area between two curves
and the arc length formula. Since few integration techniques are available, the arc length
problems are restricted to nice curves y 5 f sxd such that the integral ea !1 1 f9 sxd2 dx
b
is particularly simple and sometimes an authors apology is offered for the lack of
interesting applications (see [3], p. 429).
The introduction of the trigonometric functions follows a review of radian measure as
arc length measured from the point s1, 0d on the unit circle x2 1 y2 5 1. The sine and
cosine of a real number u are defined as the coordinates of the point sx, yd on the unit
circle u radians from s1, 0d (see FIGURE 1). Then the properties of sin u and cos u are
derived from the symmetries of the circle and the other trigonometric functions are
defined in terms of the sine and cosine. The derivatives of the sine and the cosine are
found as consequences of lim ssin udyu 5 1. This limit is established by equating arc
u 0
length along the edge of the unit circle with the area of the sector determined by the
arc sin Figure 2, u 5 2 ? area AOBd and then squeezing this area between two triangular
regions.
After studying the calculus of the six trigonometric functions s"f sxd"d, the corresponding
inverse functions s"f 21 sxd"d are sought by reversing the graphs s"y 5 f sxd" becomes
"x 5 f 21syd"d, making arbitrary choices for the principal values (see [6], pp. 2956),
and then calculating Dxs f 21sxdd from the identity f s f21sxdd 5 x.
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
In contrast to exploiting the definitions and properties of inverse functions, the arcsine
function can be approached in a more geometric way. Since sin u was defined as the y-
coordinate of the point on the unit circle an arc length of u away from s1, 0d, a
geometric attempt to invert this function would ask given that the second coordinate of
the point is y, from what arc length did it come? There are two small answers to this
question (see Figure 3) and then infinitely more separated from each other by multiples
of 2p. The principal value of the inverse sine function may be introduced naturally as
the smallest distance from the stating point, s1, 0d, that will work, and this arc length
may be called the arc sine of y and written arcsin (y) or the inverse sine of y and
written "sin21syd." We will use the arcsine notation for the remainder of our
discussion. Thus the arcsine function has arcsin syd 5 u where 2 py2 u py2 and
sinu 5 y.
Since arcsin (y) is an arc length, the arc length formula ea !1 1 f9std2 dt can be applied
b
E
y
arcsinsyd 5 !1 1 f9std2 dt
0
E!
y
t2
5 11 dt
0 1 2 t2
2
E
y
1
5 dt (1)
0 !1 2 t2
1
Dysarcsinsydd 5 .
!1 2 y2
E0
1
1
!1 2 t2
dt 5 lim
y1
E y
0
1
!1 2 t2
dt 5
p
2
.
arctanswd 5 E
0
wy!11w 2
!1 2 t2
1
dt.
E
w
1
arctanswd 5 !1 1 u2 du
0 !1 1 u2s1 1 u2d
E
w
1
5 du,
0 1 1 u2
and so
1
Dwsarctanswdd 5 .
1 1 w2
| |
For the inverse secant of w (where w 1d, if we seek the smallest positive arc length
from s1, 0d to the point with first coordinate 1/w, we obtain an arcsecant function
arcsecswd 5 u with principal value 0 u < py2 and py2 < u p. For w > 1, the arc
length u is py2 2 f (see FIGURE 5) so we have
p
arcsecswd 5 2 arcsins1ywd
2
and so
1 21
Dwsarcsecswdd 5 2
!1 2 s1ywd2
? w2
1
5 for w > 1.
w!w2 2 1
For w < 21, we have by symmetry that
arcsecswd 5 p 2 arcsecs2wd
3
and so
Dwsarcsecswdd 5 2Dwsarcsecs2wdd
and thus
1
Dwsarcsecswdd 5
| |w !w2 2 1 | |
for w > 1.
E
!w 2 21yw
1
arcsecswd 5 dt for w 1
0 !1 2 t2
FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6
E1 2 dt
y
!1 2 y2
52? !1 2 t2 2 ?t
0 y
?E
y
1
5 ,
!1 2 y2
4
as before.
Alternatively, our integral expression (2) for arcsin(y) provides a motivating example for
the integration by parts formula eu ? dv 5 u ? v 2 ev ? du. Letting u 5 !1 2 t2 and
dv 5 dt, we have
E !1 2 t dt 5 t!1 2 t 2 E t !12t2 t dt
2 2
2
5 t!1 2 t 2 E
s!1 2 t d 2 1 dt
2
2 2
!1 2 t 2
5 t!1 2 t 2 E !1 2 t dt 1 E
2 2
1
dt
!1 2 t 2
so
E
2 !1 2 t2 dt 5 t!1 2 t2 1 E !112 t 2 dt.
But then
E
y
arcsinsyd 5 2 ? !1 2 t2 dt 2 y!1 2 y2
0
E
y
1
5 y!1 2 y 1 2
2 dt 2 y
!1 2 y2
0 !1 2 t
E
y
1
5 2 dt,
0 !1 2 t
as before.
This development of the arcsine as the area bounded by the x-axis, the circle
xstd 5 !1 2 t2 from t 5 0 to t 5 y, and the line from the origin to the point
s!1 2 y2, yd may be adapted to the hyperbola xstd 5 !1 1 t2 to find the inverse
| |
hyperbolic sine sinh21syd 5 ln !1 1 y2 1 y . However, unlike the circle, there is no
simple relation between arc length and area for the hyperbola (see[4], 6 and 7; for a
representation of arc length on the hyperbola, see [1], 60, and the corresponding
geometric construction is 61). On the other hand, a similar procedure to develop a
lemniscate sine using the lemniscate instead of the circle must be carried out in terms
of arc length (see [4], 8).
Rationalization of the arcsine
We now turn to the problem of expressing the integrand in (1) as a rational function; that
is, we wish to express 1 2 t2 as the square of a rational function. If, in the two-variable
representation of Pythagorean triples,
(a2 2 b2d2 1 s2abd2 5 sa2 1 b2d2, (3)
we let a 5 1 and b 5 u then
s1 2 u2d2 5 s1 1 u2d2 2 s2ud2
5
or
1 2 u2 2
1 1 1 u2 2 512 1 2
2u 2
1 1 u2
,
E 11 12 uu 1 2 u2
E 1 11 u
2
2 ? 2 du 5 2 ? du
s1 1 u2d2 2
and the integrand has been rationalized. Solving t 5 2uys1 1 u2d for u, we find that
u 5 s1 !1 2 t2dyt. Equating t with sin u, we see that !1 2 t2 5 cos u and the
expression for u with the minus sign becomes
u 5 s1 2 cos udysin u 5 tansuy2d
and we have derived the "u 5 tansuy2d" substitution for the rationalization of
trigonometric integrals. (Compare this development with the typical it has been
discovered that ... treatment in [6], p. 368.)
Eulers sine sum formula
In the introductory section of [5], Siegel describes Fagnanos study of arc length on the
lemniscate (which follows our development of the arcsine of the circle) and speculates
that Fagnanos 1718 discovery of a geometric construction to double arc length on the
lemniscate resulted from his attempt to rationalize the integrand of the lemniscate sine.
Thirty-five years later, Euler extended Fagnanos doubling theorem to an algebraic
addition theorem for the lemniscate sine and he shortly thereafter generalized his
discovery to elliptic integrals. Siegel ([5], p. 10) describes the aim of his first chapter to
be the fuller understanding of Eulers result from the viewpoint of analytic functions on
their full domain of definition. We conclude our discussion of the arcsine with Eulers
algebraic addition theorem for the arcsine adapted from 585 and 586 of [2] (see also
[2], Caput VI for Eulers study of elliptic integrals; [4], Chapter 4; and [5], 2).
Let 2 py2 < t < py2 be a fixed angle and let 2 py2 < u, f < py2 be any two angles
with u 1 f 5 t. Since the sum u 1 f is constant, dsu 1 fd 5 0, and if we set
u 5 sin u and v 5 sin f, we can rewrite dsu 1 fd 5 0 as
1E E 2
u v
dt dt
d 1 50
0 !1 2 t2 0 !1 2 t
2
6
du dv
1 5 0. (4)
!1 2 u2 !1 2 v2
7
Regrouping the expression su2 1 v2d 2 2u2v2 as su2 2 u2v2d 1 sv2 2 v2u2d, we see
that the right side of (12) is a perfect square and so
K 5 u!1 2 v2 1 v!1 2 u2. (13)
Changing back to angles, K is the constant sinsu 1 fd while !1 2 v2 5
!1 2 sin2f 5 cos f and !1 2 u2 5 cos u so we have the sine sum formula