LOOP IMPEDANCES

In case of simplest early generation distance relays, setting impedance reaches were typically based on
positive sequence line impedance and an earth fault compensation factor. Settings were based on
maximum operation torque (the diameter of a circle giving highest reactance X when plotted on an R-X
plane). Adding blinders in R & X axis direction at defined angle was possible but were constrained by
additional components, size of the relaying scheme devices (a major factor for testing, component
failures, cost, speed & reliability).

In latter static versions, positive sequence line impedance and zero sequence line impedance are
required to be set. In these relays, static components were used and more reduction in size was made as
newer reliable electronic components started to be available. Relays were becoming modular giving end
user some flexibility at cost & complication. Testing was still a major concern as processing of relay was
dependent on analog values. These relays were getting obsolete due to technology.

After the Static versions, microprocessor based distance relays appeared but the processors were
getting outdated quickly at rapid rate. They managed to add lot of advanced protection features.

Finally, current versions are more flexible in setting the fault impedance reach. In Quadrilateral
Numerical distance protection there are quite large numbers of setting parameters for the impedance
reach of the relay. Different manufacturers, for their version of Numerical distance relays, implement
various algorithms and digital signal processing. Goal for them is to calculate the fault reach in quickest
possible time within required accuracy level (which depends on the cost limit as well as means they have
to acquire & process the analog inputs from CTs and VTs into workable fundamental frequency phasors).

However, every quadrilateral distance relay requires the end user of the relay to set the impedance
reach in terms of resistance and reactance. Due to differences in algorithm and calculation involved,
there is fundamental difference regarding the resistive reach setting.

Resistive reach has a component in the fault itself and hence require understanding the Loop value.

1. EARTH FAULT:
For an Earth Fault on T/L on a phase, the fault loop consist of three parts : First is the Line phase
conductor(s), second is the fault path itself and finally the return path from the fault location
back to the source side Neutral via the earth (Neutral is typically solidly earthed in case of HV &
EHV systems).

Line phase conductor(s): It is the faulted phase Conductor(s) which is carrying the faulted phase
current. For a straight forward simple case, it is just based on the impedance of the faulted
phase conductor(s) as in the case of a radial system [when the return fault current path(s) have
no/very weak electromagnetic induction effect on the current flowing in the phase conductor as
well as any other close-by T/L conductors running parallel to the faulted phase conductor(s)].
The current it carries is related to Ph-N Voltage available at the time of fault at the source side
where the neutral is earthed.

A phase is taken as faulted phase to match with academic studies (symmetrical component
analysis).

Javed Ahmed Rasheed Loop Impedances

 a) For a solid fault, with zero fault resistance (Rf = 0), faulted phase voltage (in this case Van) is
short circuited by the impedance of the line to fault, the fault Rf and return impedance to
the source neutral.

0 = (Van-I1 Z1) I2 Z2 I0 Z0 = V1 + V2 + V0

IA = 3I0 = Van/Zloop
Total Van/IA = Zloop = (Z1+Z2+Z0)/3
Defining K0 = (Z0-Z1)/(3Z1); Z0 = Z1(3K0+1)
Zloop = [Z1+Z1+{Z1(1+3K0)}]/3 = [2Z1+{Z1(1+3K0)}]/3 = [Z1{2+(1+3K0)}]/3 = Z1(1+K0) since Z1
= Z2

b) For a fault with Rf, faulted phase voltage (in this case Van) is short circuited by the
impedance of the line to fault, the fault Rf and return impedance to the source neutral.
(Note Zf has negligible Xf part and hence Zf = Rf can be assumed)

0 = (Van-I1 Z1) I2 Z2 I0 Z0 + 3Rf = V1 + V2 + V0

IA = 3I0 = Van/Zloop
Total Van/IA = Zloop = {(Z1+Z2+Z0)/3} + Rf
Defining K0 = (Z0-Z1)/(3Z1); Z0 = Z1(3K0+1)
Zloop = Rf + [Z1+Z1+{Z1(1+3K0)}]/3 = Rf + [2Z1+{Z1(1+3K0)}]/3 = Rf + [Z1{2+(1+3K0)}]/3 = Rf +
Z1(1+K0)

Javed Ahmed Rasheed Loop Impedances

 Here it may be incorrect to mention return path as per phase as it is unrelated with phase. But
for convenience Rf/3 may be considered as divided equally between +ve, -ve and zero sequence
impedances. In that sense for phase it may be called Rf/3 for simplicity and for the loop it is Rf.

2. For a 2-ph Fault on T/L, the fault loop consists of three parts: the Line two phase conductors,
the fault path itself.
[Here considered Ph BC fault again based on academic symmetrical calculations]

a) For a solid fault, with zero fault resistance (Rf = 0), faulted phase-phase voltage (in this case
Vbn & Vcn) is short circuited by the impedance of the line to fault, the fault Rf.

Zloop = Z1 + Z2 = 2Z1
I1 = V/(Z1+Z2) = -I2 = V/(2Z1)
Ibc = Vbc/(Z1+Z2) = Vbc/2Z1 = (3 Vph-N)/2Z1 = 0.866 {Vph-N/Z1}

From fundamentals, for a 3ph fault Iph = Vph-N/Z1 and makes 2ph fault current of about 0.866 of it.

b) For a fault with Rf, faulted phase-phase voltage (in this case Vbn & Vcn) is short circuited by
the impedance of the line to fault, the fault Rf.

Zloop = Z1 + Z2 + Rf = (2Z1+Rf)
I1 = V/(Z1+Z2+Rf) = -I2
Ibc = Vbc/(Z1+Z2+Rf) = Vbc/(2Z1+Rf)

Per phase it is (Z1+Rf/2)

Rf per loop is Rf/2 per phase.

Javed Ahmed Rasheed Loop Impedances