Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Fluid Mechanics

NAME: ASIM ALI

Reg . No: BSCE-01153009

SECTION: (C)

SUBMITTED TO: Sohail Ahmad & Eng. Masood

SUBMITTED BY: Asim ali

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 List of Experiments
1)To carry out the layout of fluid mechanics lab

2) Determination of various physical properties of a fluid.

3) To determine hydrostatic force on a given plane and to locate the center of

pressure.

4) To determine the metacentric height of floating bodies and to locate the center

of pressure.

5) To check the validity of bernoulli's equation for water flow.

6) To determine the coefficent of disharge in a pipe line using horizontal

venturimeter and draw its calibration curve.

7) To determine the hydraulic co-efficent of velocity, the co-efficent of disharge

and the co-efficent of contraction for a circular orifice.

8) To measure the discharge in an open channel using triangular notch and to

determine the co-efficent of discharge.

9) To measure the discharge in an open channel using rectangular notch and

measure the co-efficentt of discharge.

10) To investigate the operation and characteristics of three different basic types of
flowmeter.
11) To verify "impulse momentum principle" for jet of water striking on 45o,90o
and 120o deflectors and to investigate the effect of the velocity of flow on these
deflectors
Experiment # 1

To carry out the layout of fluid mechanics lab

Objective:
To carry out the layout of fluid lab and to get familiar with the lab equipments.

Purpose:
This job enables us to know about the positions as well as the working principle and
practical applications of all the instruments present in the lab.

Layout of Fluid Mechanics Lab

1. Viscometer:
It is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. There are two types of Viscometer
which are given below.
Tube Type Viscometer.
U-Shaped Viscometer

U-Shaped Viscometer
Tube Type Viscometer

2. Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus:

Hydrostatic Pressure measures moment caused by fluid thrust on a whole or partially submerged
plane surface. PVC quadrant mounted on balance arm pivoted on knife-edges coinciding with
quadrant center. Balance arm with adjustable counter balance and weights with hanger. Features
a clear acrylic tank with water admittance and drainage.

Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus

3. Impact of Jet Apparatus:

It has been designed for students to study on the force

developed by a water jet impact impinging on different non-
moving targets. The apparatus consist of a clear acrylic
cylinder where water id fed through a nozzle ans discharged
vertically to strike the target supported on a stem which
extends through the cover. The counter balance the force
exerted by the water jet, a dead weight is applied on the upper
end of the stem.

Impact of jet Apparatus

4. Venturi meter Apparatus:

The Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow rate. As

shown, it consists of a tapering contraction section, along which the
fluid accelerates towards a short cylindrical throat, followed by a
section which diverges back to its original diameter.

Venturi meter Apparatus

5. Bernoullis Apparatus:
The equipment is designed and fabricated to demonstrate the
Bernoullis theorem. It consists of a test section made of acrylic. It had
convergent and divergent sections. Pressure tapings are provided at
different locations in convergent and divergent section. Present set-up is
self contained water re-circulating unit, provided with a sump tank,
centrifugal pump etc. An arrangement is done to conduct the experiment
on different flow rates. Flow rate of water is measured with the help of
measuring tank and stopwatch.

Bernoullis Apparatus
6. Orifice Apparatus:

Orifice is a simple device used to measure fluid flow in pipes..

The Orifice Discharge Apparatus has been designed to enable
students to determine the co-efficient of discharge of sharp edged
orifice and nozzles. It consists of a vertically mounted cylindrical
transparent plastic water tank. Water is supplied from the hydraulic
bench or any closed circuit controlled water supply system. The
orifice is fitted in the base of the tank using special fittings flush
with the inside surface. The head above the orifice is maintained
constant using adjustable overflow pipe and the level is indicated
by the level scale.
Orifice Apparatus

7. Notch

A notch may be defined as an opening in one side of a tank or a reservoir, like a large orifice,
with the upstream liquid level below the top edge of the opening. Since the top edge of the notch
above the liquid level serves no purpose, therefore a notch may have only the bottom edge and
sides.

Types of notches:

Rectangular notch Trapezoidal notch

Triangular notch Stepped notch

8. Energy losses in pipe Apparatus

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some

resistance due to which some of the energy of the fluid is lost. For
to calculate this lost energy we use this apparatus, it consists of
two separate hydraulic circuits, one painted dark blue , one painted
light blue , each containing a number of pipe system components .
Both circuits are supplied with water from the same hydraulic
bench.

Energy losses in pipe Apparatus

9. Meta-centeric Height Apparatus

Determines the metacentric height of a floating body and height

variation with tilt angle. Rectangular pontoon. Center of gravity
can be moved sideways by moving horizontal jockey weight, and
vertically via an adjustable vertical weight on mast. Tilt angle is
indicated by a plumb bob on attached scale.

Meta-centeric Height Apparatus

10. Hydraulic bench

Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and

fluid mechanics. It is involved in majority of experiments to
be conducted e.g. To find the value of the co-efficient of
velocity Cv, coefficient of discharge Cd, to study the
characteristics of flow over notches, to find metacentric
height, to find head losses through pipes, to verify Bernoullis
theorem etc.

Hydraulic bench
11. Fluid Friction Apparatus

This apparatus has been designed for students to study on the fluid friction head losses of an
incompressible fluid flow. The unit is self contained supplied with facilities for student to study
the friction losses on smooth-bore pipes of various diameter and a roughened pipe. In
addition to the study of losses in straight pipe, a wide range of accessories are also
provided including 900bend, elbow and T , 450elbow and Y, various valves which are gate, ball
and globe valve and several types of flow meter which are venture , orifice plateand pitot static
tube. The friction losses is determine based on different inpressure that been measures in the
monometer.

Fluid Friction Apparatus

Comments:

We have discussed different apparatus placed in the fluid mechanics lab, go through with
objectives and got idea about them what will be there purpose to be used to perform different
jobs in fluid mechanics, also by making layout of fluid mechanics lab we got the idea about the
placement of different apparatus in the lab.
Experiment # 2

Determination of various physical properties of Fluid

Objective:
The aim of this experiment is to determine various physical properties of the fluid.

Purpose:
Purpose of this is experiment is to find following:
Viscosity of the fluid.
Density of the fluid.
Specific gravity of the fluid.
Specific weight of the fluid.
Specific volume of the fluid.

Apparatus:

Tube Type Viscometer.

Flask.
Distilled water.
Stopwatch.

Related Theory

Density:
It is defined as the mass per unit volume. Density of water varies with the variation in
temperature. It is denoted by . It can be calculated by the given formula.

Density = \

= \
Units of density are given in the table 1.
Specific Weight:
It is defined as weight per unit volume. It is denoted by"". It can be calculated by the given
formula.

= \

= \

Units of specific weight are given in the Table 1.

Specific Gravity:
It is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of water at 4C. It is denoted by S. It can
be calculated by the given formula.

S = \ = \

Units of Specific Volume are given in the Table 1.

Specific Volume:
It is the volume per unit mass. It is denoted by "" and is calculated by the given formula.

= \m

Units of Specific Volume are given in the Table 1

Viscosity:
It is the property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to deformation under the
influence of shear forces. Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow. It is calculated by
the given formula.
= .\

Units of viscosity are given in the Table 1.

Viscometer:
It is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. There are two types of
Viscometer which are given below.
Tube Type Viscometer.
U-Shaped Viscometer

U-Shaped Viscometer
Tube Type Viscometer

Table 1: Units of measurement for various physical properties

Units
Quantity Symbols
S.I F.P.S C.G.S

Density Kg\ m3 lb \ ft3 g \ cm3

Specific Wt. N\m3 lb\ ft3 dynes\ cm3

Specific Vol m3\kg ft3 \ slug cm3\ g

Viscosity N.s\m2 slug.sec\ ft2 dynes .s \ cm2

Specific
s No units No units No units
Gravity

Procedure:
Firstly measure the mass of flask (m1), then pour liquid in the flask and again measure mass
(m2). Mass of liquid = m2-m1 Cover the tube hole with a rod and fill the container up to the
required level H1. Put the measuring flask under the tube of viscometer and fill it up to 50ml.The
temperature during experiment should be noted. Note down the time taken for filling of 50ml
 liquid in the flask from Viscometer. Clean and wash viscometer. Then dry it. Insert water in tube
B up to approx. half of the level of bulb. By using suction arrangement on tube A , take level of
water above mark C, and release it. The time duration for level drop from level C to mark D is
noted. Repeat the experiment, take 3 to 4 reading and take mean of all.

Calculations for Density:

Specific Specific
Mass gravity gravity
Mass Mass Vol. of
of Specific Specific Specific Sp.density Sp.weight
No of of fluid liquid
liquid Temp vol. Density weight of fluid Of fluid
of empty (m2- in
+ (V/m) (m/V) (W/V) ------------ ------------
obs. flask m1) beaker
flask Sp.density Sp.weight
of water Of water
(m1)g (m2)g (m)kg (v)m3 C m3/kg kg/m3 kN/m3 (Sp.density) (Sp.weight)

1 170.160 656.50 0.48634 0.0005 33 0.0010280 972.68 9541.9908 0.97268 0.97268

Calculation for viscosity:

2 = 1.2.2
1 1 t1 2 t2 2 1
kg/m3 N.s\m2 sec kg/m3 sec N.s\m2

994.65 0.0007545 12.0266 972.68 12.0266 0.0007378

Comments:

This experiment to find the viscosity of the fluid is performed by the water the viscosity of the
water at 330 is 0.0007545 but as the second liquid is also water so the 2 should be same but the
experimental value is 0.0007378 that is because the temperature of the lab was not at 330 due to
this difference of temperature there is difference in the viscosities.
Experiment # 3

To determine the Hydrostatic force and to locate center of pressure

Objective:
To determine the hydrostatic force which acts on a plane surface immersed in water with surface
partially submerged or fully submerged and to find the position of the line of action of force.

Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment is to experimentally locate the centre of pressure of a vertical
submerged surface, determine the position of the line of action of the thrust and compare the
measurements to theoretical predictions.

Apparatus:
The apparatus required for this experiment include:
Rectangular water tank.
Centre weight.
Hook gauge.
Counterbalance arm or weight beam.
Bubble.
Leveling screws.
Toriod (the plane surface to be used) also called quarter circle.

Hydrostatics pressure Apparatus

 Related Theory

Hydrostatic Force:
Hydrostatic force is the resultant force of pressure on any side of submerged plane exerted by the
fluid when it is at rest. It can be calculated by the following mathematical expression.

F = . h . A

Center of pressure:
It is the point where the hydrostatic force acts on the surface submerged in the water.

When the quadrant is immersed in water, it is possible to analyze the forces acting on the
surfaces of the quadrant as:

The hydrostatic force at any point on the curved surfaces is normal to the surface and
therefore resolves through the pivot point because the pivot point is located at the origin
of the radii. Hydrostatic forces on the upper and lower curved surfaces therefore have no
net torque effect.
The forces on the sides of the quadrant are equal and opposite horizontal forces.
The hydrostatic force on the vertical submerged face is counteracted by the balance
weight. At equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the pivot point is zero.
m L g = F h ------------ (1

where m is the hanging mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, L is the distance from the pivot
point to the hanging mass, and h is the distance from the pivot point to the centre of pressure.

For case of Partially submerged portion:

For the case of a partially submerged face as shown in the figure (a) the hydrostatic thrust is
defined as:
F= g h A ------------------ ( 2
Where A is the wetted surface area of the vertical face (Bd), is the density of water, and h is
the mean depth of immersion (h = d/2). Therefore the hydrostatic thrust is:
.
= (3

putting this value of F in equation 1 we get the experimental center of pressure from the pivot .

" = (4
.

Now for the theoretical depth

= (5

As value of Ix is:

Ix = I0 + Ah2 (6

= ( bd3/ 12 ) + (bd)(d\2)2 (7

By putting this value of Ix , A and h in the equation (5) and after calculation we get:

=

Now for h from fig (a)

h= H d + h (8
putting the value of h in equation 8

h = H d +

we get the value for h

h= H d\3
For the case of fully submerged portion:

For the case of fully submerged face as shown in the figure (b) the hydrostatic thrust is defined
as:
F= g h A ------------------ ( 9
Where A is the wetted surface area of the vertical face (Bd), is the density of water, and h is
the mean depth of immersion (h = d D/2). Therefore the hydrostatic thrust is:
= g B D(d D\2) (10
putting this value of F in equation 1 we get the experimental center of pressure from the pivot .

" = (11
(\)

Now for the theoretical depth

= (12

As value of Ix is:

Ix = Ic + Ah2 (13

= ( bd3/ 12 ) + (BD)(d - D\2)2 (14

By putting this value of Ix , A and h in the equation (12) and after calculation we get:

(.\)+(\)
=
\
 Now for h from fig (a)

h= H d + h (15
putting the value of h in equation 8

(.\)+(\)
h = H d +
\

Observation and calculations for (case: 1)

Widt Length 2nd

Height of Depth of 2nd Moment
No h of of Quadrant Thrust moment
Quadrant Mass immersion Experimental
of quad Balance to pivot H (Fr) theory
D d h
obs B L h
(m) (m) (m) (m) (kg) (m) (N) (m) (m)
1 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.02 0.034 4.2523 0.0143 0.198

2 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.04 0.047 8.1263 0.0149 0.194

3 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.06 0.057 11.952 0.0152 0.191

4 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.07 0.060 13.243 0.0160 0.19

Observation and calculations for (case: 2)

Length 2nd
Width of Height of Quadrant Depth of 2nd Moment
No of Thrust moment
Quadrant Quadrant to pivot Mass immersion Experimental
of Balance (Fr) theory
B D H d h
obs L h
(m) (m) (m) (m) (kg) (m) (N) (m) (m)
1 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.224 0.112 45.616 0.0149 0.1715

2 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.244 0.117 49.295 0.0150 0.1724

3 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.265 0.121 52.238 0.0154 0.1717

4 0.75 0.1 0.31 0.21 0.275 0.125 55.181 0.0151 0.1711

Comments:

The experimental distances to the centre of pressure were lower than the theoretical distances to
the centre of pressure. Many factors may have contributed to this discrepancy. Water splashing
onto the balance arm or quadrant would cause overestimation of the water depth for equilibrium,
changes in water temperature would cause variations in the water density, and excess weight on
the masses would cause underestimation of the experimental distance to the centre of pressure.
Experiment # 4

To determine the meta-centric height of a floating body and to locate position of center of
buoyancy and center of gravity

Objective:
To determine the experimental value of a meta-centric height and to investigate the effect of
weight, placed vertically above the center of gravity on the stability of a floating body.

Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment is to find the stability for the floating body by locating the meta -
-center and the also by finding the meta-centric height, and to understand the effect of these on
the floating body.

Apparatus:
A model of ship. (Floating body)
Water tank.
Jokey.

Meta-centric height Apparatus

 Related Theory

1. Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the upward force acting on an object while it is as least partially submerged in a
liquid. The buoyancy force can be calculated by multiplying the pressure by the area of the
object. It does not depend upon the shape of the object. It always acts upward.

2. Archimedes Principle:
Archimedes' principle states that anybody completely or partially submerged in a fluid at rest
experiences an upward, or buoyant, force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.

3. Centre of Buoyancy:
It is the point on which force of buoyancy is acting. Center of buoyancy is center of gravity of
volume of liquid displaced by the body.

4. Meta-center:
Meta-center defines the stability of the floating body. It is the point of intersection of
symmetrical axis of floating body and new line of action of force of buoyancy.

5. Meta-centric Height:
It is the distance between center of gravity and meta-center. It is the measure of static stability of
a floating body. A larger meta-centric height means greater stability against overturning.

6. Meta-centric Radius/ Buoyant Radius:

It is the distance between meta-center and center of buoyancy.
B0 M= \

7. Force of Buoyancy:
It is the resultant upward force or thrust exerted by a fluid on submerged body.
Fb = () x (V)

Fb = weight of volume of fluid displaced by the body.

= specific weight of fluid.
V = volume of water displaced by the body.
 Name Symbols
Force of buoyancy Fb
Buoyant Radius B0 M
Meta-center M
Meta-centric Height CM
Centre of Buoyancy B
Center of Gravity C

Calculation Data:

Weight of Ship Model = W = 12.5 kg = 27.55 lb

Length = 20in
Breadth = 10in
Drowned Radius of model = r = 5in
Weight of Jockey= Wo = 0.345kg = 0.7603 lb
Specific Weight =62.4 lb/ft3
Observations and Calculations:

Volume = = 785.39 in3 = 0.4545 ft3



Moment of inertia = = 1666.66 in4

Buoyant Radius = B0 M= \ = 2.122 in

Position of point of buoyancy = B = 4R\ 3 = 2.122 in
Buoyant force = Fb = () x (V) = 28.360 lb

Angle of Deflection() Meta-centric Height

Displacement
No. of .
of Jockey(x) Left Right Mean . =
Observation . ()
inches degree degree degree Inches

1. 1 6 6 6 0.262

2. 2 13 12 12.5 0.248

3. 3 18 17 17.5 0.262

Comments:

As by performing this experiment the meta-centric height for different reading is approximately
344.7 in the value may be different from the original value because while performing the
experiment there was some water in the floating body so this extra weight has deflected the ship
more or less.
Experiment # 5

To check the validity of Bernoullis equation for water flow

Objective:
To verify Bernoullis theorem and to investigate the behavior of fluid through pipe.

Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment is to see how pressure head varies with respect to
velocity head and to see the affect of different cross-section of similar pipe upon the fluid used in
the experiment (for our case its water).

Apparatus:

Hydraulic Bench used to note time of collection for volume of water under control
pressure.
Bernoullis apparatus.
Stop watch.

Hydraulic Bench Bernoullis Apparatus

 Related Theory

Flow:
The quantity of fluid passing from any given section per unit time.

Types of flow:

1) With Respect to Time:

a) Steady Flow:
Steady flow is the type of flow in which fluid parameters like area, velocity, discharge, density
and pressure etc. remains constant during time interval under consideration.

b) Unsteady Flow:
Type of flow in which fluid parameters like area, velocity, discharge, density and pressure etc.
doesnt remain constant during time interval under consideration.

2) With Respect to Space:

a) Uniform flow:
It is the type of flow in which fluid parameters like velocity, discharge, density, pressure etc.
remains same at the given section of channel with respect to distance.

=, = , =

b) Non uniform flow:

It is the type of flow in which fluid parameters like velocity, discharge, density, pressure etc. are
not same at given section of channel with respect to distance.

, ,

3) With respect to Density:

a) Compressible flow:
It is the type of flow in which the density of fluid changes from one point to another point.

b) Incompressible Flow:
The type of flow in which density of fluid remains unchanged throughout the length of the
section.

Energy:
The ability of a body to do work is called energy of the body. There are different types of energy.

a) Kinetic Energy:
It is the energy due to the motion of body. It is calculated by the given formula:

K.E = \2 2
b) Potential Energy:
The energy of a body due to its height/position from the datum is called potential energy. It is
calculated by the given formula:

P.E = m g h
h = height of body from datum

C) Pressure Energy:
The energy possessed by the fluid due to the pressure acting on it. It is calculated by the given
formula:

E=Pv
Where,
P = pressure acting on the body.
v = velocity of the body.

Head:
Energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,

Head = Energy/Weight
Types of heads:

a) Velocity head/Dynamic head:

It is the kinetic energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight.

Velocity Head = v2 / 2g

b) Potential or Elevation head:

It is the potential energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight.

Potential Head = h

C) Pressure or Static Head:

It is the pressure energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight.

Pressure head = P \
Here, is the sp. weight

Hydraulic Grade Line:

It is the line joining the piezometeric head in the pipe line. It is always below the energy line.

Energy Line:

It is the imaginary line formed by joining the velocity head. It is always above hydraulic line.

Bernoullis Theorem:
For an incompressible fluid, the sum of the velocity head, the pressure head and the elevation
head remains constant.

Total Head=Velocity Head+ Potential Head+ Pressure Head.

h + P \ + v2 / 2g = constant

Assumptions of Bernoullis Theorem:

Ideal fluid(zero viscosity)
Steady flow
Incompressible fluid
Observations and Calculations:

Area of Velocity
Volume Time Discharge Diameter Velocity Pressure Total
No. of tube head
(V) (t) Q=V\t (D) v=Q\A head head
Obs. (A) v2\2g
m3 sec m3/sec M m2 m\sec m m m

1. 0.002 20.94 9.64x10-5 0.0250 0.000490 0.19 0.000183 0.218 0.2195

2. 0.002 20.94 9.64x10-5 0.0139 0.000132 0.726 0.02691 0.07 0.2449

3. 0.002 20.94 9.64x10-5 0.0118 0.000109 0.882 0.0396 0.07 0.1096

4. 0.002 20.94 9.64x10-5 0.0107 0.00089 1.072 0.0585 0.07 0.1285

5. 0.002 20.94 9.64x10-5 0.0100 0.000785 1.227 0.0767 0.095 0.1717

6. 0.002 20.94 9.64x10-5 0.0250 0.000498 0.196 0.000195 0.113 0.11495

Comments:

As it can be seen from the above table that the values of the velocity heads are lower than the
pressure heads so that verifies the Bernoullis theorem ( pressure will be low where speed is high
or vice versa). Also by comparing the values of velocity at respective different heads with
respective pressure heads the behavior of water can be seen that it gains speed when area of pipe
is decreasing this happens from 4th head to 5th head and than start losing again because the area
starts to increase again.
Experiment # 6

To determine the co-efficient of discharge of horizontal venturimeter and to

draw its calibration curve

Objective:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge for horizontal venturimeter and to draw
its calibration curve.

Apparatus:
Venturimeter
Hydralic Bench
Fluid Friction Apparatus

Related Theory

Manometer:

It is used to determine pressure in a pipe. It has two types.

 1. Simple Manometer:
Simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of a fluid.

2. Differential Manometer:
It is used to find out pressure difference between two different fluids.

Fluid Friction Apparatus:

It was developed by Reynolds. It is used to find out the frictional losses in pipes.

Venturimeter:
It is a standard tube used to measure discharge of fluid flowing in a pipe. It is
named after a scientist named Venture who first used it in 1971. It has following types

Vertical
Horizontal
Incline

Venturimeter
Principle of Venturimeter:
Principle of Venturimeter is also the principle of Bernoullis
equation so Bernoullis theorem which is used in almost all the flow measuring devices.

Statement:
For a perfect fluid which is incompressible, the total head at all the section of a
flowing medium remains constant.

Fig (1.1)

Appling Bernoullis theorem at (A-A) & (B-B)

+ + = + +

As h1 = h2

So,

+ = +

=


= ()

As we know that the Equation of continuity is:

Putting value of V2 in equation (1)

=
( )

As Qth = A1 V1

= .
( )

Also

Qth = K (H)1\2

And here K is

= .
( )

Constant K :
K is a constant of venturimeter and its value depends upon dimension of
venturimeter.

= .
( )

Theoretical Value of Discharge:

Theoretical value of discharge is based on the
assumptions of zero losses and can be calculated by the given formula.

Qth = K (H)1\2

Actual Discharge:
It is the actual value of discharge obtained during experiment. It can be
calculated by using the following relation.

Co-Efficient of Discharge:
It is mathematically expressed as follows.

Cd=Qact/Qth
Observations And Calculations:

Dia. No 1 = 25 mm
Dia. No 2 = 10 mm
Area 1= A1 = 0.000908 m2
Area 2= A2 = 0.0000785 m2
2
() = 1. 2(12 22) = 0.0003521

For water:

Volume Time Qact Piezometeric readings H=y H1/2 Qth Cd

m3 sec m3\sec h1(mm) h2(mm) y(mm) m m1\2 m3\sec Qact/Qth

0.002 19.24 0.000103 151 57 94 0.094 0.306 0.0001077 0.9647

0.002 17.38 0.000115 145 55 90 0.09 0.3 0.0001056 1.089

0.002 14.54 0.000137 154 35 119 0.119 0.344 0.00012111 1.1312

0.002 13.78 0.000145 156 25 131 0.131 0.36 0.000126 1.15079

0.002 13.77 0.000145 164 15 149 0.149 0.38 0.000133 1.09022

For Mercury:

Volume Time Qact Piezometeric readings H=12.6y H1/2 Qth Cd

m3 sec m3\sec h1(mm) h2(mm) y(mm) m m1\2 m3\sec Qact/Qth

0.002 19.24 0.000103 151 57 94 1.1844 1.0883 0.0003831 0.271159

0.002 17.38 0.000115 145 55 90 1.134 1.0648 0.0003749 0.30674

0.002 14.54 0.000137 154 35 119 1.4994 1.0723 0.0003775 0.36291

0.002 13.78 0.000145 156 25 131 1.6506 1.2847 0.0004523 1.15079

0.002 13.77 0.000145 164 15 149 1.8774 1.37018 0.0004824 0.30058

Comments:

We can see from our observations that the Cd values for water is more than expected value that
is 0.95 to 0.995 but these values are more than 1 it may due the personal error and probably due
to instrumental error while measuring the selected discharge it may be calculated more or less.
For the case of mercury these values are less than 1 and they show correct graph.
Experiment # 7

To measure the discharge in an open channel using triangular notch and to

determine the co-efficient of discharge

Apparatus:
The Apparatus includes the following:
Hydraulic bench
Triangular notch
Stopwatch
Hook gauge

Related Theory

Notch:
It is a metallic plate having a general shape cut. It is a standard device used to measure
discharge in open channels. Discharge is measured by determining the height H relative to crest.

Types of notch:
There are 4 types that are generally used
Rectangular notch
Triangular notch
Trapezoidal notch
Stepped notch
Types of notches:

Rectangular notch Trapezoidal notch

Stepped notch Triangular notch

Velocity Of Approach:
Velocity of liquid in channels approaching to the notch is called
approach velocity. In our system we will neglect velocity of approach & because our system is
small & increasing velocity head will be negligible.

Co-Efficient of Discharge:
It is mathematically expressed as follows.

Cd=Qact/Qth

Hook gauge:
It is used to measure the depth of water in
open channel.
Comparison between Rectangular and triangular notches:

Triangular notch Rectangular notch

Easy to Construct Difficult to Construct

End conditions effect is minimum End condition effect is significant

For small flow For larger flows

Discharge through Triangular Notch:

Consider is control angle (vertex).

H = Head of liquid causing flow above the crest of notch.
Consider rectangular strip of fluid flowing in a notch of small width dh and at depth h w.r.t free
surface.
Width = 2x
Thickness = dh

=

= ( )

= . . ( 1)

= . = ( )

Putting values of da and Vth in eq 1.

= [( ) ]

Integrating both sides

= [( ) ]
0

After integration we will get

=

Observations and Calculations:

Volume Time Qact = V \ t H Qth Cd

No. of obs
m3 Sec m3 \ s m m3 \ s

1 0.005 61.59 8.1182x10-5 0.022 9.4006 x10-5 0.8635

2 0.005 54.69 9.1424 x10-5 0.024 1.1684x10-4 0.7824

3 0.005 51.49 9.7106 x10-5 0.026 1.4273 x10-4 0.6796

Mean 0.7751

Graph between Qact & H

0.000098
0.000096
0.000094
0.000092
Qact (m3\s)

0.00009
0.000088
0.000086
0.000084
0.000082
0.00008
0.0215 0.022 0.0225 0.023 0.0235 0.024 0.0245 0.025 0.0255 0.026 0.0265
H (m)
 Graph between Qact & Qth
0.000098
0.000096
0.000094
Qact (m3 \ s)

0.000092
0.00009
0.000088
0.000086
0.000084
0.000082
0.00008
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 0.00016
Qth (m3 \ s)

Graph between Qth & H

0.00016

0.00014

0.00012
Qact (m3\s)

0.0001

0.00008

0.00006

0.00004

0.00002

0
0.0215 0.022 0.0225 0.023 0.0235 0.024 0.0245 0.025 0.0255 0.026 0.0265
H (m)

Comments:
As the graph (Qth , H ) making one degree curve And for the case of plotting between (Qact , H)
& (Qact ,Qth )they are two degree curve , though the 2nd Degree curves are not more like parabola
but they are not straight also, there curve means that our values for Cd are good, they could be
more accurate if readings for time measurement and H have been taken more accurately.
Experiment # 8

To measure the discharge in an open channel using Rectangular notch and to

determine the co-efficient of discharge

Apparatus:
The Apparatus includes the following:
Hydraulic bench
Triangular notch
Stopwatch
Hook gauge

Related Theory

Notch:
It is a metallic plate having a general shape cut. It is a standard device used to measure
discharge in open channels. Discharge is measured by determining the height H relative to crest.

Types of notch:
There are 4 types that are generally used
Rectangular notch
Triangular notch
Trapezoidal notch
Stepped notch
Types of notches:

Rectangular notch Trapezoidal notch

Stepped notch Triangular notch

Velocity Of Approach:
Velocity of liquid in channels approaching to the notch is called
approach velocity. In our system we will neglect velocity of approach & because our system is
small & increasing velocity head will be negligible.

Co-Efficient of Discharge:
It is mathematically expressed as follows.

Cd=Qact/Qth

Hook gauge:
It is used to measure the depth of water in
open channel.
Comparison between Rectangular and triangular notches:

Triangular notch Rectangular notch

Easy to Construct Difficult to Construct

End conditions effect is minimum End condition effect is significant

For small flow For larger flows

End Conditions:
When the width of notch is less than the idth of the channel there will be lateral correction of the
napp.
B = B - 0.1 (n) H
Experiment shows that under these conditions the effect of each side condition is to reduce the
effective napp by 0.1H
Effective width = B= B 0.1 (n) H
n = No. of end contractions
For rectangular n=2 & for triangle n=1

Discharge through Rectangular Notch:

H = Head of liquid causing flow above the crest of notch.
Consider rectangular strip of fluid flowing in a notch of small width dh and at depth h w.r.t free
surface.
Width = B (for this case we use Effective width B)
Thickness = dh
 = .

= .

Integrating both sides of above equation

= .

After integration we will get Qth

Observations and Calculations:

No. of Volume time Qact = V \ t H B B Qth Cd

obs
m3 sec m3 \ s m m m m3 \ s

1 0.005 35.05 1.4265x10-4 0.018 0.036 0.0324 2.3105x10-4 0.61739

2 0.005 21.44 2.3320x10-4 0.024 0.036 0.0312 3.4255x10-4 0.68077

3 0.005 71.44 6.9988x10-5 0.009 0.036 0.0342 8.6227x10-5 0.81166

Mean 0.70327
 Graph Between Qth & H
0.0004

0.00035

0.0003

0.00025
Qth (m3\s)

0.0002

0.00015

0.0001

0.00005

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
H (m)

Graph between Qact & Qth

0.00025

0.0002
Q act (m3\s)

0.00015

0.0001

0.00005

0
0 0.00005 0.0001 0.00015 0.0002 0.00025 0.0003 0.00035 0.0004
Qth ( m3\ s)
 Graph between Qact & H
0.00025

0.0002
Qact------------> (m3 \ s)

0.00015

0.0001 Y-Values

0.00005

0
0 0.00005 0.0001 0.00015 0.0002
H ----------> ( m)

Comments:

As it can be seen from the observation the Cd are less than one much favorable as required there
may some error in the hydraulic bench that it did not measured the time accurately or personal
error while measuring the water head and width of the rectangular notch.
Experiment # 9

To determine the Hydraulic co-efficient of the given orifice

Objectives:
To find out the following perimeter experimentally
Co-efficient of velocity
Co-efficient of discharge
Co-efficient of contraction

Apparatus:
Hydraulic Bench
Orifice (dia. 5mm and 8mm)
Stop Watch
Measuring Scale
Hook gauge

Related Theory

Orifice:
It is an opening on vertical side or at the base of vessel used to measure the discharge through
container or vessel. In common practice orifice is used in vertical sides of container.
Types of Orifice:

W.r.t shape:
Circular Orifice: Orifice shape is of circular type.
Rectangular Orifice: Orifice shape is of rectangular type.
Square Orifice: Orifice shape is of square type.
Triangular Orifice: Orifice shape is of triangular type.

W.r.t nature:
Free or open or simple orifice: In which discharge is freely open to atmosphere.
Partially sub merged orifice: In which half of orifice is subjected to atmosphere
and other in liquid.
Fully submerged orifice: In which orifice discharge is fully submerged in water.

W.r.t edge or shape:

Bell mouth orifice: In which sides or opening of orifice is of conical shape.

Sharp edge orifice: In which edge are very sharp.

Jet of Water:
It is continuous stream of water flowing out of orifice.

Venacontracta:
It is section of jet of water at which streamlines becomes parallel. It is also known as minimum
section of water, normally it occurs at d/2 distance from the face of orifice.
Where d is the diameter of orifice. At venacontracta velocity is maximum, area is low and
diameter is minimum.
Co-Efficient of velocity:
It is the ratio of actual velocity of jet at venacontracta to the theoretical velocity. Its average value is
0.97. Mathematically, it is given as follows.

CV = Vact \ Vth

Co-efficient Of Contraction:
It is the ratio of area of jet at venacontracta and actual area of orifice. Its average value is 0.64
and is given as follows.

= =

Co-efficient Of Discharge:
It is the ratio of actual discharge and theoretical discharge through the orifice. Its average value
is in the range of 0.6 0.64. Mathematically, it is given as follows.

= \

Qth =

Experimental relation b/w Cc, Cd And Cv:

The relationship b/w Cc, Cd and Cv is given as follows.

Determination of co-efficient of velocity by experiment:

Cv may be found experimentally for an orifice by measuring horizontal and vertical distance.

= 0

X = X /
Consider a tank containing liquid and an orifice in one of its vertical side.
Let

H = Head causing flow

V = Horizontal velocity

Jet of liquid has a horizontal velocity V and it is acted upon by gravity with an acceleration g
consider a particle p in the jet if time taken by the particle to flow from section CC to point p then.

= .

=


= +


= +


=

CV = Vact \ Vth

=

 Observation and Calculation:

For 5mm diameter:

Cd
Vol t H X Y A X Y Vact Vth Qact Qth CV = = Cc =
Obs
Vact \ Qact Cd\
.
Vth \ CV
m3 sec m m m m2 m m m\s m\s m3 \s m3 \s Qth

1.93E 1.85E- 4.5E-

1 0.005 26.9 0.27 0.13 0.07 0.127 0.068 1.083 2.31 0.4 4.0 8.7
5 4 5

1.963 2.27E- 4.7E-

2 0.005 21.9 0.29 0.13 0.08 0.067 0.027 1.819 2.39 0.7 0.8 6.2
E5 4 5

Mean 0.5 2.4 7.4

For 8mm diameter:

CV Cd
Cc
Vol t H X Y A X Y Vact Vth Qact Qth = =
=
Obs. Vact Qact
Cd\
\ \
CV
m3 sec m m m m2 m m m\s m\s m3 \s m3 \s Vth Qth

2.1E- 1.2E-
1 0.005 23.8 0.29 0.13 0.07 5.026E5 0.127 0.06 1.07 2.23 0.4 1.7 3.5
4 4

2.3E- 2.5E-
2 0.005 21.06 0.254 0.13 0.08 5.026E5 0.067 0.02 1.67 5.08 0.3 0.9 2.8
4 4

Mean 0.3 1.3 3.1

Comments:
As it can be seen from the observations and calculations that the hydraulic coefficients for 5mm
diameter are bigger than that of 8mm diameter that is because the theoretical discharge
calculated for 8mm is bigger than those for 5mm this is for obvious reason that large area big
discharge .
Experiment # 10

To verify the Impulse Momentum Principle for a jet of water striking on

45o,90o and 120o deflectors and to investigate the effect of velocity of flow on
impulse force of the jet for various deflectors.

Apparatus:
Impact of Jet apparatus with deflectors(45o,60o,120o)
Hydraulic Bench
Stop Watch
Thermometer

Related Theory

Impulse Momentum Principle

According to impulse momentum principle, the algebraic sum of all the external forces acting on
the control volume of the fluid is equal to the rate of change of momentum.

According to the statement;

=

As we know
=
 ()
=

()
=

And we know that,

=

()
=

Here V \ dt is the discharge Q,

= ( )

And for vertical case,

= ( )

So,

Where k is the constant

Observations and Calculation

d(mm) A(mm2) T(C) Volume(m3) (kg\m3)

5 19.63495 23 0.005 1000

Deflector at 90 & K=1

No mass mass V Fexp t Q v=Q\A Fth Log(Fexp) Log(v) Log(Fth)
of
obs. gm kg m3 N sec m3\s m\s N

1. 100 0.1 0.005 0.981 37.13 0.000135 6.87 0.927 0.0083 0.8370 0.0329

2. 200 0.2 0.005 1.962 24.6 0.000203 9.92 1.934 0.2927 0.9965 0.2865

3. 300 0.3 0.005 2.943 20.15 0.000248 12.62 3.129 0.4688 1.1011 0.4954

Deflector at 45 & K=0.25

No mass mass V Fexp t Q v=Q\A Fth Log(Fexp) Log(v) Log(Fth)
of
obs. gm kg m3 N sec m3\s m\s N

1. 100 0.1 0.005 0.981 23.43 0.000213 10.85 0.67 0.0083 1.0354 0.1739

2. 200 0.2 0.005 1.962 17.61 0.000284 14.23 1.171 0.2927 1.1532 0.0686

3. 300 0.3 0.005 2.943 15.43 0.000324 16.54 1.55 0.4688 1.2185 0.19303

Deflector at 90 & K=1.5

No mass mass V Fexp t Q v=Q\A Fth Log(Fexp) Log(v) Log(Fth)
of
obs. gm kg m3 N sec m3\s m\s N

1. 100 0.1 0.005 0.981 37.05 0.000135 6.87 1.391 0.00083 0.8370 0.1433

2. 200 0.2 0.005 1.962 28.12 0.000178 9.05 2.41 0.2927 0.9566 0.3820
 Graph between Fth & Fexp ( 900& k=1)

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Graph between Log v & Fexp

( 900& k=1)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25

Graph between v & Fexp

( 900& k=1)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
 GGraph between Fth & Fexp
( 450& k=0.25)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

GGraph between log v & Fexp

( 450& k=0.25)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25

GGraph between v & Fexp

( 450& k=0.25)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
 Graph between Fth & Fexp
( 900& k=1.5)
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Grapg between Fexp & log v

( 900& k=1.5)
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98

Graph between Fexp & v

( 900& k=1.5)
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Comments:

Viewing the tables of observations and calculations it can be seen that the values of the velocity
for 450 deflector is greater than the 900 deflector and it showed different trends with the
experimental and theoretical forces as shown in the graph, there might be some changes from the
traditional values that because some personal error and instrumental error.

^______________________^