Manufacturing Processes 1

RWTH edition
RWTH Aachen
Fritz Klocke
Manufacturing Processes 1
Cutting
Translated by Aaron Kuchle
123
Professor Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. Fritz Klocke
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering
RWTH Aachen University
Steinbachstr. 19
52074 Aachen
Germany
f.klocke@wzl.rwth-aachen.de
Translated by
Aaron Kuchle
Yeungnam University
Korean Language Institute
214-1 Dae-dong Gyeongsan Gyeongbuk 712-749
Korea
aaronkuchle@yahoo.com
ISSN 1865-0899 e-ISSN 1865-0902

ISBN 978-3-642-11978-1 e-ISBN 978-3-642-11979-8
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11979-8
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011925556
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

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Preamble About Compendium Manufacturing
Processes
Key factors for quality and economic efficiency of industrial production are the
choice of the manufacturing processes and their design. Manufacturing Technology
is an elemental part of the fundamental knowledge of machining engineers. Also
design engineers have to gain knowledge in this field, since they have high respon-
sibility for the manufacturing costs. However, the students as well as practising
experts who are willing to enhance their knowledge have the problem to collect
information. To the current day there is no extensive, but still clear description of
manufacturing processes focussing on the technology itself.
In order to counter this necessity the compendium at hand is supposed to present
an overall picture of the most common machining and non-machining manufac-
turing processes. Additional to the description of the techniques these volumes are
desired to deliver an insight in the underlying physical principles whenever it is
necessary for the understanding of the processes.
The apportionment of the compendium Manufacturing Processes into
Volume 1: Cutting
Volume 2: Grinding, Honing, Lapping
Volume 3: Electrical Erosion and Hybride Processes
Volume 4: Forming
Volume 5: Casting, Sintering, Rapid Prototyping
groups techniques with similar active principles together.

In front of the first volume is placed a technique-spanning section to the toler-
ances and questions of the workpiece measuring techniques used in manufacturing.
Within the individual volumes was tried to avoid an encyclopaedic listing of the
techniques. The book series are primarily intended for junior scientists in the fields
of manufacturing technology and construction. In addition, the practitioner will be
able to refurbish or extend his knowledge. The variety of manufacturing problems
v
vi Preamble About Compendium Manufacturing Processes
is as large as the multiplicity of the products, and alone with text book wise sayings
manufacturing questions are not to be solved. We wish that this book offers starting
points and ways to its readers, on which they can come up with successful solutions
by engineering thinking.
Aachen, Germany Fritz Klocke

September 2010
Preamble for Volume 1 Cutting
The available volume treats machining with geometrically defined cutting edges.
It approaches both the practical engineer and the student of engineering sciences.
This book is based on the lecture Manufacturing Technologies I and II and the
pertinent exercises, which are held at RWTH Aachen University. The arrangement
of the book results from the experiences, which were gained when lecturing in the
chronology of the course.
The structure of the book is oriented to a large extent at didactical criteria. The
first section deals with the metrology and the workpiece quality, followed by a chap-
ter about the fundamentals of cutting. Based on the common technological principle
of the cutting processes and their variants, the second section deals with the mech-
anisms occurring at the cutting edge and the resulting loads on the tools. The next
section deals with the demands on the cutting materials as well as their manufac-
turing processes and application. The text presents topics like the use of the finite
element method for cutting processes as well as cutting fluids. A detailed chapter
about the machinability of the most important work piece materials, such as steel
and cast iron, light metal alloy and high temperature resistant materials imparts a
broad knowledge of the alternating coactions of work piece material, the cutting
material and the process parameters.
The necessity for process control, used sensor systems and application possi-
bilities are regarded. Due to the increasing relevance and application in industrial
manufacturing plants, monitoring systems are discussed in their own chapter.
Finally, the different cutting processes and their kinematic characteristics are
presented in detail.
For their cooperation with the compilation of the available edition I would
like to thank my co-workers, Dr.-Ing. M. Abouridouane, Dr.-Ing. K. Gerschwiler,
Dipl.-Ing. M. Arft, Dipl.-Ing. C. Essig, Dipl.-Ing. P. Frank, Dipl.-Ing. A. Krmer,
Dipl.-Ing. D. Lung, Dipl.-Ing. H. Sangermann, Dipl.-Ing. R. Schlosser, Dipl.-Ing.
vii
viii Preamble for Volume 1 Cutting
P. Vogtel, as well as Dipl.-Ing. S. E. Cordes, who was additionally responsible for

the coordination of the work on this book.
Further I would like to thank the many former co-workers, who participated in
the past German editions and now have leading positions in industry and research
companies.
Aachen, Germany Fritz Klocke

September 2010
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Metrology and Workpiece Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Manufacturing Disturbances and Manufacturing History . . . . 3
2.2 Measuring and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Macro- and Microgeometry of Components . . . . . . 10
2.3 Length Testing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 Material Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.3 Indicating Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Surface Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 Surface Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Subjective Surface Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.3 Surface Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Inspection of the Workpiece Rim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1 Surface Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.2 Inspection of the Surface Rim Zone . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Fundamentals of Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 The Cutting Part Concepts and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Reference Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Basic Process Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4 Chip Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.1 The Cutting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.2 Different Types of Chip Formation . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Kinematic Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6 Mechanical and Thermal Strain on the Cutting Section . . . . . 55
3.6.1 Influence of the Geometry of the Cutting Section . . . 68
3.7 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.7.1 Wear Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.7.2 Causes of Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.7.3 Forms and Dimensions of Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
ix
x Contents
3.8 Cutting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.8.1 Shear Plane Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.8.2 Application of Plasticity Theory to Cutting . . . . . . 92
4 Cutting Tool Materials and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1 Overview of Cutting Tool Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1.1 Classification of Hard Cutting Tool Materials . . . . . 97
4.2 Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.1 Cold Work Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.2 High Speed Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3 Cemented Carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.2 Cemented Carbide Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3.3 Components of Cemented Carbides and Their
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.4 Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.5 Classification of Cemented Carbides . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3.6 Uncoated Cemented Carbides and Cermets . . . . . . 123
4.3.7 Function Gradient Cemented Carbides . . . . . . . . . 123
4.3.8 Coated Cemented Carbides and Cermets . . . . . . . . 126
4.4 Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.1 Coating Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.4.2 Specific Properties of Hard Material Coatings . . . . . 149
4.4.3 Substrate Pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.5 Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.5.1 Cutting Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.5.2 Superhard Non-metallic Cutting Tool Materials . . . . 173
4.6 Tool Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.6.1 Solid Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.6.2 Tools with Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.7 Tool Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5 Finite Element Method (FEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.1 Basic Concepts of FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.2 Lagrangian and Eulerian Considerations of the Continuum . . . 199
5.3 Explicit and Implicit Methods of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.4 Combined Thermal and Mechanical FEA . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.5 Nonlinearities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.6 Material Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.7 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.8 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.9 Phases of a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.10 The Use of FEM in Cutting Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.10.1 Continuous Chip Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.10.2 Segmented Chip Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.10.3 Simulation of the Cutting Process . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Contents xi
6 Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

6.1 The Functions of Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.2 Types of Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.2.1 Non Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.2.2 Water-Based Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.3 Guidelines on the Use of Coolant Emulsions . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.4 Effects of the Cutting Fluid on the Machining Process . . . . . 223
6.5 Selection of Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.6 Reducing or Avoiding the Use of Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . 227
6.6.1 Reducing Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.6.2 Minimum Quantity Cooling Lubrication (MQCL) . . . 229
6.6.3 Avoiding Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7 Tool Life Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1 Determining Tool Life Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2 Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2.1 Tool Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.2.2 Resultant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.2.3 Surface Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.2.4 Chip Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.2.5 Cutting Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.3 The Machinability of Steel Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.3.1 Metallographic Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.3.2 Carbon Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.3.3 Alloying Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
7.3.4 Types of Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.4 Machinability of Various Steel Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.4.1 Machining Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.4.2 Case-Hardened Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.4.3 Heat-Treatable Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
7.4.4 Nitrided Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.4.5 Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.4.6 Hardened Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.4.7 Non-rusting Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.5 Machinability of Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.5.1 White Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.5.2 Grey Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.6 Machinability of Non-ferrous Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
7.6.1 Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
7.6.2 Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.6.3 Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.6.4 Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
7.6.5 Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.7 Machinability of Non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.7.1 Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.7.2 Fibre-Reinforced Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
xii Contents
8 Process Design and Process Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

8.1 Finding Economical Cutting Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.1.1 Cutting Parameter Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.1.2 Optimizing the Cutting Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 342
8.1.3 Calculating the Machine Hour-Rate . . . . . . . . . . 350
8.1.4 Planning Methods and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
8.2 Process Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
8.2.1 Sensors for Process Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.2.2 Signal Processing and Monitoring Strategies . . . . . 371
9 Processes with Rotational Primary Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.1 Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.1.1 Face Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.1.2 Cylindrical Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
9.1.3 Helical Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
9.1.4 Profile Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.1.5 Form Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
9.1.6 Further Process Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.2 Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.2.1 Process Variants, Specific Characteristics and Tools . . 395
9.3 Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.3.1 Profile Counterboring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.3.2 Rotary Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
9.4 Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
9.4.1 Bandsawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
9.4.2 Hacksawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
9.4.3 Circular Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
10 Processes with Translatory Primary Movement . . . . . . . . . . . 445
10.1 Broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
10.1.1 Face and Circular Broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
10.1.2 Profile Broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.1.3 Form Broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
10.2 Shaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
10.3 Planing and Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.3.1 Face Shaping and Face Planing . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
10.3.2 Gear Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.3.3 Gear Planing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Symbols and Abbreviations
Capital Letters
A mm2 Cross section

A % Stretch ratio
Ac1 Transformation temperature (Start of austenite formation)
Ac3 Transformation temperature (End of austenite formation)
A mm2 Flank face
A mm2 Minor flank face
A mm2 Rake face
A mm2 Shear face
AFK Aramid Faser reinforced plastics
AIP Arc Ion Plating
AV mm Offset
BAZ Machining center
Cf min Axis intercept of the expanded TAYLOR equation,
f = 1 mm
Cv min Axis intercept of the expanded TAYLOR equation,
vc = 1 m/min
CBN Cubic boron nitride
CFK Carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP)
CNC Computerised Numerical Control
CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition
CWT Continuous wavelet transform
D mm Tool diameter
DC Direct current
DLC Diamond-like carbon
DMS Strain gauge
DP Polycrystalline diamond
DWT Discrete wavelet transform
E Youngs modulus
EB-PVD Electron beam-PVD
xiii
xiv Symbols and Abbreviations
ECM Electro chemical machining

EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
F N Resultant force
Fa N Active force
Fc N Cutting force
FD N Thrust force
Ff N Feed force
Fp N Passive force
F N Shear force
FFT Fast Fourier transform
FVK Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)
GFK Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP)
H mm Stroke length
HB Brinell hardness
HC Diamond coated cemented carbide
HF Fine grain cemented carbide
HF-CVD Hot-Filament-Process-CVD
HM Cemented carbide
HRC Rockwell hardness
HSC High Speed Cutting
HSS High Speed Steel
HT-CVD High temperature-CVD
HV Vicker hardness
KA C Imputed amortizations
KE C Energy costs
KI C Maintenance costs
KF,min C/St. Minimal manufacturing costs per workpiece
KMH C/h Machine hour-rate
KML C Machine and labour cost hourly rate
KR C Room costs
KZ C Imputed interest
KB mm Crater width
KM mm Crater center distance
KSS Cutting fluid
KT mm Crater depth
L C/h Hourly wage
LARC Lateral Rotating Arc
MQCL Quantity Cooling Lubrication
MQC Minimum quantity cooling
MQS Minimum quantity lubrication
MQL Minimum quantity lubrication
MSIP Magnetron Sputter Ion Plating
MT-CVD Moderate Temperature-CVD
NC Numerical control
Symbols and Abbreviations xv
NE-Metalle Non-ferrous metals

PA-CVD Plasmaactivated-CVD
Pc W Cutting power
Pe W Effective power
Pf Assumed working plane
Pf W Feed power
Pn Tool cutting edge normal plane
Pne Effective cutting edge normal plane
Po Tool orthogonal plane
Pp Tool back plane
Pr Tool reference plane
Ps Cutting edge plane
PW W Effective power
PKD Polycrystalline diamond
PM Powder metallurgy
PM-HSS Powder Metallurgy High Speed Steel
PVD Physical Vapour Deposition
Q C Charge
R Electrical resistance
Ra m Average roughness
Re N/mm2 Elastic limit
REM Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Rkin m Surface quality
Rm N/mm2 Tensile strength
Rp0,2 N/mm2 0.2%yield strength
Rt m (Depth of) Surface roughness
Rz m Averaged surface roughness
RF Radio Frequency
S Major cutting edge
S Minor cutting edge
SKV m Rounded cutting edge
STFT Short-Time Fourier Analysis
SV mm Displacement of the cutting edge in the direction of
the flank face
SV mm Displacement of the cutting edge in the direction of
the rake face
T min Tool life
T C Temperature
Tm C Melting temperature
Tr C Room temperature
Tsp C Temperature on the chip upper side
U V Voltage
U0 V Feeding voltage
VB mm Width of flank wear land
xvi Symbols and Abbreviations
VBmax mm Maximal width of flank wear land

VHM Cemented Carbide
Wc J Cutting work
We J Effective work
Wf J Feed work
WZ-D mm Tool diameter
WSP Insert
Z Atomic number
ZTU Time Temperature Transformation (TTT)
Small Letters
ae mm Width of cut
ap mm Depth of cut
apmax mm Maximum depth of cut
apok mm Optimal-cost depth of cut
a-C Hydrogenfree amorphous carbon film
a-C:H Hydrogenated amorphous carbon film
at.-% Atomic ratio
B mm Width of undeformed chip
bf mm Width of chamfer
C m/min Speed of sound
cp Process capability index
cpk Rectified process capability index
dij pC/N Piezoelectric coefficient
dW/dt m/min Growth of wear
f mm Feed
fa mm Axial feed
fok mm Optimal-cost feed
fmax mm Maximal feed
fmin mm Minimal feed
fr mm Radial feed
fz mm Feed per tooth/cutting edge
f0 1/s Eigenfrequency
H mm Undeformed chip thickness
hch mm Chip thickness
hcu,max m Maximal chip thickness
hmin mm Minimal chip thickness
K Strain sensitivity
kc1.1 N/mm2 Specific cutting force, b = h = 1 mm
kf1.1 N/mm2 Specific feed force, b = h = 1 mm
ki N/mm2 Specific resultant force
kp1.1 N/mm2 Specific passive force, b = h = 1 mm
Symbols and Abbreviations xvii
lc m Cutting path
lf m Feed path
mc Exponent of the specific cutting force
mn mm Normal module
pKSS bar Cutting fluid pressure
r mm Corner radius
r mm Rounded cutting edge radius
sd Coating thickness
T mm Pitch
T s Time
te,min min Minimal time per unit
tg min Basic time
tv min Additional time
te min Time per unit
ter min Recovery time
th min Main process time
tn min Auxiliary process time
tr min Setting-up time
ta-C Tetrahedral hydrogenated amorphous carbon film
vc m/min Cutting velocity
vch m/min Chip velocity
vf m/min Feed velocity
vfax mm/min Axiale feed velocity
ve m/min Effective velocity
x mm Profile offset
z Number of teeth
Greek Letters
Tool clearance angle

eff Effective tool clearance angle
f First tool orthogonal clearance (Broaching)
F Clearance angle at the pitch diameter (Gear shaping)
o Tool clearance angle
oe Working clearance angle
Wedge angle
o Wedge angle
oe Working wedge angle
o Tool orthogonal rake angle
n Tool normal rake angle
ne Working rake angle
oe Wirk-Orthogonalspanwinkel
eff Effective rake angle
xviii Symbols and Abbreviations
Strain
Shear strain
s1 Shear strain speed
1/s Strain rate
k Critical strain
r Tool included angle
Effective cutting speed angle
C Temperature
r Tool cutting edge angle
re Working cutting edge angle
s Tool cutting edge inclination
se Working cutting edge inclination angle
Coefficient of friction
Phase
Shear angle
f Slide angle
Feed motion angle
kg/m3 Density
N/mm2 Stress
n N/mm2 Normal stress
rad/s Angular speed
Chapter 1
Introduction
From about 12,000 to 50,000 years ago, human beings could already adapt stone
tools with intentionally produced edges to specific machining tasks by varying the
geometry of the cutting edge, as is shown in early tool findings from the Palaeolithic
Age (Fig. 1.1).
The discovery of how to extract metals such as copper, tin and iron was a huge
milestone in the history of material and manufacturing technology. Since about
700 B.C., tools were almost exclusively made of iron. At the beginning of the 17th
century, constant improvements in iron smelting led to the preferred use of iron and
steel as construction materials instead of other metals known then and in place of
wood, which had predominated until then.
Inspired by the growth of the textile industry and the discovery of the steam
engine, there was increased exploration into manufacturing technology at the begin-
ning of the 19th century, leading by the second half of the 19th century to the
first systematic investigations into cutting methods and initiating a completely new
research area. At the end of the 19th century further research led to the discovery
of new cutting tool materials and, at the turn of the century, to the development of
high speed steel by F.W. TAYLOR, a significant contribution to the history of manu-
facturing technology [Tayl07]. In light of these developments, SCHLESINGER said:
The dividends may lie on the cutting edge of steel, but the speed of these cutting
edges is a function of the machine moving them, so as wages increase, the cutting
machine is a trump card. [Schl11].
Subsequent research followed in this direction, leading to the development of
cemented carbide in 1923 by SCHRTER [Schr23, DRP25] at the SOCIETY FOR
ELECTRIC LIGHTING as well as its use in machining by FRIEDR. K RUPP AG as
WIDIA cemented carbide. Following this was the invention of oxide-ceramic cutting
tool materials and their application in cutting after 1938 by OSENBERG as well
as WENTORFs development and synthesis of the superhard cutting tool material
cBN (cubic-crystalline boron nitride) in 1956 [Went57]. The refinement of cutting
tools with wear-resistant cemented carbide coats starting in 1968 by the companies
Sandvik Coromant and Friedr. Krupp AG was a major contribution to improving
productivity and economy [Sche88].
In order to fulfill the constantly increasing requirements made on workpiece
quality and to make machining processes more economical, all the influencing
F. Klocke, Manufacturing Processes 1, RWTH edition, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11979-8_1, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
2 1 Introduction
Drill
Saw End scraper

Gravettian point Notched point
Double tines Round scraper Side scraper Stemmed-base

hafted scraper
Fig. 1.1 Flint tools, acc. to KERNDL [Kern72]
parameters relevant for productivity and workpiece quality must be considered:

cutting edge geometry, process kinematics, cutting parameters, materials, cutting
tool materials and their coatings, wear behaviour as well as auxiliary materials. In
this pursuit, the following quotation by SCHLESINGER can act as a guideline: The
machine tool must be designed with a view to the place it is used.
As an introduction to the subject matter, the compendium will be preceded by a
general chapter providing a survey of the most important attributes of workpieces
and their test methods.
Chapter 2
Metrology and Workpiece Quality
2.1 Manufacturing Disturbances and Manufacturing History

The basic task of manufacturing is to provide workpieces with specified quality
characteristics in the required quantity in the most time- and cost-efficient way
possible. Every manufacturing process is affected by variable disturbances, which
can be both external and internal (occurring within the process itself). For this rea-
son, the functionally determinative properties of the components are provided with
tolerances. If a characteristic value lies outside of the permissible tolerance, it is
defective. Thus important functional characteristics must be tested either already
during manufacturing or at the end of manufacturing. Important disturbance factors
which must be taken into consideration as possible causes of defects are: distur-
bances caused by static forces, such as deflections effected by the workpiece weight
or clamping errors; disturbances caused by dynamic forces which lead to either
self-starting or forced oscillations; disturbances caused by thermal influences, such
as process heat or internal sources of heat in the machine tool; and disturbances
caused by tool wear (Fig. 2.1). This group also includes disturbances resulting from
the engagement kinematics between the tool and the workpiece, such as generated
cut deviations occurring during hobbing or diffraction effects on optical surfaces
caused by systematically applied tool marks.
Functionally determinative quality characteristics can be defined through macro-
geometrical properties. Macro-geometrical properties include, for example, the
accuracy of dimension, form and position of geometrical elements. Micro-
geometrical parameters include, for example, characteristic surface values, such
as roughness, mean roughness value and polishing depth. However, the functional
integrity of the process requires that certain properties are tolerated although they
lie below the surface in the peripheral surface zone. These may include hardness
values, residual stresses or certain structural properties.
The fluctuations of characteristics occurring in every manufacturing process can
basically be derived from the influence of either systematically or randomly occur-
ring disturbances. Systematic errors are caused by the system. They are reproducible
under identical boundary conditions and change the characteristic in a single direc-
tion; they cause manufacturing trends. Systematically acting disturbances cause
deviations in characteristics. If the causes of systematic errors are known, they can

4 2 Metrology and Workpiece Quality
Statical disturbances Thermal disturbances

Clamping fault Internal heat sources
Deflection Strain
Process heat
Environmental effect

Prozess
Dynamic disturbances Tool wear

Self-starting oscillation Displacement of cutting edge
Forced oscillation Flank wear
e.g. triggered over basement Flank roughness

Grinding wheel wear

Fig. 2.1 Variable disturbances in manufacturing
be corrected and compensated. Examples of systematic errors are geometric errors

of machine guiding elements and the development of cutting edge offset through
the continuous wear of turning tools used in turning processes. Changes of the cut-
ting force caused by sudden cutting depth fluctuations and the workpiece deflections
associated with them may also be of systematic nature (Fig. 2.2).
Randomly occurring disturbances lead to changes to characteristics, the effects
of which cannot be predicted in a strictly deterministic way. They influence the
result in both a positive and a negative direction. Thereby, the work result becomes
unstable. The influence of random disturbances on the work result can, however,
be statistically recorded. Examples of this include fluctuations in the structure of a
material, random temperature fluctuations or sudden self-starting oscillations (rat-
tling oscillations). Within real processes, it is not always easy to clearly decide
between systematic and random influences.
An important parameter describing the effect of random disturbances on a quality
characteristic (i.e. on the variation of a quality characteristic) is process capability
or the process capability index (Fig. 2.3).
These process capability indices can only be applied if the variation of the
characteristics are normally distributed. In practice, it is frequently required that
cp 1.33. The process capability index is always taken as the dominant process
2.1 Manufacturing Disturbances and Manufacturing History 5
Nominal diameter
Feed direction
Dimensional error Passive force FP / N
1000
800
600
400
200
Cutting path
10
/ m
0
Cutting path
Workpiece material Ck55 N Cutting part geometry:
Cutting tool material HW P10 0 = 6 r = 70
Cutting speed vc = 160 m/min 0 = 5 r = 90
Feed f = 0.25 mm lS = 0 r = 0.8 mm
Fig. 2.2 Influence of passive force on dimensional accuracy
design criterion when large numbers of pieces must be manufactured with the high-
est possible level of productivity. Variation in manufacturing batches occur, when
it can not be guaranteed that all active elements work securely during the process
being at its performance limits. If, for example, cutting edges are randomly failed
during a cutting process because of cutting edge fractures or layer failures, this
can have an immediate, significant on the process capability. Another example of
critical process conditions is when the quantities of heat entering the workpiece
at high process performances cause thermal strain to induce an increased variation
of geometrical characteristics. These examples reveal that measuring and testing
procedures in manufacturing are necessary both to guarantee the quality of the
manufactured part and to start and develop processes.
In general, several manufacturing steps are necessary to manufacture a part.
Manufacturing progresses result from a manufacturing chain or a manufacturing
sequence. With every manufacturing step, characteristic changes (geometry, surface,
peripheral surface zone) are left behind on the part. Thus a manufacturing history
develops (Fig. 2.4). The output properties of the part following a certain manufac-
turing step in turn become the input factors for the processing steps which follow.
There can also be a significant interaction between the current step in the process
and previous changes.
UTL 20 _
s 3s^
NV 15 _ _ _ _
x x x _ x
10 x - LTL
LTL
cp = 0,71 cp = 2,50 cp = 1,67 cp = 5,00

cpk = 0,71 cpk = 1,00 cpk = 1,33 cpk = 5,00
Process capability indices
Tolerance band UTL - LTL T

cp = = = _
Process spread 2 ( 3^ ) 6s
_
Minimum proximity to process limit |x - NV|min
cpk = =
Half process spread 3 ^
_
x : Mean value of the random sample UTL: Upper tolerance limit
^ : Estimation of the spread of the totality
LTL: Lower tolerance limit
_
s : Mean deviation of the random sample NV: Nominal Value
Fig. 2.3 Process capability indices
Lu Lu
Enveloping cut Lu Lu
Anisotropism Texture Geometry
Ll deviation Ll Ll
Ll
Forging, Turning Hard

cold Hardening Assembling
milling machining
extrusion
k1a c1a k2b c2b knx cnX
Machining Machining Grinding

center center machine tool
Lu,l Upper and k, c Damping and

lower limit stiffness
Fig. 2.4 Manufacturing history (Source: Getrag Ford)

2.1 Manufacturing Disturbances and Manufacturing History 7
Manufacturing process: Primary shaping, machining

Manufacturing dispersion: Affected by residual stress, chucking
0.01
0.008
Requested cpk = 1.67
Box part: Automobile-gearbox made of Mg-alloy

AZ 91hp
Standard tolerance IT 4
Fig. 2.5 Representative case study box part
The hole in a transmission part shown in Fig. 2.5 could not be manufactured in
a procedurally secure way with the required process capability index and specified.
There can also be a significant interaction between the current step in the process
and previous changes. The hole in a transmission part shown in Fig. 2.5 could not
Manufacturing process: Forming, 5-axis-milling
Manufacturing dispersion: Process instability, chatter marks, long

and slander tools
Work piece:
Blisk
(Blade integrated Disk)
made of TiAl6V4
Tool:
End milling cutter
(D = 8 mm)
Depth of cut /mm
stabil
instabil
stability bound
Source: MTU
Speed / min1
Fig. 2.6 Stability bounds when milling a BLISK

Manufacturing process: Forming, turning, drilling, broaching

Manufacturing dispersion: Process anomaly,
tool life decrease of the part
Source: Rolls-Royce
50 m
Without anomaly
Smeared material
Ktxappl. / MPa
Low thermal influencing

High thermal influencing
Work piece: Turbine disk

made of
Inconel718
Tool: VHM-drill
1000 10000 100000 1000000 (D = 8 mm)
Numbers of change of load
Fig. 2.7 Surface damages when drilling with a worn drill
be manufactured in a procedurally secure way with the required process capability

index and the demanded productivity. This is due to released residual stresses which
arised in the previous die-casting process.
Figure 2.6 shows a part manufactured by milling with long, slender end mills.
The milling process is only stable for certain combinations for cutting speed
and depth of cut. When these areas are exceeded, rattling oscillations occur. These
characteristic stability areas must be known; otherwise the process cannot be carried
out at the performance limit.
However, not only impermissible macro-geometrically or micro-geometrically
recognizable changes may limit the process, but also impermissible changes in the
peripheral surface zone. Figure 2.7 shows a turbine disk which was exposed to
high mechanical and thermal stresses caused by machining the drill holes. These
stresses damaged the peripheral surface zone in a way that significantly diminished
the fatigue strength of the part.
2.2 Measuring and Testing

Quality characteristics must be tested during the manufacturing due to the boundary
manufacturing conditions mentioned above. This can be done by means either of
samples or of a 100% test. A 100% characteristic check is prescribed for many
safety-related parts. Though, a 100% test does not assure freedom of errors.
2.2 Measuring and Testing 9
Testing means determining whether the test sample exhibits the required char-
acteristics, such as dimension, form and surface quality. This determination can be
made in different ways, thus the distinction between subjective testing and objective
testing.
Subjective testing is performed by means of the sensory perception of the tester,
e.g. visual and tactile tests. Examples of this are the evaluation of burr formations
on the edges of parts and of shadings on polished surfaces.
In objective testing, the tester is supported by testing equipment. There are two
further methods which fall under this category; measuring and gauging.
Measurement is the comparison of a characteristic with a measurement standard.
The result is a measured value. Gauging is the comparison of the test object with
a dimension or a form. The result is information regarding whether the specified
requirements were satisfied or not (go or not-go).
Testing equipment is subdivided into measuring instruments, gauges and aids.
Measuring instruments and gauges are distinguished by material measures cor-
responding to the measurand. Material measures can be of mechanical, electric,
optical and electronic nature. Mechanical material measures may be, for example,
distances between surfaces or angular positions of surfaces. Indicating measuring
instruments have movable markers, divisions or counters. When using these devices,
the measured value reading can be either direct analogue or digital. In contrast to
this, the gauge body corresponds merely to the dimension or the dimension and form
of the required characteristic. Intermediate values cannot be defined.
Table 2.1 provides a survey of the attainable accuracy values when using different
manufacturing processes.
Table 2.1 Survey of manufacturing qualities

Standard tolerance IT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Primary shaping
Die forming (warm)
Extrusion (cold)
Deep drawing
Turning
Drilling
Reaming
Milling
Grinding
Erosion
2.2.1 Measurement Errors

As a matter of principle, every measurement result is subject to error. Possible
reasons for measurement errors are shown in the ISHIKAWA diagram in Fig. 2.8.
The causes of measurement errors may lie in the measuring method, the measuring
Measuring method Preparation Environment

Temperature
Preliminary Air pressure
Unconsidered arrangements Humidity
disturbances Cleanliness Vibration
Aptitude Protocol Extraneous light
Abb principle error Calibration Interference field
Measurement
error
Aim of the Measuring forces Evaluation

measurement Aptitude Routine
Testing Assembling Visual acuity
deviation Measuring uncertainty Aptitude
Attention
Mistake
Measured object Measuring device Measuring person
Fig. 2.8 Causes for measuring errors by the measuring procedure
instrument, the measured object, the person measuring, the preparation involved and
the environment.
In order to achieve a high measurement accuracy, it is necessary to take the
abovementioned influences into consideration and, where applicable, to minimize
them, compensate them, or at least to estimate them in terms of their magnitude.
It can principally be distinguished between systematic and random disturbances in
measurement procedures, as well [DIN1319a].
2.2.2 Macro- and Microgeometry of Components

2.2.2.1 Structural Deviations
With regards to components, the distinction is often made between macro-
geometrical parameters and the surface quality. Macro-geometrical parameters refer
to deviations of dimension, form and position. The surface quality is defined by
roughness parameters. The transitions between these categories are not always
clearly definable. DIN 4760 offers a general system for organizing structural devi-
ations (Fig. 2.9). Therefore it is necessary to define the term surfaces at the
beginning. The real surface (primary surface; see DIN EN ISO 4287) is the sur-
face actually present on the part. The actual surface is the metrologically registered
surface. It may differ from the real surface, since every measuring method can only
approximate the real surface. A geometrically ideal surface is assumed in designs
2.2 Measuring and Testing 11
Structural deviations
(in superelevated representation)
1st Order: form deviations
2nd Order: waviness
3rd Order: grooves (roughness)
4th Order: scores, scales (roughness)
Not easily representable 5th Order: textural structure

6th Order: lattice structures of the material
Superposition of structural deviations
1st up to 4th Order
Fig. 2.9 Structural deviations, acc. to DIN 4760
and forms the basis of tolerances. In Fig. 2.9 six orders of structural deviations are
defined on the basis of these observations.
Structural deviations of the 1st order (see also the following sections) are fre-
quently the result of systematic errors. With regards to waviness, i.e. the structural
deviations of the 2nd order, one cannot clearly define whether they are caused by
systematic or random influences. The unbalance of a rotating tool and any peri-
odical oscillations caused by it are forced, while sudden rattling oscillations are
self-starting. In general, fundamentally different actions must be implemented in
order to exclude any systematic or random causes of error. Structural deviations
of the 3rd order also occur regularly. They are to be attributed to the penetration
between tool and workpiece and are often determined by means of penetration
calculations. Examples of these are kinematic roughness associated with turning,
surface marks created in peripheral milling and generated cut deviations created
in hobbing. In such cases, the structural deviations can be influenced in a targeted
way by means of generation kinematics and tool design. The higher orders of struc-
tural deviation are primarily random in their occurrence. Examples of structural
deviations of the 4th order include chip formation processes and removal processes.
Roughness of the 5th order is rendered visible by structural properties on the surface.
This can play a significant role in the high-precision machining of metallic optical
mirrors. Thus in high-precision turning of multicrystalline metals, grain boundaries
may become visible because the individual crystals exhibit varying orientations and
therefore varying stiffnesses. In this case, anisotropism of the grains becomes visible
on the surface.
In general, all the structural deviations on a real surface are superposed. Filters
are employed to separate roughness and waviness in a measurement process [DIN
EN ISO 4287]. The following sections will treat macrogeometrical deviations of
structure, form and position, as well as the corresponding measurement technology.
Section 2.4 and the following sections describe the metrological recording of higher-
order structural deviations.
2.2.2.2 Form Deviations

Form deviations refer to deviations from a specified ideal geometrical property,
such as straightness, evenness, roundness or cylindric form [DIN EN ISO1101,
VDI2601].
The following will introduce some examples of form errors and their causes
(Fig. 2.10).
A cause for deviations from the cylindric form of a workpiece can be the incorrect
alignment of the workpiece on the machine tool with respect to the tool.
Another cause for form deviations is the continuous alteration over time of the
tool geometry caused by wear.
Thermal displacements of the workpieces, tools and machine tools can also lead
to form deviations.
Deviations from cylinder form can also arise when the workpiece deflects
because of a radial strain. This can happen, for example, e.g. when turning long,
slender parts when the workpiece is not supported.
Roundness errors can develop through the incorrect clamping of the workpieces
on the machine tool.
2.2.2.3 Position Deviations

Position deviations are deviations of the position of a geometrical element with
respect to a reference, such as an edge, circulation line or axis of the predetermined
position. In general, the position of two surfaces or axes in relation to each other is
indicated by simple length or angle specifications.
Fig. 2.10 Deviations from

circularity and cylinder form
2.3 Length Testing Devices 13
Fig. 2.11 Deviations from

concentricity, straightness
and parallelism
Position deviations as shown in Fig. 2.11 may arise, for example, through
incorrect clamping or defective clamping devices.
2.3 Length Testing Devices
2.3.1 Material Measures

A material measure in length measurement technology represents lengths or angles
by means of fixed distances or angles between surfaces or lines. Setting standards
are material measures. The material measures used most frequently are gauges.
The most important and most precise material measures in length measurement
technology are parallel gauge blocks. They consist of two plane-parallel measuring
surfaces made of hardened steel or cemented carbide. Parallel gauge blocks are used
in prismatic and cylindric forms. Gauge blocks are composed of grades. A standard
set contains 5 grades each containing 9 blocks, from which almost any dimensions
can be assembled (see Fig. 2.12). The measuring surfaces are superfinished and even
enough to allow, after careful cleaning of the measuring surfaces, individual gauge
blocks to be joined together so that they adhere.
Fig. 2.12 Gauge blocks (Source: Mahr)
2.3.2 Gauges
A gauge measures dimensions or forms generally according to limit dimensions
[DIN2257]. It can be distinguished between inspection gauges, limit gauges and
form gauges (Fig. 2.13).
Go
Gu
21,5
Fig. 2.13 Types of gauges: inspection gauges, form gauges, limit gauges
Not go side Not go side Not go side Not go side
Go side
Go side Go side
Go
side
Drill hole Shaft Square profile Multitooth profile
Fig. 2.14 Different types of limit gauges
Inspection gauges are parts of a gauge set for which the measure is assembled
from the combination of gauges. Examples are the combination of parallel gauge
blocks and the setting of feeler gauges.
Form gauges allow for the testing of profiles using the light-slit method. They
include angles, radius gauges and thread gauges.
Limit gauges function according to Taylors principle: The go gauge must be
designed in such a way that the dimension and form of the workpiece can be
inspected when combined with the gauge. Not-go gauges are only used to inspect
single dimensions.
Limit gauges used most frequently are calliper gauges, limit plug gauges, gaug-
ing rings and thread gauges (Fig. 2.14). Gauges are the simplest testing equipment
used in industrial manufacturing.
2.3.3 Indicating Measuring Instruments

Indicating measuring instruments consist of a material measure and a display mech-
anism. The indicating range is the range of measured values that can be displayed
on a measuring instrument. The measuring range is the part of the indicating range
for which display deviations lie within specified or agreed limits. The suppression
range of a measuring instrument is the range which must be exceeded in order that
the instrument can begin to display values. The hysteresis of a measuring instrument
equals the difference of the display values determined by measuring from different
directions. The hysteresis of a measuring instrument is often not constant, which
means that only a certain lower limit is indicated. The reversal error is principally
a systematic error. It can be compensated. The sensitivity of a measuring instru-
ment is the ratio of an observable change on the measuring instrument display to the
causative parameter. Using length measuring instruments, the sensitivity is defined
as the ratio of the range of the indicating element (e.g. the indicator) and the range
of the measuring element (e.g. the spindle or measuring arm). Conversion between
the measurement range and the display may be based on different physical prin-
ciples. The most frequently used conversion elements are mechanical, electrical,
pneumatic, optical and electronic conversion elements.
2.3.3.1 Instruments with Mechanical Converters

Instruments with mechanical converters utilize mechanical or optical indicating
elements. In length measurement technology, the most often used measuring instru-
ments function on the basis of mechanical converters, e.g. threads, racks, gearwheels
and blade segments (Fig. 2.15).
With mechanical callipers with sliding glideways as the conversion element, the
material measure is mounted on the bar on which the display, i.e. the slider, is
moved. Mechanical callipers have two different scales which can be read off against
each other by the observer. The scale on the slider is called a vernier (Fig. 2.15).
In the case of micrometers, highly precise threads are used as converters and as
a material measure. The system comprises a measuring spindle running in a sleeve,
whose forward face is designed as the measuring surface and whose back end car-
ries a ground thread as material measure. Typical thread pitches are 0.5 and 1 mm.
As seen with callipers, two different scales are read off against each other. One scale
is mounted on the sleeve, the other on the scale drum. In order to avoid influencing
Fixed measuring jaw
Measuring
ambos
Moveable
measuring jaw
Vernier Scale sleeve
Thimble
Clamp
Measuring
spindle
Bar Coupler
Linear scale
Fig. 2.15 Setup of callipers and micrometers

Prestressed
spring
Rack
Arm with
blade
Pinion segment
Plug gauge
Fig. 2.16 Setup of dial gauges and dial comparator
the measurements through large fluctuations in the measuring force, the latter is lim-
ited to 510 N by means of a coupler (ratchet coupling). Micrometers are designed
both as outside micrometers for external dimensions and as inside micrometers for
internal dimensions (Fig. 2.15).
Dial gauges are length measuring instruments equipped with racks and gear-
wheels as conversion elements which allow a larger view of the path of the plug
gauge. The material measure lies in the gear mechanism, the conversion element
which leads to measurement reversal errors due to anisotropic friction and potential
tolerance. Needle positions greater than 360 are possible (Fig. 2.16).
Dial comparators are the most precise mechanical length measuring instruments.
They are equipped, unlike dial gauges, with a gear mechanism as lever arm system,
gear segment and pinion as conversion elements. Thereby, the movement of the plug
gauge is transmitted to the needle. The design only allows needle positions smaller
than 360 (Fig. 2.16).
In principle, all the instruments with mechanical conversion elements described
here can be equipped with frictionless optical indicator elements in order to improve
precision. Given constant conversion behaviour, the more precise indications the
measuring instrument should display, the longer the indicator must be. However,
since there is only a limited amount of space in the instruments and, above all,
since the inertia of the indicator can lead to distorted measurement results when the
measurement range is small, optical indicator elements are used. The principle is
basically this: a beam of light is directed to the material measure and, according to
the position of the material measure, this beam is reflected in a different direction.
The optical indicator then displays the measurement range of the material measure
without friction and inertia.
Further potential for increasing precision can be exploited by means of a fine
graduation of the scale which can no longer be observed with the naked eye, thus
necessitating optical magnifying aids in the form of microscopes. By means of the
microscope, a mechanism consisting of an objective and an ocular, a magnifica-
tion of a real image by the objective can be viewed with the ocular. In this way, a
remagnified virtual image of the object is created. The total magnification through
a microscope is the product of the objective and ocular magnifications. The scale
graduation can be applied in the ocular directly or by means of an ocular plate.
Microscopes including measuring oculars are called measuring microscopes.
2.3.3.2 Instruments with Electrical Converters

These instruments are used to determine changes in the measurand caused by alter-
ations of electrical properties, such as resistance, inductance and capacity. The turns
of a coil, the distance between plates of a condensator and the resistance of an
electrical conductor can all serve as material measure. Inductance, for example, is
altered by changing the immersion depth of an iron core; the capacity of a plate
capacitor is a function of the plate distance (Fig. 2.17).
Position encoder
Sensor
Output to
measuring
amplifier
Position encoder
L1 R4
L2 R3
UA
UB
UA = Bridge-output voltage C=
o r A
UB = Bridge-supply voltage d
C = Capacity
s = Measurement range
UA
o = Electric constant =C s
UB
r = Dielectric constant
A = Surface area
d = Distance
Fig. 2.17 Capacitive and inductive measuring principles

Inductive position encoder
Fig. 2.18 Inductive working sensor in real execution
An alteration of the ohmic resistance can be effected by changing the conductor

length and/or by a cross-sectional variation [Hoff04, Grot05]. Figure 2.18 shows a
real execution for multi-point measuring with inductive working sensors.
2.3.3.3 Instruments with Optical Converters

These length measuring instruments exploit the wave property of light. The wave-
length of light is used as the material measure. Figure 2.19 shows the functional
principle of a laser interferometer.
Wedge prism
of the reference beam
Reference path
Displacement
Measuring path
Laser
Mirror
Wedge prism of
Interference of Polarizing the measuring
measuring und beam splitter beam
reference beam
Detector
Fig. 2.19 Longimetry with laser interferometer

1 3
3
Ampl.
Ampl.
Ampl.
2 Time
Time 2 Time
3 2 l
Light mixture of different Monochromatic and
wavelengths Monochromatic light coherent light
const. 0 = const. 0 = const. = 0

Ampl.
Ampl.
: Wavelength
Time Time : Phase difference
Interference of two coherent Interference of two coherent

light waves with the same light waves out of phase
phase length (destructive interference)
(Addition of illuminance)
Fig. 2.20 Optical measuring principle, interference
A light source emits coherent, monochromatic light whose beam is split into a
reference beam and a measuring beam at a polarizing beam splitter. These beams are
reflected on a respective wedge prism and combined again through superposition.
Finally, the combined beam is detected and evaluated. If the wedge prism of the
measuring beam is shifted, interferences occur because of the difference of the opti-
cal paths of the two partial beams after combining them. These are fluctuations in
light intensity via eliminating and amplifying light. Integral multiples of the wave-
lengths lead to an amplification, phase differences of 180 degrees to an elimination
of light (Fig. 2.20).
The number of interference lines is directly related to the path being measured.
Since the wavelength of the light is a function of temperature and also air pressure
and humidity, these influences are compensated within the device. The advantages
of such systems lie in their large measuring range and especially in their contactless
measurements.
2.3.3.4 Instruments with Pneumatic Converters

These instruments use pressure and flow rates as material measures (Figs. 2.21
and 2.22).
This measuring principle can be used for both tactile and contactless measure-
ment (Fig. 2.22).
There are two types of such measuring instruments: high-pressure and low-
pressure instruments. High-pressure instruments work with an operating pressure
greater than 0.5 bar, low-pressure instruments with an operating pressure lower than
Volume measuring
method
1. Air filter 3
1 2
2. Pressure control
3. Flowmeter 4
4. Measuring nozzle s
Velocity measuring
2
method 1
1. Air filter 3 4
2. Pressure control
3. Venturi-nozzle
4. Flow of valve
5. Measuring nozzle h
5
6. Differential pressure 6
s
manometer
Fig. 2.21 Measuring principle of pneumatic distance measurement
Air inlet
Valve
Guide body
Measuring
nozzles
Follower Drill hole
Work piece
Tactile measurement Contactless measurement
Fig. 2.22 Pneumatic sensor
0.1 bar. The pressure range between 0.1 and 0.5 bar is outside the operating range
of the instrument [DIN2271a].
Figure 2.23 shows the functional principle of contactless pneumatic measure-
ment. The left side shows an external measurement, the right side an internal
measurement. If the measuring rod is designed in a way that both measuring nozzles
2.4 Surface Inspection 21
ps
Measuring
dm nozzle
pa pa
h Test sample
Annulus Work piece surface Measuring

nozzle
Fig. 2.23 Functional principles and examples for pneumatic measurement
work within the linear range of the characteristic diagram, then an exact centring in
the hole is unnecessary, since the air currents of the two nozzles are added and the
sum represent the measure for the total gap width. Since the type of hole measure-
ment described is a two-point measurement, deviations from hole roundness and
diameter can be determined by turning the rod or the workpiece.
The measuring rods are often specially adjusted to the measurement of a spe-
cific workpiece. Therefore, for economical reasons, pneumatic measurement is used
predominately in serial production, especially if a 100% test is required.
The advantages of contactless pneumatic measurement lie in the self-cleansing
effect of the measuring device (i.e. the workpieces do not generally have to be
cleansed of oil, dirt or micro-chips) and in the quickness of the measuring process.
2.3.3.5 Electronic Measuring Instruments

These devices work with photoelectric sensors, by which light-dark fields of a gauge
are converted into electric signals. The material measure is realised through the
light-dark fields. Impulse gauges and code gauges are preferably used as path mea-
surement systems. To be precise, it is a mechanical guidance system whose positions
are detected and indicated optoelectronically. This path measurement system is also
executed with callipers, dial gauges and dial comparators. It is also realized in
coordinate measuring devices and machine tools. To control measuring axes and
to evaluate data, an exact control system and effective software are required which
can influence the quality of the measuring result and the applicability of the data
[Pfei01]. The measurement of freeform surfaces and tooth-flank topographies on
spur gears and bevel gears with coordinate measuring devices is currently state of
the art (Fig. 2.24).
2.4 Surface Inspection

The task of characterizing a technical surface consists in attaining a complete
topological record of its three-dimensional geometry and describing it. Often, in
order to simplify the measuring process, only parameters for surface roughness
along a single measured length are registered (one-dimensional parameters). This
Fig. 2.24 3-D coordinate measuring machines
procedure is frequently followed in practice and is sufficient in many cases. For cer-
tain applications, e.g. in optics or for characterizing grinding wheel surfaces, more
comprehensive, multi-dimensional surface descriptions must be used. However, the
following will exclusively treat one-dimensional parameters.
2.4.1 Surface Parameters

In most of the procedures used in industrial surface inspection technology, only
structural deviations of the second or higher orders are analyzed and measured on
surface sections. These sections must be statistically representative for the entire
surface [DIN2257]. The surface can be detected by means of surface sections or
the bearing surface (Fig. 2.25) [DIN4760]. Profile sections are sections which are
oriented to the surface normally, tangentially or at other angles.
First, a profile section will be used to illustrate some of the basic terms of surface
inspection technology (Fig. 2.26). With respect to a profile, the distinction is made
between the test length Lt of the surface section being metrologically detected and
Profile
Profile Tangential cross section
Vertical cross sections Diagonal cross Cross section parallel to

section the tangential cross section
Fig. 2.25 Registration of structural deviations by surface cuts

Z (x) L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Zp6
Zp1
x Ra
Zt1
Zv1
Zv2
Measured length L
Fig. 2.26 Fundamental terms of surface inspection technology
the measured length L, which is used for evaluation (L < Lt ) [Grot05]. The detected
profile (actual profile) of a surface depends on the measuring procedure and the filter
used, thus it only represents an approximate image of the actual surface. The refer-
ence profile shifted within the measured length perpendicularly to the geometrically
ideal profile is defined as the middle profile. This is oriented in such a way that the
surface areas above and below the middle profile line are equally large (Fig. 2.26).
By using different measuring procedures and depending on which filter is used,
different profiles can be determined [DIN EN ISO 4287]. These are the P-Profile
(primary profile), the R-Profile (roughness profile) and the W-Profile (waviness
profile) (Fig. 2.27).
Manufacturing technology: Short-stroke honing Scanning system: HAT 25/6

Average roughness: Ra = 0.75 Scanning path: 10 mm
P-Profile (waviness and roughness)

Without wave filter
1 1m
m
250 m
250 m W-Profil (Welligkeit)
W-Profile (waviness)
Low-pass filter
11m
m
250 m
Cutoff wavelength: == 0,75
Grenzwellenlnge: 0,75 mm
mm
250 m (Rauheit)
R-Profil(roughness)
R-Profile
High-pass filter
1 1m
m
250 m
250 m
Fig. 2.27 Separation of waviness and roughness by wave filter

The examples given below refer to the R-Profile (roughness) (Fig. 2.26).
According to DIN EN ISO 4287, the following roughness parameters can be
distinguished:
The height of the highest profile point Rp : value of the y-coordinate Z(x) of the
highest profile point of the middle profile line within the sampling length Li .
The depth of the deepest profile valley Rv : value of the y-coordinate Z(x) of
the deepest point of the profile of the middle profile line within the sampling
length Li .
The total height of the profile Rt : the sum of the highest profile point and the
depth of the deepest profile valley within the measured length L.
The greatest height of the profile Rz : the sum of the height of the highest pro-
file point Rp and the depth of the deepest profile valley Rv within a sampling
length Li .
The mean roughness value Ra : the arithmetic mean of the values of the
y-coordinates Z(x) within a sampling length Li .
L
1
Ra = |Z(x)| dx (2.1)
L
0
Horizontal parameters (distance parameters) are also designated as bearing

lengths. They are determined by means of tangential sections. Forming a ratio
of of the summed single bearing lengths and dividing by the measured length
yields the relative bearing length (material ratio) in a specified section depth c.
By creating sections at different depths c, the bearing ratio curve also called the
ABBOTT-FIRESTONE curve can be determined (Fig. 2.28).
The bearing ratio of the roughness profile Rm r(c) is calculated as follows:

Xi
Rm r(c) = (2.2)
L
Z(x) c
x1 x2 x3 x4
x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 x
Measuring length L 0 20 60 100

Rmr (c ) / %
Fig. 2.28 Bearing ratio curve of the profile, acc. to DIN EN ISO 4287
The bearing ratio can be calculated on the basis of the primary profile (Pm ), the
roughness profile (Rm ) and the waviness profile (Wm ).
Using the average roughness, Table 2.2 provides an overview of the surface
roughness values which can be achieved with different manufacturing processes.
With respect to general specifications on achievable surface values, one must
consider the fact that it is not necessarily possible to deduce the manufacturing pro-
cess when using one-dimensional parameters for describing the surface [Abou76].
Due to the characteristic engagement conditions between the workpiece and the tool
one would also have to specify, for each surface parameter, which manufacturing
process is to be used to create that parameter. This problem is somewhat alleviated
if multiple one-dimensional surface parameters are used instead of just one when
describing the manufactured surface or if surface reference standards are available
(Figs. 2.29 and 2.30).
Table 2.2 Achievable average roughness

Achievable average roughness Rz / m
1000
0.25
0.04
400
630
250
160
300
2.5
0.4
0.1
25
16
10
4
1
Primary shaping
Die forming
Extrusion
Turning
Drilling
Reaming
Milling
Grinding
Erosion
Rough and finish turned Honed
Planed Grinded
Fig. 2.29 Surface quality for several manufacturing operations

0.55
0.05
2.5
0.4
N3 N2
N6 N5
3.0 1.6 1.0
0.4 0.2 0.1
8.0 4.0
3.2 1.6 0.8

N4
N7
N8
N5
16
N10 N9
N6
Roughness Rt (m) 10 6,0
1.6 0.8
Roughness Rt (m) 12.5 6.3

32
N7
50
roughness Ra (m)
ISO R 13021971
Arithm. average
roughness Ra (m)
Roughness markl
Flat
Arithm. average
Surface mark
lapping
DIN 140
Flat Horizontal Face Cylindrical
grinding milling milling turning
Reaming
Fig. 2.30 Surface reference standard (Source: Rupert)
2.4.2 Subjective Surface Inspection

In some cases, a visual inspection can determine whether the processed surface
meets the specified requirements. A testing device frequently used in the work-
shop is the straight edge, which is used to check the evenness of a surface using
the light-slit method. In workshop operations, spotting straight edges or spotting
plates are used to detect form deviations or contact patterns on the workpiece surface
(Fig. 2.31).
Impression methods using lacquers have been developed for surfaces which are
difficult to access (e.g. drill holes, internal surfaces). The lacquer is applied onto the
Spotting medium
Grey gleaming
Black areas Light areas areas
(spotting medium) (lowest points) (bearing points)
Work piece
Spotting plate
Spotting straight edge
Fig. 2.31 Surface inspection by spotting

test surface and pulled off after drying. The contact patterns attained on the lacquer
film thus attained can then be evaluated.
A frequent use of spotting is detecting contact patterns in quality testing and in
the assembly of gear teeth (especially bevel gear teeth). Applying spotting paste
and then rolling the teeth under light strain causes the bearing points on the tooth
flanks to become visible. These bearing points can then be compared to the reference
contact pattern. Nowadays in individual cases machine-tool guiding elements also
become scraped, therefore, spotting is used to judge the surface.
2.4.3 Surface Measurement

All the physical principles mentioned in the context of length measurement technol-
ogy are also fundamentally applicable to surface measurements. Since mechanical
and optical measuring methods have proven to be the most effective in this field, the
following discussion will limit itself to these methods.
2.4.3.1 Mechanical Measuring Methods

Devices for surface measurement which function on the basis of a mechanical
functional principle are generally referred to as stylus instruments. Mechanical mea-
suring methods are classified as either scanning methods or sensing methods. In the
scanning method, a contact stylus descends upon the surface to be tested at a speci-
fied frequency. The surface is guided under the needle with a constant feed rate. The
path of the contact stylus can be visualized mechanically, optically, electrically or
electronically. The contact stylus can either be raised to a fixed level (the WOXEN
principle) or raised by a fixed amount from the respective point of impact to the
surface (differential tactile procedure) (Fig. 2.32).
In the differential tactile procedure, the impact energy of the contact stylus is
lower in comparison to the WOXEN principle and exhibits marginal dispersion. As a
result, the penetration depth of the needle remains constant, the measuring accuracy
being thus higher than in the case of the W OXEN principle. In the case of instruments
functioning according to the sensing method, the contact stylus is guided continu-
ously over the surface. The needle rises and falls in line with the profile pattern
Scanning method Sensing method
Woxen principle Differential tactile procedure Differential tactile procedure
Fig. 2.32 Mechanical measuring methods

Plane of reference Oscillating scanning Semi-rigid

system system System
Caliper slide Scanning

Caliper slide arm
Caliper Caliper
Table
Skid Skid
Caliper
Fig. 2.33 Different surface scanning systems
(Fig. 2.32). The lifting motion is indicated relative to a reference point defined in the
device or to a reference level. Here too, mechanical, electric, optical and electronic
converters are used.
Sensing profile methods are the most widespread in practice. Independently of
the design type of the contact stylus instruments used, three system designs are
distinguished (Fig. 2.33).
Plane of Reference System

In this system, the scanning unit is guided on a reference surface (plane, cylinder)
which corresponds to the ideally geometrical surface of the test sample and is ori-
ented along the surface to be measured (Fig. 2.33). Aside from errors arising due to
the calliper geometry, this scanning system provides a faithful transmission of the
roughness and waviness values of the test sample. When measuring small or very
large surfaces, however, the handling of this scanning system can frequently become
unwieldy. An alternative is the reference surface contact system. Here, the work-
piece is conveyed on very precisely guided slides in a horizontal direction beneath
the firmly anchored scanning system. Besides roughness, the macrostructure of a
surface can also be detected in certain areas.
Semi-Rigid System
In semi-rigid systems, the scanning unit, which contains the contact stylus, is guided
on the skid gliding on the surface to be measured (Fig. 2.33). This system has the
advantage that it requires little space and is thus suitable for measuring small or
hard-to-access surfaces. A disadvantage is that the system requires an orientation to
the surface to be measured which can cause parts of the profile to be transmitted in
a distorted manner.
Oscillating Scanning System

Two glide skids guide the scanning unit of the oscillating scanning system
(Fig. 2.33). The latter is oriented towards the surface to be measured and is thus
comfortable to operate. However, it requires more space than the single skid system
and can therefore not be used for small or hard-to-access surfaces. The distortions
caused by long-wave profile sections are smaller than those in half-rigid systems,
because the skids are flat and farther apart. Nevertheless the waviness must be
filtered out in many cases [Henz68].
Usually, the magnification gauges for x- and y-coordinates are selected in a highly
varying way in profile records. This is necessary because the measuring lengths
(abscissa) lie in the mm region and roughness parameters are represented on the
ordinate which lie in the m region. The optical impression of the profile record is
thus strongly distorted in comparison to reality. The contact styluses used in con-
tact stylus instruments often have an apex radius of 2 m. They function with a
bearing strength of 0.5 N, which can result in considerable surface pressures (up
to 6000 N/mm2 ), which possibly cause alteration of the test surface. On the other
hand, excessively large contact stylus radii distort the result; they act like mechan-
ical filters. Thus the optimal conditions must be determined on the basis of the
material of the test sample and documented in their entirety in the measurement
report.
2.4.3.2 Optical Measuring Methods

White-Light Interferometer
This technology differs from length measuring technology both in that it employs
white light, i.e. light with the entire wavelength spectrum, and in that it does not just
use one beam, as with laser interferometers, but rather an entire bundle. A reflected-
light microscope is used to display an image of a section of the test object on a
detector (e.g. CCD camera). By using different interference lenses, a beam splitter
can be used to superimpose a highly accurate reference surface with the image of
the test object on the same scale. The interferences which are then created can be
detected and evaluated (Fig. 2.34).
The topography of the test object creates a spatial modulation of the light
intensity in the interference image. Depending on the surface to be measured,
two different measuring modes are used: one to characterize very flat surfaces
with an average roughness value Ra < 1 nm and one for all other surfaces. Steps
and roughnesses of up to several millimetres high can be displayed using this
technology.
Fringe Projection
The fringe projection method functions according to the triangulation procedure, in
which equidistant stripe patterns are observed and evaluated at a certain angle, i.e.
the triangulation angle. The stripe patterns on the test object are detected and evalu-
ated from a certain position, with the projected stripes following the arbitrary form
of the test surface. These stripes appear from the observers standpoint to be inter-
ferences, though they only appear this way because the location of the projection
Displacement
x
Reference mirror Displacement
Test object
z
Light
Lenses Interference of
measuring and reference
beam
Detector
Fig. 2.34 Principle of a white-light interferometer (two-beam interferometer)
surface points varies in relation to that of the projector. The stripe patterns then are
evaluated interferometrically on the basis of fluctuations in light intensity. The most
important geometrical values on which this method is based are:
the real distance of the projected stripes

the stripe distance registered from the position of observation
the triangulation angle
Fringe projection is used, for example, to judge surfaces bent over a large area,
such as those found in deep-drawing tools and on deep-drawn parts. The advantages
of this method are a high measurement speed and a spatial or laminar scanning.
A disadvantage is that the test objects may not be transparent or reflective.
2.5 Inspection of the Workpiece Rim

The functional behaviour and applicability of a component depend not only on its
macrogeometry and surface roughness, but also from the physical properties of the
material both on the interior and near the surface. While the inspection of material
properties properly belongs to the field of materials science and materials testing
and thus cannot be treated here in further detail, the following will discuss some
of the properties of technical surfaces and of layers near the surface (i.e. the rim
zone) and methods used to measure rim zone properties. Technical surfaces can be
categorized according to types of load into the following groups:
2.5 Inspection of the Workpiece Rim 31
external surfaces of technical products of all types, i.e. visible surfaces, covering
surfaces, indicating surfaces, etc. They are generally mechanically unstrained,
but are exposed to climatic or environmental stresses.
surfaces subjected to heat, radiation or electrical currents, such as insulating sur-
faces, electrical contacts, or the like. Such surfaces are referred to as thermally
stressed, radiation stressed or electrically stressed surfaces.
surfaces which come into contact with fluids or gases. On the one hand, a
corrosive stress may be predominant, or a flow stress with cavitation and ero-
sion processes may occur in the case of flowing media. Also, surface boundary
currents may be influenced via microstructures (ribblets).
surfaces in mechanical contact with moved counter bodies. This strain is referred
to as tribological stress. These stresses are found, for example, in typical machine
elements, such as bearings, couplings, brakes, gear-teeth, etc. With this type of
stress, different kinds of wear may occur.
optical surfaces used to form and conduct electromagnetic waves. Optical
surfaces are produced with mirrors and transparent components. The basic
beam-conducting and forming principles are reflection, refraction and diffraction.
biologically stressed surfaces exposed to the effect of microorganisms.
2.5.1 Surface Layers

The properties of technical surfaces relevant to component behaviour are determined
through the entirety of the physical and chemical properties of the surface layer.
These properties include textural structure, hardness, strength and residual stresses
in the rim zone near the surface. The surface rim zones of technical bodies are
created through machining processes. A part of the energy used to create the surface
always flows into the workpiece and is either stored or causes change processes in
the base material. Thus every machining process also causes a change of the surface
rim zone vis--vis the base material. Whether these changes affect the functionality
of the workpiece must be tested and confirmed in individual cases. The distinction
is frequently made between the external and the internal boundary layer. Figure 2.35
shows the structure of both boundary layers.
The layers referred to here cannot be clearly defined; there are no fixed
boundaries between them.
For further reference, please refer to the following sources: [Schm36, Schl51,
Czic03].
2.5.1.1 The External Boundary Layer

The external boundary layer is located between the surrounding atmosphere and the
atoms of the base material embedded in the crystal lattice. It is generated via the
reaction between the material and the atmosphere during and after machining.
The external boundary layer encompasses the following individual layers:
External boundary layer

Grease-/ oil film 10100 m
Adsorption layer 0.30.5 nm
Oxide film 110 nm

Internal boundary layer > 5 m
Plastic deformed and hardened
Elastic und plastic deformed
Elastic deformed
Matrix
Fig. 2.35 Layer structure of metallic surfaces, acc. to SCHMALTZ [Schm36]
Reaction Layers/Oxide Film

On the surface of metals which are either freshly machined or created through
breakage can form thin reaction layers/oxide films. These layers may only have
a thickness of 1020 molecular layers. They may, for example, influence wetting
capability or adhesive behaviour.
Adsorption Layer
After a short duration of time of being exposed to the air, the oxide layer is covered
with an adsorbed layer of water and gas. This adsorption layer becomes considerably
important, for example, in the context of electrical resistance when metallic contacts
are present.
Grease/Oil Film
Coolants in particular cause a grease and oil film to deposit itself after machining on
the adsorption layer. This film ranges from 10 m to several 100 m in thickness.
A grease and oil film can still be detected even after cleansing. These films can
exert considerable influence interface formation in further galvanic, adhesion, or
PVD/CVD processing.
2.5.1.2 The Internal Boundary Layer

The internal boundary layer is the layer of the machined workpiece bordering on the
base material and thus possesses practically the same chemical composition as the
Sharp-edged tool Worn tool
Cutting tool material: HC

Material: C15
vc = 200 m/min
f = 0.1 mm
50 m 50 m
Fig. 2.36 Plastic deformation of the workpiece rim by drilling
base material. The physical structure and the expansion of this layer in the direction
of the workpiece interior depend both on the material used and the manufacturing
operation used. The transition from the affected rim structure to the unaffected base
structure is continuous.
Figure 2.36 shows a model of the plastic deformation of the structure of
case-hardened steel C15 after a drilling operation. Larger mechanical and ther-
mal stresses caused by worn tools lead to clear modifications of the textural
structure.
In steel material processing, for example, given high enough temperatures and
high cooling rates, a hardening zone may develop in the outermost surface layer. In
the layers below this, annealing processes are possible due to the lower temperatures
and cooling rates in these layers (Fig. 2.37). As shown in Fig. 2.37, a hardening zone
has developed which has an extremely negative effect on the flank bearing strength.
2.5.2 Inspection of the Surface Rim Zone

Since, in addition to surface geometry, the physical properties of the areas near
the surface play an essential role, these properties must be tested, too. Therefore
methods familiar in the field of materials testing are applied:
material analysis
structure and texture investigation
hardness testing
fracture mechanical testing
residual stress measurement
Structural changes caused by increased thermal stresses of the rim zones near
the surface can be determined in structure and texture investigations which are
standardly used in materials science. This is done by metallographic preparations.
Crack detection in rim zones of workpieces can be either destructive or non-
destructive. A crack is a locally limited detachment of the material structure of small
width but often considerable length and depth. The crack can arise through internal
Pitting at the tip of a tooth Grinding burn with new hardening zone
left flank
RF 200 m LF 200 m
1000
Vickers hardness / HV0,05
900
Right flank
800
700 RF df
LF dw
600
500 Left flank

Left flank
400
300
0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from edge d / mm
Fig. 2.37 Grinding burn during gear tooth grinding
tensions or through external force effects. For further reference, please refer to the
specified literature [Schu04].
2.5.2.1 Residual Stresses

Residual stresses are characteristic for the internal tension of a load-free workpiece.
This tension results from inhomogeneous elastic and elastic-plastic deformations
which are present without the influence of external forces and torques. For every
component, there is a balance of all the internal forces and torques created by resid-
ual stress. Residual stresses are subdivided into macro-residual stresses (type 1) and
micro-residual stresses (types 2 and 3). Residual stresses caused by mechanical and
thermal influences is treated in the chapters devoted to the relevant manufacturing
operations. The basic formation mechanisms of thermally and mechanically induced
residual stress are shown in Fig. 2.38.
Residual stresses become significant in the context of dynamic stresses. The
attempt is therefore often made to use manufacturing processes in finishing which
create compressive residual stresses in the surface rim zone in order to minimize
the probability of crack formation and crack growth. Such operations include, for
Compressive residual Tensile residual

stress stress
(mechanical caused) (thermal caused)
Tensile (+)
Tensile(+)
Plastic deformation
Yielding point High-temperature limit of elasticity

sE+ Co
ain oli
Stress
Str e n g
Compression () Stress
s
lea
Re
sE He Temperature
Deformation path ati
Compression()
ng
Yielding point High-temperature limit of elasticity

Plastic deformation
Fig. 2.38 Formation of residual stress
example, finish and surface rolling as well as shot peening. In contrast, tensile
residual stress is probable in electrical discharge machining, because of its ther-
mal operating principle; in grinding and all manufacturing operations which use
geometrically defined cutting edges, both mechanical and thermal load spectrums
occur during processing, a prediction of the stress state is not easily possible.
Methods of Analysis
For all processes, the metrological definition of residual stresses occur indirectly
through the measurement of strains, electromagnetic parameters or speed of sound.
Below, the basic methods used in manufacturing technology will be explained.
For further information on this topic, please refer to the specified sources [Peit92,
Hauk87].
Mechanical Methods
The mechanical methods of analysis include the borehole method and the toroidal
core method. These are destructive methods which release residual stresses in the
rim zone near the surface through the insertion of very small holes or ring grooves
in this zone, which causes an altered stress state and thus strains, which can be
measured with wire strain gauges, for example. The average residual surface tension
can then be calculated from the strains in consideration of the material behaviour.
By removing layers of the surface rim zone at different surface positions, dis-
tributions of residual stresses can be defined up to the depth corresponding to the
drills diameter. Since drilling or milling processes only cause reproducible strain
changes at a depth of several hundredths of millimetres, this method cannot be used
to determine residual surface stress with strong rim zone gradients.
X-ray and Neutron Diffraction

In research and practice methods are used which utilize the diffraction of monochro-
matic X- or neutron radiation on the crystalline lattice structure of the material
phases (Fig. 2.39).
The BRAGG condition applies here:
n = 2 a sin (2.3)
Altered lattice distances a of the material phases can be calculated very accurately
from the displacement of the diffraction lines, which in turn allow to draw con-
clusions about residual stresses. The chosen measuring direction defines the stress
components to be detected. This allows the definition of the entire stress tensor by
measuring in multiple directions. In order to calculate residual stresses from strain
measurements, the elastic properties of the material phases are used. In the case of
many materials, their anisotropic behaviour can even be taken into consideration
when measuring at the respective lattice levels. Figure 2.40 shows the customary
device for measuring residual stresses (goniometer).
Source of radiation Detector
Fig. 2.39 Principle of X-ray diffraction on crystalline lattice
Swivel table Specimen

X-ray tube
Rotating table
Detector
Fig. 2.40 Goniometer

Diffraction methods demand high requirements on measurement technology and

on occupational safety (radiation protection). X-ray diffraction is used in practice to
define residual stresses. In research, neutron sources can also be accessed at selected
locations, with which it is possible to detect depth structures up to some millimeters
without removing surface layers.
The X-ray method has a depth of penetration which is limited to an extent
depending on the absorption properties of the material and the wavelength used
for the X-radiation. Given the usual measuring parameters, the average penetra-
tion depths vary between approximately 1 m for tungsten carbide and 5 m
for steel; significantly greater depths of penetration are possible for light metals.
Residual stress depth profiles with great rim depths can be produced through the
electrochemical removal of layers of the surface rim zone.
Magnetic Methods
Magnetic analysis methods use the influence of mechanical stresses on resetting
in ferromagnetic materials. These changes can be measured by means of an exter-
nally applied alternating magnetic field. The measurands are coercive field strength,
superposition permeability, dynamic magnetostriction and magnetic and acoustic
BARKHAUSEN noise. The simultaneous analysis of several magnetic parameters
improves the evaluation of the quantitative measuring data. Magnetic methods are
characterized by compact and easily manageable test set-ups. Depending on the
material and the range of frequencies analyzed, surface rim zones can be gauged
ranging from a few micrometers to over 1 mm. Disadvantegous is that these meth-
ods they are limited to ferromagnetic materials and have to be calibrated to known
material states.
Acoustic Methods
Residual stresses are generated through lattice strains of the material which result
in an altered propagation of structure-borne sound. This acoustic-elastic effect can
be used to analyze stresses by means of ultrasonic measurements. Such methods are
based on the assumption that the sound velocity is proportional to the lattice strain.
The applicational potential of these methods are limited above all by the material
state. This is because microstructural errors and textures exert as great an influence
on sound velocity as structural gradients.
Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Cutting
DIN 8580 defines machining as all process variants of the third main group
Cutting, in which form is altered by means of reducing material cohesion.
Deformation is achieved by means of a relative motion between the tool and the
workpiece that brings about a transfer of energy [DIN8580].
In the standard, this basic classification is further refined in order to categorise
machining procedures [DIN8589]. Machining is defined as follows: cutting, in
which layers of material are mechanically separated from a workpiece in the form
of chips by means of a cutting tool. According to DIN 8580, machining comprises
Groups 3.2 (machining with geometrically defined cutting edges) and 3.3 (machin-
ing with geometrically undefined cutting edges) in the manufacturing classification
system.
The first part of this compendium on manufacturing processes deals exclusively
with process variants of Group 3.2. For this reason, the term machining will only
be used in the sense of cutting with geometrically defined cutting edges. What all
processes in the group of geometrically defined cutting edges have in common is
that they use a tool, of which the cutting edge number, geometry and position to the
workpiece are determined.
Several concepts and terms are necessary to describe cutting part, which will be
described in the following.
3.1 The Cutting Part Concepts and Terms

The concepts, designations and terms used to describe the geometry of the cutting
part are set down in DIN 6581. The cutting part is the active part of the tool where
the cutting wedges are located with the cutting edges. The idealized cutting wedge is
made up of two faces: A rake face and a flank face, which cut in a line, cutting edge
S. The angle between these two faces is designated as the wedge angle . Figure 3.1
shows an idealized cutting wedge [DIN6581].
The rake face A is the face of the cutting edge where the chip runs off. The
flank face A is the face on the cutting wedge, which is turned towards the new
workpiece surface (the cut surface). These terms make it clear that the cutting wedge

40 3 Fundamentals of Cutting
Trace of plane
of rake face A
Chip
Tool
Trace of plane
of flank face A

Cutting speed vc

Workpiece Trace
Effective cutting speed ve Feed velocity vf of plane
of cutsurface
Fig. 3.1 Description of the idealized cutting wedge
(tool) should always be regarded in connection with the workpiece. This means that
considerable importance should be attached to process kinematics.
One model concept is often used for the sake of a simplified description of pro-
cess kinematics, that of the selected cutting point. This model simplifies the actual
kinematics by summarizing the spatial velocity fields in one point, the selected cut-
ting point. At the selected cutting point, the velocity fields can be represented in a
summarizing fashion by means of vectors. These vectors can be summarized in turn
by vector addition in one total vector. Usually, the workpiece is assumed to be fixed;
all motions are carried out by the tool. The resulting velocity vector is designated
as the effective cutting speed ve . It can be divided into two components; the cutting
velocity vc in the cutting direction and the feed velocity vf in the feed direction. To
position the components of effective cutting speed clearly, two angles are defined:
The effective cutting speed angle as the angle between the effective cutting
direction and the direction of primary motion (see Fig. 3.1)
The feed motion angle as the angle between the feed direction and the direction
of primary motion (see Fig. 3.1)
Since there are no ideally sharp tools in practice, cutting edge rounding is taken
into consideration (Fig. 3.2).
In almost all cases the transition between flank and rake face is curved. This
curvature is described by the cutting edge radius r .
Up to this point, the concepts have been explained using a simple cutting wedge
formed by two faces. Generally, more complex tools are used, composed of several
cutting wedges, in the simplest case of one major cutting wedge and one minor
cutting face (Fig. 3.3).
3.1 The Cutting Part Concepts and Terms 41
Trace of plane of rake face A
Chip Tool
Trace of plane
of flank face A

Cutting edge
radius
vc r

ve vf
Workpiece
Fig. 3.2 Cutting edge with cutting edge radius
Direction of primary motion
Tool shank
Rake face A
Direction of feed
Major cutting edge S
Major flank face A
Cutting edge
Minor cutting edge S
Minor flank face A'
Fig. 3.3 Cutting edges and faces of the wedge, acc. to DIN 6581
Correspondingly, we speak of major and minor cutting edges. The major cutting
edge S is always turned towards the cut surface, the minor cutting edge S towards
the machined face [DIN6580]. If the selected cutting point is on the minor cutting
edge, the concepts defined in the former are named accordingly and furnished with
an apostrophe ( ). The flat areas of the major and minor cutting edges are joined by
the corner radius r (Fig. 3.6).
3.2 Reference Systems

In order to describe the location, position and direction of motion of a cutting wedge,
reference systems are utilized in which characteristic planes are defined that are
valid for all process variants.
The two standardized reference systems are the tool-in-hand system and the tool-
in-use system (Fig. 3.4). The tool-in-hand system was developed for tool design as
well as for the production and testing of cutting tools. In the tool-in-hand system,
the tool angle is measured without considering process kinematics. In actual cutting
processes however, the effective angle deviates from the nominal tool angle under
certain circumstances due to process kinematics (exception: the wedge angle). For
this reason, a tool-in-use system is also defined (Fig. 3.4, right).
The tool-in-hand system is a system, the reference plane of which is oriented
orthogonally to the assumed cutting direction. In contrast, the reference plane of
the tool-in-use system is oriented orthogonally to the effective direction. In both
systems, all planes contain the selected cutting point. The reference systems are in
agreement when the cutting direction corresponds to the effective direction.
First, the tool-in-hand system will be considered (Figs. 3.4, left, and 3.5):
The basic plane, upon which all other planes are based, is the tool reference
plane Pr . It contains the rotation axis (if present) and lies perpendicularly to the
assumed cutting direction.
Effective cutting Direction

direction of primary motion
Assumed direction
of primary motion
Pfe
Pp ve
Pf vc
Direction
Assumed of feed
direction of
vf
feed
Ppe
Pre
Pr
Fig. 3.4 Tool frame of reference (left) and tool-in-use system, acc. to DIN 6581
3.2 Reference Systems 43
Pn
Po
Assumed direction
of primary motion
Assumed direction
of feed
Ps
Pr
Fig. 3.5 Orientation in tool frame of reference
Trace of tool back plane Pp

Trace of tool cutting edge plane Ps
Assumed direction of feed
re Trace of assumed
working plane Pf
r
Tool
Tool reference plane Pr
Fig. 3.6 Position of tool cutting edge angle r
The cutting edge plane Ps runs tangentially to the cutting edge S and perpendic-
ularly to the tool reference plane Pr .
The tool orthogonal plane Po is perpendicular to the tool cutting edge plane Ps .
The assumed working plane Pf is perpendicular to the tool reference plane Pr and
parallel to the assumed feed direction.
The tool back plane Pp stands perpendicularly on the tool reference plane Pr and
perpendicularly on the assumed working plane Pf .
The tool cutting edge normal plane Pn is perpendicular to the cutting edge S.
The tool cutting edge normal plane Pn is identical to the effective cutting edge
normal plane Pne , since it is not oriented to the tool reference plane but rather to
the major cutting edge.
The tool-in-use system is rotated towards the tool-in-hand system by the effective
cutting speed angle . In tool-in-use system, the same signs are used as in tool-in-
hand system; they are followed however by an e, which stands for effective.
In order to designate all tool and effective angles clearly, the same index is
assigned to them that signifies the plane in which these angles are measured. For
example, the tool orthogonal wedge angle o is measured in the tool orthogonal
plane Po , or the effective side rake angle fe is measured in the working plane Pfe .
Information about three angles around the three rotatory axes in space is required
in order to determine the orientation of the cutting edges or the positions in space
of the rake and flank faces. For an optimal cutting process, certain orientations are
responsible for three rotatory axes in space. In the following, these angles will be
explained exemplarily in the tool-in-hand system:
the orientation angle around a rotation axis that stands orthogonally on the tool
reference plane Pr :
The tool cutting edge angle r between the tool cutting edge plane Ps and the
assumed working plane Pf , measured in the tool reference plane Pr , is defined
as the angle that determines the position of the major cutting edge S in the tool
reference plane Pr . It is measured mathematically positively on the basis of the
assumed working plane Pf (Fig. 3.6).
cutting edge plane Ps :
The tool cutting edge inclination s between the major cutting edge S and the tool
reference plane Pr , measured in the tool cutting edge plane Ps , is defined as the
angle that determines the position of the major cutting edge S in the tool cutting
edge plane Ps (Fig. 3.7).
cutting edge normal plane Pn :
This rotation is executed by one of the tool angles n or n , which are mea-
sured in the tool cutting edge normal plane Pn . The tool normal rake angle n is
customarily used as the orientation angle, as it has a large effect on the cutting
process (Fig. 3.8).
Trace of
assumed
working plane Pf Major cutting edge S
s Trace of
Tool reference
Tool plane Pr
Assumed direction of
primary motion
Tool-cutting edge plane Ps
Fig. 3.7 Position of cutting edge inclination s

3.3 Basic Process Variants 45
Cutting line of planes

Pn and Pr
Trace of plane of rake face Ag
n
Tool
Trace of plane of flank
face Aa
Assumed direction n
of primary motion n
Assumed direction Trace of tool cutting

of feed edge plane Ps
Tool cutting edge normal plane Pn
Fig. 3.8 Position of wedge in tool frame of reference
It is measured mathematically positively between the tool rake face A and the
tool reference plane Pr in the tool cutting edge normal plane Pn . The tool normal
wedge angle n is always fixed on the tool and cannot be changed by tool rota-
tion. The tool normal orthogonal clearance angle n lies between the tool flank face
A and the tool cutting edge plane Ps , measured in the tool cutting edge normal
plane Pn .
The angle between the flank face A and the tool cutting edge plane Ps , measured
in the tool orthogonal plane Po , is designated as the tool orthogonal clearance angle
o . The angle between the rake face A and the tool reference plane Pr is defined as
the tool orthogonal rake angle o . The angle between the rake face A and the flank
face A is called the tool orthogonal angle o . As rule, the clearance angle, wedge
angle and rake angle defined in the tool orthogonal plane Po , the assumed working
plane Pf and the tool cutting edge normal plane Pn must in total make a 90 angle.
The kinematic factors of tool cutting edge angle r , tool cutting edge inclination
s and tool normal rake angle n are important influencing parameters on the cutting
process. For further information, see DIN 6582.
3.3 Basic Process Variants

Despite the large number of cutting process variants, they can still all be subdivided
into three main categories:
free, orthogonal cuts,

free, diagonal cuts and
bound, diagonal cuts.
vch Tool
Tool vch
Chi
p
Chip
s
vc
vc
Workpiece Workpiece
Fig. 3.9 Free, orthogonal and free, diagonal cut
The free, orthogonal cut is a special case, which can be brought about by the
following marginal conditions:
Only the major cutting edge is being engaged (free).

The tool cutting edge angle r is 90 (orthogonal).
Tool cutting edge inclination s is equal to 0 (orthogonal).
Practically speaking, this cut can be executed, for example, by means of longitu-
dinal face turning or cross cylindrical turning (see Sect. 9.1) allowing for the above
marginal conditions (Fig. 3.9).
The free, diagonal cut is more general and contains the free, orthogonal cut. The
following marginal conditions must be realized in the case of the free, diagonal cut:
Only the major cutting edge is engaged (free).

The tool cutting edge angle r can take on values that are not equal to 90
(diagonal).
Arbitrary tool cutting edge inclinations s are permissible (diagonal).
As soon as one of the last two marginal conditions is fulfilled, it is a free, diagonal
cut. Both conditions dont have to be met simultaneously, although this can occur.
The general case, the bound, diagonal cut (Fig. 3.10), contains all abovemen-
tioned special cases and, in addition to the marginal conditions of the free, diagonal
cut, also permits the engagement of the minor cutting edge (bound).
All the basic process variants can be further extended by adding the following
categories:
The uninterrupted cut and

the interrupted cut.
The interrupted cut is the general variant among them, in which the cut takes
place only intermittently. In the case of the uninterrupted cut, temporal interruption
is infinitely small (the cut is continuous). Both process possibilities will be described
3.4 Chip Formation 47
Fig. 3.10 Bound diagonal cut vch
Chip
Too c
l
ce
Workpie
in great detail in later chapters (see Chaps. 9 and 10). In total, there are therefore six
basic process variants.
3.4 Chip Formation
At the beginning of the chip formation process, the cutting section penetrates the
material, causing it to deform elastically and plastically. After the maximum per-
missible material-dependent shear stress is exceeded, the material begins to flow.
Contingent on a given cutting section geometry, the deformed material forms a chip,
which runs off the rake face of the cutting section.
The property of plastic deformability is not solely related to the material; it can
also be brought about in a targeted way by altering the stress. The amount of stresses
is influenced by the feed velocity vf , the cutting speed vc and the depth of cut ap .
As far as process kinematics is concerned, the direction of cutting section stress is
determined by defining the tool normal rake angle n , the tool cutting edge angle r
and tool cutting edge inclination s .
In order to ensure chip formation, a minimum chip thickness and depth of cut
must be exceeded (see Chap. 7 [Moll39, Djat52, Soko55, Bram61, Bram60]).
3.4.1 The Cutting Process

By varying the direction and amount of stress, either tough or brittle material
behaviour can be realized [Karm11, Bke14]. This has a large effect on chip for-
mation. During cutting, the direction of a particular stress can be set by the process
parameters tool normal rake angle, tool cutting edge angle and tool cutting edge
inclination. The amount of the particular stress is influenced by the cutting para-
meters cutting speed, feed velocity and depth of cut. To put it another way, the same
material can be tough or brittle depending on the direction and amount of stress,
Fig. 3.11 Model

representation of
deformation, acc. to Leopold
[Leop00]
independently of how it behaves at room temperature and under single-axis tensile

loads (tension test).
When cutting steel, one must bear in mind that brittle behaviour only occurs at
very low temperatures. This is not the case when machining cast iron, glass and
ceramics. There is brittle fracture behaviour for these materials even at high tem-
peratures due to their material structures. The particular stress must therefore be
optimally adjusted to the given material properties with process kinematics in both
direction and amount.
To clarify plastomechanical processes during chip formation, a grid is superim-
posed on the workpiece (Fig. 3.11) so that material deformation during cutting can
be observed (the visioplasticiy method) [Hast67, Chil71, Leop80, Leop00]. With
this method, the chip formation process can be made visible, and with the help of
this, chip formation models can be made. Finite element analysis is another possi-
bility for modelling chip formation. The visioplasticity method can help to verify
FE modellings, since it allows for a temporal and local definition of chip formation
on the superimposed grid [Leop80].
Special marginal conditions exist during chip formation: both high rake face tem-
peratures (about 7701700 C) as well as high deformation speeds (of an order of
magnitude of 104 /s).
Figure 3.12 is a schematic representation of the chip formation process as
sketched with the help of a photograph of chip initiation (right).
In this representation, we can see a continuous plastic deformation that can be
subdivided into four zones. The transition from the workpiece structure (a) to the
chip structure (b) is made by simple shearing (shear zone). When cutting brit-
tle materials, minor deformation on the shear plane can already lead to material
detachment.
If however the material has higher deformability, detachment first occurs in front
of the cutting edge in zone (e). The tensile load under simultaneous perpendicularly
Structure of the
workpiece
vc Shear
plane
Structure
of the chip Shear zone
a
0,1 mm
e b
vch
d c
Flank face
rake face
Cut surface
Tool
Tool
Cut surface
Fig. 3.12 Location of chip initiation
active pressure leads, together with the high temperatures prevalent here, to strong
deformations on the peripheries of the rake face (c) and cut surface (d). Sliding
over the tool surfaces causes further plastic deformations to arise in the boundary
layers. The flow zone (the non-etched white zone on the bottom of the chip), the
deformation texture of which forms parallel to the rake face, gives the impression
of a viscous flow process with an extremely high degree of deformation. The chip
resulting from the described chip formation process is designated as a continuous
chip. Other chip types include lamellar chips, segmented chips and discontinuous
chips.
Figure 3.13 shows a quantitative profile of normal and tangential stresses result-
ing from the resultant force components acting on the rake face. These stresses
in conjunction with temperatures prevalent in the contact zone, which can amount
to over 1000 C in the continuous chip formation zone lead to deformations with
sheer strains between 0.8 and 4.0 and sheer strain speeds of up to 106 /s. For the
sake of comparison, Fig. 3.13 provides corresponding figures from the tension test.
Cutting conditions under which cemented carbide tools operate result in deforma-
tion and material heating durations in the order of magnitude of milliseconds; the
heating velocities are theoretically around 106 C/s [Opit70].
3.4.2 Different Types of Chip Formation

When chip formation has been ensured, it can occur in different ways. ERNST
[Erns38, Erns41] has made a phenomenological classification of chip formation
types. Continuous chip formation is characterized by an evenly deformed material
Workpiece Material: C45E; Tool Material: HW-P20; ap = 2 mm; f = 0.25 mm; vc = 160 m/min
Cutting temperature: T1 ~ 1030 C
Chip flow velocity: vch = 67 m/min
Heating velocity: 106 C/s
Average normal stress: n = 350 N/mm2
Average shear stress: = 250 N/mm2
Shear strain Tension test: ~ 0.2
Chipping: 0,8 < < 4.0
Shear strain rate Tension test : ~103 s1
Chipping: ~ 104 s1
n
Distribution

of stress

vch

T3 d
vc T4 Flow area
T5
vch
Tool
Detail A
Fig. 3.13 Conditions of the cutting process, acc. to KNIG [Kni67]
chip structure, the cause of which is assumed to be in the temporally highly uniform
friction conditions between the chip and the tool.
Lamellar chip formation is characterized by an unevenly deformed material
structure between the chip and the tool, the cause of which is explained by tem-
porally highly altered friction conditions between the chip and the tool (stick-slip)
or by dynamic stress transfer [Scha64]. Locally enhanced structural deformations,
shear bands, can be recognized in the chip structure, that are characteristic of this
type of chip formation.
The frequencies of the vibrations caused by stick-slip are in the range of kilo-
hertz and have small amplitudes. The high level of local structural deformation is
explained by the fact that the thermally caused material softening is more dominant
than its mechanical hardening. Research into these phenomena relies on the work of
ZENER and HOLLOMON, who have described them and conceived the term shear
band. Shear bands appear when machining high-strength materials with high lev-
els of deformability. They are also especially frequent when machining with high
cutting speeds [Hopp03].
If the stress condition in the shear zone exceeds the deformability of the mate-
rial (shear strength), there is a detachment of material areas, which then fuse with
each other again. This leads to the formation of segmented chips. This can be con-
ceived of as a special case of lamellar chip formation in which highly localized
deformations (shear bands) arise as well.
In addition to vibrations, the entire system consisting of the machine tool,
tool, workpiece and fixtures is influenced by further dynamic effects such as the
regenenerative effect or directional coupling [Weck77]. The frequencies of these
effects are much lower, in the area of a thousand hertz. In contrast to the higher-
frequency chip formation dynamics, these vibrations do not so much influence chip
formation in the sense of material deformation as much as chip formation from
outside, since they are the cause of dynamic alterations in the nominal feed.
SCHWERD has made microcinematographic experiments and suggested the con-
cept of discontinuous chip [Schw36]. This process basically distinguishes itself
from the other processes of chip formation by the fact that no plastic defor-
mation occurs before fracture, but rather fracture takes place without plastic
deformation. Discontinuous chips can be observed in the case of materials with
very brittle properties, e.g. cast iron, stone, fibre-reinforced plastic or titanium
alumnides.
Figure 3.14 summarizes the principal chip types [Vier70].
Continuous chips form when the material has sufficient deformability (B > 0 ),
the microstructure is uniform in the cutting area, deformation does not cause
embrittlement and chip formation is not impaired by vibrations.
Lamellar chips form when B < 0 < F or the microstructure is not uniform or
vibrations lead to variations in chip thickness. Lamellar chips can form with high
feeds as well as with high cutting speeds.
Segmented chips consist of chip segments that are separated in the shear plane
and fuse together again. The form when F < 0 , whereby this is not only the
case for brittle materials like cast iron but also can come about if deformation
causes embrittlement in the microstructure. Segmented chips can also be formed
at extremely low cutting speeds (vc = 1 3 m/ min).
Discontinuous chips most form when cutting brittle materials with uneven
microstructures such as certain types of cast iron and stone. The chips are
not detached, but are torn off the surface, often causing damage due to small
breakings from the workpiece surface.
Figure 3.15 gives a tool-oriented overview of the dynamic system of spheres of

influence, all complexly overlapping and mutually retroactive, which brings about
1 Continous chip 2 Lamellar chip 3 Segmented chip 4 Discontious chip
Range of lamellar-, Range of

Elastic region
segmented- and continous
discontinous chip chip Plastic region
Shear strength
Yield range
Shear strength
1 0: Degree of
B deformation
2 E F in the shear plane
E: Elastic limit
3 B: Breaking limit
4 F: Fraction point
Strain
0
Degree of deformation
Fig. 3.14 Types of chip depending on material properties, acc. to VIEREGGE [Vier70]
Range of temperature Material properties

Tool wear
Friction and Deformation
Range of velocity Process parameter

Tool geometry
Mechanism of chip formation:

Continous chip formation
Lamellar chip formation
Segmented chip formation
Discontionous chip formation
Fig. 3.15 Influence on chip formation
the various types of chip formation. This system is heavily influenced by the velocity
fields, the materials to be machined, tool geometry and process kinematics.
This section will not deal with low-frequency dynamic effects on the part of the
machine tool. See the relevant literature for further information [Kron54, Opit70,
Weck77, Alti00].
Feed motion
Tool
Primary motion
Buffed and etched

Workpiece
Quarz glass pane

Hollow spindle
Fig. 3.16 Microcinematograpy
One method with which chip formation is directly observable, is microcine-

matography, the first application of which on the cutting process was already carried
out by KURREIN and then later by K LOPSTOCK [Kurr05, Klop23, Klop26] (see
Fig. 3.16).
The development of this process has been advanced by several researchers in the
course of time [Schw36, Merc45, Oxle59, Spaa71, Warn74]. In this process, chip
formation is observed through a quartz glass pane while photos are taken or films
are recorded successively in short intervals. One disadvantage of this procedure is
the limitation to very low cutting speeds (vc = 1 cm/min). Nevertheless, the process
has helped to explicate basic phenomena.
Today there are high-speed cameras available that can capture 150,000 images
per second. With such cameras, the phenomena can be made visible at the lower
threshold at higher speeds or especially during micro-cutting.
In order to be able to study chip formation more effectively, various methods
have been developed for cut interruption. During the cutting process, chip roots
are held in statu nascendi, providing information about chip formation after sub-
sequent metallographic preparation. In the case of the equipment used today, the
tool is suddenly accelerated out of the cut. The acceleration is brought about by a
predetermined breaking point on the swivel device that breaks during the cutting
process due to an impulse caused by an explosion [Lola49] (Fig. 3.17). Gente has
recently developed a method in which the delay time and the masses moved can be
reduced in comparison with the explosion method [Gent02] (see also Fig. 3.17).
In this way, investigations into chip roots are also possible with higher cutting
speeds.
Other methods have been developed in which a chip root is produced in the
workpiece by means of a predetermined breaking point (brittle fracture, Fig. 3.18)
[Buda68]. The advantage is that that chip root is detached from the workpiece so that
the effective area can be spared during the following metallographic preparation.
Gun
Moment 1
Moment 1
Sample
Moment 2
Tool
Moment 2
Direction of
Tool
primary
motion
Baffle
Fig. 3.17 Interruption of cutting process, acc. to LOLADSE [Lola49] (left) and GENTE [Gent02]
(right)
Buffed sheet steel

with high Youngs
modulus
ple
Sam
Tool
Predetermined
breaking point
Fig. 3.18 Interruption of cutting process by predetermined breaking point, acc. to BUDA
[Buda68]
3.5 Kinematic Surface Roughness

Calculations of interpenetration between the tool and the workpiece can provide key
information about the cutting process, including the associated undeformed chip
cross-sections in the case of changing engagement parameters (see also gear man-
ufacture) or micro-geometrical surface parameters. The following shows by way
of example the generation of surface quality for a simple external turning process.
Since chip formation processes are ignored, we speak in this case of the generation
of kinematic surface roughness. For this, the penetration of the workpiece by the
tool is geometrically evaluated taking into consideration the kinematics in the tool
reference plane Pr (Fig. 3.19).
3.6 Mechanical and Thermal Strain on the Cutting Section 55
x
r f Rt
r Rt
M1 f/2 M2
r f f2
Rt = r r2
4
or
f2
Rt =
8 r
Area of validity: f < 2 r cos( r + r 90) and r + r < 180
Fig. 3.19 Geometric ratio of engagement in the cutting process
3.6 Mechanical and Thermal Strain on the Cutting Section

The resultant force F, represented here in the turning process as an example, can
be decomposed into the components cutting force Fc , feed force Ff and passive
force Fp (Fig. 3.20). Currently, these resultant force components are usually detected
metrologically with the help of piezoelectric force sensors.
ve
vc
Primary motion
(Workpiece)
vf Ff
Fp
Fc
Fa
Fz
F : Resultant force vc : Cutting speed
Fc : Cutting force vf : Feed velocity
FD Ff : Feed force ve : Effective cutting
Fp : Passive force speed
Fa : Active force
Direction of feed
FD : Thrust force
(Tool)
Fig. 3.20 Resultant force and its components in the cutting process, acc. to DIN 6584
Fc Cutting force
Ff Feed force
A h vf Fp Passive force
Ffp Resultant of
Ff Ff and Fp
FN Normal force of
major cutting edge
FN
F T Tangential force of
A major cutting edge
F N Normal force of
Fp Ffp
re FT rake face
F T Tangential force of
se = 0 rake face
F N Normal force of
shear plane
Sectional view A-A F T Tangential force of
vc shear plane
Shear plane
h FcN Resultant of
FT and FN, or FT
F N and FN
hch vch
oe h Undeformed chip thickness
F T
oe hch Chip thickness
FT
vc Cutting speed
Fc N vch Chip speed
F N
oe Tool orthogonal clearance
Fc oe Wedge angle
FN
oe Tool orthogonal rake angle
Workpiece Tool re Working cutting edge angle

oe
se Working cutting edge inclination
Shear angle
Fig. 3.21 Components of resultant force in working plane of reference (top) and working plane
(below)
The analysis of forces derived for the orthogonal cut by Merchant [Merc45,
Merc45a] is the basis for determining the forces acting on the tool cutting edge
(Fig. 3.21).
Assuming an ideally sharp cutting edge and neglecting flank face wear, the tan-
gential force F T and the normal force F N acting on the tool can be calculated from
the force components. The following applies as long as the inclination is s = 0
and the influence of the minor cutting edge is slight:
F N = Fc cos o (Ff sin r + Fp cos r ) sin o (3.1)
F T = Fc sin o + (Ff sin r + Fp cos r ) cos o (3.2)

where the bracket term in Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) corresponds to the normal force of
the major cutting edge FN (Fig. 3.21). Because of the (in most cases) small dif-
ference between the angles in the tool-in-hand system and the tool-in-use system,
calculations are made within the tool-in-hand system for the sake of simplicity.
For the case o = 0 , the cutting force Fc and the feed force Ff act perpen-
dicularly/tangentially to the rake face. In contrast to Merchants original work, a
neutral tool orthogonal rake angle (o = 0 ) was selected, and the forces were
shown with the effective cutting direction on the tool cutting edge. Designation
of the acting forces and their signs is derived from the standards ISO 3002/4 and
DIN 6584.
As Fig. 3.22 clarifies for the simplest case of an orthogonal cross section with
a neutral tool orthogonal rake angle, the cutting and feed forces on the worn tool
are composed not only of the normal force of the rake face F N and the tangential
force of the rake face F T but also of the tangential force of the flank face FT
and the normal force of the flank face FN . The friction coefficient, which can be
calculated from the cut and feed forces, thus contains not only rake angle friction
but also forces acting on the flank face caused for example by elastic deformation
of the workpiece surface and by tool wear [Klau65]. As research has shown, the
normal force of the flank face amounts to about 40% of the feed force and thus to

F
N
Fa
Chip
Fc
=
Fz
T
F
Ff
vf Tool
vc F N
F T
acc to: Merchant F N
VB
Fig. 3.22 In the cutting F T Cutting

process the mechanical strain
of the cutting edge results |Fc | = |F N |+ |F T | edge
from normal and tangential
forces and their components |Ff | = |F T |+ |F N |
acting on rake and flank face, True for:
acc. to MERCHANT [Merc45, o = 0, r = 90, VB > 0
Merc45a]
about 66% of the rake face component in the feed direction [Spaa67, Lutz68]. A
percentage of approximately 10% of the cutting force Fc was ascertained for the
tangential force of the flank face.
The average normal and tangential stresses originating from the resultant force
components acting on the rake face are between 350 and 400 N/mm2 or between
250 and 350 N/mm2 when machining construction steel [Kni72].
Materials that are difficult to cut result in values of 1100 N/mm2 . Their profile
is qualitatively reproduced in Fig. 3.13. The size and direction of the resultant force
are strongly influenced by the cutting parameters and cutting section geometries
used. Figure 3.23 shows the dependence of the static components of the resultant
cutting force Fc , Ff and Fp on the feed f, cutting speed vc , depth of cut ap and the
tool cutting edge angle r qualitatively in a linear coordinate system.
The extremes in the profiles of the resultant force components over cutting speed
can be ascribed to growth of built up-edge. The reduction of forces with increasing
cutting speed is caused by the reduction of material strength at higher temperatures.
The components of the resultant force increase proportionally over the depth of cut
ap . Yet this is only valid if the depth of cut is larger than the corner radius of the
tool. The profile of feed force Ff and passive force Fp over the tool cutting edge
angle r results from the geometric position of the cutting edge with respect to the
workpiece axis, since with a larger cutting edge angle the resultant force component
aimed in the feed direction increases, and its maximum is reached at r = 90 . If
the tool cutting edge angle is increased, the undeformed chip thickness h increases
proportionally to the reduction of the width of undeformed chip b. Since cutting
Cutting force components
Cutting force Fc
Fc
Feed force Ff
Ff
Fp
Passive force Fp
Feed f Cutting speed vc

Fc Fc
Ff
Ff
Fp
Fig. 3.23 Components of
resultant force depending on Fp
feed, cutting velocity, tool
cutting edge angle, and depth Tool cutting edge angle r Depth of cut ap
of cut (qualitative)
Change of cutting force components per degree

angle variation
Influencing variables
Cutting force Fc Feed force Ff passive force Fp
Decreasing
Tool orthogonal 1.5 % 5.0 % 4.0 %

rake angle
Tool cutting edge 1.5 % 1.5 % 10.0 %

inclination
Increasing
Tool orthogonal 1.5 % 5.0 % 4.0 %

rake angle
Tool cutting edge 1.5 % 1.5 % 10.0 %

inclination
Fig. 3.24 Influence of cutting edge and rake angle on the components of the resultant force
force Fc is proportional over depth of cut ap (= width of undeformed chip b) but

increases degressively over feed (= undeformed chip thickness h), a light reduction
of Fc with increasing r is the outcome of both changes.
Figure 3.24 provides some standard values for how the components of the resul-
tant force change if the tool orthogonal rake angle or the cutting edge inclination
is varied. This information can vary greatly however and should only be seen as
reference values.
Changing the tool orthogonal clearance angle in the range of 3 o 12
has no mentionable effects on the resultant force components. Changing the corner
radius also does not have a significant effect on the forces as long as the condition
2r ap is met.
Tool wear (see Sect. 3.7) is another variable that influences resultant forces.
Varying effects on the components of the resultant force can be observed depending
on the type of wear.
Crater wear, resulting in a larger positive tool orthogonal rake angle, generally
leads of a reduction of cutting forces. On the other hand, these forces increase when
flank face wear is dominant since the friction surface between the workpiece and
the flank face becomes larger. Quantitative determinations concerning force increase
with increasing tool wear can only be approximated due to the large number of influ-
encing parameters. The following reference values can be assumed approximately
for force increase up to a width of flank wear land of VB = 0.5 mm: About 90% for
the feed force Ff , about 100% for the passive force Fp and about 20% for the cutting
force Fc .
Several specific characteristic values can be distinguished for calculating the
components of the resultant force. These component forces are directly proportional
to the width of undeformed chip b. To identify empirical laws, it is usually advis-
able to relate the measurement to already known, linearly dependent magnitudes in
2000
= Fc / (N/mm)
kc1.1 = 1740 N/mm2
mc
1000
1
Width of undeformed chip b
800
1 mc = 0.7265
600
Cutting force Fc
45
400
1
Fc' = kc1.1 h1mc
200
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0
Undeformed chip thickness
h / mm
Fig. 3.25 Graphical determination of characteristic values kc1.1 and (1mc )
order to minimize the number of variables going into the physical law. In this case,
we form the quotient Fc from the cutting force Fc and the width of undeformed
chip b. If we now plot the values thus found over undeformed chip thickness h in
a double logarithmic plot, the measurement points arrange themselves in a straight
line (Fig. 3.25).
The corresponding linear equation
log(Fc /b) = log(kc1.1 ) + (1 mc ) log h (3.3)
can be converted into the KIENZLE Equation
Fc = kc1.1 h(1mc ) (3.4)
The specific cutting force kc1.1 is the cutting force required to detach a chip of
undeformed chip width b = 1 mm and undeformed chip thickness h = 1 mm. The
exponent (1mc ) designates the gradient of the straight line Fc = f (h) in the double
logarithmic system.
To determine kc1.1 and (1mc ), cutting experiments are carried out for the combi-
nation of workpiece material and cutting tool material under investigation. In these
experiments, the relevant cutting forces are measured with constant cutting speed,
depth of cut and cutting section geometry and plotted in accordance with Fig. 3.25.
The required specific cutting force characteristic parameter kc1.1 is determined by
extrapolating the undeformed chip thickness to h = 1 mm. The tangent of the angle
between the straight line and the x-axis is the desired gradient value (1mc ).
Corresponding equations and characteristic values can be defined for resultant
force components Ff and Fp :
Ff = kf1.1 h(1mf ) (3.5)
Fp = kp1.1 h(1mp ) (3.6)
The values determined in this way are however only valid for undeformed chip
thicknesses of h > 0.1 mm. Values for kc and (1m) can be found in [Kni82].
According to DIN 6584, the energy for cutting is the result of the product of the
paths to be travelled or paths travelled and the components of the resultant force act-
ing in their direction. Correspondingly the powers arising during the cutting process
result from the product of the speed components and the components of the result
force acting in their direction.
Cutting energy Wc and cutting power Pc :
Wc = lc Fc (3.7)
Pc = vc Fc (3.8)
Feed energy Wf and feed power Pf :
Wf = lf Ff (3.9)
Pf = vf Ff (3.10)
Effective energy We and effective power Pe are understood as the sum of all
corresponding cut and feed amounts:
We = Wc + Wf (3.11)
Pe = Pc + Pf (3.12)
Due to the relatively low feed speeds and feed paths, feed energy/power dur-
ing turning amounts to only about 0.033% of the corresponding cutting energy or
cutting power. For this reason, we can assume We Wc and Pe Pc for most
cases.
Figure 3.26 provides an overview of the segmentation of the total active energy
into shear, cutting and friction energy as a function of the undeformed chip thickness
[Vier70]. The illustration shows that the amounts of the different types of energy
depend on the undeformed chip thickness, whereby shear energy has the largest
share for most undeformed chip thicknesses.
The mechanical work used in cutting is almost completely converted into thermal
energy. Since the heat centres are identical with the deformation centres, the shear
Shear energy
Effective Deformation energy
Latent energy
energy We Cutting energy
and
Friction of flank face heat
We = Fe Ie
Friction energy
Friction of rake face
700 Material: 55NiCrMoV6

600 Tensile strength: Rm = 800 N/mm2
Total energy
/ (mdaN/m)
500 Cutting speed: vc = 100 m/min
400
Width of undeformed chip:
Shear energy b = 4.25 mm
300
Tool orthogonal clearance:
200 = 5
Path length due to primary
Friction of rakeface
100
Effective energy We
Tool orthogonal rake angle:

Friction of flank face and cutting energy = 10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
motion
Width of undeformed chip:
h / mm
Fig. 3.26 Segmentation of effective energy in cutting process depending on chip thickness, acc.
to VIEREGGE [Vier59, Vier70]
zone and the friction zones on the tool come into consideration as heat sources.
As Fig. 3.13 shows, the degree of deformation on the bottom of the chip is much
higher in the flow zone than in the shear zone, so one can expect the highest tem-
peratures between the chip and the tool. Since the thickness of the flow zone is very
small in comparison with the shear zone however, these higher temperatures should
not also be equated with a high energy conversion.
The illustration in Fig. 3.27 left gives information about heat that is
absorbed/dissipated by the workpiece, chip and tool. Most of the heat is dissipated
by the chip. Most of the mechanical energy (in this case 75% and generally more
than 50%) is converted in the shear zone. The heat arising in the individual develop-
ment locations is dissipated by thermal conduction, radiation and convection to the
environment. As a result of this heat balance, corresponding temperature fields form
in the workpiece and tool that change until equilibrium between added and removed
heat is achieved. The right side of the figure shows such a temperature field.
If we consider one material particle in the cutting zone, its temperautre will be
at least equal to that of a particle in the shear zone. As it glides further into the
contact zone, the material is intensively heated on the chip bottom side and the tool
on the rake face, because the energy required to overcome friction between the chip
Workpiece
300 Chip
310
o
380 C
5% 130 400
75% 80 450
500 600 500
2% 30 700
18% 650
Tool
600
Material: Steel
Flow stress: kf = 850 N/mm2
Tool material: HW-P20
For steel Cutting speed: vc = 60 m/min
Width of undeformed chip: h = 0.32 mm
Tool orthogonal rake angle: o = 10o
Fig. 3.27 Distribution of heat and temperature in workpiece, chip, and tool in the process of steel
cutting, acc. to KRONENBERG [Kron54] and VIEREGGE [Vier59]
and the rake face is almost completely converted into heat. Since this process only
takes place in boundary layers of the chip and cutting tool material it heats up the
rake and chip bottom side all the more strongly the less time is available for heat
dissipation due to the higher cutting speeds. The maximum temperature does not
appear directly on the cutting edge, but rather at a certain distance from it on the
rake face depending on the cutting conditions.
Determining the temperatures arising during cutting has long been the subject
of intensive research [Gott25, Lang49, Schm53, Kst54, Vier55, Kst56, Axer55].
Already in 1956, KSTERS demonstrated temperatures of over 1000 C on the rake
face when cutting steel with cemented carbide [Kst56]. Later investigations have
qualitatively confirmed these results again and again [Cass94, Denk90, Ehme70a,
Lenz66, Laus88, Beye72, Dama90, LoCa94]. The level of the temperatures acting
on the cutting section depends on the machined material, the cutting tool material,
the selected cutting conditions, tool wear and the cooling medium. Figure 3.28 pro-
vides an impression of the order of magnitude of the mean cutting temperatures to
be expected on the rake face as a function of cutting speed for various cutting tool
materials. In the vc = 2050 m/min range, the temperature profile is non-linear in
the double logarithmic coordinate system. The reason for this is the the growth of
built up-edge arising in this cutting speed range (see Sect. 3.7.2), which interferes
with direct heat conduction.
In comparison to the rake face, temperatures on the flank face are generally low
(Fig. 3.29) [Denk90, Ehme70a, Axer55, Laus88, Beye72, Dama90]. The size of the
temperature difference between the rake face and the flank face, about 200300 C
1150
1100
1050
1000 HW-P1
950
x
900
x
850 x
800 End of growth of x HW-P30
Temperature of rake face / C
750 buildup edge x
700 x
650
HS12145
600
550
Tool material: HWP10, P30
500 High speed steel HS12145
Material: C53E
450 Geometry of cutting section:
o o s r r r
400
6 6 0 70 84 0.8 mm
Cross section of undeformed chip:
350
ap f = 3 x 0.25 mm2
Cutting time: tc = 15 s
300
10 16 25 40 63 100 250
Cutting speed vc / (m/min)
Fig. 3.28 Mean rake face temperature
when cutting with cemented carbide tools according to [Ehme70a], is strongly co-
determined by the position of the contact zone on the rake face. The closer the rake
face moves towards the cutting edge, the more the temperatures prevalent on the
rake and flank faces conform. This means that temperatures are very high on the
flank face as well, especially during finishing operations with high cutting speeds
and small feeds. According to the information provided by the literature [Ehme70a,
Vier53, Schm53, Kst54, Vier55, Kst56, Axer55, Beye72], temperatures of over
800 C can be found on the flank face depending on the selected marginal conditions
when cutting with cemented carbide tools.
There are various methods and devices available for temperature measurement
during the cutting process (Fig. 3.30) [Lowa67], which vary according to technique,
experimental setup and measurement position. The only metrological techniques
that come into question for measuring temperature during the cutting process are
time-resolution measurement techniques, since the cutting process duration (and
thus the achievement of a thermally stationary state) is too short for other methods
Weld 1200C 1000C

0 1 2 3 4
800C
1 600C
500C Example for the
distribution of
Ni-tube Isolation of silicon 2 temperature
0.130.20 varnish 400 C inside the
cutting edge
Compensating mV CrNi-Wire
resistance
0.07 mm
Cutting wedge geometry
Material: 30Mn4
Cutting tool material: HW-P10 o o s r r
Cutting speed: vc = 180 m/min Bevel width: 0.5 mm
Cross section of 0 4 0 45 90
45 to cutting edge
2
undeformed chip: apf = 3 0.74 mm
Fig. 3.29 Measurement of temperature with embedded thermocouple on cemented carbide, acc.
to Ksters [Kst56]
Temperature measurment during machining
1. Caloric heat 2. Measurement with 3. Thermo-electric 4. Radiation-

measurement thermo-colours measurement measurement
2.1. Coat of paint at 2.2. Coat of paint

an uninvolved at the inner
surface of the surface of a 4.1. Radiation
tool splitted tool pyrometer
4.3. Measurement
4.2. Infrared
of infrared
photo-
radiation
thermometry
with PDS-cell
3.4. Assembly of
3.3. Assembly of a
3.1. One-chisel 3.2. Two-chisel- an isolated
complete
method method wire as
thermocouple
themocouple
Fig. 3.30 Temperature measurement in cutting processes

(e.g. coating with temperature-sensitive colours or powders with constant melting

points). Of the processes introduced in Fig. 3.30, the one and two-chisel methods,
temperature measurement with thermocouples, pyrometers and photo thermometry
are of technical interest.
GOTTWEIN developed the one-chisel method as the first direct method for mea-
suring temperature and then, in cooperation with REICHEL, the two-chisel method
[Gott25, Herb26, Vier70]. Both methods are based upon the principle of a thermo-
couple. Both tool and workpiece form the heat soldering joints, while the tool clamp
is the cold soldering joint. The workpiece and the tool must be clamped in isola-
tion, since the thermoelectric voltage arising in the contact zone between the cutting
insert and the chip would otherwise be dismantled through the machine in a short
circuit. Contact between the passing chip and the workpiece outside of the contact
zone must therefore also be avoided. Both methods require electrically conductive
materials and cutting tool materials. In the case of the two-chisel method, cutting
tool materials with varying thermoelectric properties must be used. The greatest dis-
advantage of the single-chisel method is the protracted and elaborate process needed
to calibrate the thermocouple which must be carried out again for every cutting tool
material and workpiece material combination. This process can detect temperatures
of up to 1200 C.
Temperature measurement with thermocouples is among the most common tech-
niques today. Installing a thermocouple into the tool or workpiece allows for a
point-wise determination of the temperature field (Fig. 3.29). The thermocouples
included are classified as encapsulated thermocouples, sheathed thermocouples and
single filament thermocouples. Thermocouples can be applied in blind holes in
the tool [Kst56, Qure66, Abra97] or in the workpiece [Osul02]. Temporal res-
olution is influenced by the response time of the thermocouple and heat transfer
between the thermocouple and the device under test. These techniques generally
have low temporal resolution. Also problematic is the contact heat transfer resis-
tance between the surface under test and the thermocouple due to the roughness of
the bore. This causes a difference in temperature between the measurement surface
and the thermocouple. In the case of sheathed thermocouples with isolated mea-
suring points, there is also the distance between the thermocouple surface and the
internal measurement point. Due to the extremely high temperature gradients with
short test times characteristic of cutting processes, this can lead to much lower mea-
surements. The maximum values dominant in the friction zones cannot be measured
in this way. Thermal compounds are used to improve heat transfer between the ther-
mocouple and the surface. Another disadvantage is that direct contact between the
thermocouple and the test object is necessary and that the holes used to position the
thermocouples can significantly affect the distribution of temperature.
The most important techniques in radiation measurement, which determines tem-
perature by measuring the heat radiation emitted from a surface, are pyrometry and
thermography. Pyrometry is the contact-free determination of absolute temperature
by measuring the inherent radiation of a body without spatial scanning of the object
field. Thermography provides a pictorial representation of temperature distribu-
tion. Radiation techniques have decisive advantages compared with thermoelectric
methods: the time resolution is much higher (whereby pyrometers are principally
faster than infrared cameras), and they are also contact-free.
One significant problem when measuring for an exact absolute temperature with
a radiation method is the dependence of the radiation emitted on the grade of
emission of the surface. Since the emission grade is the function of many factors like
temperature, wavelength, angular position, material and surface condition, calibrat-
ing the measurement device for a particular surface is very difficult. The precision of
total radiation and broadband partial radiation pyrometers are especially influenced
by factors that alter the spectral grade of emission of the surface. In cutting, effects
such as surface roughness and oxidation influence the grade of emission of different
surfaces greatly. To limit the influence of the grade of emission on measured tem-
peratures, narrow-band partial radiation, two-colour and multi-colour pyrometers
have been developed. The two-colour pyrometer (Fig. 3.31) has the advantage that
the spectral grades of emission 1 and 2 of the surface need not be known. Since
the two selected wavelengths lie directly next to each other, 1 2 . An error in
measurement will only result if both wavelengths 1 and 2 differ greatly. Further
advantages of this principle are that the measured temperature is independent of
signal dampening, due to dust for example, so long as both signals are dampened
equally. Moreover, the temperature of objects that are smaller than the optical field
of vision can be measured without error [Mll85].
Thermography with infrared cameras can be used as an alternative to pyrometri-
cal measurements. The advantage to this is the pictoral representation of temperature
information. Commercial cameras usually work with long wavelengths and large
broad-bands, which makes it possible to measure lower temperatures but which also
has a negative effect on the attainable accuracy. Scanning cameras that work with
a single detector are too slow for fast processes. Some high-speed infrared cameras
Workpiece Chip Dichroic

Lens beam-splitter
Point of measurement
IR-filter
Insert
Glass fiber Photodiode Amplifier

( = 0.42 mm)
Characteristics
Measurement of two discrete wavelength bands 1 = 1.7 m, and 2 = 2 m
which are set into ratio
High temporal resolution (approx. 2 s)
Independence from grade of emission (no calibration required)
Large range of temperature measurement (2501200 C)
Contact free measurement
Fig. 3.31 Build-up of a two-colour pyrometer in principle, acc. to MLLER [Mll85]

offer integration times in the range of microseconds, making it possible to capture

fast processes without motion blur.
One major problem in the metrological determination of cutting tempera-
tures, besides poor accessibility, is the limited local resolution of the available
measurement techniques as well as the small range (only a few micrometers) within
which the maximum temperatures arise. Local temperatures in the boundary layer
between the cutting tool material and the sliding chip also cannot be captured with
existing measurement methods. Promising attempts to determine thermal tool load
more accurately than previously have been made with sensors in thin-film technol-
ogy, which are applied to tool contact zones and determine temperature distribution
within the contact zones during the machining process [Zieb95, Tns95, Kloc97].
This technology is however not yet suitable for cutting processes with high wear.
Another highly promising method for determining temperatures in the boundary
layers between the material and the cutting tool material is the implantation of a
window made of diamond in the tool contact zone. Heat radiation emitted from the
chip bottom side passes through the window via a mirror integrated into the chisel
holder and reaches an infrared camera [Mll96].
A direct comparison of the temperatures measured by various authors is only
rarely possible, since experimental conditions generally deviate from each other.
There are numerous parameters that may have an effect on temperature: the type
of cutting process, materials, cutting tool materials, possible coatings of the cutting
tool materials, the use of cutting fluids and cutting parameters such as feed, cut-
ting speed, depth of cut and cutting section geometry. Moreover, the measurement
position is also crucial as well as metrological parameters like local or temporal res-
olution. The duration of the cutting process and the measurement time must also be
taken into consideration.
Cutting speed clearly has the greatest influence on the maximum temperatures
that arise in the contact zone between the chip and the tool. In the case of the
basic process, most measurements indicate an apparent rise in temperature at low
to average cutting speeds, while at high speeds there is an approximately constant
temperature level.
3.6.1 Influence of the Geometry of the Cutting Section

Depending on the cutting task at hand, we can select from a diverse array of cutting
section geometries. Geometry selection depends on
the cutting tool material,
material,
cutting parameters and
tool geometry.
Typical tool angles in steel cutting are given in Fig. 3.32. Determining the tool
angle always involves a compromise that can only do approximate justice to various
requirements.
Figure 3.33 shows how a change in cutting section geometry influences cutting
parameters.
Geometry of Tool Tool Cutting Cutting Tool Corner

cutting section orthogonal orthogonal edge edge included radius
rake angle clearance inclination angle angle
Cutting tool
material s r r r
High speed steel

6 to +20 6 to 8
(HSS) 6 10 60 0.4
to to to to
+6 100 120 2 mm
Cemented carbide 6 to +15 6 to 12
Fig. 3.32 Tool angle for machining of steel
Lower minimum chip thickness Increasing stability of cutting section

o = 10 to +20
+
Improved chip formation

o = 6 to 12 Improved surface
Reduced cutting force
Increased stability of cutting Decreasing wear
section Decreasing
wear
Increasing stability
of cutting section Increasing of passive forces,
Increasing stability of cutting
section
Chamfer of the
+
rake face s = 6 to +6
r = 0.4 to 2 mm
r = 10 to 100 Decreasing chatter,

Decreasing cutting
Decreasing wear
force
Increasing
Decreasing chatter, surface quality Controlled
Decreasing cutting chip flow
force
Fig. 3.33 Influence of cutting edge geometry on characteristic machining values
3.6.1.1 Tool Orthogonal Clearance o

Wear on the flank face (denoted by the width of flank wear land VB) is mostly
determined by the size of the tool orthogonal clearance. If it is large, the cutting
section is weakened in two respects: a heat build-up can ensue in the tool that can
possibly lead to impaired or loss of hot hardness; also, if the wedge angle is too
small, this increases the danger of breaking on the cutting edge. If o 0 , surface
wear increases because pressure weldings appear on the contact areas of the friction
partners to a greater extent.
3.6.1.2 Tool Orthogonal Rake Angle o , Wedge Angle o

The tool orthogonal rake angle o can, in contrast to o , be either positive or neg-
ative. It is responsible for the detachment of the material to be cut. The size of the
tool orthogonal rake angle o affects the stability of the wedge; highly positive tool
orthogonal rake angles can thus lead to tool breakage as a result of cutting section
weakening. The primary advantages of a positive tool orthogonal rake angle are the
low cutting and feed forces as well as a usually improved workpiece surface qual-
ity. However, a chip flow that is supported by a positive tool orthogonal rake angle
often has insufficient chip breakage (tendency towards the formation of continuous
chips). Negative tool orthogonal rake angles increase cutting edge stability (used for
example for planing and machining workpieces with apertures, rolling skin or cast
skin). The thereby increased deformation of the passing chip and the large cutting
forces result in a high temperature load on the cutting section. Increased crater wear
appears on the rake face, which can lead to a decreased tool service life. Together
with the wedge angle o , the tool orthogonal rake angle o and the tool orthogonal
clearance form a right angle o (Fig. 3.8).
3.6.1.3 Tool Included Angle r

Due to the tool stability that is desired under extreme cutting conditions, the tool
included angle r should be as large as possible. Small tool included angles are
required especially for copier and NC machining. The possible range is limited by
specifying the position of the major cutting edge and by making sure that the angle
between the minor cutting edge and the feed direction is at least 2 in order to avoid
subsequent shaving of the minor cutting edge on the workpiece.
3.6.1.4 Cutting Edge Angle r

At constant feed and depth of cut, the width of undeformed chip b increases with
decreasing r . This causes the specific cutting edge wear to sink, so small cutting
edge angles are used especially to machine high strength materials in order to keep
tool load and wear low. On the other hand, the passive force Fp rises with decreasing
r , increasing the danger of clattering vibrations due to growing instability of the
cutting process.
3.6.1.5 Cutting Edge Inclination s

A negative cutting edge inclination can stabilize the cutting process to a large extent
since the lead of the tool does not take place on the cutting edge but rather towards
the middle of the cutting edge. This results in an improved load profile, so that the
danger of cutting edge breakage due to local overloading is reduced. First cuts that
have minimal loads are of particular importance especially in the case of interrupted
3.7 Wear 71
cross sections (e.g. in milling or planing) as well as in the machining of cast iron
and forged parts (workpieces with transverse drill holes, shrinkage cavities).
Negative cutting edge inclinations induce large passive forces, which must be
absorbed by the machine tools (stiffness perpendicular to the main spindle!).
The cutting edge inclination also influences the direction of chip flow. A nega-
tive cutting edge inclination can result in the chip getting diverted to the workpiece
surface, decreasing the surface quality.
3.6.1.6 Corner Radius r

The corner radius to be selected depends on the feed f and the depth of cut
ap . Together with the selected feed, it influences the attainable workpiece sur-
face quality to a great extent (see Sect. 7.2.3), whereby the following relation is
approximately true:
f2
Rt = (3.13)
8r
Large corner radii improve the surface quality and cutting stability. Small corner
radii have the advantage of a smaller clattering tendency due to smaller passive
forces.
3.7 Wear
During the cutting process, deformation, separation and friction processes take place
in the area of the cutting edge. The cutting tool materials used are subject to an
extremely complex load collective characterized by high compressive stresses, high
cutting speeds and high temperatures.
Using cutting parameters common in practice, cutting tools reach the end of their
service life because of continuously increasing wear on both rake and flank faces.
This is explained as the progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid
body, brought about by mechanical causes, i.e. contact and relative motion of a
solid, liquid or gaseous counter body.
3.7.1 Wear Mechanisms

The main mechanisms that cause wear are adhesion, abrasion, tribochemical
reactions and surface disruption (Fig. 3.34).
3.7.1.1 Abrasion
Abrasion occurs when rough areas of the counter body or particles present as inter-
mediate material or also as counter bodies penetrate into the surface of the cutting
tool material and simultaneously make a tangential motion, producing scores and
Adhesion Abrasion Tribochemical Surface damage

reaction
Fig. 3.34 Schematic illustration of the four main mechanisms of wear, acc. to ZUM GAHR
[ZumG92]
Micro-plowing Micro-cutting Microcracks
Fig. 3.35 Types of material damages caused by abrasive parts, acc. to ZUM GAHR [ZumG87]
micro-cutting. The various forms of abrasion are designated as groove, fluid ero-
sion, mill, notch or blast wear. Often, the term groove wear is used synonymously
with the term abrasive wear [Habi80, Czic06].
In the case of groove wear, hard areas of roughness or hard particles penetrate
into the surface of the stressed material, creating scores or grooves by a sliding
movement. Wear can be caused by a rough, compact counter body (counter body
grooving) or by loose particles in the case of sliding load (particle grooving).
The process of material damage can be subdivided into micro-plowing, micro-
cutting and microcracks (Fig. 3.35). Micro-plowing and micro-cutting are the
predominant wear processes in the case of ductile materials. In the case of micro-
plowing, the material is plastically deformed within the wear groove and pushed
towards the groove edges. In the ideal case, no material is removed. This can how-
ever occur if the material is repeatedly pushed to the groove edges due to the
simultaneous effect of many abrasive particles or due to multiple effect of a sin-
gle particle, and the material finally fails due to fatigue. Ideal micro-cutting leads to
material removal in the form of a chip, the volume of which is equal to the volume
of the wear groove created. In the case of brittle materials, microcracks also arise.
Material particles are hereby generated by means of cracking and crack growth in
the stressed surface. The volume of the wear particle created in micro-cracking is
much larger than that of the continuous wear groove [ZumG87, ZumG92, Habi80].
3.7 Wear 73
3.7.1.2 Adhesion
Adhesion is defined as the formation of bonds between certain molecules [Erin90,
ZumG87]. As a wear mechanism this process is understood as one in which atomic
bonds (e.g. in the form of micro-welds) are formed in the contact zone between the
material and the cutting tool material. These bonds are then deformed, reinforced
and sheared off during a tangential motion of the friction partners.
The process of adhesion (i.e. the formation of micro-welds between two fric-
tion partners) can come about by atomic interaction (chemical adhesion) between
the partners, such as thermally induced diffusion processes, electron exchange or
electric polarisation. It can also result from mechanical snagging (mechanical adhe-
sion) of the workpiece material, which has plastically become extremely deformable
under high temperatures, with the cutting tool material [Tell93].
By means of adhesion, particles can be transferred from one wear partner to the
other. If this transfer is the primary cause of wear, it is sometimes referred to as
adhesive wear, although other wear mechanisms are usually also involved in the
formation of loose wear particles [Habi80].
Adhesion is a pairing property that depends on the characteristics of the base
and counter bodies. Whether a material has the propensity to adhesion can only
be answered with reference to the material of the counter body, with which it may
either form strong, weak or no adhesion bonds at all [Habi80].
The strength of an adhesion bond is described by the adhesion coefficient. This
is defined as the quotient of the normal force FN with which two solid bodies in
relative motion are pressed against each other and the opposing force FA that must
be applied to undo the bond formed by adhesion [Habi80, Andr59, Siko63].
The propensity of solid bodies to form adhesion bonds can be evaluated with
the help of their surface energy. Contact angle measurement is one method for
ascertaining the surface energy of solid bodies. [Bobz00] describes a measurement
process that makes it possible to compare the surface energies of coating systems
with respect to their polar and dispersive parts. Since it is the polar energy share that
is primarily responsible for the propensity of a solid body to adhesion, the surface
energy of cutting tools (i.e. especially that of the coating system) should have as little
polar energy as possible in order to minimize that propensity [Bobz00, Kloc05].
During chip formation, new material surfaces are generated that, without adsorp-
tion or reaction boundary layers in statu nascendi, come in a chemically highly
active state into contact with the tool surface under high pressures and temperatures,
approaching that surface on the atomic level. Plastic deformation processes lead to
the formation of large real contact areas. The cutting process thus provides very
good opportunity for the appearance of adhesively caused interactions [Bmc89,
Neis94, Erin90].
3.7.1.3 Tribooxidation
The term tribooxidation refers to chemical reactions of the cutting material and the
material with components of the intermediate material or the surrounding medium
as a result of activation caused by friction. Tribooxidation changes the properties
of the external boundary layer. Reaction products can be formed that are either
removed with the chip or remain stuck to the cutting tool material as a coating.
Wear can be increased or reduced by this. Whether tribooxidation increases the
amount of wear essentially depends on the hardness of the reaction products formed
in comparison with the hardness of the cutting material. A decrease is especially
possible when the reaction layers prevent direct metallic contact between the base
and counter bodies, limiting the effect of adhesion [Erin90, Habi80, Tell93].
3.7.1.4 Diffusion
Diffusion is the thermally activated change of position of individual atoms
[Horn67]. This involves a temperature-dependent physicochemical process in which
the wear resistance of the cutting tool material can be reduced by foreign substances
diffusing with it or its own components diffusing away from it. The diffusion of
atoms from the tribologically loaded areas of the tribopartners leads on the one hand
to a direct loss of material, which is usually very small but can still certainly be mea-
sured as a quantity of wear; however, much more serious is the potential reduction
of the wear resistance of cutting tools by the diffusion of certain alloying elements.
Diffusion of essential alloying elements can lead to decreased hardness and thus to
reduced resistance of the cutting tool material to abrasion [Neis94, Erin90, Habi80].
The high pressures and temperatures in the contact zones characteristic of the
cutting process provide an ideal setting for diffusion processes between the material
and cutting tool material. Diffusion processes appear especially when high cutting
speeds are used, thereby leading to high temperatures in the contact zone. In the
area of the contact zone, the cutting tool material and the material approach each
other on the atomic level. Furthermore, there is a difference in concentration due to
the differing compositions of the material and the cutting tool material which also
is preserved in the material because of the constantly added chip [Neis94, Erin90].
3.7.1.5 Surface Damage

Surface damage occurs as a result of tribological alternating stresses. In the stresses
surface areas, alternating mechanical stresses lead to structural changes, fatigue,
cracking, crack growth and even to separation of wear particles [Habi80].
As opposed to abrasion, in which wear particles can be formed by a single stress
process, surface damage is usually preceded by a longer incubation period during
which no measurable wear occurs. In this period, the formation of wear particles
by means of structural changes as well as cranking and crack growth is prepared
[Habi80].
3.7.2 Causes of Wear

Friction processes in tool contact zones are comparable to those of dry friction in
a vacuum. Together with extraordinarily high mechanical and thermal stresses, the
tool is generally worn out quickly [Rabi65, Krag71, Opit70a, Opit70b].
3.7 Wear 75
Diffusive
wear
Total wear
Abrasion
Adhesion
High temp.
oxidation
Cutting temperature
(cutting velocity; feed et al.)
Fig. 3.36 Causes of wear in cutting processes
According to current information, the following separate causes can be given for
the collective term wear (Fig. 3.36):
mechanical wear (abrasion),

the shearing off of adhered material
damage to the cutting edge due to mechanical and thermal overstress,
diffusion,
scaling.
These processes overlap to a large extent and are only partially separable from
each other with respect both to their cause and to their effect on wear [Opit67,
Kni65, Ehme70b, Ehme70c].
3.7.2.1 Mechanical Wear (Abrasion)

Mechanical wear or abrasive wear occurs at both low and high cutting speeds.
Groove wear in the form of counter body or particle grooving can be seen as the
dominant form of wear in this category. In the case of counter body grooving, tri-
bological stress on the cutting tool material is based on the abrasive effect of hard
particles fixed on the contact surface of the workpiece or the chip. These particles
can originate from the workpiece material (oxides, carbides, nitrides) or be trans-
ferred by adhesion from the cutting tool material to the workpiece or chip bottom
side. In the case of particle grooving, loose particles are the cause of wear. These
can arise directly from abrasion (micro-cutting, microcracks) or from surface dis-
ruption. However, these may also be adhesion particles or products of tribooxidation
removed by abrasion or surface fatigue. Due to the high pressures and temperatures
that predominate in the contact zones on both rake and flank faces, we must presume
that the loose particles generated are pressed into the softer counter bodies flowing
by them, contributing to further wear by counter body grooving.
Due to abrasion or surface disruption on the cutting edge or in the contact zones
on the rake and flank faces, cutting tool material particles that have broken away
from the cutting tool material flow over the rake or flank face under high pressure.
This can cause further wear by micro-cutting or microcracks. This process, also
called self-wear [Ehme70a], is of particular importance especially with respect to
the formation and development of flank face wear.
3.7.2.2 Shearing-Off of Adhered Material Particles (Adhesion)

In the case of micro-welds being sheared off, material separation can occur in the
boundary layer, within one or within both bodies. The term adhesive wear is used as
soon as material is separated in the cutting tool material. Adhesion is also responsi-
ble for the formation and growth of built-up edges, in which material is transferred
from the material to be cut to the cutting tool [Erin90, Habi80, ZumG87].
Ferritic and austenitic steel materials have a high propensity to adhesion with the
cutting tool material. The reason for this is above all the high plastic deformability
of these materials. The high ductility of ferritic materials is based above all on their
relatively low strength, in the case of austenitic steel materials on their face-centred
cubic crystal lattice.
Tungsten carbide, the basis of hardness and wear resistance in conventional WC-
Co cemented carbides, has a hexagonal crystal structure. On the other hand, the
crystal lattice of the binding metal cobalt is face-centred cubic above 690 K, which
is favourable for adhesive processes. The titanium-based coating systems commonly
deposited on cemented carbides also have face-centred cubic structures, resulting in
a strong tendency to adhesion when machining austenitic steels. The types of wear
resulting from this strong adhesive tendency can range from material bonding on
the rake and flank faces to de-coating of coated tools in the area of the contact zone.
Built-up edges are highly reinforced layers of the machined material that take
over the function of the tool cutting edge as bondings on the tool. This is made pos-
sible by the property of certain materials to harden during plastic deformation. The
material adhering to the cutting edge is deformed by chip pressure, making it very
hard. This makes it possible for it to take over the function of a chip-removing tool.
Depending on the cutting conditions, built-up edge particles slip periodically
between the flank face and the cutting surface. In the case of high hardness and
removal frequencies up to about 1.5 kHz, these particles lead to increased flank face
wear and considerably deteriorate the surface quality of the workpiece (Fig. 3.37).
Since the chip is diverted with the built-up edge and not the rake face, crater wear is
usually negligible.
Figure 3.38 shows a wear-cutting speed function (VB-vc graph). According to it,
flank face wear does not increase with cutting speed continuously, but has at least
two distinct extremes [Opit64]. Wear first reaches a maximum at the cutting speed at
which the built-up edges reach their largest dimensions. A wear minimum appears
at the cutting speed at which no more built-up edges form.
Flank face wear decreases after exceeding the maximum, despite higher cutting
speeds. This can be ascribed to the fact that reinforcement of the built-up edge
3.7 Wear 77
1 2
3 4
Fig. 3.37 Scheme of the periodic growth of build-up edge
0,24
Width of flank wear land
Material: C53E vc = 20 m/min

0,20 Cutting mat.: HW-P30
Cross section of
0,16
VB / mm
undeformed chip:
0,12 ap f = 2 0.315 mm2
0,08
0,04
0
1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 vc = 30 m/min
Geometry of cutting wedge:

o o s r r re
8 10 4 90 60 1mm
Cutting time tc = 30 min
Fig. 3.38 Wear on flank face and growth of build-up edge
begins to decrease as a result of recrystallization processes. It becomes unstable

and no longer migrates partially between the cut surface and the flank face, but as a
whole across the rake face.
The position of the maxima and minima of the VB-vc graph is contingent on
temperature. It is shifted to lower cutting speeds by any kind of measures taken
to increase the cutting temperature (e.g. higher feed, smaller tool orthogonal rake
angle, higher material strength). Measures to reduce the cutting temperature (e.g.
cooling) shift the extremes accordingly to higher cutting speeds [Opit69, Peke74].
3.7.2.3 Mechanical and Thermal Overstress

Damage to the cutting edge, such as breaking, parallel cracks, comb cracks or plastic
deformation, is the consequence of mechanical or thermal overstress.
Cutting Edge Chipping

Large cutting forces lead easily to breaking on the cutting edge (cutting edge chip-
ping) or corner if the wedge angle or tool included angles of the tool are too small or
the cutting tool material used is too brittle. In the case of such breaking, the profile of
the fracture surface is determined by the direction of the cutting force [Kni75]. Cut
interruptions can also lead to breaking, especially when tough materials are being
cut, the chips of which tend to stick.
Small amounts of breaking occur when the workpieces contain hard non-metallic
inclusions that originate during deoxidation of the steel [Opit64a, Opit66, Opit62].
Sintered oxides and more wear-resistant types of cemented carbide are sensitive to
this type of local overstress, especially in the case of manufacturing processes with
relatively small cross-sections of undeformed chip (e.g. reaming or shaving).
Distinct breaking of cutting tool material on the major and/or minor cutting edge
can also be caused by chips striking against the cutting edge or during the rotation
of shaft sections because of chip jamming between the cutting insert and the work-
piece. Breakage of the cutting edge can occur both on the top and bottom sides of
the insert.
Parallel Cracks
In the case of interrupted cuts (e.g. milling), the cutting tool material is subject to
strong mechanical alternating stress. This dynamic pressure threshold load can lead
to fatigue failure. Quick consecutive cutting force changes lead, especially in the
case of milling with cemented carbide tools, to parallel cracks (Fig. 3.39).
The quickly alternating stress in the formation of lamellar chips can also lead
to parallel crack formation if a critical stress cycle is exceeded [Domk74, Beck69],
e.g. when cutting titanium materials.
Comb Cracks
Comb cracks are a form of damage to the cutting edge as a result of thermal
alternating stresses (Fig. 3.39). Such stresses originate mainly while working with
interrupted cuts.
During tool engagement, the cutting edge quickly heats up to high temperatures.
It cools down after the tool exits the workpiece. The difference between the highest
and the lowest temperature depends, among other things, on the material, cutting
3.7 Wear 79
Di
re
cti
primary motion
on Comb and parallel cracks
Direction of
of
co
m
b
cr
ac
ks
ce
e fa
Rak KM
GJS70 vc = 200 m/min
llel Comb cracks

f para
tion o
Direc cracks VB
e
k fac
Flan
42CrMo4+QT vc = 275 m/min
Temperature Stress Temperature Stress

Tensile + 0 Compressive Tensile + 0 Compressive
Heating Cooling
during cutting process
Fig. 3.39 Comb and parallel crack formation in milling, acc. to VIEREGGE [Vier59]
conditions and the ratio of the paths covered in the material and in the air. In the case
of interrupted cuts, the use of cutting fluids is particularly important with respect
to the size of the temperature difference because it has a much larger quenching
effect than air. Cooling is advantageous to the formation of comb cracks in the case
of cemented carbides and ceramic cutting tool materials. The profile of the comb
cracks is aligned with that of the isotherms of the temperature field in the cutting
part.
The comb cracks arising in the cutting part during milling or also in short-cycle
turning are generally temperature change cracks. These should be distinguished
from thermoshock cracks such as develop during turning or milling while using
cutting fluid. Thermoshock cracks are formed by a nonrecurring steep temperature
change, while temperature change cracks form only gradually in the cutting part
in the course of the cutting edge engagement. While in the case of thermoshock
the thermally caused tensile strain arising in the contact zone exceeds the strength
of the cutting tool material and leads directly to cracking, the stresses leading to
the formation of temperature change cracks are below the strength of the cutting
tool material. The development of temperature change cracks thus requires several
periodic temperature changes as a rule.
Due to the high energy level thermoshock cracks propagate with greater speed.
Crack growth is largely transcrystalline. Depending on the stress level, they can
acquire very large depths in the cutting tool material (> 1 mm), thus leading to
considerable weakening of the cutting edge [Gers98].
Temperature change cracks can be observed in both wet and dry cuts. Besides the
amount of thermal load, the cutting cycle and the number of cutting cycles play a
decisive role in their formation. The use of cutting fluids leads to a strong reduction
of the amount of cutting cycles required for cracking [Gers98].
Depending on the bending stress which the cutting edge is subject to during
the cutting process and which are superimposed over thermally induced stresses,
the cracks become larger with increasing numbers of cutting cycles. With a corre-
sponding output length, they can relatively quickly achieve a critical size leading
to fracture. As a result of the notching effect coming from the crack, they can also
become the source of further cracks [Gers98].
Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation of the cutting edge arises when the thermomechanical stress
effecting the tool cutting edge exceeds the deformation resistance of the cutting tool
material. The influencing parameters are the strength of the material to be cut, the
cutting parameters, the geometry of the insert and, on the part of the cutting tool
material, its high temperature properties like hardness, compressive strength and
creep behaviour.
Cutting edges made of tool steel or high speed steel deform the stronger the
smaller the difference is between the temperature of the cutting edge and the anneal-
ing temperature of the cutting tool material. Plastic deformations also appear in the
case of cemented carbides and cermet, however only at higher temperatures (cutting
speeds) and under higher forces as is the case for tool or high speed steels. Cemented
carbides deform more the more binder phase there is, usually cobalt.
Plastic deformation of the cutting edge results in a considerable increase in wear
and can lead to sudden disruption of the tool by cracking and shearing off of the cut-
ting edge. It thus limits above all the cross-section of undeformed chip and cutting
speeds applicable in rough turning.
3.7.2.4 Diffusion
In the case of heat wear resistant cemented carbide tools, diffusion wear must be
expected at high cutting speeds and mutual solubility of the partners. Tool steel and
high speed steel already become soft at temperatures at which diffusion can hardly
manifest itself (e.g. about 600 C for high speed steel).
When cutting with uncoated cemented carbide substrates, the following reactions
can occur (Fig. 3.40):
diffusion of Fe into the binder phase Co,

diffusion of Co into the steel, whereby Fe and Co form a gapless series of mixed
crystals,
3.7 Wear 81
(Ti, Ta, Nb, W) C
Co-W-C-mixedcrystal
Fe
WC:
Dissolution into:
C
Fe3W3C; (FeW)6C;
(FeW)23C6
Co
Tool Chip
Cutting material Material

Cemented carbide WC-Co X6CrNiMoTi17122
50 W, Co
Mass percent %
40 W
30 Fe, Cr, Ni
Fe
20
Co
10
0
m 5 0 5
Fig. 3.40 Presentation of the diffusion phenomena in cemented carbide tools
dissolution of tungsten carbide to form mixed and double carbides in the form of
Fe3 W3 C, (FeW)6 C and (FeW)23 C6 .
The carbon released during the dissolution of tungsten carbide migrates in the
direction of lesser concentration, i.e. into the steel. The diffusion of carbon passes
into the cobalt phase. The maximum solubility of carbon in cobalt is about 0.7% at
1200 C. In the presence of Fe the solubility is increased to 1.52%. The diffusing
iron thus introduces two reactions, both of which accelerate dissolution. It lends
itself to the formation of iron mixed carbides and increases the reception of carbon
in cobalt, which is in turn the prerequisite for the dissolution of tungsten carbide.
The diffusion processes that are possible between cemented carbide and steel
materials can be shown very effectively with the help of annealing tests. To this pur-
pose, cemented carbide-material pairs were annealed at a temperature of 1100 C,
a pressure of 12.6 MPa and a holding time of 2 h in a protective gas atmosphere
of argon. Then the samples that were fused together on the contact surface were
separated on an abrasive cut-off machine perpendicularly to the contact level, and
after these sample halves were grinded and buffed, the distribution of elements
was analysed with a microprobe perpendicularly to the contact surface cutting tool
material/material.
As the quantitative line scans in Fig. 3.40 show, diffusion phenomena take place
under the selected annealing parameters between the uncoated cemented carbide
and the austenitic steel material here selected. On the side of the steel material,
there is a diffusion of iron, chrome and nickel into the cutting tool material. In the
opposite direction (i.e. from the cutting material into the material) tungsten and
cobalt diffuse.
The dissolution of tungsten carbide, the bearer of hardness and wear resistance,
caused by the diffusion of iron into the cemented carbide leads to a weakening
of the structure and lowers the resistance of the cemented carbide substrate against
abrasion. The consequence of this is the formation of distinct crater wear (Fig. 3.41).
Since diffusion phenomena depend on temperature, the cutting speed influences on
an elementary level the speed with which crater wear develops. Uncoated cemented
carbides can thus only be used at relatively low cutting speeds (vc < 100 m/ min).
The cemented carbide substrate also has a serious effect on crater formation. Mixed
carbides on the basis of titanium and tantalum/niobium have, in comparison to WC,
a much higher chemical stability towards iron. Mixed carbides reduce the diffusion
of iron into the cobalt binder phase, thus increasing the resistance of the cutting tool
material to crater wear and increasing its heat wear resistance quite substantially.
The most effective way to reduce crater wear is coating the cemented carbide
substrate. Cemented carbide layers seal the substrate surface. This prevents direct
contact between the substrate and the material, thus reducing or suppressing diffu-
sion phenomena. As the line scans of annealing tests in Fig. 3.42 show, diffusion
processes between the cemented carbide substrate and the material can by all means
still occur in the case of TiN or TiCN layers. In contrast, no more diffusion takes
place in the case of the coated cemented carbide with Al2 O3 as an intermediate layer.
The aluminium oxide layer thus functions as a diffusion barrier. The elements iron,
nickel and chrome are found in the ZrN surface layer, while tungsten and cobalt are
in the TiN boundary layer (Fig. 3.42). In the aluminium oxide intermediate layer
Uncoated cemented carbide, tc = 40s Coated cemented carbide, tc = 20 min
vc = 120 m/min, f = 0.32 mm, ap = 2 mm vc = 200 m/min, f = 0.2 mm, ap = 2 mm

Material: X6CrNiMoTi17122
Fig. 3.41 Formation of crater wear on an uncoated and a coated cemented carbide, acc. to
GERSCHWILER [Gers04]
3.7 Wear 83
Ti
WC-7,5Co- 6,8MK TiN TiN X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2
(C,N)
W
Co
Fe
Cr
Ni
WC-7,5Co- Ti X6CrNiMoTi
TiN Al2O3 ZrN
6,8MK (C,N) 17-12-2
W Fe
Co Cr
Ni
Fig. 3.42 Verification of the diffusion phenomena between coated cemented carbide and steel
dependant on the coating system on the basis of annealing tests
the traceable amount of these elements is reduced to 0 mass-%. There is above all
no indication that iron, chrome, tungsten or cobalt have diffused through the Al2 O3
intermediate layer on the opposite side of that layer.
The observation that, excluding air or water, electrically isolated oxide layers
function as diffusion barriers on cemented carbides as opposed to semiconducting
nitride or carbon nitride layers can be explained as follows. In electrically isolating
oxides like Al2 O3 or HfO2 , only ion diffusion is possible, no migration of elec-
trons or holes. The result of this is that component diffusion becomes impossible.
Component refers to an atom or iron, which theoretically can be split into an ion
and an electron. For reasons of electron neutrality, the iron atom cannot release
its electrons outside the layer and then migrate through the layer as an ion. The
consequence is that these oxide layers act as barriers as long as there is no way for
electrons to get around it, and the transport of oxygen ions is also slow enough (in
oxides this transport is empirically slower than cation transport by several orders of
magnitude.) In semiconductive or conductive layers however, electrons can migrate
through the layer together with the ions, leading finally to the iron element migrat-
ing through the layer to alloy with the substrate. Conversely, conveyance of Co or W
into the chip is also possible. Diffusive transport is already possible at the tempera-
tures prevalent on the tool during machining of > 800 C. The diffusion coefficients
are indeed still small, but the necessary diffusion paths are very short.
While diffusion of iron through the cemented carbide layer into the cemented
carbide substrate is indeed possible in the case of cemented carbides coated with
TiN and TiCN, this diffusion is not as significant as is the case for uncoated sub-
strates. As opposed to uncoated cemented carbides, the coat provides the substrate
with additional protection from the abrasive action of the flowing chip. Especially
because they are much harder than the substrate, cemented carbide layers help
to reduce abrasive wear to a significant extent. Cemented carbide layers thereby
ensure the high performance level of coated tools and allow for much higher cutting
speeds when cutting steel materials in comparison with uncoated cemented carbides
(Fig. 3.41). But as soon as the hard material layer in the contact zone of the rake face
has been rubbed off and the substrate exposed, diffusion processes now once again
taking place between the substrate and the chip contribute, together with the abrasive
effect of the chip on the substrate, to an acceleration of crater wear.
3.7.2.5 Scaling
If we examine a tool after cutting, we can recognize several annealing colours near
the contact zones, indicating scaling (oxidation) of the cutting tool material. Scaling
varies in importance depending on the cutting tool material alloy and cutting temper-
ature (Fig. 3.43). Cemented carbides already begin scaling at 700800 C, whereby
20 HW-K10
Atmosphere: air Annealing
temperature:
Increase in mass / %
Temperature: 1000 C HW-P25

15 500 C
Annealing time:
3h exp. to air
10
HW-P10
5
HT-P05 HW-K10
HT-P10
0 HT-P20
1 2 3 4 5
Annealing time / h
Annealing temperature: 1000 C; Annealing time: 3 h exp. to air
HW-K10 HW-P25 HW-P10 HT-P10
Fig. 3.43 Gain of weight during the annealing process in air dependant on the used cutting tool
material
3.7 Wear 85
Oxidation
Rake face
Oxidation
Material: C53E zones
Cutting tool material: HW-P30
Cutting velocity: vc = 125 m/min
Cutting time: tc = 20 min
Feed: f = 0.25 mm
Flank face
Depth of cut: ap = 3 mm
Fig. 3.44 Oxidation zones at a cemented carbide turning tool
those made of pure tungsten carbide and cobalt oxidize more than those alloyed with
titanium carbide or other carbides [Kief65].
Even under the usual cutting conditions, an oxide film is formed on WC tools in
the area of the cutting edge under the effect of the cutting temperatures and atmo-
spheric oxygen. This film covers the areas to which atmospheric oxygen has free
access, i.e. the ends of the contact zones on the flank face, minor flank face and rake
face (Fig. 3.44).
The destructive effect of oxidation on the structure of cemented carbide can
be observed especially clearly on the minor flank face. A complex tungsten-
cobalt-iron oxide is formed that, as a result of its larger molar volume compared
with cemented carbide, develops in a wart-like fashion and can lead to corner
breaking [Kni75].
Scaling is of no practical importance for tool steels and high speed steels since
their heat resistance is exceeded before their surfaces are oxidized more strongly.
3.7.3 Forms and Dimensions of Wear

Wear phenomena that are generated on the cutting part during cutting vary greatly
depending on the type and duration of stress. Figure 3.45 shows wear forms that
occur primarily on turning tools. The cutting part is worn on the rake face (crater
wear) as well as on the major and minor flank faces (flank face wear) (Fig. 3.46).
Depending on the cutting parameters and the combination of workpiece and cutting
tool material, flank face wear tends to be strongest on the edge of the contact zone
on the major and minor cutting edge of the tool, which continues on the rake face.
Such notch wear is caused by the abrupt transitions of mechanical and thermal
stress prevalent on the end of the contact area, the abrasive character of the sharp
Cratering on rake face Smeared material, partly

overlapping the cutting edge in a
palisade-like manner
Spalling of cutting edge along
major cutting edge
Notch wear on minor cutting edge
Notch wear on rake face

Plastic deformation of corner of
cutting edge to the point of
breaking
Spalling of cutting edge

due to chip impact or
Layer flaking due to plastic clamped chips
deformation of cutting edge
Notch wear on flank face
Delamination on cutting edge

Layer flaking beneath width of
Wear on flank and minor beyond contact zone
flank wear land
flank face
Fig. 3.45 Characteristic wear forms at the cutting part during the turning process
Cutting tool material: Cermet

Material: 42CrMo4+QT
Cutting parameters:
vc = 400 m/min
f = 0.1 mm
tc = 12 min
ap = 0.5 mm
Insert geometry:
SPGN120308
Cutting tool material: PCBN

Material: Nickel-based alloy
Cutting parameters:
vc = 300 m/min
f = 0.16 mm
tc = 1.6 min
ap = 0.3 mm
Insert geometry:
VBMW160412
Cutting tool material: Ceramic

Notch wear on:
Material: Nickel-based alloy
Minor cutting Major cutting
edge edge
Cutting parameters:
vc = 220 m/min
f = 0.16 mm
tc = 2.3 min
ap = 0.3 mm
Insert geometry:
RCGX090700T00515
Fig. 3.46 Examples for the formation of crater wear, flank face wear and notch wear dependent
on the used cutting tool material and the machined material
3.8 Cutting Theory 87
Width of flank wear land VB
KB: Crater width
VBN
KM: Distance betw. crater
SV
centers
VBB
VBB max.
VBC
KT: Crater depth r
b/4
SV: Displacement of cutting
edge toward flank face
C B A N
SV: Displacement of cutting
edge toward rake face Wear notches on
b
major cutting
edge
Sectional view Wear notches on

A-A minor cutting edge
KT
A
KB
crater
KM
SV Plane Ps A

SV
Fig. 3.47 Wear forms and measured quantities at the cutting part, acc. to DIN ISO 3685
chip edge or the feed comb and the tool edge as well as direct contact with the
atmosphere (Fig. 3.46).
Figure 3.47 is a schematic representation of the dimensions of wear. In particular,
we distinguish the width of flank wear land VB, the displacement of cutting edge
toward flank face SV and rake face SV , crater depth KT and the crater centre
distance KM from which the crater ratio K = KT/KM is formed.
3.8 Cutting Theory
3.8.1 Shear Plane Theory

The model representation of the shear plane is based on ideal cutting conditions.
Required are:
ideally sharp cutting edges,
cutting edges that are not subject to wear,
the representation of mechanical loads as substitute forces and
ideal plastic material behaviour.
Trace of tool reference plane

Pr
Trace of shear plane P

hch
h Tool

Trace of cutting
edge plane
Ps
Workpiece
Selected point of cutting edge
z Po Pf Pn
Fig. 3.48 Model representation of the shear plane
The chip formation theory derived from this model (shear plane theory) assumes
that deformation takes place on only one plane, the shear plane. By definition, the
shear plane passes through the selected point of cutting edge just like the tool-in-
hand and tool-in-use reference system (Fig. 3.48).
In the following the shear plane P will be considered in the tool-in-hand refer-
ence system. This is a plane which is inclined toward the cutting edge plane Ps by
the shear angle F.
The requirements made on process kinematics are fulfilled when:
tool cutting edge angle r = 90

tool inclination s = 0
We are thus assuming a free, orthogonal cut. The shear plane model has the
advantage of making complicated cutting processes highly comprehensible.
If the effects of the corner radius and minor cutting edge are negligible in com-
parison with that of the major cutting edge, the theory of the shear plane can also be
used for the bound cut.
With the shear angle we can macroscopically consider material and cutting tool
material properties as well as thermal loads and friction conditions which pre-
dominate during contact of the chip with the rake face. Moreover, the shear angle
establishes the relation between undeformed chip thickness h and chip thickness
hch .
cos ( n )
hch = h (3.14)
sin
By means of the shear angle we can now calculate the surface area of the shear
area A in the shear plane:
h
A = b (3.15)
sin
The ratio of undeformed to deformed magnitudes is designated in forming tech-
nology as deformation. If the material is compressed and only the change in height
is described, the term degree of compression is also used. This concerns volume
consistency. In cutting theory, the term chip compression h is used analogously
[Krys39].
hch cos ( n )
h = = (3.16)
h sin
The shear angle is a purely theoretical quantity and should not be confused
with the actual slip direction of the material, even if the shear surface and slip surface
are nearly identical under certain marginal conditions.
In conclusion, to show that the theory of the shear plane makes it possible to
calculate various quantities with complicated relations, three classical applications
of shear plane theory will be described.
3.8.1.1 Calculation of Chip Speed

From simple trigonometric relations (law of sine) in the velocity plan, MERCHANT
calculated the chip speed vch with the help of the shear angle F (Fig. 3.49) [Merc45].
sin
|
vch | = |
vc | (3.17)
cos (n )
Trace of tool refernce plane

Pr

h hch
Tool
v
vch
Trace of cutting
edge plane
Ps vc
Workpiece
z Selected point of cutting edge
y Po Pf Pn
Fig. 3.49 Velocity plan, acc. to MERCHANT [Merc45]

The continuity equation can also be used to calculate chip speed vch . The idea
behind this is that a mass flow flows through a control surface, in this case the shear
surface. Assuming that the density of the material is not altered by mechanical and
thermal load, we obtain:
m = const. |
vc | A = |
vch | Ach (3.18)
From which follows:

h 1
|
vch | = |
vc | = |
vc | (3.19)
hch h
3.8.1.2 Calculation of Resultant Force

It is assumed that the shear angle is a function of the shear stress in the shear plane,
which will be shown in the following steps. In the first place we have:

|
|F
= (3.20)
A
The component of the resultant force in the shear plane, the shear force F , can
be represented by the resulting resultant force Fz . With the help of the angle relations
in the circle of THALES we obtain according to Fig. 3.50:
|F
z | cos ( + n )

| = |F (3.21)
Trace of tool reference plane

Pr
Trace of shear plane

P
Tool

F
Trace of cutting
edge plane Fc
Ps n
Ff Fn Fz F
z Fn Po Pf Pn
Fig. 3.50 Circle of THALES for the force diagram, acc. to MERCHANT
The amount of resultant force can now be calculated from Eqs. (3.20) and (3.21):

z| =
|F bh (3.22)
sin cos ( + n )
The functional relations of the values of the resultant force components cutting
force and feed force can be taken from the circle of Thales (Fig. 3.50).

c | = |F
|F
z | cos ( n ) (3.23)
|F
z | sin ( n )

f | = |F (3.24)
If we now insert Eq. (3.22) into Eqs. (3.23) and (3.24), the following is valid for
the values of the resultant force components:
cos ( n )

c| =
|F b h (3.25)
sin cos ( + n )
sin ( n )

f| =
|F b h (3.26)
sin cos ( + n )
3.8.1.3 Calculation of the Shear Angle

KRYSTOF developed a model for the simple calculation of the shear angle [Krys39].
He made the following assumptions:
The theory of the shear plane is valid.
The maximum shear stress leads to material collapse.
In the main axial system, maximum shear stresses occur at an angle of 45 .
For calculations of the cutting process, the position of the main axial system
is assumed to be approximately in the direction of the resulting contact stress
(Fig. 3.51).
For purposes of simplicity, the principle stress is not represented by the stress
tensor but simply by vector addition. In this case, the friction angle approximates
the orientation of the main axial system.
The function relation between the shear angle, the tool orthogonal rake angle and
the friction angle can be derived from Fig. 3.51. The following is valid for the shear
angle:

= ( n ) (3.27)
4
MERCHANT has suggested a possibility of calculating the shear angle that makes
the following assumptions [Merc45, Merc45a]:
The theory of the shear plane is valid.
The position of the shear plane is determined by the minimum of cutting energy.
The value of cutting force can be read off the circle of T HALES in Fig. 3.50:
1 Trace of tool reference plane

Pr
n
Tool

Trace of cutting
edge plane

Ps 4
Fz F
3
Fn
Po Pf Pn
Fig. 3.51 Principle of the maximum shear stress, acc. to KRYSTOF [Krys39]
cos ( n ) bh

c| =
|F (3.28)
cos ( + n ) sin
The necessary and the sufficient conditions for calculating the position of the
energy minimum are
Ec 2 Ec
nec.: =0 suff.: = 0 (3.29)

Since the cutting energy is calculated as the product of the cutting force and
the cutting path, and the cutting path is not a function of the shear angle, we can
simplify to:

c|
lc |F
c|
2 |F
nec.: =0 suff.: = 0 (3.30)

From which follows for the shear angle:
1
= ( n ) (3.31)
4 2
3.8.2 Application of Plasticity Theory to Cutting

HUCKS and OPITZ developed a shear angle equation by applying MOHRs slip the-
ory to the orthogonal cutting process [Huck51, Opit53, Mohr06]. As opposed to
the models of K RYSTOF and M ERCHANT, this theory makes it possible to take a
material-specific slip angle into consideration instead of an idealized 45 . It should
Trace of tool reference plane Pr
1
Sli n
pd
ire
cti
zMT zFE on

yFE 1 zy
yMT yz Tool
y
yz
y
Trace of cutting y
edge plane
Ps Pp zy
3
3
n
o
cti
1,3: Principle normal stress directions Po Pf Pn
ire
pd
Sli
Fig. 3.52 Surface element at the cutting part, acc. to HUCKS [Huck51]
again be pointed out that the previously known shear angle need not necessarily be
equal to the angle given by the actual position of the slip surface, since the direction
of the shear plane was previously only purely geometrically determined by ideal
considerations. In this case the directional angle of the slip surface towards the tool
cutting edge plane is designated as the shear angle . First a square surface element
is considered on the rake face that experiences both shear and compressive stresses
from the tool (Fig. 3.52).
The shear stresses also appear on all remaining faces of the quadratic element
as a result of the law of equality of shear stress. Due to the unhindered flow of the
chip over the face there is a very small amount of compressive stress in this direc-
tion, which will be neglected in the following. There are therefore two compressive
stresses and four shear stresses on the surface element under consideration.
If we now determine the principle normal stress with the help of MOHRs stress
circle, we establish the validity of the following equation:
1
= arctan(2 ) (3.32)
2
The angle between the rake face and the principle stress direction is thus deter-
mined by the friction coefficient between the rake face and the chip. This relation
makes it clear, for example, why different cutting speeds yield different shear angles.
The friction coefficient is dependent on the cutting speed and consequently alters the
principle stress direction. The slip direction on the other hand is inclined towards
the principle stress directions by a materially dependent angle . This angle can be
calculated from the compressive flow stress D and the shear flow stress F with the
help of flow tests and MOHRs stress circle:

1 D 2F
= 45 arcsin (3.33)
2 D
For an ideal plastic body which is approximately realized by steel at the yielding
point, the flow plane is under 45 in relation to the principle stress direction, since
there the shear stress is at a maximum [Huck51].
With this, we obtain the principle stress and slip directions shown in Fig. 3.52
relative to the rake face. With the help of the angles , , and , the slip angle 1
can now be calculated:
1
1 = arctan(2) + n (3.34)
2
Slip angle 3 is in the still undeformed area, which is why only slip angle 1
(which is identical with the shear angle) is significant. The shear angle calculated
here presumes an extrapolation of the stress conditions via the shear plane and the
width of flank wear land as well as the formation of a continuous chip. This approx-
imation was proven to be in accordance with experiments made on materials with
envelope lines that are inclined and parallel to the -axis. HUCKS did not experiment
with materials with bent envelope curve [Huck51].
With the help of the shear angle, the resultant forces can now also be calculated.
To do this, the stresses that are active in the shear plane are multiplied with shear
plane surface, resulting in a normal and tangential force in the shear plane. We
will in this context proceed without the derivation of HUCKSs formulae. For steel,
which has an envelope line that is parallel to the -axis, the following formulae for
cutting and feed force result with width of undeformed chip b and chip thickness h
according to HUCKS:

1
Fc = 0 b h + cot g() (3.35)
2 2 + 14

cot g()
Ff = 0 b h 1 (3.36)
2 2 + 14
To sum up, we can say that the highly numerous experimental relations in chip
formation depend only on a few numbers of materials and the friction coefficient.
HUCKSs work made the fundamentally new discovery that the stress field in the
chip on the cutting edge depends, besides its intensity, only on the friction coefficient
and the normal direction of the envelope line [Huck51].
Chapter 4
Cutting Tool Materials and Tools
Tool change times, and with them both manufacturing times and tool, machine and
labour costs, are affected by wear. Wear is affected in turn by the properties of the
cutting tool materials. Development in the cutting tool material sector is therefore far
from finished, but is constantly aiming both to improve cutting tool materials that are
already established as well as to discover new materials for use in the manufacture
of cutting tools.
Cutting tool materials should have the following properties in order to do justice
to the stresses placed on them:
hardness and pressure resistance,
bending strength and toughness,
edge strength,
inner bonding strength,
high temperature strength,
oxidation resistance,
small propensity to diffusion and adhesion,
abrasion resistance,
reproducible wear behaviour.
Should we consider all these characteristics simultaneously, we are then faced
with the requirement for the ideal cutting tool material (Fig. 4.1). However, there
is no one cutting tool material that unifies all the required properties. One rea-
son for this, for example, is the physical opposition of hardness and toughness.
Developments in the cutting tool material sector are concentrating on optimizing
and modifying chemical composition, manufacturing methods, geometry and coat-
ing in order to broaden the areas of application of cutting tool materials and tools in
accordance with the requirements of modern production.
4.1 Overview of Cutting Tool Materials

The cutting tool materials used in cutting can be summarized as (Fig. 4.2):
tool steels,
cemented carbides,

96 4 Cutting Tool Materials and Tools
l
ia
BN 1
er
at
m
DP
ol
Wear-resistance and heat-resistance
to
g
tin
2
ut
lc
ea
Id
Al2O3 -
Cutting speed
ceramic
Coated
cermet
Al2O3 + TiC Si3N4 - Coated

ceramic Cermet cemented- Fine grain
carbide and submicron
grain cemented
Cemented-carbide carbide
on tungsten-carbide-basis
DP: 1 Considering the hardness Coated HSS

2 Considering the hardness
HSS
and the temperature
Durability and bending-strength

Feed
Fig. 4.1 Schematic classification of several cutting tool materials
Cutting tool materials for chipping

with geometrical defined cutting edge
Cold work steels

Tool steels
High speed steels
WC-Co
Cemented carbide WC-(Ti,Ta,Nb)C-Co
TiC/TiN - Co,Ni
Oxide-ceramic
Cutting - ceramics Mixed-ceramic
Silicon-nitride-ceramic
Boron-nitride
Super-hard cutting
tool materials
Diamond
Fig. 4.2 Classification of cutting tool materials for machining

4.1 Overview of Cutting Tool Materials 97
cutting ceramics and

super-hard cutting tool materials made of boron nitride and diamond.
The hardness and wear resistance of the cutting tool materials increases in this
order. On the other hand, their bending strength decreases in this order.
Tool steels include unalloyed and alloyed cold work tool steels as well as high
speed steel. The term cemented carbide refers to conventional cemented carbides
based on tungsten carbide as well as cermets based on titanium boron nitride.
Ceramics is the generic term for cutting tool materials made of oxide, mixed and
non-oxide ceramic.
4.1.1 Classification of Hard Cutting Tool Materials

According to DIN ISO 513, the notation and application of hard cutting tool mate-
rials of cemented carbide, ceramic, diamond and boron nitride are classified in
accordance with Fig. 4.3. According to it, uncoated cemented carbides based on
tungsten carbide with a WC grain size of 1 m take the abbreviation HW and
with grain sizes of < 1 m the notation HF. Cermets cemented carbides based on
titanium boron nitride are notated with HT, coated cemented carbides and coated
cermets with HC. Corresponding abbreviations from Fig. 4.3 are valid for other hard
cutting tool materials based on ceramic, diamond or boron nitride.
The goal of DIN ISO 513, besides that of identifying cutting tool materials, is
above all their assignment to materials, for which they are most suitable for cutting.
Expanding earlier norms, DIN ISO 513 provides six main application groups and
thus six classes of workpiece-materials, which are classified with the code letters
P, M, K, N, S and H as well as by colour (Fig. 4.4). DIN ISO 513 thus maintains
the established code letters P, M and K but now only designate with them the main
application groups that comprise the material groups steel (P), stainless steel (M),
and cast iron (K). The major machining group K included according to the old stan-
dard not only cast iron materials but also a number of other materials. In DIN ISO
513, these now new major application groups were provided with the labels N for
nonferrous metals, S for special alloys and H for hard materials.
Every main application group is subdivided into particular application groups
(Fig. 4.4). These are notated with a code letter for the main application group they
belong to and with an index. The index refers to the toughness and wear resis-
tance of the cutting tool material. The higher it is within each application group,
the lower is the materials wear resistance and the higher its toughness. The indices
are merely reference numbers indicating a certain sequence. They provide no infor-
mation about the extent of the wear resistance or the toughness of a cutting tool
material. Manufacturers of cutting tool materials should assign their cutting tool
materials to the appropriate application group, depending on wear resistance and
toughness. Examples are HW-P10, HC-K20, and CA-K10. An application group
thus contains comparable cutting tool materials of different manufacturers, although
they may differ in wear behaviour and performance. It is also possible for a cutting
tool material from one manufacturer to be categorized under multiple application
groups if suitable to them.
Cemented carbide Ceramic

Code-letter Group of materials Code-letter Group of materials
Uncoated cemented Oxide-ceramic,
carbide, predominantly made CA predominantly made from
HW
from tungsten-carbide (WC) aluminium-oxide (Al2O3)
with a grain size = 1 m
Mixed-ceramic, based on
Uncoated cemented CM aluminium-oxide (Al2O3),
HF carbide, predominantly made but also with other
from tungsten-carbide (WC) components than oxides
with a grain size < 1 m
Silicon-nitride-ceramic,
Uncoated cemented carbide,
CN predominantly made from
HT 1) predominant
silicon-nitride (Si3N4)
titan-carbide (TiC) or
titan-nitride (TiN) or Cutting-ceramic,
both predominantly made of
CR Aluminium-oxide (Al2O3),
Cemented carbide like above,
HC but coated reinforced
1)
These cemented carbides are also called Cutting-ceramic like above,
CC
"Cermet" but coated
Diamond Boron-nitride
Code-letter Group of materials Code-letter Group of materials
Cubiccrystalline boron-nitride
DP Polycrystalline diamond BL with a low content of
boron-nitride
DM Monocrystalline diamond Cubiccrystalline boron-nitride

BH with a high content of
boron-nitride
BC
like above, but coated
Diamond Boron-nitride
Code-letter Diamond category Code-letter Boron-nitride category
DP Polycrystalline diamond BL with a low content of
boron-nitride
DM Monocrystalline diamond Cubiccrystalline boron-nitride

BH with a high content of
boron-nitride
BC
like above, but coated
Fig. 4.3 Notation of hard cutting tool materials for machining, acc. to DIN ISO 513
4.2 Tool Steels 99
Main application group Application group

Hard cutting tool
Code-letter Code-color Workpiece-material
materials
Steel: P01 P05
All kinds of steel and P10 P15
P blue cast-steel,exept stainless P20 P25
steel witch austenitic P30 P35
structure P40 P45
P50
Stainless steel: M01
M05
Stainless austenitic and M10
M yellow M15
austenitic-ferritic steel M20
M25
and cast-steel M30
M35
M40
Cast-iron: K01
Cast-iron with flake K10 K05
K red graphite, cast-iron with K20 K15
ductile graphite, K30 K25
annealed cast-iron K40 K35
Nonferrous metals: N01 N05

Aluminium and other N10
N green N15
nonferrous metals, non- N20 N25
metal materials N30
Specializations and
titanium:
S01
Highly heat resisting S05
S10
S brown special-alloys based on S15
S20
iron, nickel and cobalt, S25
S30
titanium and titanium
based alloys
Hard materials: H01
H05
Hardened steel, hardened H10
H grey H15
cast-iron-materials, cast- H20
H25
iron for chill-casting H30
Increasing cutting speed, increasing wear-resistance

of the cutting tool materials
Increasing feed, increasing durability of the cutting tool materials
Fig. 4.4 Application and classification of hard cutting tool materials, acc. to DIN ISO 513
4.2 Tool Steels

DIN EN ISO 4957 defines tool steels as high-grade steels suited to machining and
processing materials as well as handling and measuring workpieces. We distinguish
between cold work steels, hot work steels and high speed steels. Cold and hot work
steels are suited to purposes in which the surface temperature during engagement
is generally under 200 C. High speed steels on the other hand can be applied at
temperatures of up to 600 C. Tools for both cutting and forming are made out of cold
work steels and high speed steels. Hot work steels are used primarily for forming
tools such as forging dies, pressure casting dies or tools for forging machines and
extrusion presses.
4.2.1 Cold Work Steels
Cold work steels obtain their wear and toughness properties from heat treatment,
consisting of heating to austenitizing temperature, quenching in an oil or water bath
(a high cooling speed is necessary, martensite hardness) and tempering (with the
goal of a partial loss of hardness in order to increase toughness).
Cold work steels can be classified as unalloyed and alloyed steels (Fig. 4.5) [DIN
EN ISO 4957, Wegs95]. Unalloyed tool steels (carbon steels) contain up to 1.25% C
Unalloyed cold work steels
Material grade Composition

Examples
Material number C Si Mn Cr Mo V W
0.40 0.15 0.60 Hammers, hatchets, axes,

C45W
scissors, screwdrivers,
1.1730
0.50 0.40 0.80 bits
0.80 0.25 0.50 Wood saws, hand saws,

C85W steel blades for segment-

1.1830 buzz saws
0.90 0.40 0.70
1.20 0.10 0.10 Files, ductors,

C125W chisels, paper knifes

1.1563
1.35 0.30 0.35
Alloyed cold work steels
0.42 0.20 0.85 1.7 0.25 Chisel of all kinds

45CrMoV7

1.2328
0.47 0.30 1.0 1.9 0.30 0.05
1.10 0.15 0.20 0.5 0.07 Files, ductors,

115CrV3
chisels, Paper knifes
1.2210
1.25 0.30 0.40 0.8 0.12
Cutting-tools,
2.0 0.10 0.15 11.0 0.6 shear-blades for
X210CrW12
cutting of steel,
1.2436
2.25 0.40 0.45 12.0 0.8 broaches, wood-
working-tools
Fig. 4.5 Examples for alloyed and unalloyed cold work steels
4.2 Tool Steels 101
and small amounts of Si and Mn. Alloyed tool steels have about 1.25% C as well as
up to 1.5% Cr, 1.2% W, 0.5% Mo and 1.2%V.
The hardness and wear resistance of unalloyed tool steels depend on their marten-
sitic structure. Wear resistance increases with hardness and carbon content; yet
toughness decreases simultaneously and thus the materials sensitivity during heat
treatment and tool use becomes greater. All unalloyed tool steels are shell hardeners,
i.e. they do not harden all the way through along the entire cross-section but only on
the surface of the workpiece.
The advantages of alloyed tool steels in contrast to unalloyed are the increase in
wear resistance (addition of carbide-forming elements), retention of hardness and
high temperature strength (chrome, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium alloys) and
in their higher hardness (carbon in solution). Moreover, the critical cooling speed
is lower, allowing for improved hardenability. They can be used at cutting temper-
atures of up to 200 C. They are used above all in steel machining with low cutting
parameters (reaming, thread die cutting) and to manufacture tools for repair work,
since their cost is lower than high speed steel (HSS) tools because they have fewer
alloy elements.
Due to their low hot hardness, which limits the cutting speeds with which they
can be used, cold work steels are used only rarely for metalworking on machine
tools. Their area of application extends mainly to hand tools such as files, gouges,
reamers or on saw blades for woodworking (Fig. 4.5).
4.2.2 High Speed Steels

A new cutting tool material was introduced for the first time in the year 1900 at the
worlds fair in Paris, with which TAYLOR could realize significantly high cutting
speeds. The productivity of machining processes could thus be increased consid-
erably. This new group of cutting tool materials was called high speed steels
(HSS).
High speed steels are high-alloyed steels containing tungsten, molybdenum,
vanadium, cobalt and chrome as their main alloy elements. They have relatively
high bending fracture strength and thus have favourable toughness properties.
In contrast to cold work steels, their matrix is characterized by improved reten-
tion of hardness, and they have higher hardness. Their hardness of about 6067 HRC
is preserved up to 600 C in temperature. Due to both this and their machinability,
they continue to have a broad range of application, especially for tools with sharp
cutting edges and small wedge angles such as broaching tools, twist drills, thread-
cutting tools, reamers, milling cutters and turning tools for grooving and parting-off
operations as well as for finishing.
While the hardness of high speed steels are affected by the hardness of the base
material (martensite) and the number and distribution of the carbides, the alloy ele-
ments dissolved in the matrix W, Mo, V and Co, which, partially precipitated as
stable special carbides, are responsible for retention of hardness. Hardness and wear
resistance are increased by the martensite tempered in the matrix and the embedded
carbides (especially Mo-W double carbides, Cr and V carbides). Carbide formation

and hardening is promoted by additional alloying of chrome.
4.2.2.1 Classification of High Speed Steels

High speed steels are denoted with the letters HS and the percents of alloy
elements in the order W-Mo-V-Co (e.g. HS10-4-3-10). High speed steels are clas-
sified according to their W and Mo content into four alloy and performance groups
(Fig. 4.6) [DIN EN 10027a].
Group I includes the steels that contain high amounts of tungsten (18% W).
The type containing Co HS18-1-2-5 has good retention of hardness. Tools made
of this alloy are used for roughing high strength steels, cast irons that are difficult to
machine, nonferrous metals and non-metallic materials.
The material HS12-1-4-5 of the group with 12% W has excellent wear resistance
due to its high V content. Its Co content also gives it high hot hardness and retention
of hardness. This alloy is used in the production of turning tools and profile steels
of all kinds, for finishing tools, high performance milling cutters and automatic
tool machines. They are suitable for machining highly heat-treated Cr-Ni steels and
non-ferrous metals.
For conditioning of steel under...

Composition Symbol ...average load ...highest load
W - Mo - V - Co
< 850 N/mm2 > 850 N/mm2 Roughing Finishing
HS18-0-1 +
I 18% W
HS18-1-2- 5 +
HS12-1- 4 - 5 (+) +
II 12% W
HS10-4 - 3 - 10 (+) +
HS6-5-2 +
HS6-5- 3
III 6% W (+) +
+ 5% Mo
HS6-5-2- 5 +
HS2-9-1 +
IV 2% W HS2-9-2 +
+ 9% Mo
HS2-10-1-8 +
Fig. 4.6 Alloy and performance groups of high speed steels

4.2 Tool Steels 103
The last two groups are represented primarily by steels containing tungsten and
molybdenum. Molybdenum replaces tungsten from metallurgical points of view and
is more effective at equal masses because it has an approximately twice as large
volume percentage due to its lower density. Steels containing molybdenum are espe-
cially tough. Types containing cobalt are used for machining with simple tools when
robust stresses are expected (drills, turning, milling, planing and broaching tools,
hobs). They are characterized by high toughness, temperature resistance and reten-
tion of hardness. They are universally applicable for roughing and finishing tasks,
especially for highly stressed milling tools.
Steels of both of these groups that have low amounts of or no cobalt are used to
manufacture tools of all kinds. The most important group are high speed steels with
6% tungsten and 5% molybdenum. Usually, the universal or standard type HS6-5-2
is used [Habe88]. As a result of its balanced alloy structure, its high toughness
and good wear resistance, this alloy is very diverse. It is suitable for manufacturing
machining tools for roughing or finishing such as twist drills, milling cutters of all
types, tappers, reamers, broaches etc.
The basic effect of alloy elements in high speed steels is summarized once more
in abbreviated form in the following:
Tungsten: forms carbides; increases hot hardness, retention of hardness and wear
resistance.
Molybdenum: forms carbides; improves hardening and toughness, increases hot
hardness, retention of hardness and wear resistance, molybdenum can replace
tungsten (has half its density!).
Vanadium: exists as the primary carbide VC and increases wear resistance
(finishing).
Cobalt: shifts the limit of overheating sensitivity to higher temperatures, making
it possible to achieve higher hardness temperatures. Most carbides are dissolved
and the hot hardness increases.
Chrome: improves hardenability, participates in carbide formation.
Carbon: the source of hardness in the base material. Increases wear resistance
because it forms carbides.
4.2.2.2 Areas of Application

Figure 4.7 provides a list of the main applications of high speed steels [DIN EN
ISO 4957, Wegs95]. As the amount of alloy elements increases, so does the effec-
tiveness of these cutting tool materials with respect to improved wear resistance
and lifetime. At the same time however, machinability becomes more difficult,
which has negative consequences particularly when manufacturing complicated
moulding tools. Generally, a higher amount of alloy elements means higher tool
costs. The cost effectiveness of a manufacturing process is thus also determined by
the choice of high speed steel.
This use of high-alloyed high speed steels lends itself especially to the solu-
tion of machining problems in which an increase in high temperature strength or
Steel grade
Material
name according Main use
no.
DIN EN ISO 4957
Standard high speed steel for all cutting tools for rough turning
or finish turning, taps and twist drills, milling cutters of all
HS6-5-2 1.3343
kinds, pull broaches, reamers, threading dies,
counterboring drills, planing-tools, buzz saws
Highly loaded taps and reamers, high speed milling cutters,

HS6-5-3 1.3344 broaching-tools, twist drills,
cutting and shaving wheels
High speed milling cutters, planing- and turning-tools of all

kinds, highly loaded twist drills and taps, broaches,
HS6-5-2-5 1.3243
woodworking- and cold working-tools, roughing-tools with
high durability
All-purpose usage for roughing- and finishing-works,

HS10-4-3-10 1.3207 turning- and highly loaded milling cutters, automated
works, woodworking-tools
HS2-9-2 1.3348 Milling cutter, reamers, broaching-tools
End-milling cutter, turning-tools for automated works,

HS2-9-1-8 1.3247
twist drills, taps
Fig. 4.7 Main applications of the most important high speed steels, acc. to DIN EN ISO 4957
toughness would have a great effect. High speed steels alloyed with cobalt (e.g.
HS6-5-2-5, HS18-1-2-5) are ideal for machining tasks that place increased require-
ments on the high temperature strength of the tools. Steels that contain vanadium in
addition to cobalt, such as the qualities HS12-1-4-5 and HS10-4-3-10, are character-
ized by improved wear properties at increased temperatures stresses and are suited
to machining tasks that place the highest requirements on the wear resistance of the
tools.
4.2.2.3 High Speed Steel Fabrication

High speed steels can be fabricated using cast-metallurgical [Habe88] or powder-
metallurgical methods [Duda86, Beis82]. A comparison of both fabrication methods
is provided in Fig. 4.8. Despite attempts to develop alternative fabrication tech-
niques, the cast-metallurgical fabrication of high speed steels remains the most
economically important.
4.2 Tool Steels 105
Recast Hot-
Casting Machining
(ESU) deformation
Cast-metallurgical fabrication Heat-

Melting Grinding
Powder-metallurgical fabrication treatment
Gas spray Hot

aerated Housing isostatic Hot Machining
powder pressing deformation
Cold Sintering Hot-

isostatic < 100 % Machining
deformation
pressing
Water spray
Soft-
aerated
ening
powder
Cavity- Sintering Hot
pressing = 100 % isostatic
repressing
Fig. 4.8 Production-sequence of the powder- and cast-metallurgical fabrication of high speed
steels
Cast-Metallurgical Fabrication
After melting and casting (1550 C) the steel in moulds, it is then subjected to block
tempering (900 C) (homogenization, Fig. 4.9). This is followed by a forging process
(to break up the ledeburite and carbides) with a possible intermediate heating of
the workpiece, as well as by rolling (1200 C). Softening improves machinability.
The softened condition is in most cases the post practical both for cutting and cold
forming and offers the most favourable output structure for hardening. In order to
avoid cracks or warpage during hardening, it is advisable to anneal the tools with
a minimal amount of stress in order to reduce machining stresses before the last
mechanical processing, especially in the case of tools that are irregular or difficult
to mould.
High speed steels require a highly complex hardening sequence due to the high
amounts of different alloy elements. Conventionally produced high speed steels
thus tend to segregate (demix) during the hardening phase, which is especially pro-
nounced in the case of large cast blocks and high-alloyed steels. Such phenomena
are usually causes of lifetime deviations in later tool use.
Independently of previously applied measures such as improved melting pro-
cess or seeding as well as improved design of the block format, electro slag
remelting (ESR) can further improve the degree of purity and toughness of high
speed steels. In this process, only a small part of the block is fluid during remelt-
ing, not the whole block. In this way, macroscopic demixings such as carbide
agglomerations can be reduced and slag inclusions removed. The disadvantage is
the higher fabrication cost.
Code = Grade HS18-1-2-5 HS10-4-3-10 HS12-1-4-5 HS12-1-4 HS6-5-2

Hardening temp. [C] 1280 1240 1240 1240 1230
Annealing, each 3 2 570 C 2 2 2
0.51 h 560 C 1 550 C 570 C 560 C 540 C
1600
1400
Temperature T / C
1200
Melting and casting
1000
800
600 Block turning
400
Block
200 tempering Forging Rolling Softening
0
Time t /h
t at
en he
n
tio
up
m f
ng
at lie
sa
tre s re
hi
g
iti
in
nc
en
m
s
ue
st
re
Annealing
ar
Au
Q
St
W
Preparatory work
Finishing works
Balancing-temperature
E
Annealing duration
D each approx 12 h
oil/air
Temperature T / C
C
g
g
g
in
in
in
al
al
al
ne
ne
ne
An
An
An
A
1.
2.
3.
Slow oven
cool-down
F
If heated air Air Air Air
B in a vacuum
furnace G
Time t / h
A 600 to 650 C D 3rd preheating stage 1050 C

B 1st preheating stage aprrox. 400 C E Hardening temperature ~1200 C
(in salt bath) F Hot bath 500 bis 600 C
C 2nd preheating stage 850 C G 5080 C
Fig. 4.9 Cast-metallurgical fabrication and heat treatment of high speed steels
4.2 Tool Steels 107
The advantage of the ESR process is that the end structure is more even, has
a small amount of segregations and a high degree of purity. The practical conse-
quences of this are reduced warpage in both transverse and longitudinal directions
during hardening and annealing due to the more homogeneous microstructure an
especially important aspect in the case of tools that are long or are premachined with
a small stock allowance as well as improved toughness resulting from the higher
degree of purity and the generally more homogeneous structure.
Powder-Metallurgical Fabrication
The starting materials for powder-metallurgical fabrication of high speed steels
is powder obtained by means of gas or water spray aeration of the molten mass
(Fig. 4.8). Gas spray aerated powder is housed and undergoes hot isostatic pressing.
After soft deformation, the semi-finished products are conventionally machined into
tools. Water spray aerated powder undergoes a cold isostatic pressing after soften-
ing, and then the semi-finished products are sintered in a vacuum furnace. Sintering
is not performed until the full theoretical density is reached. Final pressing takes
place later in a forging process downstream. On the other hand, mouldings such
as indexable inserts are hardened in matrix presses. During sintering, the aim is to
reach the full theoretical density. The sintering process can sometimes be followed
by a hot isostatic repressing.
Powder-metallurgically obtained high speed steels have become increasingly
important in recent years. As opposed to cast-metallurgically fabricated high
speed steels, they generally have a somewhat higher alloy content. PM steels are
characterized by a homogeneous structure (no carbide segregation) with an even dis-
tribution of fine carbides. Due to their structural composition, PM steels have better
grindability and higher toughness. With respect to their efficiency as cutting tools,
powder-metallurgically fabricated high speed steels vary to some degree. Numerous
cutting experiments have shown that they are at least equal to conventional high
speed steels with the same nominal composition. PM steels become advantageous
under high mechanical stress resulting from greater feeds, especially when cutting
tool materials that are difficult to machine, such as nickel-based and titanium alloys.
Until now, powder-metallurgically fabricated high speed steels have no mate-
rial indexes of their own. They are designated according to the company that
manufactures them. To simplify their classification, the American nomenclature is
often used, or the standard designation of the corresponding cast-metallurgically
fabricated high speed steel is applied.
4.2.2.4 Heat Treatment of High Speed Steels

HSS tools are subjected to heat treatment in order to give them their required
hardness [Habe88]. First they are hardened (heating and maintaining an austenitisa-
tion temperature followed by high-speed cooling) and then annealed several times.
Figure 4.9 shows a time-temperature chart for the heat treatment of high speed steel
HS6-5-2.
Due to their poor heat conductivity, high speed steels must be heated very slowly
in order to avoid heating stresses and cracks. Warming up thus generally takes place
in two or three preheating stages at 400, 850 and 1050 C. After reaching the level
of austenitisation, a temperature of 11501250 C is held for hardening. The goal
of austenitisation is to dissolve as many carbides as possible, whereby the dis-
solution of the secondary carbides increase with a rising hardening temperature
and extended holding times. On the other hand, coarseness must also be avoided.
Depending on the critical quenching speed and on the shape and size of the work-
pieces, quenching can take place in different media, including water, oil, hot baths
(salt or metal molten baths) or gas. Gaseous media include air that is still or in
motion, nitrogen or other gasses. Quenching intensity, which in the case of gasses is
much lower than with liquid media, can be increased by raising the flow speed and
pressure.
After quenching, the microstructure of high speed steels consists of marten-
site, residual austenite and carbides. The hardness of this structure is unsuitable
for cutting tools; due to the high amount of residual austenite and the instability of
the structure, it has insufficient wear resistance, is not dimensionally stable during
use and exhibits an increased fracture tendency. The tools must therefore undergo
annealing after hardening.
High speed steels are annealed at temperatures of 540580 C, the temperature
range of secondary hardness. This is defined as the increase in hardness at higher
annealing temperatures after an initial decline in hardness from annealing at low
temperatures. Under normal hardness and annealing conditions, this second increase
in hardness leads to hardness values that are clearly higher than those existing after
quenching. Figure 4.10 is a schematic depiction of the processes that occur dur-
ing the annealing of high speed steels. The cutting tool material hardness resulting
M
~ 66
M2
S
A2
M1 A1
Hardness/HRC
Annealing temperatureT /C ~ 600
Fig. 4.10 Schematic illustration of cutting tool material hardness resulting from the superposition
of various effects during the annealing of high speed steel
4.2 Tool Steels 109
from the superimposition of various effects is plotted as the cumulative curve S as a

function of the annealing temperature.
As the annealing temperature increases, the hardness of martensite (M) decreases
continuously (M1). The cause of this is precipitation of the carbon trapped in solu-
tion and the associated reduction of crystal lattice tension. The precipitation of the
carbides acts against this process, which leads to the decline in hardness observable
during annealing at up to about 350 C. Extremely finely distributed carbides pre-
cipitate from the martensite (M) above 350 C and from the residual austenite (A)
above around 450 C, causing another increase in hardness (M2/A1) due to precipi-
tation hardening. As a result of carbide formation, the matrix becomes low in carbon
and alloy elements, so that part of the residual austenite is converted to secondary
martensite (A2) during cooling from annealing temperature. All three processes
carbide precipitation from the martensite, carbide precipitation from the residual
austenite and the conversion of residual austenite into secondary martensite lead
to the increase in hardness known as the secondary hardness effect. The maximum
of the hardness profile is shifted to higher temperatures (560 C), and, if austeniti-
sation occurs correctly, hardness can be higher after annealing than in the hardened
state [Habe88].
Until now, heat treatment usually took place in salt baths. Their advantages
are optimal heat transfer and the possibility of executing partial heat and surface
treatments. The important disadvantages are the high costs involved in detoxify-
ing the salts and the necessity of cleansing the workpieces of salt residue after
treatment.
The last few years have seen increasing amounts of heat treatments taking place
in vacuum furnaces. The advantages of this method are above all its environmental
friendliness as well as the clean and shiny workpiece surfaces it yields. Quenching
the workpieces from hardening temperature is achieved by flooding them with nitro-
gen at a pressure of 10 bar. The gas is circulated such that it flows at high speed
through the batch and then through a heat exchanger for recooling. Components are
quenched in this manner to 50 C.
4.2.2.5 Surface Treatment

The wear properties of HSS tools can be further improved by treating the surface by
nitrating (enriching the surface layer with nitrogen by thermochemical treatment at
temperatures of 500580 C), steam annealing (formation of a thin iron oxide layer
on the tool surface in a steam atmosphere at about 500 C), chrome-plating (deposit
of a hard chrome layer with a thickness of 550 m at temperatures of 5070 C)
or coating (PVD coating with thin, highly wear-resistant hard material coats such as
titanium nitride (TiN) or titanium aluminium nitride (Ti,Al)N.
4.2.2.6 HSS Indexable Inserts

Indexable inserts made of high speed steel can be manufactured by precision cast-
ing, by machining pre-products or directly using powder-metallurgical methods.
Material: X5CrNi134
Profile milling cutter for rotors rpm: n = 65 min1
Feed velocity.: v f = 35 mm/min
Cutting speed vc
Requirements for the
98 m/min
cutting tool material
Sufficiant High
70 m/min
ductility temperature wear
at low vc resistance
HSS Cemented carbide

345 480
Diameter D/mm
Indexable inserts
HS10-4-3-10 P20 - P30
Fig. 4.11 Fit-for-purpose design of indexable inserts composed of high speed steel and cemented
carbide (Source: Fette)
While pre-products still require further machining, powder-metallurgical fabrica-

tion of HSS indexable inserts for example exploit the cost-intensive alloy elements
much more fully. Besides lower manufacturing costs and more efficient utilization
of material, the most important advantage of sintered HSS indexable inserts is their
increased flexibility in tool use due to the use of indexable insert technology. In
the case of manufacturing processes such as milling or drilling, this technology
allows us to fit tools with various fit-for purpose cutting tool materials (Fig. 4.11).
Indexable inserts made of precision casting have so far gained no importance for
steel machining [Bong91, Whl86].
4.3 Cemented Carbides

Cemented carbides are composite materials. They are composed of the carbides of
transition metals (fourth to sixth subgroup of the periodic system), which are embed-
ded in a soft metallic binder phase made of cobalt and/or nickel. The carbides are on
the boundary between metals and ceramics. They still have metallic properties (e.g.
electrical conductivity), but they assigned to the non-oxide ceramics as metallic
hard materials [Horn06, Salm83]. Additionally, cermets contain titanium nitride.
Hard materials are the bearers of hardness and wear resistance. The binder phase
is responsible for binder the brittle carbides and nitrides to a relatively solid body.
4.3 Cemented Carbides 111
The advantages of cemented carbides include good structural uniformity due to

their powder-metallurgical fabrication, high hardness, pressure resistance and high-
temperature wear resistance. At 1000 C, cemented carbides have the same hardness
as high speed steel at room temperature. It is also possible to manufacture types of
cemented carbides with various properties by means of intentionally changing the
amounts of hard material and binder [Sche88, Kola92].
4.3.1 Historical Development

In 1927, cemented carbides were first introduced as new high performance cutting
tool materials at the Leipzig Trade Fair under the name WIDIA (Fig. 4.12). This was
a revolutionary development at the time, opening up completely new dimensions in
cutting technology. In contrast to the high speed steel tools used hitherto, cemented
carbides allowed the use of twice or three times the cutting speed with the same
cross-section of undeformed chip. The capacities of the machine tools of the time
were far beneath the potential of the new cutting tools. Materials such as chilled cast
iron, which had been very difficult to cut with HSS tools, could be machined easily
with the new cutting tool material. Initially, WC-Co cemented carbides were used
exclusively to machine cast iron materials. Due to the high amount of crater wear,
these cemented carbides were not suited to machining long-chipping steel materi-
als. This changed with the introduction of titanium carbide as an alloy component.
With cemented carbides containing TiC, similar sensational cutting speed increases
were made possible in steel machining as previously was the case when machining
cast iron with WC-Co cemented carbides. This period also saw the development
of the first cermet. Cemented carbides made for patent reasons without tungsten
based on TiC and Mo2 C with Nickel as the binder proved in many cases to be
1923 Patent for the fabrication of WC-Co-HM, K. Schrter

1927 Leipzig Trade Fair: 1st WC-Co-HM, producer Krupp, labeling WIDIA
1928 Carboloy (General Electric)
1931 WC-TiC-Co cemented carbide
1934 TiC-Mo2C-Ni (1st generation of Cermets) producer Plansee, labeling Titanit S
1937 Titanit (Plansee), Bhlerit (Bhler)
1942 Coromant (Sandvik)
68/69 Implemention of coated cemented carbide
1970 Fine grain cemented carbide
1973 Spinodal - cemented carbide (1st Cermet with TiN)
since
73/74 Accelerated developing of Cermets
1993 Submicron grain and nano crystalline cemented carbide
Fig. 4.12 Milestones in the development of cemented carbides

excessively fragile for the machinery of the time [Sche88, Kola92, Kola93, DRP23,
P31, Hus90, Spri95].
Further development of cemented carbides in the following years led to continu-
ous improvement of their composition, production and cutting performance. The
influence of carbide grain size on the properties of cemented carbides was rec-
ognized early on. The relation, whereby cemented carbides can be increased in
hardness only with a reduction in toughness, could be overcome with the devel-
opment of fine grain cemented carbide. By reducing WC crystallite size to under
1 m, both hardness and bending strength could be increased with the same amount
of binder [Sche88, Kola93, Spri95].
The introduction of coated cemented carbides at the beginning of the 1970s was
another great innovation. The combination of tough cemented carbide substrates
with highly wear-resistant hard material coats led to an enormous increase in pos-
sible cutting speeds and tool standing times. The CVD and PVD methods are the
most important coating process variants today. Multi-layer coats on substrates with
binder-rich rim zones or gradient structures are new developments [Sche88, Kola92,
Gill95].
With the development in 1973 of spinodal cemented carbides, the first Cermet,
which contained titanium nitride as a further hard material component, the basic
form of todays highly efficient cermet was created. Cermets are today among the
high performance cutting tool materials that meet the demands of modern cutting
technology excellently by allowing for the use of high cutting speeds with moderate
feeds and realizing long standing times with a high level of reliability. This is due
to their high chemical stability and high-temperature wear resistance, making these
cutting tool materials especially interesting for cutting operations with high thermal
stress on the cutting edge.
4.3.2 Cemented Carbide Production

Cemented carbides are fabricated using various powder-metallurgical means
(Fig. 4.13). Due to the great variety of shapes that cemented carbide components
can assume, very different forming methods can be used. The most general dis-
tinction is between direct and indirect fabrication, combined fabrication and special
methods (injection moulding). The fabrication method used depends mainly on the
geometry and quantity of the product to be manufactured [Sche88, Kola92].
About two thirds of all cemented carbide products are manufactured by direct
fabrication, primarily indexable inserts. Complicated moulding in small quantities,
such as pistons, screws, rolling rings or matrices are made indirectly, i.e. using
additional machining steps such as cutting, drilling, turning or milling. The start-
ing material is a cemented carbide in a pre-sintered or cold-isostatically pressed
condition, the consistency of which is still chalky [Sche88, Kola92].
The individual components of the cemented carbide are weighed out as powder
to a batch and homogenized in mixers. In the wet grinding following this, the grind-
ing fluid (alcohols, acetone, hexan) should protect the powder from oxidation during
Tungsten- Auxiliary Alloying elements

carbide metal TiC, (Ta,Nb)C, Mo2C, VC, Cr3C2
WC Co, Ni
Blending, wet grinding, wet-sieving
Pressing Plasticising
Vacuum drying,
additives
screening
Vacuum drying Vacuum drying
HM-powder Spray drying Granulation dispersing dispersing
HM-injection
Cold isostatic HM - Granulate HM-modelling material
moulding material
compression
Cold isostatic Powder Extrusion Injection
Machining compression compaction moulding
Debindering Debindering Debindering

Sintering Sintering/ Sintering
HIP
HIP
Semi-finished products
Grinding, separating Coating
beams, profiles
Finished
products
Beams, profiles
Grinded Thick beams Indexable inserts Small mass
d < 22 mm
mouldings for Profiles Mining tools products with
Drills with
wear protection Drills, milling Small bearing parts complex geometry
integrated coolant
cutter Short beams
bore
Fig. 4.13 Fabrication sequences for the production of workpieces made of cemented carbide
(Source: Widia)
grinding and guarantee optimal dispersal of all the components in the suspension.
After the grinding process is finished, the powder mix is prepared in accordance with
the subsequent shaping method. To produce indexable inserts, the powder is trans-
formed into granulate in order to assure good flow properties and a suitable granulate
size for compression into matrices. The granulate is produced with the help of
spray drying or granulation processes. Shaping the indexable inserts is achieved
by compressing the granulate in matrix presses. The matrix press method allows for
short cycle times and is thus especially suited to producing large quantities [Kola92,
Daub95].
Within the fabrication sequence, sintering process is probably the most important
operation, since it is here that the component obtains the mechanical and technolog-
ical properties that are essential for its functional capability. In principle, sintering
is defined as a thermally activated material transport in which the compressed,
loosely bonded powder material (pressed part, green compact) is increasingly com-
pressed due to diffusion-controlled place-shifting processes (surface diffusion, grain
boundary diffusion, volume diffusion). It is decisive for fabricating cemented car-

bides that not the entire alloy system is converted to a molten state, but rather (as it
is called in professional jargon) sintered with liquid phase [Sche88, Kola92].
Molten baths first appear at about 1300 C. Tungsten carbide dissolves increas-
ingly in the molten bath. At a sintering temperature of about 1400 C, the entire
binder phase, composed of cobalt and tungsten carbide, is molten. The liquid phase
wets the carbide, penetrates into all the pores and causes the hard material particles
to glide together under the influence of surface tension into the smallest space. This
particle rearrangement and re-precipitation process leads to tight packing with mini-
mal surface energy. Depending on the green density and sintering parameters, linear
shrinkage can reach 20%. As the mass cools from sintering temperatures, tung-
sten carbide precipitates again from the liquid binder phase. Up to a temperature of
700 C, a further thermally activated material transport of tungsten and carbon takes
place in accordance with the solubility of WC in Co. Atoms of the hard material
phase still dissolved after solidification in the binder phase stabilize the cobalt-rich
binder phase in the cubic crystalline crystal lattice structure until room temperature;
otherwise the cobalt converts into hexagonal form below 417 C [Sche88, Kola92].
4.3.3 Components of Cemented Carbides and Their Properties

WC: Mono tungsten carbide is the most important hard material phase in techni-
cal sintered cemented carbides. WC is soluble in Co, resulting in the high inner
bonding and edge strength of WC-Co cemented carbides. WC is also even more
wear-resistant than TiC and TaC. The applicable cutting speed is limited at higher
temperatures due to its tendency to dissolution and diffusion.
TiC: Titanium carbide has a low tendency to diffusion. The consequence of this is
that TiC cemented carbides have considerable high-temperature wear resistance
but little bonding and edge strength. Cemented carbides high in TiC are therefore
brittle and fragile. Their use is preferred when cutting steel materials with high
cutting speeds. TiC can join with WC to make a composite carbide.
TaC: In small amounts, tantalum carbide has a grain-refining effect, thus improv-
ing toughness and edge strength; the inner bonding strength does not decrease as
sharply as is the case for TiC.
NbC: NbC has a similar effect as TaC. Both carbides appear as a mixed crystal
(Ta, Nb)C in cemented carbides.
TiN: Titanium nitride is the property-determining component in all modern cer-
mets. TiN in steel is even less soluble and is thus more resistant to diffusion
than titanium carbide. Nitrogen causes an increase in wear resistance. In addi-
tion, grain growth is inhibited. Cermets containing nitrogen have as a rule a very
fine-grained structure. In a solid state, TiC and TiN are completely mixable. The
physical properties of cermets are based on those of titanium carbon nitride.
Co: Cobalt is still unrivalled as a binder metal for cemented carbides based on
tungsten carbide. This is due to the high level of solubility of WC in cobalt and
to the good wettability of tungsten carbide crystals by the molten WC-Co binder
phase [Sche88].
Ni: due to the improved wettability of hard materials, nickel is used as a binder
for cermets. But since nickel is more easy to deform than cobalt, cobalt is also
added with nickel as a binder in cermets today in order to improve their high
temperature properties.
The properties of the cemented carbide substrate are of key importance with
respect to the wear resistance and efficiency of uncoated and coated cemented car-
bides. Cemented carbides should have high hot hardness and pressure resistance
for the sake of increasing the resistance of the cutting edge to plastic deformation.
They should however also have high bending strength and therefore sufficiently
high toughness and resistance to cracking, crumbling and fracture. In general, tough
cemented carbides are low in hardness and pressure resistance. These opposing cut-
ting tool material properties are influenced decisively by the microstructure of the
base material. The tendency is that fracture toughness increases with the cobalt con-
tent and average grain size, while hardness and pressure resistance are decreased
(Fig. 4.14). As the concentration of composite carbides goes up, fracture toughness
is reduced. Tantalus carbide has a favourable effect on temperature change strength.
resistance
Hardness
Pressure
TiC
TaC
(Ti,Ta)C
Bending
strength
TaC
TiC
resistance
Wear
Co-Concentration WC-Grain size Composite carbide concentration
Cutting tool material attributes

High High
wear resistance ductility
Co-Concentration: Co-Concentration:
WC-Grain size: WC-Grain size:

Composite carbide concentration: Composite carbide concentration:
Fig. 4.14 Influencing factors for wear resistance of cemented carbides

This is exploited in many cases and, in the case of substrates for milling, the ratio
TiC/TaC is modified in favour of tantalum carbide [Sche88, Schi89, Kni90]. The
high material costs put a tight limit on the use TaC alloys however.
4.3.4 Microstructure
In conventional cemented carbides based on WC, the tungsten carbide is usually in
the form of prisms with triangular bases. As opposed to cemented carbides contain-
ing larger amounts of cobalt, in which crystal growth is less hindered, this crystal
form is less well developed in types that are fine-grained and low in cobalt. Cubic
mixed crystals exist both in both cubical (with rounded edges) and nearly spherical
shape (Fig. 4.15). The carbide skeleton is filled with the binder phase.
The structure of cermet contains only rounded composite carbon nitrides. The
core/shell structure of the hard materials is characteristic of their microstructure. The
causes of this are demixing phenomena in the hard materials (spinodal demixing),
mainly however the dissolution and re-precipitation processes taking place during
liquid phase sintering. By selective solution, the Ni-Co molten bath is enriched
with carbide components. Composite carbides precipitate as a rim zone around
the remaining hard material grains when cooling down from sintering temperature
[Mosk66, Rudy73, Kola89, Kief71, Leop87, Kola89a, Kola93a].
Cemented carbide HW-P10 Cermet HT-P15
Chart of reflected electrons Chart of reflected electrons

Hard material Hard material particles:
particles: TiN
WC (Ti, Ta, W) (C, N)
(Ti, Ta, Nb, W) C (Ti, Ta, W, Mo) (C, N)
(Ti, Ta, W, Mo) (C, N)
Binder phase: Binder phase:

Co-W-C- Co, Ni (Ti, W, Mo)
Mixed crystall Ni3 (Ti, Al)
Main component
Schematic Schematic
Fig. 4.15 Microstructure of conventional cemented carbides and cermets

The microstructure of the hard material particles is determined by the compo-

nents contained in the original powder. The hard materials can exhibit widely varied
textural structures depending on composition and grain size. If the initial powder
consists of unalloyed binary hard material components, usually titanium nitride or
titanium carbide are in the cores (dark cores). When prealloyed powders are used
consisting of composite carbides or quaternary carbon nitrides, higher concentra-
tions of molybdenum and/or tungsten are also found in the cores (light cores). The
back scatter electron image in Fig. 4.15 shows this varying core/shell structure
very clearly. The initial powder consists in this case of single carbides, compos-
ite carbides and carbon nitrides. The hard material particles with the dark cores
have Ti(C,N) in the centre, which is surrounded by a relatively titanium-rich com-
posite carbon nitride (Ti,Ta,W)(C,N). The lighter (Ti,Ta,W,Mo)(C,N) shell consists
primarily of a titanium-tungsten-molybdenum composite carbide containing a rela-
tively large amount of tungsten and/or molybdenum. The hard material particles in
the light core contain this composite carbide inside, surrounded by a titanium and
nitrogen-rich shell.
4.3.5 Classification of Cemented Carbides

Cemented carbide cutting tool materials can be subdivided into three groups. These
are cemented carbides based on:
WC-Co,
WC-(Ti,Ta,Nb)C-Co and
TiC/TiN-Co,Ni.
The term cermet is now used for cemented carbides based on TiC/TiN-Co,Ni.
4.3.5.1 WC-Co Cemented Carbides

The cemented carbides of this group consist almost exclusively of hexagonal tung-
sten monocarbide and the binder phase cobalt. They can contain up to 0.8 mass %
VC and/or Cr3 C2 and/or up to 2 mass % (Ta,Nb)C as doping additives to control
structural fineness and consistency (Fig. 4.16).
WC-Co cemented carbides are characterized by high abrasion resistance. Due to
the strong diffusion tendency of tungsten carbide, they are not suitable for machin-
ing soft steel materials. They are mostly used for short-chipping materials, cast iron
materials, non-ferrous metals and non-metals, high temperature materials as well as
in stone and wood processing (Fig. 4.4).
According to previous terminology, WC-Co cemented carbides were subdivided
in accordance with the average WC grain size in the sintered microstructure into
fine (0.81.3 m), submicron (0.50.8 m) and ultrafine (0.20.5 m). Deviating
from this, the standard DIN ISO 513 distinguishes only between cemented carbides
with grain sizes 1 m (HW) and those with grain sizes of < 1 m (HF).
Cemented carbide
Application group (DIN ISO 513) HW-K05 HW-K10 HW-K25 HW-K40
Grade WC-4Co WC-6Co WC-9Co WC-12Co

Density
15.1 14.9 14.6 14.2
(g/cm3) (ISO 3369)
Hardness HV 30 (ISO 3878) 1730 1580 1420 1290
Pressure resistance
(cylinder test) 5700 5400 5000 4500
(N/mm2) (ISO 4506)
Bending strength
1600 2000 2350 2450
(N/mm2) (ISO 3327)
Youngs modulus
(103N/mm2) 650 630 590 580
(ISO 3312)
Fracture toughness
6.9 9.6 12.3 12.7
(Nm1/2/mm2)
Poisson-constant 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22
Heat conductivity
80 80 65
(Wm1K1) 70
Coefficient of thermal expansion
(2931073 K) 5.0 5.5 5.6 5.9
(106K1)
Fig. 4.16 Composition and attributes of conventional WC-Co cemented carbides, acc. to Kolaska
[Kola92]
Conventional Fine-Grain Cemented Carbides (HW)

Conventional uncoated WC-Co fine-grain cemented carbides (fine cemented car-
bides) with an average grain diameter of 0.81.3 m (acc. to DIN ISO 513 grain
size 1 m) are still widely used in cutting technology applications where high
demands are placed on cutting edge sharpness and toughness, e.g. in steel milling,
finishing, grooving and parting-off or in the manufacture of threads [Kola92].
Submicron and Ultrafine Cemented Carbides

Submicron and ultrafine cemented carbides have until now been the terms used in
literature and practice for WC-Co cemented carbides with an average WC grain
diameter of 0.50.8 and 0.20.5 m in the sintered microstructure. The small grain
diameter gives there cemented carbides a special combination of attributes: reduc-
ing the WC crystallite size below 1 m with equal binder content leads both to
increased hardness and bending strength (Fig. 4.17). This property makes submi-
cron and ultrafine cemented carbides applicable to a wide variety of tasks [Kola92,
Daub95, Kni90a, Kni93, Drey01, Gill01].
Valuable submicron and ultrafine cemented carbides are superior to conventional
fine-grain cemented carbides in hardness, edge strength and toughness. Moreover,
they have a small inclination to adhesion and to wear by diffusion. These attributes
4300(B)
2000(H)
2000
1780
3000
1580
Standard Fine grain Submicron grain

WC-6Co-Cemented carbide
14
Turning of white iron vc = 16 m/min
12 (80 Shore)
Tool life T / min
f = 0.1 mm
(B): Bending strength
10
8 ap = 1.0 mm
(H): Hardness
6 Indexable insert:
4 SPGN 120308
Sharp-edged
N/mm2
HV30
2
r = 75
0
Standard Fine Submicron
grain grain
Fig. 4.17 Microstructure and attributes of fine and submicron grain cemented carbides in
comparison to standard K-class cemented carbides (Source: Widia)
are necessary when hardened materials must be machined with finishing quality and
the smallest machining allowances.
Submicron and ultrafine cemented carbides are used whenever high toughness,
high wear resistance and the highest edge strength is required of the cutting edge,
e.g. for broaching, milling and shaping of heat treated and hardened steels, in cast
iron machining and for machining fibre-reinforced plastics and non-ferrous metals
[Kola92, Daub95, Kni90a, Kni93, Drey01, Gill01].
4.3.5.2 WC-(Ti,Ta,Nb)C-Co Cemented Carbides

The cemented carbides of this group contain, besides tungsten carbide, mixed
carbides (MC) made of titanium, tantalum, niobium and/or zirconium carbide
(Fig. 4.18). Compared with WC-Co cemented carbides, they are characterized by
improved high-temperature properties. This is especially the case for hot hard-
ness and high temperature strength, oxidation resistance and diffusion resistance to
iron materials. Their main area of application is in machining long-chipping steels
(Fig. 4.4). Due to the mixed carbide content, the cemented carbides of this group
can be classified according to their use into two subgroups.
Group A: Mixed carbide content >1011 mass %. Due to their mixed carbide
content, the cemented carbides of this group are characterized by a high level of
HW HW HW HW HW HW
Cemented carbide - - - - - -
Application group (DIN ISO 513) P10 P15 P25 P30 M10 M15
Composition (mass percentage)

WC 60.0 64.5 72.7 78.5 84.5 82.5
(Ti, Ta, Nb)C 31.0 25.5 17.3 10.0 9.5 11.0
Co 9.0 10.0 10.0 11.5 6.0 6.5
Density
10.6 11.7 12.6 13.0 13.1 13.3
(g/cm3) (ISO 3369)
Hardness HV 30 (ISO 3878) 1560 1500 1490 1380 1700 1550
Pressure resistance
(cylinder test) 4500 5200 4600 4450 5950 5500
(N/mm2) (ISO 4506)
Bending strength
1700 2000 2200 2250 1750 1900
(N/mm2) (ISO 3327)
Youngs modulus
520 500 550 560 580 570
(103N/mm2) (ISO 3312)
Fracture toughness
8.1 9.5 10.0 10.9 9.0 10.5
(Nm1/2/mm2)
Poisson constant 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.22
Heat conductivity
25 20 45 60 83 90
(Wm1K1)

(293 K1073 K) 7.2 7.9 6.7 6.4 6.0 6.0
(106K1)
Fig. 4.18 Composition and attributes of WC-(Ti, Ta, Nb)C-Co cemented carbides, acc. to
KOLASKA [Kola92]
high-temperature wear resistance, a low tendency to diffusion with iron materials

and low abrasion. They are utilized above all in steel and cast steel cutting, with the
exception of rust and acid-resistant steels with austenitic microstructures.
Group B: Mixed carbide content < 1011 mass %. The cemented carbides
assigned to this group have relatively good high-temperature wear resistance
and abrasion resistance. They are especially suitable for cutting rust, acid and
heat-resistant steels with austenitic structures as well as for alloyed or hard
austenitic/ferritic cast iron materials.
4.3.5.3 TiC/TiN-Co,Ni Cemented Carbides (Cermets)

Cemented carbides based on titanium carbide and titanium nitride with a Ni,Co
binder phase are designated as cermets (formed from ceramic + metal). Present-day
cermets are complex multi-material systems that can contain a number of additional
elements such as tungsten, tantalum, niobium, molybdenum or complex carbides,
from which intermetallic phases are formed during sintering.
Cermet
Application group (DIN ISO 513) HT - P05 HT - P10 HT - P20
Composition (mass percentage)

Carbon nitrides 89.0 85.7 82.3
Additive nitrides 0.6 0.8 1.0
Co/Ni 10.4 13.5 16.7
Density
6.1 7.0 7.0
(g/cm3) (ISO 3369)
Hardness HV 30 (ISO 3878) 1650 1600 1450
Pressure resistance
(cylinder test) 5000 4700 4600
(N/mm2)
(ISO 4506)
Bending strength
2000 2300 2500
(N/mm2) (ISO 3327)
Youngs modulus
460 450 440
(103N/mm2) (ISO 3312)
Fracture toughness
7.2 7.9 10.0
(Nm1/2/mm2)
Poisson constant 0.21 0.22 0.21
Heat conductivity
9.8 11.0 15.7
(Wm1K1)

(293 K1073 K) 9.5 9.4 9.1
(106K1)
Fig. 4.19 Composition and attributes of cermets, acc. to KOLASKA [Kola92]
The composition and some characteristic attributes of three typical cermet types
is given in Fig. 4.19 [Kola92]. Compared to conventional cemented carbides,
cermets are characterized by their lower density. Some essential differences to WC-
based cemented carbides are their significantly smaller thermal conductivity coupled
with their greater thermal expansion. Due to their lower heat conductivity, a larger
portion of the cutting heat is dissipated with the chip, resulting in a lower total
heating of the cutting insert. Near the contact zones however, the temperature gra-
dient increases inside the cutting tool material. In association with the large thermal
expansion coefficient, this leads to high tensile and pressure stresses in the cut-
ting tool material. The result of this is that cermets react much more sensitively to
temperature change than conventional cemented carbides. They thus have a strong
tendency to form comb cracks, especially in interrupted-cut machining [Kni90a,
Kni93, Kloc96].
Cermets are very hard, have a low tendency to diffusion and adhesion as well as
a high level of high-temperature wear resistance. Due to their high edge strength,
high resistance against abrasive wear and low adhesion, cermets are especially good
for planing steels. Until now, cermets have been predominantly utilized to machine
Material: C45+N, Rm = 700 N/mm2

Cutting conditions: vc = 400 m/min, f = 0.1 mm, ap = 1 mm
Width of flank wear land VB/mm

500 0.50
0.40
Cemented carbide
0.30 HWP10
0.20
400
0.10
Cermet
Cutting speed vc /(m/min)
Fine finishing
300 ap < 0.5 mm
0.05
3 5 10 20 30
Cutting time tc /min
Finishing cemented carbide

200 ap < 2 mm vc = 220 m/min
Coated
f = 025 mm
ap = 11.5 mm
Tool life quantity: 150
Rough finishing
100 ap < 3 mm
C45E
Tool life quantity: 240

Cermet
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 vc = 400 m/min
0
f = 0.3 mm
Feed f /mm
ap = 11.5 mm
Fig. 4.20 Field of application of cermets during turning steel (Source: Kennametal Widia,
CeramTec)
steels with high cutting speeds and small cross-sections of undeformed chip. The
development of tougher cermet types has led to the expansion of their field of
application to include more average roughing conditions (Fig. 4.20).
Basic areas of application include both turning and milling. Cermets also are
suitable for grooving and thread turning. The high wear resistance of the cutting
edges, in association with the low diffusion tendency and high oxidation resistance,
generally leads to better surface qualities than coated cemented carbides are capable
of producing in planing and finishing. At the same time, due to these properties,
they allow for higher cutting speeds in comparison with conventional cemented
carbides. But they are also suitable for cutting speeds below 100 m/min. Tougher
cermet types, corresponding to the range P15 to P25 of conventional cemented
carbides based on WC-(Ti,Ta,Nb)C-Co, are used successfully in average rough
turning operations and in milling (Fig. 4.21). Because of their clear tendency to
Chamfering of gears
Peripheral down-cut milling
*Limited by the nmax
of the maschine
Tool life travel path lf / m

260* Cermet
Cermet
600
150
Cemented
Carbide -TiN 300 25 %
PVD Cemented carbide K25
50 70 % 0 100 200 300

HSS -TiN 200 100 %
Cutting speed
Cutting speed Tool life vc / (m/min)
Tool costs per
(m/min) quantity workpiece
(pieces)
Material: 16MnCr5 Material: 50CrV4, 250 300 HB

Tools: End milling cutter, D = 16 mm, (HSS -TiN) Tool: End milling cutter,
and D = 18 mm, D = 8 mm, z = 3
(Cemented Carbide, Cermet-inserts) Cutting cond.: fz = 0.025 mm
Coolant: Emulsion ap = 8 mm, ae = 1 mm
Dry cutting
Fig. 4.21 Milling with cermets (Source: VW-Kassel, Kennametal)
form comb-type fractures, cermets should always be dry-milled [Drey97, Kni90a,

Kni93, Kloc96].
4.3.6 Uncoated Cemented Carbides and Cermets

Uncoated conventional cemented carbides are still used consistently in cutting tech-
nology whenever there are high demands placed in cutting edge sharpness and
toughness properties, e.g. in steel milling, finishing, grooving and parting off opera-
tions or in thread manufacture. They are however in direct competition with coated
cemented carbides and cermets, which are replacing them in an increasing amount
of applications. According to DIN ISO 513, uncoated cemented carbides based on
tungsten carbide take the abbreviation HW and uncoated cermets the prefix HT
(Fig. 4.3).
4.3.7 Function Gradient Cemented Carbides

Function gradient cemented carbides are defined as materials, whose composition
and/or microstructure differ in the rim zone and kernel area. The transition from the
rim zone to the kernel area is continuous [Berg03].
The goal in the development of function gradient cemented carbides was, and still
is, to improve even further the wear resistance of coated indexable inserts (especially
in the case of dynamic stress) by modifying the rim zone. Such modifications, e.g.
via cobalt enrichening and mixed carbide depletion in a approx. 50 m thick rim
zone, both cracking and fracture sensitivity of the insert are reduced [Berg97]. Such
measures are, however, only practical when applied to indexable inserts intended
for larger cross-sections of undeformed chip and interrupted cuts. In planing oper-
ations, the strength of cemented carbides is generally completely sufficient. In this
case, a rim zone that takes over or supports the wear-reducing effect of the coating
(mixed carbide enrichening) is advantageous [Berg97]. In the following, three types
of function gradient cemented carbides will be introduced.
4.3.7.1 Cemented Carbides with Rim Zone Free of Mixed Carbides

Gradient cemented carbides are understood as cemented carbides, the rim zone
of which is free of hard and brittle (Ti, Ta, Nb)C mixed crystals (Fig. 4.22)
and consists practically of nothing but tungsten carbide and cobalt up to a depth
of about 50 m. The cobalt content in the rim zone is higher than within. To
reduce impact sensibility, a coarse WC grain is advantageous. Moreover, nitrides,
which are less hard but more wear-resistant than cubic carbides or carbides of
other transition metals (e.g. zirconium carbides) can also be contained in these
rim zones. In this way, cemented carbide substrates with high hardness but very
tough rim zones of lesser hardness and increased resistance against cracking can be
produced.
The fabrication of rim zones free of mixed carbides can take place in various
ways. The basic principle behind it is the formation of a nitrogen gradient in the rim
zone of the cemented carbides [Berg97].
In the most commonly used method, nitrogen is introduced into the initial
cemented carbide mixture as TiN or Ti(C,N). The titanium nitride decomposes dur-
ing the sintering process. The nitrogen dissolving in the liquid phase diffuses from
the cutting tool material into the surrounding atmosphere. In this way, a nitrogen
concentration gradient arises in the cemented carbide plate from the inside outwards.
The result of this is the formation of a titanium activity gradient. Titanium diffuses
into the interior and accumulates there on existing cubic mixed crystals. The same
is valid for tantalum and niobium. The mixed carbides near the surface gradually
dissolve. On the other hand, cobalt penetrates from inside towards the outside. The
growth rate follows a parabolic temporal law. It increases with a rising nitrogen con-
tent and decreases with a rising titanium content. An edge effect is characteristic of
these processes, the end effect of which is that the zone free of mixed carbides is
thinner on sharp edges than on even surfaces [Berg97].
Other method variants include nitrogen pressure treatment, in which the
cemented carbide is subjected to a nitrogen treatment under increased pressure after
sintering, and the creation of zones free of mixed carbides without nitrogen, in which
the cemented carbide contains a defined excess of carbon and a certain sintering
regime is adhered to during cooling [Berg97, Kni90, Yohe93].
Material = C25
vc = 200 m/min
f = 0.150.3 mm
ap = 0.51.5 mm
360 % Multilayer coating
gradiented
rim zone
100%
Multilayer Tool life quantity
coating on
gradiented
rim zone
P25
Hardness gradient 10 m
1000 1200 1400 1600

Hardness HV
Fig. 4.22 Influence of the rim zone on the tool life of CVD tools (Source: Sumitomo)
The thickness of mixed-carbide-free rim zones produced in this fashion is up to

50 m. The methods described can therefore only be used for indexable inserts that
are already in their final shape after the sintering process. At best a minor cutting
edge rounding can still be undertaken. Therefore, in the case of highly accurate
milling inserts that are ground, such toughness-increasing measures are not used,
although they would be highly desirable. In the case of turning operations with tools
of the application groups P20P40, indexable inserts with rim zones free of mixed
carbides are widely used [Berg97].
As has been shown in practice, thus designed cemented carbides have signif-
icant advantages in their wear behaviour compared with coated ones. Especially
when turning with interrupted cut, tools coated according to this design achieve
significantly longer standing times.
4.3.7.2 Gradient Cemented Carbides with External Ti(C,N) Enrichment

The hallmark of these cemented carbides is an enrichment of nitrides and carbon
nitrides on the surface. The substrates are first tightly sintered and then impinged
with nitrogen. Diffusion of nitrogen into the rim zone leads to the formation and
enrichment of carbon nitrides high in nitrogen on the surface, the composition of
which becomes more rich in carbon with increasing depth. The thickness of the
surface carbon nitride layer can be varied by changing the treatment time. This
process of enriching the rim zone with Ti(C,N) is called coating the substrate
during the sintering process. The thus coated cemented carbides are efficient
alternatives to uncoated and conventionally coated tools. Cutting experiments with
gradient cemented carbides with Ti(C,N)-rich rim zones showed clearly improved
wear behaviour compared with uncoated cemented carbides. They can however also
be conventionally coated. This guarantees that the coating adheres better, espe-
cially when one succeeds in designing the coating and the rim zone such that
neither are clearly delineable from each other after the coating process [Leng06,
Leng04].
4.3.7.3 Gradient Cemented Carbides with Internal Ti(C,N) Enrichment

In this substrate variant, first a rim zone free of mixed carbides is produced. Then
nitrogen pressure is altered at a relatively high temperature so that nitrogen dif-
fuses into the interior through the mixed-carbide-free WC-Co rim zone. Diffusion
of Ti through the WC-Co layer is, however, minimal. The rim zone functions as a
membrane that permits the diffusion within of nitrogen but prevents the diffusion
without of titanium. By means of this one-sided diffusion of nitrogen, a transition
of the WC-Co zone to the base cemented carbide develops, i.e. a zone enriched
with Ti(C,N) a few micrometers beneath the surface in the interior of the substrate.
In milling experiments, inserts with internal Ti(C,N) enrichment exhibited excel-
lent wear behaviour in comparison with TiAlN-coated standard inserts [Leng06,
Leng04].
4.3.8 Coated Cemented Carbides and Cermets

Coating cemented carbides with thin, highly wear-resistant hard material coatings
is one of the milestones in their continued development. Coated cemented carbides
consist of a relative tough base body (e.g. P20, K20) on which is applied a 520 m
thick hard material coating made of carbides (e.g. titanium carbide, TiC), nitrides
(e.g. titanium nitride, TiN), carbon nitrides (titanium carbon nitride, Ti(C,N)) and/or
oxides (e.g. aluminium oxide, Al2 O3 ). Although uncoated cermets are already rela-
tively high in wear resistance, hard material coating also can further improve their
wear performance and efficiency just as with the conventional cemented carbides.
According to DIN ISO 513, coated cemented carbides and cermets have the prefix
HC (e.g. HC-K20).
4.4 Coatings 127
4.4 Coatings
Since about 1968, cemented carbides have been coated with hard materials in order
to improve their wear resistance and thus also their performance capability. Today,
the use of coated cemented carbides and high speed steels for machining various
materials is state-of-the-art.
The high efficiency of coated cemented carbides is made even more clear by
the fact that in the meantime more than 80% of all cemented carbides used in cut-
ting have a highly wear-resistant hard material coating. In turning, the percentage is
about 95% and in milling about 60%.
The primary function of the hard material layer is to inhibit contact between
the material, thereby reducing tool wear, which is caused by adhesion, abrasion,
diffusion and oxidation phenomena (Fig. 4.23). These processes are superimposed
to a large extent and are only partially separable in their causes and in their effects on
wear. But in general, besides abrasion at low cutting speeds, it is above all adhesion
and, at high temperatures, diffusion and oxidation that determine wear on the tool.
With their high hardness and chemical stability, several hard materials possess
the required prerequisites for improving resistance effectively against crater, flank
face and notch wear at both low and high cutting speeds.
While the hard material layer improves wear resistance, lessens adhesion
between the tool and the workpiece and acts as a diffusion barrier, the task of the
substrate is to act as an effective support for the hard material layer and to provide
the composite body (consisting of substrate and coating) with sufficient hot hardness
and, in particular, toughness.
The toughness attributes of a substrate are of decisive importance for applications
with interrupted cut. Due to input and output impacts and associated mechanical and
thermal stress variations, the toughness of the cutting edge is much more responsible
Adhesion
Delamination
Abrasion
Oxidation
Diffusion
Surface effects
Strains
Volume effects
Crack formation
Crumbling
Fractures
Fig. 4.23 Wear phenomena at coated cutting tools

for its dimensional accuracy than wear resistance. For the interrupted cut, the com-
posite material coated cemented carbide must first exhibit sufficient resistance to
cracking, crumbling and fracture (Fig. 4.23). Only when these demands are met
can, analogously to the interrupted cut, wear mechanisms like adhesion, abrasion,
delaminations and as long as the contact zone temperature and contact time are
sufficient oxidation and diffusion be effectively hindered.
From this we can derive two requirements for coatings [Kni92]:
The hard material layer has to drastically reduce the effect of all (if possible)
wear mechanisms involved in wear process.
The coating process may not reduce the inner bonding strength, i.e. especially the
toughness of the substrate.
4.4.1 Coating Methods

Coating cutting tools can be done chemically and physically. Method variants
include
chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
and
physical vapour deposition (PVD).
Figure 4.24 shows an overview of technically established coating methods for the
production of wear-resistant hard material layers. As can be seen, layer deposition
lies within a specific pressure/temperature range for each method and includes some
characteristic coating systems, which are given in bold in the illustration [Berg03].
(Ti,Zr)(C,N)
(Ti,Hf)(C,N)
Hf(C,N)
(Ti,Zr)(C,N) Zr(C,N)
TiN Ti(C,N)
Ti(C,N)
5
10
Al2O3 105
104
MT-CVD CVD
Pressure p /Pa
103
Al2O3 / ZrO2 / TiOx
102 TiC
101 PA-CVD
TiN
Ti(C,N)
TiN 100
Al2O3
Ti(C,N)
101
(Ti,Al)N PVD
(Ti,Al)(O,N) 102
MoS2 400 600 800 1000 1200
WC/C Coating temperature T /C
Fig. 4.24 Comparision of pressure and temperature conditions of coating methods with charac-
teristic coating systems (Source: Kennametal Widia)
4.4 Coatings 129
4.4.1.1 CVD Processes

CVD processes are chemical reactions that take place in gaseous phase under rough
vacuum conditions (103 105 Pa) and with the addition of thermal or radiant energy,
forming technically useful solids (hard materials) as well as volatile products. The
chemical reaction is determined by the laws of thermodynamics and thus by the
partial pressure of the gaseous components and temperature.
There are three types of CVD coating procedures:
HT-CVD (high temperature CVD, 9001100 C)
MT-CVD (medium temperature CVD, 700900 C)
PA-CVD (Plasma activated CVD, 450650 C)
A broad palette of hard material coating systems can be synthesized with CVD
methods. The most common coating materials are based on hard materials with pri-
marily metallic bonds, such as TiC, Ti(C,N), TiN, heteropolar (ionic) bonds such
as Al2 O3 , but also covalent bonds such as diamond [Damm04]. Figure 4.25 pro-
vides an overview of the most common hard materials manufactured with the CVD
process.
Figure 4.25 provides a comparison of some essential physical characteristics
with the properties of tungsten carbide, the main component of classical cemented
carbides.
WC-
TiC TiN ZrC ZrN HfC HfN -Al2O3 ZrO2 HfO2
6Co
rhombo- mono- mono-
Crystal system fcc fcc fcc fcc fcc fcc
hedral clinic clinic
Density
14.9 4.93 5.44 6.46 7.35 12.30 13.94 3.99 5.7 9.7
(g/cm3)
Micro hardness 1580 3100 2300 2800 1700 2600 1850 2300 1200 1100
HV0,05 HV30
Youngs modulus
590 451 570 348 495 352 530 380 200
(103N /mm2)
Melting point
3070 2950 3420 2980 3700 3380 2050 2700
(C)
Coefficient of
thermal
5.5 7.7 9.4 6.7 7.3 6.6 6.9 8.0 7.7 5.6
expansion
(106.K1)
Thermal
conductivity 6 (at 0.6 (at
80 33 29 38 21 29 22 < 0.1
(Wcm1K1) 1000 C) 1000 C)
Uncolored
Metallic
Metallic
Metallic
Grey
White
Green
yellow
yellow
yellow
grey
grey
grey
Light
Gold
white
Colour
Grey
Fig. 4.25 Characteristics of hard materials for coatings in comparison to a cemented carbide of
the application group HW-K10 (Source: Kennametal Widia)
Because the process is near equilibrium, thermally activated HT and MT-CVD

methods can only be used to produce equilibrium phases. On the other hand, the
low temperature PA-CVD process is also capable of producing metastable phases
such as TiAlN. Among the most technically advanced methods is the deposition of
coating systems with nanostructures. In this way, complexly doped hard material
phases made of Al2 O3 or superlattice structures made of TiN/TiB2 can be produced
with a single coating layer thickness of 5 nm [Damm04].
The HT-CVD Process

The high temperature CVD process (HT-CVD) is the classic CVD method for
coating cemented carbides. With it, HM tools can be coated at temperatures of
9001100 C. High temperature coatings are characterized by a high level of adhe-
sive strength on the substrate, which is produced by an easily reproducible material
transfer between the surface of the substrate and the reactive periphery [Ever94].
In order to produce a TiC coating, titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4 ), for example,
is vaporized and transferred with methane (CH4 ) to a reaction vessel, which can
contain several thousand indexable inserts (Fig. 4.26). Titanium carbide is formed
at temperatures of 9001100 C and a pressure below atmospheric pressure in a
hydrogenous environment (H2 ) in a chemical reaction following this equation:
Coating furnace
CH4
H2
Gas inlet
H2
H2+TiCl4
Fluid
TiCl4
Evaporator Gas exhaust
Fig. 4.26 Schematic illustration of a CVD coating unit (schematic)

4.4 Coatings 131
1000 C
TiCl4 + CH4 + n H2 TiC + 4HCl + n H2 (4.1)
10 150 mbar
This process allows us to deposit hard materials like TiC, TiN, Ti(Cx Ny ),
(Ti,Hf)(C,N), (Zr/C,N), Al2 O3 , AlON and others as single coats or in different com-
binations as multilayer coats. The coating material is formed by chemical reaction
from the gaseous phase directly on the surface of the parts to be coated. The reac-
tion products rinse the substrates so that no shading effects arise. Parts with complex
geometries can thereby be coated thoroughly and consistently without difficulty.
Cemented carbides that are coated with the classic high temperature CVD pro-
cess are characterized by high wear resistance due to their relatively thick hard
material coatings (up to 20 m for turning and up to 6 m in the case of milling).
The high process temperature is problematic in the case of coating tool and heat-
treated steels. In this case, coating must be followed by rehardening, making the
material vulnerable to unacceptable warpage.
A further disadvantage to the HT-CVD coating process is that the toughness of
the coated cemented carbide body is reduced in comparison to the uncoated sub-
strate. The causes for this loss of toughness in HT-CVD coating are extraordinarily
complicated. They include on the one hand the properties of the substrate to be
coated (chemical composition, crystalline structure, grain size, thermal expansion,
bending and pressure strength, pre-treatment) and process control on the other hand
(gas atmosphere, pressure conditions, temperature/time cycle). Furthermore, pro-
cesses taking place during coating in the rim zone (formation of eta phases), residual
stresses present in the substrate, transition zone (interface) and hard material layer
as well as the microstructure, texture, thickness and adhesion of the applied coating
are all mutually responsible for toughness reduction in HT-CVD coating.
We will now consider more closely processes in the rim zone (eta phase
formation), the temperature/time cycle in the coating process and coating thick-
ness based on all the above factors, which offer us many starting points for the
improvement of toughness in coated cemented carbides.
During the high temperature CVD coating process, there is a danger of form-
ing brittle phases in the interface. Cemented carbides of the first generation
exhibited an additional approx. 35 m thick brittle zone with an eta phase
(W6 Co6 C, W3 Co3 C), caused by decarburization processes in the rim zone [Schi89].
Embrittlement from the eta phase has a negative influence on the toughness of
coated cemented carbides.
Figure 4.27 shows the time/temperature transformation chart for a cobalt alloy
with 5% tungsten and 0.23% carbon. It shows typical coating temperatures and
times for the HT-CVD, MT-CVD, PA-CVD and PVD methods. From this chart,
we can see that in the classic HT-CVD and medium temperature CVD process the
area of eta phase precipitation is passed through/tangent. In contrast, no changes in
constitution are to be expected in the case of low temperature coating methods, as
in the PA-CVD or PVD processes [Kni90].
1200
Co-5W-0.23 C
1000 HT-CVD
WC Eta Eta'
Temperature T /C
800 MT-CVD
Co3W
600 PA-CVD
PVD
400
200
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Time t /h
Fig. 4.27 TTT-chart of a cobalt alloy with typical temperature sequence of several coating
processes (Source: Widia)
The comparative examination of the bending strength of thin, variously coated

WC-Co cemented carbides shows what effect coating temperature and coating
thickness have on these toughness-relevant parameters (Fig. 4.28).
With increasing coating thickness and coating temperature, bending strength is
reduced. The effect is especially negative in cutting operations with interrupted cut,
in which the tool is subject to dynamic stresses. In the case of milling therefore,
cemented carbides with thinner hard material coatings (46 m) than in turning are
used. With these coating thicknesses, toughness loss is relatively low. Reduction of
wear protection due to the reduced coating thickness must be expected.
The logical consequence of these discoveries is that more and more coating
methods have gained significance for coating cemented carbides in the past few
years, which can be used at lower coating temperatures in comparison with the
classic HT-CVD process.
The MT-CVD Process

By using acetonitrile (CH3 -CN) instead of a methane (CH4 )/ nitrogen (N2 ) gas mix-
ture, it is possible to lower the coating temperature in comparison with the HT-CVD
method by up to 200 C [Chat86]. In the 700900 C temperature range, carbon
4.4 Coatings 133
10
TiN
TiN/Ti(C,N)
0 PA-CVD
400 C
Changes of bending strength / %
10 550 C
PVD
20
700 C 550 C
30
CVD
700 C
40
50 CVD
2,6
14,5
60
0 2 4 6 8 10
Coating thickness / m
Fig. 4.28 Influence of coating method and coating thickness on the bending strength of coated
cemented carbides (Source: Widia)
nitride coatings of the elements Ti, Zr and Hf can be applied with high deposi-
tion rates. As opposed to the conventional HT-CVD process, the MT-CVD method
has the following advantages:
Thermal stress on the cutting tool material is lower due to the reduced coating
temperature at simultaneously higher deposition rates.
The danger of decarburization and thus of embrittling eta phases is lower for
cemented carbide substrates.
The coatings applied with the MT-CVD method exhibit lower tensile residual
stresses compared with HT-CVD coatings.
Trial results from the longitudinal turning test show the same qualitative depen-
dence on cutting speed for MT-CVD coated cemented carbides as for the uncoated
substrate (Fig. 4.29) [Kni92, VDI3324]. Both MT-CVD coated and PVD coated
cemented carbides are clearly superior to uncoated cemented carbides in per-
formance. In higher cutting speed ranges, the performance of the 3 m thick
100000 Rm = 980 N/mm2
Substrate: P30/40
Arc-PVD SPUN120312
50000
f = 0.2 mm
ap = 2.5 mm
10000
Number of impacts n
5000 MT-CVD
1000
500 Uncoated
100
60 80 100 200 300 400
Fig. 4.29 Influence of coating methods and cutting speed on the toughness behaviour of carbides
in an interrupted longitudinal turning test
Arc-PVD-TiN coating and the 6 m thick MT-CVD-TiN-Ti(C,N)-TiN coating do

not differ. The PVD coating tends to show advantages at low cutting speeds. It
extends the range of applicable cutting speeds clearly to lower cutting speeds to
a range that is also covered by coated HSS. At low cutting speeds, the cutting edges
succumb to flank face wear and no longer to cracking and crumbling. The causes
for the improved toughness are the unaffected properties of the substrate and the
more favourable compressive residual stresses resulting from PVD coating of the
cemented carbides [Kni90].
MT-CVD coated cemented carbides are used above all in milling. There are
significant performance advantages compared with conventional coatings. The end
of their standing times is no longer brought about by cutting edge crumbling, but
in a reproducible way by a continuous wearing of the flank face. Their excellent
toughness properties make these cemented carbides also ideal for milling with cut-
ting fluids. Fewer comb cracks form and crack development is slower than it is
the case with HT-CVD coatings. Transverse cracks and cutting tool material crum-
bling occur later, resulting in longer tool standing times and higher machining
quality.
4.4 Coatings 135
Residual Stresses in CVD Coating Systems

As a rule, coatings deposited by means of the HT or MT-CVD process exhibit tensile
residual stresses. This is, however, no longer exclusively true. In the meantime, there
are also CVD systems with compressive residual stresses available.
Tensile residual stresses originate when cooling from coating temperature to
room temperature and result primarily from the difference of the thermal expan-
sion coefficients between the substrate and the coating or, in the case of multilayers,
between the individual coatings. In addition, stress-free annealing in the substrate
cemented carbide always occurs at the coating temperatures typical for the CVD
process, leading (as opposed to the low temperature PVD process) to a reduc-
tion of the (compressive) residual stresses introduced, for example, during grinding
[West00].
Coatings with compressive residual stresses, generally familiar in the case of
PVD coatings, have the advantage that crack development is hindered in the hard
material coating, and the fracture strength of the coating/substrate composite is
largely maintained. Compressive residual stresses are therefore the most beneficial
to performance in interrupted turning and in milling in general.
Compressive residual stresses can also be produced when using the CVD method
by a corresponding choice and arrangement of individual coating systems. One
example is the coating sequence TiN-Ti(C,N)-Al2 O3 . The outside coating composed
of Al2 O3 has the smallest thermal expansion coefficient, the inside TiN coating the
largest. After cooling from coating to room temperature, the Al2 O3 coating exhibits
a small amount of compressive residual stress. Considerable larger compressive
residual stress is measured with the same coating sequence if it is supplemented
externally with a further Zr(C,N) or Hf(C,N) coating (ratio C:N = 1:1) (Fig. 4.30).
CVD-Coating system PVD-Coating system
Internal stress (N/mm2) Internal stress (N/mm2)

Strain Pressure Pressure
2000
1000
3000
4000
3000
1000
2000
1000
0
Hf(C,N)
4 m
(MT - CVD) TiAlN

Al2O3
17 m
Ti(C,N)
(MT - CVD) Cemented
carbide
substrate
Cemented
carbide
substrate
Fig. 4.30 Influence of coating methods and coating structure on residual stresses in hard coating
systems
To produce these multilayer systems, the classic high temperature CVD process
is combined with the MT-CVD process, whereby the precipitation of the carbon
nitride coatings takes place with the help of the medium temperature CVD process
[Drey97, West00, Berg03, Berg05].
The Plasma Activated CVD Process

In the PA-CVD process (plasma assisted or plasma activated) also known in
the literature as PE, plasma enhanced precipitation of fine-grained hard material
coatings takes place at the, in contrast to HT and MT-CVD methods, much lower
coating temperatures of 450650 C. At these temperatures, the thermal energy
alone is insufficient for introducing the chemical reaction needed to form the hard
materials from the gaseous phase. For this reason, additional energy is added to the
process by means of the pulsed plasma of a low pressure glow discharge. In this
way, chemical reactions are made possible that, at thermodynamic equilibrium, are
only possible at much higher temperatures [Tabe89, Kni89].
As in the HT-CVD process, coatings made of titanium nitride, titanium car-
bide, titanium carbon nitride and aluminium oxide can be deposited individually
in crystalline structure by changing the gas composition with individually or in an
arbitrary sequence. Due to the non-equilibrium conditions during deposition, there
is also a possibility of synthesizing metastable systems like (Ti,Al)N using PA-CVD
[Lemm03].
The attributes of the cemented carbide remain largely unaffected by the low-
ering of temperature during coating. The residual stresses are in the compressive
range after coating. PA-CVD coated cemented carbides measure about 30% higher
bending strengths than HT-CVD coated ones.
The properties of PA-CVD coated cemented carbides have a positive effect on
their performance when cutting strong steel materials in interrupted cut. The sensi-
tivity of the composite to comb cracking and failure due to crumbling is much lower
than it is the case for HT-CVD coated cutting tool materials. The application exam-
ple side milling proves this (Fig. 4.31). As opposed to the uncoated substrate,
the tool life travel path is slightly diminished after HT-CVD coating due to thermal
influence on the substrate as well as tensile residual stresses in the hard material
coating, while it is over 300% larger after PA-CVD coating.
Modifying the Layer Structure

The layer structure of many multilayer systems usually begins with a thin tita-
nium nitride layer coating the substrate, followed by one or more titanium carbon
nitride intermediate layers. The TiN surface layer functions as a diffusion barrier
during coating and prevents brittle eta phases forming in the interface [Kni90].
The Ti(C,N) layers building upon the TiN surface layer can consist of one layer or
several layers differing in stoichiometry. They act as a kind of buffer between the
relatively soft and tough substrate and the much harder and more brittle carbides,
nitrides or oxides of the coating.
4.4 Coatings 137
16
Side milling cutter
Tool life travel path Lf / m

Material: 60WCrV8,
220 HB
12
vc = 80 m/min
fz = 0.08 mm
8 ae = 42 mm
ap = 6 mm
0
Uncoated HT-CVD PA-CVD
Cemented carbide P25 / TiN, PA-CVD-coated
Coating method
Fig. 4.31 Cutting edge durability of a PA-CVD-coated cemented carbide in side milling (Source:
Widia)
With increasing coating thickness, the wear resistance of the CVD-coated

cemented carbides increases, but their bending strength and toughness is reduced.
The toughness of the coating/substrate composite is affected not only by the thick-
ness of the entire coating, but also to a large extent by the coating material and the
thickness of the individual coating components.
Figure 4.32 illustrates this using the example of a coating made of TiC and
Al2 O3 . With a constant total coating thickness of 10 m, the failure rate of the
coated cutting tool material due to fracture clearly increases with the thickness of
the Al2 O3 layer [Naka88]. Due to its high chemical stability as a coating material,
aluminium oxide does indeed have excellent resistance against crater wear, but it
only has a small amount of thermal shock resistance and toughness.
In order to reduce the brittleness of coating systems containing aluminium oxide,
they are often designed in the form of fine lamellar, fine grained multilayer coatings
(Fig. 4.32). Such multilayer coatings consist usually of a combination of TiN or
Ti(C,N) with Al2 O3 or, as in Fig. 4.32, with aluminium oxynitride (AlON). Coatings
such as these can also be composed of a large number of individual layers, whereby
each layer can be thinner than 0.2 m. Total coating thicknesses, depending on the
intended use, are around 5 m in the case of milling and between 1220 m for
turning.
Using PA-CVD coating technology, we are now also capable of depositing
nanolayer coatings. These are multilayer coatings with individual layers whose
thickness is given in nanometres, not in micrometers (Fig. 4.33). In the case of
coating systems 1 and 2 shown in Fig. 4.33, sixty 80 nm thick layers and thirty-six
50 nm thick layers are deposited on a top layer composed of titanium nitride. In
Wear resistance
PVD
CVD
TiN
Coating thickness AlON
PVD TiN
Bending
strength
PA-CVD
AlON
CVD
TiN
Coating thickness
CVD coating Al2O3 / TiC AlON
Total coating thickness for all tools 10 m TiN
Single layer thickness
1 m / 9 m AlON
Al2O3 / TiC
4 m / 6 m Transistion
layers
6 m / 4 m
Substrate 3 m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Occurance of failure / (%)
(cutting edge breakage)
Fig. 4.32 Fine lamellar multilayer coating (Source: Widia, Sumitomo)
the case of the coating system TiN-AlN, there are as much as 2000 single layers of
titanium and aluminium nitride of 9 nm thickness that are applied alternately.
Lowering the thickness of the coating increases hardness, toughness and wear
resistance. This effect is based, among other things, on the fact that coating materials
below a certain thickness take on completely new properties. For example, AlN
is, with a hardness of about 1200 HV0.05, relatively soft in comparison to hard
materials like TiC, however it has a hardness of over 3000 HV0.05 when the coating
thickness is below 10 nm.
At high cutting speeds or during dry machining, demands on thermal resistance
of the tool cutting edge are increased. Due to their low thermal conductivity, oxide
coatings are especially suitable to meet these demands. As can be seen in Fig. 4.25,
in addition to aluminium oxide, both zirconium oxide ZrO2 and hafnium oxide HfO2
have very low thermal conductivity. Since both oxides are insufficiently hard by
themselves, they are combined with Al2 O3 [West00]. This can be accomplished in
the form of multilayer coating systems with single or multi-phase layers, whereby
the latter so-called composite coatings are finely distributed in the Al2 O3 base
matrix of a further oxide, e.g. HfO2 oder ZrO2 (Fig. 4.34).
In the case of the Al2 O3 /ZrO2 /TiOx composite coatings shown in Fig. 4.34, the
oxide layer, consisting of three components, is condensed from a gas mixture com-
prising AlCl3 , ZrCl4 , TiCl4 , CO2 , H2 , N2 and Ar. Al2 O3 then exists as a -phase and
ZrO2 as a phase mixture in tetragonal/monoclinical (coating temperature > 990 C)
4.4 Coatings 139
Coating system: TiN-30x(TiCN-TiN) Coating system: TiN-18x(Al2O3-TiN)

Coating thickness: 5.2 m Coating thickness: 2 m
Single layer thickness: approx. 80 nm Single layer thickness: approx. 50 nm
Coating system: 1000x(TiN-AlN)

Coating thickness: 9 m
Single layer thickness: approx. 9 nm
Hardness of coating: 3200HV0,05
Fig. 4.33 Nanolayer created by a PA-CVD coating process (Source: Kennametal Widia)
or monoclinical form (coating temperature < 990 C) depending on the coating tem-
perature. In the fracture structure image, the ZrO2 particles can be recognized as
finely distributed in the Al2 O3 matrix. The highly fine-grained coating structure is
originated by means of a small addition of titanium as doping agent.
Doping layers made of Al2 O3 with titanium or boron (or TiN layers with boron)
leads to the formation of very fine-grained coating structures. In the CVD process,
titanium is added to the gas mixture as TiCl4 and boron as BCl3 . The doping prod-
ucts TiOx und Bx Oy , well detectable in the EDX (energy dispersive X-ray) analysis
but still not clearly identifiable as a phase, are effectively dissolved in the Al2 O3 lat-
tice. Due to their nanodispersive distribution, they have a positive effect on coating
growth and the grain size of the hard materials forming the coating system [West01,
Kloc01, Berg03]. Doping brings about higher deposition rates, makes it possible to
reduce deposition temperature and clearly improves wear resistance at high thermal
cutting edge loads (Fig. 4.35) [Kath03].
Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment helps to improve further the performance characteristics of coat-
ings, especially in the case of interrupted cut. For example, smoothing the surface
of CVD-coated tool bodies by means of brushing, jet treatment or polishing is
1 m HfO2
1.5 m 0.5 m Al2O3 /HfO2 /TiOx

6 m
Ti(C,N) (MT-CVD)
TiN
(1213 m)
9.5 m Al2O3 with dispersed HfO2
9.5 m TiCN (MT-CVD)
TiN
(1618 m)
Al2O3 /ZrO2 /TiOx

7 m Composite
TiCN (MT-CVD)
5 m
TiN
(1217 m)
Fig. 4.34 Fracture structure of CVD-coated cemented carbides with modern coating-design
(Source: Kennametal Widia)
TiN
A
TiN B
Ti(C,N)
MK reduced
rim zone
A Single layers of Al2O3 and TiN B Single layers of TiN and

endowed with titan and boron Ti(C,N) endowed with boron
Fig. 4.35 Formation of microcrystalline layer structures via doping with titanium and boron
(Source: Ceratizit)
4.4 Coatings 141
the common practice today for removing potential cracking sources. Since brush-
ing only covers the cutting edge area, all-round smoothing with jet treatment is
being given increasingly more preference. It is of particular importance that the jet
treatment, in addition smoothing, also causes an alteration of the tensile residual
stresses as a function of the treatment parameters. For example, the Al2 O3 layer in
the Al2 O3 /ZrO2 /TiOx coating system has, after jet treatment, compressive residual
stresses (3.500 N/mm2 ) in place of tensile residual stresses (1000 N/mm2 ). Jet
treatment not only improves the residual stress condition, but also reduces the range
within which the wear and standing time of coated hard material indexable inserts
are scattered [Berg03].
Modifying the Substrate Rim Zone

In comparison to uncoated cemented carbides, CVD coatings lengthen standing
times enormously. On the other hand, they also lower the toughness of indexable
inserts, thereby also reducing their capacity to bear high stress peaks during cut
interruptions [Kni90, Kni92]. The reason for this is assumed to be cracks, which
spread from the hard tensile stressed material coating into the cemented carbide
substrate.
Attempts to improve the toughness and resistance of cemented carbides sub-
strates to crack development without reducing their hot hardness led to the
development of substrates with graded rim zone structures [Sche88, Kni90,
Schw89]. The goal was to modify the rim zone of the cemented carbide such that
crack development towards the centre of the indexable insert was hindered or sup-
pressed. One possible solution are cemented carbides, the rim zones of which are
largely lacking hard and brittle (Ti, Ta, Nb)C mixed crystals and consist practically
of only tungsten carbide and cobalt up to a depth of approx. 50 m (mixed carbide-
free or reduced rimzone, Fig. 4.35). The coating and application of such cemented
carbides is presently state of the art.
Further developments in this area are aimed at establishing the basic properties
of a coated cemented carbide body hard outside and tough inside already during
sintering [Leng04]. This would also have positive effects on the following coating
process. The fabrication of function-graded cemented carbides with rim zones lack-
ing mixed carbides and with external or internal Ti(C,N) enrichment is described in
more detail in Sect. 4.3.5.
4.4.1.2 PVD Coating

The early 1980s saw the succession of the CVD process by the PVD process in vari-
ous process variants (vacuum evaporation, Arc-PVD, sputtering). The initial benefit
of these methods was the possibility of coating HSS tools with complex geometries.
In the meantime, these processes are also being used for cemented carbide and cer-
met coating. In addition, decorative layers, oxidation layers and corrosion layers can
also be produced.
The fundamental differences between PVD coating and the classic HT-CVD pro-
cess can be summarized as follows [Sche88, Schi89, Kni90, Rdh87, Knot89,
Ghr89, VDI3198, VDI3824]:
The process temperature of 160600 C means relatively low temperature stress
on the substrate materials, so that temperature-sensitive substrate materials can
also be coated.
The bending strength of the substrate remains largely unaffected by the low
coating temperature.
PVD coatings exhibit residual compressive stresses, which currently limit the
possible layer thicknesses to 36 m. Residual compressive stresses reduce the
risk of fracture formation under shock lead and thermal cycling.
In the PVD process, workpieces that are to be coated require a very careful
pretreatment of the surface and process control in order to guarantee sufficient
adhesion of the coating. CVD coatings have better adhesion due to the effects of
evaporation and diffusion.
Because of shadowing effects, consistent layer thicknesses can only be partially
realized by means of very costly devices for rotating the parts to be coated. Inner
contours are as a rule only coatable up to a depth/diameter ratio of 1, since the
layer thickness is diminished with increasing depth.
High number of potential coating systems and substrate materials.
Besides stable coating systems such as TiN and Ti(C,N), multi-component
metastable phases can also be deposited under the non-equilibrium conditions of
physical vapour deposition. These phases often exhibit structures that do not exist
under equilibrium conditions. An example of this is the coating system TiAlN.
We can distinguish several different methods of PVD coating:
methods with thermal evaporation (vacuum evaporation)
methods with arc evaporation (arc-PVD)
methods with cathode evaporation (sputtering)
Thermal Evaporation (Vacuum Evaporation)

In vacuum evaporation, usually the coating material is evaporated in a crucible with
a resistance heater or an electron beam gun (EB-PVD) in high vacuum at a pressure
of 103 106 Pa (Fig. 4.36). The vapour atoms exhibit average free path lengths
of up to several meters at these pressures. Therefore, they generally do not interact
with each other and proceed straight to the substrate. Since the latter is considerably
colder than the vapour, the particles condense on the substrate in accordance with the
principle of water vapour. A columnar fine crystalline layer is formed [Mhw96].
Due to the straight path of the particles, the substrate material must be moved in
the coating chamber in order to avoid shadowing effects and inconsistent coating
thicknesses. Vacuum evaporation allows for high coating rates (coating thickness
increase per unit time) and is used above all for optical applications, in mass pro-
duction for large-scale metallization of films, plastic parts and paper as well as for
coating turbine blades (EB-PVD) [Sche88, Rass96].
4.4 Coatings 143
Gas
Target
inlet
Watercooled
recipient
High vacuum coating plant

evaporation by:
- resistance heating
or by
- electron beam
Electron beam
Evaporator
Energy
Vacuum pump supply
Fig. 4.36 PVD-Process Vacuum evaporation, acc. to Mhwald [Mhw96]
In order to form hard material coatings composed of carbides, nitrides or oxides,

the substrate is reactively vapour-deposited with the help of a reaction gas (N2 ,
CH2,. . . ). [Haef87]. For example, from 2Ti + C2 H2 the hard material layer 2TiC and
the gas H2 are formed. In the case of simple reactive evaporation, bonding strength
is relatively low due to the low particle energy of less than 2 eV.
Arc Evaporation (Arc-PVD)

In the arc-PVD method, the target material is vapour-deposited and ionised by
means of an arc in high vacuum. The arc travels either randomly (random arc) or in
a controlled fashion (steered arc) by means of the vaporizing source, usually con-
nected as a cathode (Fig. 4.36). This method is distinguished by its high degree of
ionisation of up to 90% and thus makes it possible to produce high quality coatings
with thick structures and good adhesive properties.
Due to the high energy density in the focal point of the arc, the material is
explosively evaporated and propelled, but molten particles are also torn out at the
same time. The liquid particles that are carried away are found again as drop-
shaped defects (droplets) in the layer [Bran05]. These are undesirable because
they adhere to the substrate insufficiently [Mhw96]. The appearance of droplets is
the main disadvantage of arc evaporation, and since the droplets can lead to pores
in the coating, this method is not suited to depositing corrosion-resistant coatings
[Mhw96]. Droplet emission can be partially reduced by optimizing the process
parameters. Since evaporation by means of cathode arcs requires that the coating
material is electrically conductive, no oxide coatings can be deposited with this
method.
One process variant is the LARC method (Lateral Rotating Arc Cathodes). The
basis of this method are rotating, water-cooled arc cathodes [Damm04]. The mag-
netic field is created by permanent magnets and coils that are shifted and steered
vertically and radially. In contrast to conventional arc technology, fewer droplets
are produced, resulting in smoother coatings [Csel03].
Cathode Evaporation (Sputtering)

In a low-pressure plasma, an inert gas (e.g. argon) is ionized by applying high volt-
age. The positively charged inert gas ions are propelled onto the target switched as
a cathode (coating material) and knock out atoms, atomic groups and molecules of
the coating material via impulse exchange [Rass96] (Fig. 4.37).
Gas
Target
inlet
Sputtering plant
- without additional
Electrode as
magnetic field:
additional
Diodes-Sputter-Source
ion source - with additional
magnetic field:
Magnetron-Sputter-Source
Plasma-room
Evaporator
(Target)
Additional
magnetic system
Vacuum pump
+ -1...5 kV
Fig. 4.37 PVD-Process Cathode evaporation (sputtering)

4.4 Coatings 145
As opposed to vacuum evaporation, sputtering requires a process gas (usually

argon) as well as a high voltage source. After evacuating the recipient, the process
gas is admitted at up to 0.11 Pa pressure. The average free path length of the parti-
cles at this pressure amounts to a few millimetres. At a target voltage of 1 to 5 kV,
a glow discharge plasma is created. The plasma burns between the target which acts
as an anode and the substrate connected to the ground or the recipient wall, thus
making it the anode. The plasma consists of ions, electrons and uncharged atoms
[Mhw96].
This evaporation method is universally applicable, since the material is evapo-
rated not thermally but by means of impulse transfer. Almost all substances [Haef87]
and composites of very diverse melting substances can be evaporated, i.e. not only
metallic, but also isolating layers as well as materials with high melting points can
be deposited.
If not only metals or metal alloys are to be deposited, but also carbides, nitrides,
or oxides, this can be achieved with reactive sputtering. In this case, a reaction gas
(e.g. N2, CH4 , O2 , H2 , . . .) is injected in addition to the process gas. From this
reaction gas are obtained the non-metallic components of the coating (e.g. TiN,
TaC, Al2 O3 , . . .).
As in the arc method, sputtering also involves the possibility of depositing
metastable coatings (i.e. coatings that do not exist in equilibrium). Because the
process conditions are far from equilibrium conditions, it is possible to freeze
metastable composite phases due to their rapid condensation from the gaseous
phase, thus synthesizing a completely new material type that is often superior to
stable boundary systems [Leye04].
We differentiate between DC sputtering, in which the sputtering material is
electrically conductive, and RF sputtering, in which there is a high-frequency
AC field that is used for non-conductive materials. The use of direct current
(DC) plasma, high-frequency (RF) plasma and the combined use thereof as well
as a nearly unlimited number of possible coating materials making sputtering
enormously flexible with respect to the development of application-specific com-
ponent coatings [Rass96]. Although RF sputtering has important advantages when
atomizing insolating materials, this technology is of lesser importance in the
creation of wear-protection coatings due to the appreciably higher capital costs
in comparison with DC sputtering and the significantly lower deposition rates
[Lemm03]. The disadvantages of RF sputtering can be surmounted by using pulsed
DC sputtering (MF: medium frequency sputtering, up to 50 kHz). The coat-
ings produced with sputtering at low vapour-deposition rates have good adhesive
properties.
Magnetron Sputtering
In comparison to pure diode sputtering, magnetron sputtering involves the arrange-
ment of permanent magnets behind the target (Fig. 4.37), the magnetic field lines
of which vertically penetrate the cathode plate and the target affixed onto it. Due
to the overlapping of magnetic and electric fields, the electrons in the plasma are
directed on extended spiral-shaped paths. In this way, the probability of ionisation

is increased as well as the deposition rate as the discharge voltage is reduced. It
was the invention of magnetron sputtering that has first made possible an economic
utilization of the sputtering effect for coating deposition and thus the commercial
deposition of wear-protective layers by means of sputtering technology [Lemm03,
Bobz00].
High-Ionisation Pulsing
Rising interest in isolating, mostly oxidic wear-protection coatings and the necessity
of increasing ion density in the area of the substrate in order to deposit layers of
dense, optimized morphology have led to the development of pulsed DC plasmas.
With this technology, not only coating systems usually reserved for RF technology
can be deposited, but completely new coating systems can also be synthesized due
to the extremely enhanced ion currents [Lemm03, Leye04].
Pulse technology makes it possible to deposit conductive and electrically isolat-
ing layers in almost arbitrary stoichiometry as well as nano-structured single and
multi-phased layers with new property combinations.
Figure 4.38 shows a (Ti,Al)N coating created with conventional DC technol-
ogy in comparison to one made with the help of pulse technology. One can clearly
recognize the alteration of the coating micromorphology towards finer crystalline
structure made possible with the increased plasma ionisation of pulse technology
[Lemm03]. Pulse technology thus also creates the possibility of depositing crys-
talline -Al2 O3 at substrate temperatures of < 500 C or producing (Ti,Al)N layers
with a AlN content of up to 66 mol% (Fig. 4.39).
The coating process with pulsed plasmas is also known as high ionisa-
tion pulsing (H.I.PTM ). We distinguish between three process variants: unipolar,
asymmetrical bipolar and bipolar two-cathode magnetron sputtering [Lemm03,
Erke05].
Fig. 4.38 Fracture pattern of (Ti,Al)N-layers on cemented carbide substrates, deposited with
conventional DC-technique (left) and using bipolar-pulse-technique (right) (Source: CemeCon)
4.4 Coatings 147
Fig. 4.39 Metastable phase 900

diagram of the system
TiN-AlN, acc. to Cremer 800 (Ti,Al)N+ (Al,Ti)N
[Crem98]
700
600
500
T / C
400 (Ti,Al)N
(NaCl structure)
300
200
(Al,Ti)N
100 (wurtzite
structure)
TiN 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 AlN

xAlN
Ion Plating
With respect to process control, ion plating is defined as a variant of PVD coating,
in which the condensing layer is altered by means of an additional electric field
applied to the substrate. This method variant is independent of the type of process
and physical principle involved in creating the metal vapour. The prerequisite is a
sufficiently high number of ionised steam and process gas atoms.
In ion plating, the substrate is coated with a negative voltage or bias voltage.
The metal vapour is ionized by means of electrodes arranged in a gas space and
electromagnetic fields. Part of the ionised particles are accelerated towards the sub-
strate (Fig. 4.40). Ion plating thus involves surrounding the substrate with gas ions.
By bombarding the growing layer with ion, coating properties such as density and
residual stress are modified and adhesion to the substrate is improved. The resultant
coatings are very adhesive and tight. All PVD methods in which a bias voltage is
used to modify the coating are termed ion plating [Bobz05].
In order to produce carbides, nitrides or oxides for coating purposes, here too
a reactive gas is fed into the chamber. This method is called reactive ion plating
[Mhw96, Haef87]. Ion plating can also be utilized for purifying and activating the
component surface prior to coating (also called etching) or for activation during
coating [Rass96].
A variety of ion plating plant designs have emerged as practicable coating vari-
ants. For tool coating, arc ion plating (AIP) and ion plating with low-voltage arc
discharge are among the process variants that have become the most significant in
tool coating.
- + 10...5000 V
Rotating arc plasma channel
Vaporising via vacuum arc vaporiser:

Contact ignition device
Magnets for stabilisation

rather leading of the arc
Vacuum pump
Fig. 4.40 PVD-ProcessIon plating, acc. to MHWALD [Mhw96]
Arc Ion Plating (AIP)

In the AIP process, the target material is vaporized and ionised by means of an arc
in high vacuum. This method is characterized by the high degree of ionization of up
to 90% and can thus be used to produce high quality coatings with dense structures
and good adhesion.
The pre-voltage applied to the substrate accelerates the ionised particles, which
impact the substrate at high speed. Their energy is partially converted into heat,
which can result in high coating temperatures (approx. 550 C) in the substrates.
Magnetron Sputter Ion Plating (MSIP)

MSIP guarantees a stable plasma and high atomization rates [Bobz00]. Coatings
deposited with MSIP exhibit very good mechanical and optical properties. Nearly all
materials are depositable with this method. Since the ionisation degree of the atom-
ized particles is under 5%, the substrates are heated to a much smaller degree than
in the AIP process, so that plastics and materials with low annealing temperatures
can also be successfully coated [Bobz00].
4.4 Coatings 149
Low-Voltage Arc Coating

Ion plating with low voltage arc discharge is characterized by a low acceleration
voltage, with which an electron jet is created from a low-voltage arc discharge. This
jet is directed towards the target (anode) in a water-cooled crucible. The vapour
made of the coating material arising from the electron bombardment is about 50%
ionised and, since the substrate is applied with a voltage of 200 V, directed towards
the coating target. This method is ideal for depositing nitride or carbide layers by
introducing the corresponding reactive vapours [Haef87].
No droplets are formed when ion plating with low-voltage arc discharge is used
for coating. This method thus makes it possible to deposit very smooth layers
(Rz = 0.1 m) and is thus suitable for coating mirror-polished surfaces without
the need for post-polishing.
The Use of PVD-Coated Cemented Carbides at Low Cutting Speeds

Broaching soft and hardened steels offers an impressive example for the cutting
edge durability of PVD-coated cemented carbides at low cutting speeds [Kni92a].
Characteristic of the broaching process are the generally low applicable cutting
speeds, usually 125 m/min depending on the broaching machine, cutting tool
material and the target material.
Built up edge formation is characteristic of machining relatively soft or tough
steels at low cutting speeds. These lead to dimensional and shape inaccuracies as
well as to reduced workpiece surface quality. One measure for reducing built up
edge formation among others is the use of broaching oils.
By using PVD-TiN-coated cemented carbides in place of uncoated ones, built up
edge formation is almost completely suppressed due to lowered adhesion between
the flowing chip and the cutting tool material in the entire cutting speed range under
investigation of vc = 1063 m/min (Fig. 4.41). Furthermore, the use of coolants a
constant ecological problem whose maintenance and disposal are ever costlier is
superfluous.
4.4.2 Specific Properties of Hard Material Coatings

The most commonly utilized wear-protection coatings in metal machining com-
mercially are TiN, TiC, Ti(C,N), Ti(Al,N), CrN and Al2 O3 . Besides these coating
systems, those that are characterized by a low friction coefficient such as
DLC (diamond-like carbon) and MoS2 -coatings are successfully used for wear-
protection. Due to the unsurpassed hardness of diamond, CVD diamond coatings
are also being increasingly used [Lemm03].
Different coating systems can be deposited as monolayers (e.g. TiN, Ti(C,N),
Ti(Al,N), (Ti,HF,Cr)N) or, to improve their wear-protective effect, combined as
multilayers with single layer thicknesses in the micrometers (e.g. TiN-Ti(C,N)-
Al2 O3 -TiN, (Ti,Al)N-WC/C).
Uncoated
vc = 63 m/min broaching oil vc = 63 m/min dry
PVD-TiN-coated
vc = 10 m/min dry vc = 63 m/min dry
0.2 mm
Material: 17CrNiMo6+FP Tool geometry: o o s r

Cutting tool material: HW6Co 5 9 0 35 m
Chip thickness: h = 0.1 mm
Fig. 4.41 Coating prevents formation of built up edges
The primary goals of multilayer technology are not only to improve the tough-
ness, hardness and wear resistance of the coating but also to increase the total
thickness of the coating. The transitions that are formed between layers of different
materials place limits on shifting, which leads to a large increase in strength, espe-
cially in the case of coatings with very diverse Youngs modulus. For cracks that are
growing in the coating, transitions between the individual layers signify barriers at
which they are forced into energy-dissipating detours, slowing or even stopping fur-
ther growth (Fig. 4.42). The multilayer structure leads, in comparison to an equally
thick monolayer coating, to lower residual stresses. Multilayer coatings also make it
possible to integrate layers with different properties within one coating system, thus
combining the functionalities of diverse coating materials. Such specific coating
functions include, for example, high thermal stability, high hot hardness or the low
friction resistance of intermediate or cover layers [Krie01, Lugs03]. Larger layer
thicknesses mean a larger coating volume that has to be worn. From this fact results
the generally longer standing times as well.
One further development in multilayer technology is the deposition of nanolay-
ers or coatings with superlattice structures. These are coating systems consisting
of a large number of extraordinarily thin layers, the thickness of which amounts to
4.4 Coatings 151
Crack growth Crack growth Crack growth Crack growth

down to the along the grain along the is hindered
substrate boundaries boundary
surfaces
Substrate Substrate Substrate Substrate
Coating with low Nanocrystalline Multilayer Coatings with

internal residual structures high residual
stresses stresses
. Ductility of the coating is as important as the hardness of the coating

. Balance between high residual compressive stresses (bad coating adhesion)
and low blank (no obstruction of crack growth) ones
Fig. 4.42 Schematic diagram of the crack growth in hard coatings depending on structure and
properties (Source: Oerlikon Balzers)
only a few nanometres (Fig. 4.43). In contrast to conventional, usually columnar

layers, coating materials deposited as nanolayers are characterized by their signifi-
cantly higher hardness. As has already been explained in the context of the PA-CVD
coating process, this is based on the fact that the hardness of a material increases sig-
nificantly below a certain layer thickness. This increase in hardness is explained by
the phenomenon that diminishing layer thicknesses have altered crystal lattices and
thus Youngs modulus as well. For example, AlN has a hexagonal lattice structure at
layer thicknesses > 10 nm and a cubic structure when the layer thickness is < 10 nm
[Csel03a].
Another way to improve a coatings properties is to produce so-called nanocom-
posites. These are noncrystalline isotropic multiphase systems, in which two
mutually insoluble phases (e.g. Al, Ti, Si) are deposited during the coating pro-
cess on the tool surface. Examples of this are the embedment of nanocrystalline
cubic TiN in an AlN matrix, of nanocrystalline TiAlN/AlCrN in an amorphous
Si3 N4 matrix [Csel04] or of nanocrystalline (Ti,Al)N into a matrix composed of
(Al,Ti)N. The nanocomposites can be deposited as monolayer or multilayer coating
systems. The boundary layers/grain boundaries in the nanolayer/nanocomposite lay-
ers are energy-dissipating barriers to cracks. Cracking and the speed of crack growth
are thereby reduced (Fig. 4.42). Both nanolayer and nanocomposite layers are thus
characterized not only by extremely high hot hardness and high-temperature wear
resistance but also by favorable toughness attributes.
With respect to the structure of hard material coatings, we differentiate between
monophase layers (e.g. TiN), multiphase layers (e.g. TiN + Ti2 N) and graded layers,
i.e. layers the chemical composition of which exhibits a gradient (e.g. (Ti,Al)N
layers with an increasing Al content) [VDI3824].
Monolayer Super hard layer

(TiN, Ti(C,N), (Ti,Al)N, etc.) (CVD-Diamant, Bornitrid)
Multilayer with functional Hard layer with shear-flexible cover

intermediate layers (TiN + MoS2,
(TiN-Ti(C,N)-Al2O3-TiN, (TiAl)N + WC/C, etc.)
TiN-Ti(C,N)-Al2O3-Zr(C,N), etc.)
Nanolayer (Superlattice) Hard layer + low-friction

thickness of one layer: amorphous carbon layer
a few atom layers to 100 nm (DLC-layer)
(Ti,Hf)N-CrN (a-C, a-C:H, a-C:H:Me)
Graded layer Nanocomposite

Ti(C,N)-Ti(C,N) (nc-TiN/a-AlN,
(Ti,Al)N-(Al,Ti)N nc-(Ti,Al)N/a-Si3N4)
Fig. 4.43 Schematic diagram of the structure of current CVD and PVD layer systems
The properties of hard material coatings are determined by their chemical

composition and structure, which depends on the conditions of their deposition.
Figures 4.25 and 4.44 show some characteristic values for layer properties for some
exemplary hard material coating systems produced by PVD and CVD processes. By
changing the deposition conditions, such properties as chemical composition, mor-
phology, structure, texture, residual stresses and thus microhardness, the thermal
expansion coefficient and oxidation resistance can be altered within certain lim-
its. The data presented can thus only be considered as guides for possible areas of
application. Besides the hard material coatings here presented and explained in more
detail below, there is a number of other hard material layers used for tool coating
that are not more fully described here.
4.4.2.1 Titanium Carbide Coatings (TiC)

Coating tools with hard materials began with the deposition of TiC. Due to the high
hardness realizable with titanium carbide (31003400 HV0.05), it provides more
effective protection against abrasive wear than TiN. On the other hand, its tendency
to diffusion is a bit higher than that of TiN and Al2 O3 due to the relatively small
enthalpy of formation. TiC s resistance to flank face wear is thus higher than that of
TiN, while its resistance to crater wear is lower. Its oxidation wear is also the low-
est of the layers shown in Fig. 4.44. TiC coatings are chiefly applied using the CVD
process. For the most part, TiC is used as a monolayer when abrasion is predominant
or in multilayer coatings together with TiN, Ti(C,N) or Al2 O3 [VDI 3824].
4.4.2.2 Titanium Nitride (TiN)

Since 1980, tools were already being coated with titanium nirtide. TiN is the
most frequently employed hard material for coating cutting tools today. The coat-
ing material is an intercalation compound composed of titanium and nitrogen.
4.4 Coatings 153
TiN TiCN TiC TiAlN CrN Al2O3
Production process PVD/CVD PVD/CVD CVD PVD PVD CVD/PVD
Coating thickness/m 1 to 5 1 to 5 1 to 5 1 to 5 1 to 10 1 to 5
2300 3000 3100 3000 1900 2100

Microhardness/HV 0,05 1)
HV 0.1
Oxidation temperature/C 2) > 450 > 350 > 350 > 700 > 600 3)
Thermal barrier effect 4) +++ ++ + ++++ + +++++
Resistance to abrasion ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
Resistance to wear due to

adhesion ++ ++ + ++ ++ +++
(against steel)
Resistance to wear due to
++ + + +++ ++ +++
diffusion
(to steel)
Protection of basis material
+ + + + ++ +
against corrosion 5)
1) For the microhardness, mean values are indicated. They are obtained from reported measured
values resulting from different compositions, coating thicknesses and internal stresses.
2) The oxidation temperature is the temperature at which oxidation of the coating material begins,
considerably affecting the characteristics of the coating.
3) Al2O3 is already an oxide.
4) Being poor conductors of heat, the coatings act as a thermal barrier to the heat produced during
metal-cutting so that most of the heat can be removed through the chip.
5) As the aforementioned hard coatings themselves do not corrode, they protect the basis material
from corrosion. (Leaks in hard coatings may lead to the development of local galvanic elements and
to pitting corrosion).
Fig. 4.44 Quantities Characterising the coating and the coating performance, acc. to VDI 3824/1
Due to the high interaction between the metal and nitrogen atoms, this com-
pound is highly stable. With an enthalpy of formation that is almost twice as
high as that of TiC, TiN is thermodynamically more stable, and thus more diffu-
sion resistant and less inclined to adhesion. Therefore, TiNs resistance to crater
wear is higher than that of TiC. TiN coatings are characterized by a high level of
toughness.
TiN can be deposited with both the CVD and PVD process. The characteristic
colour of TiN is goldish yellow. Silver-hued TiN coatings consist of a phase com-
posite of Ti2 N and TiN, whereby the Ti2 N phase is dominant. These coatings are
harder but also more brittle than pure TiN layers. They are most commonly used
when abrasive wear predominates [VDI 3824].
4.4.2.3 Titanium Carbonnitride Coatings (Ti(C,N))

TiC and TiN can be mixed at any ratio. The properties of titanium carbonnitride are
adjustable by varying the C/N ratio. With increasing carbon content, the colour of
the Ti(C,N) layers change from coppery to violet, bluish-grey to grey [VDI 3824].
Titanium carbonnitrides are used industrially both as hard materials in cemented
carbides and as wear-resistant thin-films. Often Ti(C,N) coatings are multilayered,
i.e. deposited with increasing carbon content in the direction of the coating surface.
By integrating carbon atoms in place of nitrogen atoms into the titanium nitride
crystal lattice, a considerable increase in hardness can be realized, which is positive
for wear resistance but also increases brittleness [Sato78, Schi74, Berg90]. To com-
pensate for this increase in brittleness, Ti(C,N) coatings are deposited as multilayers,
so that residual stresses between the individual coating layers can be reduced.
Ti(C,N) coatings are suited for machining steels with high tensile strength and
thus for higher cutting temperatures.
4.4.2.4 Titanium Aluminium Nitride Coatings ((Ti,Al)N)

The (Ti,Al)N coating system was developed in order to improve the oxidation
resistance, hot hardness and wear-protection properties above the levels of previ-
ously used coatings [Quin87, Knot87]. In comparison to TiN and Ti(C,N) coatings,
(Ti,Al)N coatings have the highest oxidation resistance with a comparably high level
of hardness. Since Ti(Al,N) is a metastable coating system, it can only be deposited
with the PVD, PA-CVD or MT-CVD process.
(Ti,Al)N coatings are a further development of TiN, whereby titanium is substi-
tuted by aluminium by 2060 at.-%. Depending on the composition, these layers
range from brown (lower Al-content) to black-violet (higher Al-content) [VDI
3824].
Due to their high level of oxidation resistance and hot hardness, the preferred
areas of application are dry machining, hard machining and HSC machining. The
excellent wear resistance of (Ti,Al)N coatings is explained by the fact that, as
opposed to stable composite phases, metastable layers decompose into stable bound-
ary phases or form stable oxides in an oxidizing atmosphere as long as the energy
required to convert into an equilibrium condition is added (e.g. as heat), as it is
the case in dry machining or high-speed machining. In this context, the high oxi-
dation resistance of (Ti,Al)N is derived from the fact that a thin aluminium oxide
layer is formed on the coating surface which is constantly renewed during the cut-
ting process, thus decelerating the progress of wear. With increasing Al-content, the
oxidation resistance of the (Ti,Al)N coating is increased. Despite its much further
improved oxidation resistance compared to TiN and Ti(C,N) coatings, this coat-
ing also fails beyond approx. 800 C. TiAlN coatings are deposited as monolayer,
multilayer or gradient layers [Lemm03, Leye04, VDI 3824].
(Ti,Al)N is one of the most commonly used high-performance coating systems.
Important measures being taken to further augment the cutting edge durability of
(Ti,Al)N coatings include the development of nanolayers and increasing the con-
tent of aluminium. The primary goal of these developments is to improve their hot
4.4 Coatings 155
hardness, wear resistance and oxidation resistance. In order to differentiate them

from conventional (Ti,Al)N coatings, those with over 50% aluminium content are
designated as (Al,Ti)N coatings.
4.4.2.5 Al-Cr-N Coatings

Besides increasing the aluminium content another approach to further improving the
oxidation resistance and high-temperature properties of (Ti,Al)N coating systems is
adding small amounts of oxide formers such as Cr, Y or Si. One example for this
direction in coating development is the Al-Cr-N coating system. In comparison to
the conventional (Ti,Al)N coating, the (Al,Cr)N coating system has proved to have
a higher resistance to abrasive wear as well as higher hot hardness and oxidation
resistance [Gey04]. Its areas of application include the dry, HSC and hard machining
of steel and non-ferrous metals by turning, drilling and milling [Gey04, Denk04].
4.4.2.6 Aluminium Oxide Coatings (Al2 O3 )

The exceptional resistance of Al2 O3 against both abrasion and diffusion wear and its
simultaneous insensitivity to oxidative wear, known from its use in cutting ceramics,
has made Al2 O3 an obvious candidate as a hard material for coating [Sche88].
Because it is very brittle, Al2 O3 is generally not used in monolayer form, but
only in combination with other hard materials in multilayer coatings. The electri-
cally nonconductive Al2 O3 layers could thusfar not be fabricated with the PVD, but
only with the CVD process for technical reasons. The deposition of the thermody-
namically stable high-temperature modification of aluminium oxide -Al2 O3
by means of CVD process has been established industrially for over two decades.
Due to its excellent wear protection and high performance potential, attempts are
being made to produce Al2 O3 layers with the PVD process as well. A first step in
this direction was the deposition of amorphous aluminium oxide (-Al2 O3 ) with the
help of RF sputtering technology. Because of the low coating rates and consequently
long process durations, this technique is proven to be uneconomical for coating cut-
ting tools. With the help of the pulsed magnetron sputtering process, it has become
possible to coat cutting tools with crystalline -Al2 O3 layers at substrate temper-
atures of 500600 C. -Al2 O3 can be applied either as a monolayer or multilayer
coating in combination with carbidic or nitridic intermediate layers [Hauz05].
4.4.2.7 Amorphous Carbon Coatings

The concept amorphous carbon coatings includes a number of coatings and
coating systems. They are often referred to as diamond-like carbon or DLC
coatings. These are carbon-based, highly cross-linked amorphous layers with dif-
ferent amounts of sp2 (graphite bond) and sp3 bonds (diamond bonds) as well
as various amounts of embedded hydrogen. In the case of Me-C:H layers, finely
distributed metal carbides are also embedded. DLC coatings are manufactured by
means of plasma-activated PVD and CVD techniques and deposited at coating
temperatures ranging from room temperature to about 300 C. Their typical layer
MeC:H a-C:H a-C Diamond
Production process PVD CVD PVD CVD
Coating thickness in m 1 to 10 1 to 5 1 to 3 3 to 10
Microhardness in HV 0,05 1) 800 to 1800 1500 to 3500 3000 to 7000 10000
Internal stresses in GPa 0.1 to 1.5 1 to 3 2 to 6
Graphitisation temperature
350 400 450 > 600
in C 2)
Resistance to abrasion
+ +++ ++++ ++++
(+++)
Resistance to wear due to adhesion +++ +++ +++ with good
(against steel)
cooling
Protection of bais material
+ +++ +++ +++
against corrosion 3)
1) For the microhardness, mean values are indicated. They are obtained from reported measured
values resulting from different compositions, coating thicknesses and internal stresses.
2) The graphitising temperature is the temperature at which amorphous carbon begins to convert
from a three-dimensional lattice into graphite, considerably affecting the characteristics
of the coating.
3) As the aforementioned hard coatings themselves do not essentially corrode (except for MeC),
they protect the basis material from corrosion. (Leaks in hard coatings may lead to the
development of local galvanic elements and to pitting corrosion.)
Fig. 4.45 Quanties Characteristing the coating and the coating performance, acc. to VDI 3824/1
thicknesses are 15 m. Figure 4.45 shows some characteristic values for the layer
properties of the most important carbon-based hard material layers producible with
PVD and CVD available today [VDI 3824, VDI 2840].
In order to improve their adhesive strength, carbon layers are as a rule deposited
on a hard material layer (e.g. CrN) as a top layer. Graded intermediate layers made
of CrCN have proved favourable for this, in which case hardness and the Youngs
modulus can be adjusted to the mechanical properties of the carbon top layer by
successive exchange of nitrogen and carbon. This procedure makes it possible to
obtain a largely continuous transition from the hard material layer to the carbon
layer in order to optimize the bond between both coating systems [Leye04].
Amorphous carbon layers are characterized by extremely low friction coeffi-
cients in the case of solid body friction, high wear resistance and low tendencies
to adhesion. In cutting technology, these coatings are used above all on tools for
dry machining NE metals (e.g. aluminium or magnesium) and in fine machin-
ing with great success. Further areas of application are in machining graphite and
fibre-reinforced plastics.
4.4 Coatings 157
The property profile of amorphous carbon layers can be purposefully influenced

by process control and by integrating additional chemical elements. This poten-
tial has led to a number of diverse types of carbon coatings in the last several
years. In the following, the essential characteristics and properties of some selected
amorphous carbon layers will be described in close detail. The classification,
designation and characterization of the coatings are derived from VDI guideline
2840.
According to VDI guideline 2840, amorphous carbon coatings can be subdivided
into two groups, hydrogen-free and hydrogenous coatings. Since all carbon layers
contain a certain amount of hydrogen even without adding hydrogen gas (e.g. from
residual gasses), a limit of about 3 at.-% hydrogen is seen as the transition from
hydrogen-free to hydrogenous carbon coatings. With increasing amounts of hydro-
gen, the amount of interconnection between the carbon atoms decreases, leading to
softer layers [VDI 3824, VDI 2840].
As wear-protection coatings on cutting tools, hydrogen-free carbon layers are
used above all in the form of the amorphous carbon layer a-C and the tertraedic
amorphous carbon layer ta-C. The atoms are arranged randomly in amorphous solid
bodies. The only bonds are those between a few isolated atoms. If the sp2 bond
is predominant in the amorphous carbon layer, it is softer, while it is harder if the
amount of sp3 is higher. Depending on the deposition energy, the carbon atoms in the
layer are predominantly arranged in one of the two hybrid states. At low deposition
energies, the amount of sp2 bonds is higher, making the layers softer. These have
the abbreviation a-C. With high deposition energies, sp3 hybridizations with a
tetraedic arrangement predominate. The layers exhibit a high hardness level, and the
compressive residual stresses are increased. Tetraedic amorphous carbon coatings
have the designation ta-C [VDI 3824, VDI 2840].
Of all amorphous carbon coatings containing hydrogen, it is above all the non-
modified layers that besides carbon contain only hydrogen, designated with a-C:H
as well as modified carbon layers that are of any importance. The latter contain
further elements in addition to hydrogen and are classified in accordance with VDI
2840 into the group of carbon layers containing metal and the group of hydrogenous
amorphous carbon layers modified with non-metals [VDI 3824, VDI 2840].
The a-C:H coating system represent the origin of coating with amorphous hydro-
carbon layers. In addition to carbon, it contains 1030% hydrogen. The latter
is derived from hydrocarbon gases like acetylene, which are employed in the
fabrication process.
If, during vacuum deposition, metals are additionally integrated, layers con-
taining metal are produced. As opposed to a-C:H layers, these are electrically
conductive and can be manufactured with a technically simpler and cost-efficient
DC method. Of all amorphous carbon layers, these therefore have the broadest and
deepest range of application. Amorphous carbon layers containing metal are also
generally known as a-C:Me or a-C:H:Me (the abbreviation Me-C:H is also
common), where Me stands for metal. Instead of the abbreviation Me, the
integrated metals can also be named specifically, e.g. tungsten (a-C:W, a-C:H:W)
oder titanium (a-C:Ti, a-C:H:Ti). The added metals form finely distributed carbides
with the carbon in the matrix. By integrating metal carbides, layer adhesion can be
improved and the tribological properties of the coating can be affected [VDI 3824,
VDI 2840].
Hydrogenous amorphous carbon layers modified with non-metals contain non-
metallic elements such as silicon (Si), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), fluorine (F) or
boron (B), which partially also form carbides. By incorporating different non-
metals, further improvements become possible. Silicon for example helps to
increase temperature resistance. Moreover, different elements can be built into the
layer at the same time. In this way, special layer properties like surface energy
(adhesion tendency, wettability) can be altered.
4.4.2.8 Self-Lubricating Coatings

Self-lubricating coatings include coating systems which include graphite or molyb-
denum disulfide (MoS2 ). On cutting tools, graphite and MoS2 coatings are applied
as top layers on a supporting hard material layer, where they act as a solid lubricant.
Graphite is deposited in combination with WC as a WC/C multilayer coating system
consisting of several layers of WC and graphite.
Graphite and MoS2 have similar crystal structures. It is characteristic of graphite
that its C atoms are arranged in a plane resulting in a very high level of internal bond
strength due to the small inter-atomic distance. There is a relatively large distance
between the atom layers however, so the layers of atoms can be easily shifted against
each other under the influence of external forces. MoS2 also has a lamellar structure.
There is a very strong chemical bond between the Mo and S atoms forming each
lamella. The bond between two neighbouring lamellae is made between the sulphur
atoms. Due to the intermolecular van der Waals bonds between the sulphur atoms
of two lamellae, these can be shifted towards one another very easily. These slip
planes are responsible for the soft, lubricating effect of graphite and molybdenum
sulphide.
Both coating systems are used primarily for machining materials that tend to
adhere strongly with the tool, for example in the case of dry machining aluminium
wrought alloys. In the case of drilling, these layers decrease the friction between the
chip and the tool because of their lubricating effect and thus help to improve chip
removal. In the case of tapping, in which case the machining results are determined
above all by crushing, friction and adhesion processes, these coating systems can
bring about significant improvements in performance even without hard material
intermediate layers.
Because of their properties, both coating systems are gradually worn out during
the cutting process (loss lubrication). Even if the layer appears optically to be worn,
its effect is still partially demonstrable. This is explained by the fact that the coating
material still exists in microscopically small recesses on the tool surface where it can
still be effective. After a complete loss of the soft top layer, the further wear proper-
ties of the tools is then determined by the properties of the supporting hard material
system.
4.4 Coatings 159
4.4.2.9 Diamond Coatings (Crystalline Carbon Coatings)

Coating tools with polycrystalline diamond has been available only since 1990 and
is as such the most recent technique in diamond tool production. Diamond coat-
ings are applied to tools made of cemented carbide or ceramics in a low-pressure
diamond synthesis (a CVD process). The diamond layer consists of pure diamonds
and does not have a binder phase. Industrial deposition temperatures are around
6001000 C. This coating technology makes it possible to manufacture even tools
with complex geometries, such as curved surfaces, economically out of diamond
[Leye95]. Application examples for this are drilling tools, end milling cutters and
indexable inserts with chip form geometries. These tools are used in the machining
of plastics, cemented carbide and ceramic green bodies, non-ferrous metals as well
as in the machining of abrasive materials. Diamond-coated tools can not be used to
machine steel and other ferrous materials since the diamond coating is easily worn
due to the solubility of carbon in iron.
We differentiate between thin diamond layers (sd = 140 m) and thick diamond
layers (sd = 0.32 mm). Thin diamond layers are used to coat components (tools, for
example) directly. On the other hand, thick diamond layers are generally deposited
on an auxiliary substrate and then detached from it again. Diamond plates produced
in such manner are then used as free-standing diamond (e.g. as radiation windows)
or mounted on supports, usually by means of vacuum soldering in order to produce
tools or other components. Since this can no longer be referred to explicitly as a
layer, we often no longer refer to it as a CVD diamond layer but as a CVD diamond
[VDI 2840].
Several processes have been established for fabricating diamond coatings. The
most important include the hot filament process (HF-CVD), the microwave process
and the plasma jet process (DC arcjet). What all of these processes have in com-
mon is the decomposition of carbonic gases (e.g. methane, acetylene or carbon
monoxide) followed by a deposition of carbon on the substrate surface. The forma-
tion of unwanted graphite must be avoided in the process. Atomic hydrogen plays
a key role in the germ formation and growth of the diamond layers. In the case
of the hot filament method, the best-known process used for depositing CVD thin
diamond layers, the atomic hydrogen required for the process is produced by elec-
trically heated filaments made of refractory metals (Ta, W or Re). Gas temperatures
of over 2500 C are necessary to initiate the required chemical reactions [Lemm04,
VDI 2840].
The rim zone is of particular importance when coating cemented carbides.
Cobalt, which forms the binder phase of the cemented carbide, reduces the germ
formation of diamond on the substrate surface, accelerates graphite formation, and
affects crystal growth and layer adhesion. Cemented carbide substrates must there-
fore be subjected to pretreatment prior to coating, in which case we differentiate
between physical and chemical pretreatment and the introduction of an intermedi-
ate layer. The common process presently is a multi-stage pretreatment consisting of
irradiation, chemical etching, purifying and seeding. The substrate is first purified
and homogenized with microbeam treatment. In the subsequent chemical etching
process, the cobalt binder phase is removed from the rim zone of the cemented car-
bide substrate. The depth to which the binder phase is removed depends on the back
diffusion of cobalt during the coating process. Due to the high substrate temperature
of 900 C and long processing times, cobalt diffuses through the etched rim zone to
the substrate surface during the diamond coating process. If the etching depth is
too small, the cobalt that has diffused to the surface reacts with the diamond layer
and leads to the separation of diamonds on the boundary surface. This lowers the
adhesive strength of the diamond coating. If the etching depth is too large, the car-
bide bonds in the binder phase are weakened, also lowering layer adhesion. The
rough surface caused by etching serves mechanically to clamp the diamond layer to
the cemented carbide substrate. Due to the extreme differences between the coating
and substrate material (Youngs modulus and hardness) this mechanical clamping
is of special importance with respect to the adhesive strength of the diamond layer.
After etching, the substrates are again purified and seeded. In order that the diamond
layer will develop, there must be diamond germs on the substrate surface that serve
as starting crystals and from which the layer grows. Seeding can be performed, for
example, by applying small diamond crystals with a diamond suspension [Gram04,
VDI 2840, Lemm04].
Standard diamond layers have a microcrystalline structure (Fig. 4.46). The
crystallites grow from the germs with varying speed depending on their crystal ori-
entation. Slowly growing crystallites are covered by the faster-growing ones. With
increasing layer thickness, the crystallites forming the surface become larger and
larger, resulting in the typical appearance of a microcrystalline CVD diamond layer
with sharp-edged crystal surfaces [VDI 2840].
If growth conditions are set such that new germs are constantly formed and large-
scale growth of individual crystallites becomes impossible, crystallite size remains
in the range of nanometres within the entire layer (Figs. 4.46 and 4.47).This is how
nanocrystalline CVD layers are formed, which are much smoother compared to
crystalline layers [VDI 2840].
Both layer types can also be combined in multilayer structures, uniting the pos-
itive attributes of microcrystalline and nanocrystalline diamond layers [Uhlm05]
(Figs. 4.46 and 4.47). This increases the fracture toughness of the entire system and
contains the development of cracks, such that they can no longer easily reach the
Microcrystalline (standard) Nanocrystalline (smooth) Multilayer (smooth)
Microcrystallin
Nanocrystalline
Fig. 4.46 Growth model of diamond coatings, acc. to VDI 2840 and LEMMER [Lemm04]
4.5 Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials 161
Microcrystalline (standard) Nanocrystalline (smooth) Multilayer (smooth)
Fig. 4.47 SEM photographs of CVD diamond coatings on a cemented carbide substrate [VDI
2840, Lemm04]
interface between the first diamond layer and the substrate, potentially causing the
entire surface to chip [Lemm04].
4.4.3 Substrate Pretreatment

Both CVD and particularly PVD coating processes place high demands on the sur-
face conditions of the components that are to be coated. Even the smallest impurities
on the surface of the substrate be it residual cutting fluid or grease, water deposits,
grinding and polishing agents, hardening salt residues or oxide deposits can degas
during the coating process, negatively influence that process and lead to coating
adhesion problems. The pretreatment of the substrate therefore has a key role in
creating high and reproducible coating quality [Lugs03, VDI3824].
In substrate pretreatment a distinction is drawn between mechanical pretreatment
(grinding, deburring, microbeaming and polishing) and physicochemical pretreat-
ment (coating-removal, ultrasound-supported purification). In order to optimize
layer adhesion, the parts are subjected to a multi-staged ultrasound purification pro-
cess before charging. In the coating plant, the parts are then first heated in a vacuum,
whereby further impurities can evaporate. Then the tools are etched by means of
argon ion bombardment in order to produce a purely metallic surface. Coating fol-
lows directly thereafter. If the substrates still need to be stored temporarily before
charging, this takes place in a drying closet in order to protect the substrate sur-
faces from water deposits (from air moisture), rust film formation and skin contact
[Lugs03, VDI3824, Gey03].
4.5 Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials

Ceramic materials include all non-metallic, inorganic solid materials. Essentially
these are chemical compounds of metals with non-metallic elements of group III A
to group VII A of the periodic system of elements. A distinction is made between
oxidic and non-oxidic ceramics. The largest group of ceramics are the oxides.
Non-oxidic ceramics are carbides, borides, nitrides and silicons. Some authors dif-
ferentiate again between metallic hard materials (compounds between C, B, N or
S and Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta, W among others) and non-metallic hard materials such as
diamond, SiC, Si3 N4 , B4 C and BN. Characteristic properties of ceramic materials
are compressive strength, high chemical resistance and high melting temperatures,
which can be derived from the strong covalent and ionic bonds of the atoms
[Salm83a, Horn06].
The following will describe more closely those ceramic materials that are used
as cutting tool materials in cutting technology. Following the usage common in
practice, we will differentiate between cutting ceramics (oxidic and non-oxidic
ceramics) and superhard non-metallic cutting tool materials (diamond and boron
nitride).
4.5.1 Cutting Ceramics
Ceramics have applications in many areas of machining with geometrically defined

cutting part geometries. Mentionable among these are the high-speed machining of
cast iron materials, hard machining or nickel-based alloy machining. The use of
ceramics in the mass production of brake disks, flywheels and like workpieces has
become a matter of course. In the field of automotive technology, silicon nitride
ceramics have been able to capture an important market share in the high-speed
cutting of cast iron workpieces [Schn99]. Hard machining is a primary applica-
tion area of mixed ceramics. Whisker-strengthened ceramics are often used in the
area of engine construction for machining engine components made of nickel-based
alloys. Whiskers are needle-shaped monocrystals with a small degree of misorien-
tation in the lattice. Correspondingly, they have high mechanical strength (Rm up
to 7000 N/mm2 ). Their length is about 2030 m, their diameter between 0.1 and
1 m.
The increased interest in ceramics in production is based not only on the excel-
lent wear properties of ceramic cutting tool materials but most importantly on their
toughness properties, which have been clearly increased in recent times. The brit-
tle fracture attributes characteristic of ceramic materials, the wide variation of their
strength properties and the resulting stochastically appearing tool fractures are as
before the main causes limiting the use of these cutting tool materials in machining
technology (in contrast to cemented carbides for example).
New developments and improvements in ceramics have been concentrated there-
fore on further augmentation of the toughness and dependability of these cutting
tool materials in production.
In the case of pure oxidic ceramics, research is focused on improving these prop-
erties by increasing their zirconium oxide content, improving the distribution of
these phases and by making the microstructure more consistent. In the case of mixed
ceramics, finer-grain hard materials are used and titanium carbide is being par-
tially substituted with titanium carbon nitride. Further measures include fibre and/or
whisker reinforcement, reduction of the amount of glass phase at the grain bound-
aries of non-oxidic ceramics as well as the formation of special microstructures
[Kola86, Clau77, Schn99].
Cutting ceramics
Oxidic Non-oxidic
ceramics ceramics
Whisker- Silicon
Oxide Mixed
reinforced nitride
ceramics ceramics
ceramics ceramics
Al2O3 Al2O3 + TiC Al2O3 + -Si3N4
Al2O3 + SiC-whisker
Al2O3+ ZrO2 -Si3N4 + hard materials
ZrO2 + TiC
-Sialon
( + )-Sialon
Fig. 4.48 Classification of cutting ceramics
Ceramic cutting tool materials can be subdivided into oxidic and non-oxidic
cutting ceramics (Fig. 4.48).
Oxidic cutting ceramics include all cutting tool materials based on aluminium
oxide (Al2 O3 ). A distinction is made between oxide ceramics that only contain
oxides (e.g. ZrO2 ) in addition to Al2 O3 , mixed ceramics, which in addition to Al2 O3
also contains metallic hard materials (TiC/TiCN) and whisker-reinforced ceramics,
in which SiC whiskers are integrated in the Al2 O3 matrix.
Figure 4.49 shows images of fractures of different cutting ceramics taken with a
scanning electron microscope. It is typical of oxidic cutting ceramics that they do
not have a visible binder phase such as cemented carbides (cobalt) have. One can
recognize the globular grains of oxide ceramics, the extremely fine grains of mixed
and whisker-reinforced ceramics as well as the SiC whiskers, which are only a few
m large in the detail magnification. Characteristic of non-oxidic ceramics based
on Si3 N4 is the needle-shaped formation of the crystals. In order to improve wear
resistance, Si3 N4 cutting ceramics can be coated with Al2 O3 or with multilayer
coating systems made of Al2 O3 and TiN [Schn99].
Figure 4.50 shows some physical properties of commercially available ceramic
cutting tool materials. Depending on their chemical composition, these ceramic
types can have considerably diverse properties.
4.5.1.1 Cutting Ceramics Based on Al2 O3

Oxide Ceramics
White oxide ceramics are the traditional type of cutting ceramics. Ceramics based
Al2 O3 on were already introduced as cutting tool materials at the end of the 1930s
[Kola86]. Inserts were made for a long time out of pure aluminium oxide. Due
Oxide ceramic Mixed ceramic Silicon nitride ceramic

(Al2O3 + ZrO2) (Al2O3 + TiC ) (Si3N4 + MgO )
Whisker-reinforced ceramic Detail magnification Coated silicon nitride ceramic

(Al2O3 + SiC-Whisker ) (Al2O3 + SiC-Whisker ) (Si3N4 + Al2O3)
Fig. 4.49 Fractures of cutting ceramics
Whisker-reinf. Silicon nitride

Oxide Oxide Mixed ceramic
ceramic
ceramic ceramic Al 2O3
Si3N4
Al2O3 Al2O3
Properties
+15%ZrO2
+3.5% +15% +20%SiC- +10%ZrO2 +30%
ZrO2 ZrO2 Whisker +10%Y2O3
+5%TiC Ti(C,N)
Density g/cm3 4.0 4.2 3.7 4.1 4.3 3.3
Vicker
- 1730 1750 1900 1730 1930 1750
hardness
Bending
bB N/mm2 700 800 900 650 620 800
strength
Compressive
dB N/mm2 5000 4700 - 4800 4800 -
strength
Youngs
E 103N/mm2 380 410 390 390 400
modulus
Fracture
KIC Nm1/2/mm2 4.5 5.1 8.0 4.2 4.5 7.0
toughness
Thermal
W/mK 16.4 15 32 14.7 20
conductivity
Thermal
106K1 8 8 - 8 8 3.4
expansion
Melting
T C - - - - - -
point
Fig. 4.50 Physical and mechanical properties of different cutting ceramics and their main
components
to their brittleness and vulnerability to fracture, such inserts are no longer used
in machining. The pure ceramics used today are dispersion material containing
Al2 O3 as well as about 315% of finely distributed zirconium dioxide to improve
toughness.
The toughness-enhancing effect of dispersed ZrO2 particles in an Al2 O3 matrix
is based on the phase transformation of zirconium dioxide. ZrO2 , which exists in
the form of a tetragonal lattice modification in the sintering temperature range
(14001600 C), transforms during cooling into its monoclinic low-temperature
modification. The temperatures in which this transformation takes place depend on
the size of the particles. The smaller the ZrO2 particles are, the lower the transforma-
tion temperature. Since the transformation from the tetragonal to the monoclinical
modification is associated with a volume expansion, various specific mechanisms
of action can assert themselves depending on the size of the particles. The com-
mon effect of all these mechanisms is that they ultimately absorb fracture energy.
The speed of crack development is reduced by microcracking, crack branching, the
stress-induced transformation of small ZrO2 particles as well as crack diversion. The
result of this is that critical cracks only develop at a higher level of energy, which
corresponds to an increase in fracture resistance and an improvement of ductility
[Clau77, Clau84, Zieg86].
Mixed Ceramics
Mixed ceramics (black ceramics) are dispersion materials based on Al2 O3 that con-
tain between 5 and 40% of non-oxidic components in the form of TiC or TiCN.
The hard materials in the matrix form finely distributed phases, which limit the
growth of aluminium oxide grains. Correspondingly, these ceramics have a very
fine-grained structure, improved toughness properties and a high level of edge
strength and wear resistance. Compared to pure ceramics, they are harder and have
more favourable thermoshock properties due to their high level of thermal con-
ductivity (Fig. 4.50). The toughness of these ceramics can be further improved by
adding ZrO2 .
The development of mixed ceramics is progressing towards finer and finer-
grained cutting tool materials with extremely homogeneous textural structures. As
opposed to conventional cutting ceramics based on aluminium oxide and titanium
carbon nitride with an average grain size of < 2 m, the more advanced mixed
ceramics have a submicron structure with grain sizes of < 1 m. The finer-grained
structure increases hardness and bending strength and consequentially the mechan-
ical and thermal loadability, wear resistance and edge strength of ceramic inserts.
Fine-grained mixed ceramics are used in hard-fine machining, e.g. for machin-
ing hardened rolling bearing steels, for hard-fine turning case-hardened automotive
components such as drive wheels, crown wheels, gearwheels or sliding sleeves with
a Rockwell hardness of 5462 HRC but also for planing and fine planing cast iron
at very high speeds. In the case of hard turning, submicron mixed ceramics are
competing with PCBN cutting tool materials in many areas of application as more
economical alternatives due to their good cost-benefit ratio [Krel97, Schn99].
Whisker-Reinforced Cutting Ceramics

Whisker-reinforced cutting ceramics are cutting tool materials based on Al2 O3 with
about 2040% silicon carbide whiskers. The goal of whisker-reinforcement is to
enhance the toughness properties of ceramic cutting tool materials. The increase
in toughness gained by incorporating whiskers in oxidic ceramics is remarkable.
Compared to mixed ceramics, whisker-reinforced types have up to 60% higher
fracture toughness. The whiskers bring about a more consistent distribution of
mechanical loads in the cutting tool material as well as a more rapid transport of
heat from the thermally highly loaded cutting areas due to their improved heat con-
ductivity. This results in improved fatigue limits and thermoshock resistance, so that
whisker-reinforced cutting ceramics can also be used in wet cut processes.
Fabrication of Oxidic Cutting Ceramics

The starting materials of cutting ceramics, including pressing and sintering auxil-
iaries, are metered according to an exact formula, homogenized in vibration mills
and converted to a compressible powder with a high bulk material stability in a
spray-dryer.
Oxide ceramics, as well as mixed ceramics with small amounts of hard materials,
are compressed at room temperature to inserts (cold pressing) and then sintered.
The sintering temperature is about 1600 C. Mixed ceramics with a high percent-
age of hard material (> 10%) as well as whisker-reinforced ceramics have to be
hot-pressed, i.e. pressing and sintering take place in one cycle. Due to the special
equipment required for this (e.g. graphite moulds instead of cemented carbide ones),
hot pressing is more cost-intensive than normal sintering. Furthermore, the number
of manufacturable tool geometries is much more limited. Hot isostatic pressing can
be used to subsequently compact sintered ceramic parts, thus reducing the poros-
ity of the cutting tool material. One method variant is hot isostatic compacting of
pre-sintered closed-pore mouldings in an installation.
After sintering/hot pressing, the contact face, and in the case of precision inserts,
the lateral surface and cutting edge chamfer are ground with diamond grinding discs
[Kola86, Grew85].
Properties of Oxide Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials

Because of their high hot hardness and chemical resistance, ceramic cutting tool
materials based on Al2 O3 are characterized by excellent wear properties. However,
the highly favourable wear properties of oxide ceramic cutting tool materials is
accompanied by their sensitivity to tensile, bending, impact and thermal shock
stresses. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, current further develop-
ment of oxide ceramic cutting tool materials has for this reason been concentrated
on improving toughness and thermoshock properties without diminishing wear
resistance.
The excellent wear resistance of oxidic cutting tool materials, particularly at high
temperatures, is based among other things on their superior hardness and compres-
sive strength compared to other cutting tool materials at high temperatures. For
example, oxide ceramic cutting tool materials at 1000 C are still harder than high
speed steel at room temperature (Fig. 4.51).
While the compressive strength of Al2 O3 at room temperature roughly corre-
sponds to that of cemented carbide, it is at 1100 C still as great as that of steel at
room temperature, while neither steel nor cemented carbide are resilient to pres-
sure at 1100 C. The high compressive strength of ceramics has been a primary
reason for their being privileged as cutting tool materials. But because their band-
ing fracture strength is relatively low, the use of oxide ceramics as the cutting tool
material requires that the process kinematics be selected such that the cutting forces
are effective as much as possible only in the form of compressive stresses [Kola86,
Kola86a, Zieg86].
A further property which makes the use of ceramic cutting tool materials advan-
tageous at high cutting speeds is Al2 O3 s low level of creeping. In the case of
cemented carbides, high temperature strength is limited by the property-determining
cobalt phase at temperatures of 800900 C. At higher temperatures, creeping pro-
cesses are introduced which are smaller by several orders of magnitude in the case
of Al2 O3 .
5000
Diamond
4000
Boron nitride
Hardness HV 10
3000
Mixed ceramic
Al2O3 + TiC/TiCN
2000
Carbide
Oxide ceramic
1000
Al2O3
Tool steel HSS

0 250 500 750 1000 1250
Temperature T / K
Fig. 4.51 Hot hardness of cutting tool materials (Source: CeramTec)

The high wear resistance of oxidic cutting tool materials can also be attributed to
the good chemical resistance of Al2 O3 . Al2 O3 is resistant to oxidation at the cutting
temperature used in practice and has only a small amount of affinity to metallic
materials.
The most crucial disadvantage of ceramic cutting tool materials is their brittle-
ness, i.e. lacking capacity to reduce stress peaks by means of plastic deformation.
The cause of this is the low number of sliding systems in the crystal structures
of ceramic materials. This results in high sensitivity to tensile stresses and low
resistance to mechanical and thermal shock compared with metals.
In the case of a sudden mechanical overload due to impulse-like stress, the cutting
tool material is destroyed by brittle fracture. Because of insufficient ductility, cracks
begin to form when the inner material cohesion is exceeded by external stress. If the
crack reaches a critical size, unstable crack growth appears leading to fracture of
the ceramic tool. The stress intensity factor KI is a parameter for judging the stress
condition at the peak of a crack. Failure of the cutting tool material due to fracture
occurs if the stress intensity factor reaches a critical value, crack toughness (fracture
toughness) KIC . In comparison to other materials, the values of KIC are very low for
ceramics (Fig. 4.50).
Another important disadvantage of oxide ceramics are their relatively low resis-
tance to temperature change. In the case of temperature changes of more than 200 C,
pure Al2 O3 is destroyed. This can only be improved by alloying a component of
superior resistance to temperature change.
Due to their sensitivity to thermoshock, coolants should not be used in conjunc-
tion with oxide ceramics when roughing and planing. Coolants should only be used
to temper the workpiece, e.g. due to narrow workpiece tolerances.
Low bending fracture strength and relatively high sensitivity to impact and
temperature change stresses require a slanted entering and leaving cutting path,
which is associated with delayed load of the cutting edge of the tool (Fig. 4.52).
Due to their low edge strength, chamfered edges should stabilize the cutting
edge.
Areas of Application of Oxide Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials

It must be stressed that, due to their extreme brittleness, a careful adjustment of cut-
ting parameters to tool geometry is the prerequisite of a successful use of cutting
ceramics. There is no room for error, since ceramics can be destroyed immediately
in the form of fracture should the marginal conditions be unfavourable. Cutting
ceramics are therefore almost exclusively used in mass production. This is justified
by the reduction of processing times and the high cost of selecting and adjusting
the cutting tool materials. The main area of application of oxide ceramic cutting
tool materials is rough and finish turning of grey cast iron, case-hardened steels and
heat-treated steels. However, pure oxide ceramics are being increasingly replaced by
silicon nitride ceramics, especially in cast iron processing (Fig. 4.53). The increased
popularity of dry machining however is opening up new areas of application to oxide
ceramics in the case of turning extrusion parts with a small machining allowance.
1. Chamfering
1. Chamfering and
external turning
Finished part
1. 2.
Clamping Clamping
(external) (internal)
2. Chamfering and
internal turning
2. Face turning
3. Face turning
Fig. 4.52 Entering and exit tool path when turning with cutting ceramics (Source: Ford)
Fine-grained mixed ceramics are used in hard-fine machining (e.g. for machining
hardened rolling bearing steels) for fine turning case-hardened automotive com-
ponents such as drive wheels, crown wheels, gearwheels or sliding sleeves with
a Rockwell hardness of 5462 HRC. They are also used for finish planing and
fine planing cast iron at very high speeds. In the case of hard turning, submicron
mixed ceramics are competing with PCBN cutting tool materials in many areas
of application as more economical alternatives due to their good cost-benefit ratio
[Krel97, Schn99].
Both types of cutting ceramics still however remain restricted with respect to the
carbon content of the machined steels. For example, in the case of steels with a C
content of under 0.35% adhesion occurs on the tool as well as chemical reactions
which increase wear and generally make the process uneconomical.
Whisker-reinforced oxide ceramics have been used with great success for turn-
ing high temperature nickel-based alloys (Fig. 4.54). In contrast to otherwise used
cutting tool materials (cemented carbide or HSS), it is possible to increase the
cutting speed by a factor of 10 or more. In the case of rough and finish milling
Inconel 718 with milling head face cutters, cutting speeds of 8001000 m/min can
be realized with cutting ceramics based on silicon nitride or whisker-reinforced
aluminium oxide. As opposed to machining with cemented carbide tools, this rep-
resents an increase in performance by factors of 25 or more [Momp93, Gers02,
Krie02, Uhlm04].
Al2O3-ceramic Si3N4-ceramic
300 vc = 600 m/min vc = 1000 m/min

f = 0.35 mm f = 0.5 mm
250 ap = 3.0 mm ap = 3.0 mm
Tool life quantity N
200
150
100
50
non-chamfered chamfered non-chamfered chamfered
Fig. 4.53 Influence of cutting ceramics and entering path on the tool life quantity in brake disc
manufacturing (Source: CeramTec)
3000 Polycrystalline
cubic boron
2000
nitride
Tool life travel path Lc / m
Cemented
carbide
1000 K10/20
500 SiC-whisker
400 reinforced
300 cutting ceramics
and SiAlON
200
Criteria of tool life: VB = 0.3 mm, VBN = 0.3 mm

100
20 30 40 50 100 200 300 400 600 vc = 400 m/min
f = 0.12 mm
Notch wear ap = 0.30 mm
VB VBN VB Inconel 718
Flank wear Wet cut
Determinant tool life wear criteria
Fig. 4.54 Achievable tool life travel paths and applicable cutting speeds in finish turning Inconel
718 with uncoated cemented carbide, whisker-reinforced cutting ceramic, silicon nitride ceramic
and PCBN
Chemical reactions and built-up edge formation when machining light metal
alloys make Al2 O3 cutting ceramics unsuitable for machining Al, Mg and Ti alloys.
Cutting ceramics composed of thin ceramic tubules represent a new generation
of ceramic cutting tool materials. In the case of these ceramics, first introduced at
EMO 2005, the tool body is formed of small thin tubes consisting of a tough ceramic
material and filled with a hard, wear-resistant ceramic material. The diameter and
thickness of the tubes, as well as their orientation and filling, are variable. The tubes
are arranged in a plane. The tool is formed with a large number of planes built on
top of each other, where the tubes forming the individual planes can be parallel
from plane to plane or can be arranged alternately at an angle of 45 /90 to each
other. In this way, the properties of the cutting tool material, such as toughness and
wear resistance, can be modified and adjusted to the stresses of various machining
tasks. Initial machining experiments in turning high-temperature nickel-based alloys
as well as in machining hardened steel materials demonstrated the promising wear
properties and performance of this new cutting ceramic [Haid05].
4.5.1.2 Non-oxidic Cutting Ceramics

Among the non-oxidic ceramics (carbides, nitrides, borides, silicides. . .), materi-
als based on Si3 N4 have been especially successful as cutting tool materials for
machining purposes. Si3 N4 cutting ceramics, in contrast to oxidic cutting ceram-
ics, are characterized by increased toughness and improved thermoshock resistance
(Fig. 4.50). Moreover, they have a higher hot hardness and high temperature
strength. In machining processes involving grey cast iron, they make it possible
to use the highest cutting values while maintaining the highest tool life spans and
low failure rates. The high safety level of these cutting tool materials has been an
especially important factor in the acceptance of Si3 N4 cutting tool materials by
manufacturers.
The significantly higher fracture resistance compared to oxide and mixed ceram-
ics is based on the needle-like shape of the hexagonal -Si3 N4 crystals as opposed
to the globular Al2 O3 grains. The non-directional growth of the needle-shaped crys-
tals leads to a microstructure made up of mechanically interlinked components
which provides the cutting tool materials with excellent strength properties. The low
thermal expansion of Si3 N4 ceramics compared with oxide and mixed ceramics is
responsible among other things for its favourable thermoshock properties. However,
in order to press silicon nitride ceramics completely, sintering auxiliaries (Y2 O3 ,
MgO, Al2 O3 ) are required that form a glass phase and fill in the gaps between the
crystals. This glass/binder phase has a negative influence on the high-temperature
properties of silicon nitride ceramics.
Besides sintering auxiliaries, Si3 N4 cutting ceramics can also contain other addi-
tives that affect their crystal structure or texture and thus their properties as well.
Corresponding to their chemical composition and crystallographic structure, the
silicon nitride ceramics available today can be subdivided into three groups:
I: -Si3 N4 + binder phase (Y2 O3 , MgO, Al2 O3 )
II a: sialon (Si3 N4 + Al2 O3 + AlN) + binder phase (Y2 O3 )
II b: ( + ) sialons ( Si3 N4 + Al2 O3 + AlN) + additive (e.g. ytterbium)

+ binder phase (Y2 O3 )
III: silicon nitride + hard materials (e.g. TiN, ZrO2 , SiC-whiskers) + binder
phase
The cutting tool materials from Groups I and II are fabricated by means of hot
pressing, sintering, hot isostatic pressing or a combination of these methods. Most
of the Si3 N4 cutting tool materials available on the market today belong to Group I.
The cutting tool materials from Group II are usually designated as sialons. Silicon
nitride can receive up to 60% aluminium oxide in solid solution. Some nitrogen
atoms are replaced in the process by oxygen atoms and silicon atoms by aluminium
atoms. While the sialon mixed crystals have a globular form, sialon mixed crys-
tals are stem-shaped. Including special additives makes it possible to stabilize the
sialons, thereby creating a cutting tool material the structure of which consists
of both and mixed crystals. The amount of additives determines the amount
of sialons in the cutting tool materials microstructure. In comparison to the cut-
ting tool materials from Group I, sialons are harder, more chemically resistant and
have an increased resistance to oxidation. The manufacturing method in this case is
sintering, which can sometimes be followed by hot isostatic pressing.
Group III can include Si3 N4 cutting tool materials, the properties of which can
be specifically altered by adding hard materials such as titanium nitride, titanium
carbide, zirconium oxide or Sic whiskers.
Areas of Application of Non-oxidic Cutting Ceramics

The classic field of Si3 N4 cutting tool materials is grey cast iron machining. In this
case, usually the tougher silicon nitride ceramics of Group I are preferred, espe-
cially in automated manufacture. Due to the high fracture toughness of these cutting
tool materials, large feeds, high cutting speeds and thus large volume removal rates
can be realized when machining cast iron materials in smooth and interrupted cut
[Kni86, Kni87, Schn99]. For example, when turning automotive brake discs,
using Si3 N4 ceramics improves tool life quantity considerably compared with oxide
ceramics (Fig. 4.53). Improved resistance to fracture makes it possible, as shown in
Fig. 4.52, to omit workpiece chamfering as long as one forgoes maximal utilization
of the cutting tool material.
The main area of application of sialons is in turning nickel-based alloys under
finishing or average roughing conditions (Fig. 4.54). They are therefore in direct
competition with whisker-reinforced oxide ceramics. Like the latter, sialons can be
used for machining nickel-based alloys at much higher cutting speeds than cemented
carbide tools. They are also good for high-speed milling of nickel-based alloys with
tools mounted with indexable inserts at cutting speeds of 8001000 m/min.
The wear resistance of silicon nitride ceramics is slightly lower than that of oxide
ceramics. Silicon nitride cutting tool materials exhibit a strong affinity to iron and
oxygen under machining conditions. They wear very quickly in the case of steel
machining, so the use of these materials groups currently remains uneconomical.
Coating silicon nitride ceramics opens up further prospects for their use. The
classic coating materials are TiN, TiC, TiCN and Al2 O3 , which are applied in dif-
ferent combinations and layer thicknesses. A multilayer coating system consisting
of aluminium oxide and titanium nitride remains the most popular. The service life
of Si3 N4 can be considerably increased by applying a wear and diffusion inhibiting
coating, especially when machining cast iron with globular graphite (e.g. GJV40)
[Schn99]. Coated silicon nitride ceramics are also suitable therefore for cases that
had hitherto been reserved for cemented carbides. As opposed to cemented car-
bides, they allow for higher cutting speeds and thus for shorter machining times and
in many cases also for dry machining [Schn99].
4.5.2 Superhard Non-metallic Cutting Tool Materials

In machining technology, cutting tool materials based on diamond and boron nitride
are designated as superhard and non-metallic. According to the definition, both are
ceramic cutting tool materials, where diamond is assigned to monatomic, boron
nitride to non-oxidic ceramics.
4.5.2.1 Diamond as a Cutting Tool Material

Elemental carbon appears in the two crystal modifications graphite and diamond.
Diamond solidifies in the cubic crystalline lattice system, in which the C atoms are
bonded covalently and tetraedically. The extremely high bond and lattice energy is
the reason why diamond is the hardest of all known materials. Diamond is equally
superior to all other known hard materials with respect to thermal conductivity.
Figure 4.55 shows the hardness and thermal conductivity of some materials that
tend to be used as abrasives as well as different carbides, which are components of
cemented carbide tools and permits a comparison with diamond.
Classification of Diamond Cutting Tool Materials

To classify diamond cutting tool materials, we differentiate between natural and syn-
thetic diamond, which both can appear in monocrystalline or polycrystalline form.
According to DIN ISO 513, the identification letters of polycrystalline diamond
are DP while those of monocrystalline diamond are DM (Fig. 4.3). Following the
usage common in practice and in the literature, we will also refer to polycrystalline
diamond cutting tool materials with the abbreviation PCD.
(a) Natural Diamond
Natural diamond is only of importance for the purposes of cutting with geomet-
rically defined cutting edges in its monocrystalline form. Although diamond
also exists in nature in polycrystalline form (ballas, carbonado), these types of
diamond are of lesser interest since the synthetic fabrication of polycrystalline
diamond is more advantageous both economically as well as technologically.
One significant property of monocrystalline diamond is the anisotropy
(directional dependence) of mechanical properties such as hardness, strength
Thermal conductivity
Hardness HV
RT / (W/mK)
Diamond
cBN
B4C
SiC
TiC
-Al2O3
10000 5000 2500 100 1000 10000
Fig. 4.55 Hardness and thermal conductivity of diamonds in comparison to other hard materials
or elastic modulus. While this directional dependence is compensated in the

case of polycrystalline materials by the completely random distribution of the
individual crystals, anisotropy remains in monocrystalline materials due to the
aligned orientation of the crystal lattice.
This also the cause of the cleavability of monocrystalline diamonds in four
select cleavage directions. From this we can see that the position of the lattice
directions must be known both for grinding monocrystalline diamond as well as
for using it as a tool. While grinding must always take place in the direction of
lowest hardness, monocrystalline diamond tools have to be oriented in the tool
holder such that the cutting force points in the direction of a hardness maximum.
(b) Synthetic Diamond
The fabrication of synthetic diamonds takes place using a catalyst solution in a
pressure and temperature range in which diamond forms a stable phase. By a
careful selection of pressure and temperature, the crystal growth rate and dimen-
sions of the crystals can be controlled within a range of a few micrometers to
several millimetres and specific physical properties like purity or porosity can
be influenced.
Diamond synthesis results in monocrystalline diamond particles that are
utilized in machining with geometrically defined cutting edges as synthetic
monocrystalline diamond tool bodies or for further processing into polycrys-
talline cutting parts.
Fabrication and Designs of Diamond Tool Bodies

(a) Monocrystalline Diamond Tools
Monocrystalline diamond tool bodies are manufactured with both natural diamond
and synthetic monocrystals [Heus96]. The most common cutting edge shapes of
'r 2
r 45
Tool with one cutting edge Tool with round cutting edge
'r 2
r 18
160
Tool with facette shape
Fig. 4.56 Shapes of monocrystalline diamond tools
monocrystalline diamond tools are shown in Fig. 4.56 [Wein69]. The tool with one
cutting edge is used both for drilling as well as for external turning, whereby in the
latter case a corner radius is ground onto it in order to improve the surface profile.
By selecting a very small minor cutting edge lead angle r < 2 , the minor cutting
edge can be designed as a broad-tool cutting edge which takes on the function of
further polishing the surface.
Tool variants with round cutting edges have the advantage of having a very large
useful cutting edge length, but due to the curvature of the cutting edge they have
unfavourable chip formation conditions and relatively high passive forces. In the
case of tool bodies with facette shapes, three to five cutting edges are ground on,
whereby two neighbouring edges form an angle of about 160 . The tool is adjusted
so that the minor cutting edge has a very small lead angle as acts as a broad polishing
cutting edge. Surface quality can be affected considerably by varying r slightly. The
grinded tips are brazed on the support material or fixed with special clamps.
(b) Polycrystalline Diamond Tools
Tool bodies made of a synthetic polycrystalline diamond layer were first introduced
in 1973 and have replaced monocrystalline diamond tools and cemented carbides in
some areas. The starting materials are synthetic diamond particles of a very small
defined granulation (grain diameter 225 m) in order to obtain a maximum amount
of homogeneity and packing density.
The polycrystalline diamond coating is fabricated by means of a high pressure,
high temperature process (6070 kbar, 14002000 C), in which synthetic diamonds
are sintered together into polycrystalline bodies in the presence of a metallic cat-
alyst. To this end, usually cobalt, but also silicon, tungsten or tungsten carbide are
used [Neis94]. During the sintering process, diamond bridges are formed between
the diamond grains which give the polycrystalline bodies their high strength. As the
diamond grains consolidate, gaps arise between neighbouring diamond crystals that
are filled in by the catalyst. In the literature, this phase is also called the binder,
which gives the polycrystalline diamond bodies the required toughness [Pret06].
One way to reduce the size of the gaps between the diamond grains especially
in the case of coarse-grained DP types is using diamond particles with varying
grain sizes (230 m). The small diamond grains accumulate in the gaps formed
by the large crystals, they increase the number of diamond bridges and with it the
impact resistance of the composite material as well as the quality of the cutting
edge. The polycrystalline coating fabricated in the high pressure/high temperature
process, the thickness of which is about 0.5 mm, is either directly applied on a
presintered cemented carbide base or over a thin intermediate layer consisting of
a metal with a low elastic modulus bonded with the cemented carbide in order to
balance stresses between the diamond layer and the cemented carbide base.
Due to its polycrystalline structure, the diamond coating is a statistically isotropic
overall body in which the anisotropy of the individual monocrystalline diamond par-
ticles is balanced by the random distribution of the diamond grains. Polycrystalline
diamond thus does not exhibit the hardness isotropy and cleavability of monocrys-
talline diamonds. On the other hand, it also does not reach the hardness level of
a diamond monocrystal in its hardest direction, especially since hardness is also
influenced by the degree of consolidation between the individual crystals and their
bonding to the binder phase.
Depending on the grain size of the diamond granulation used as well as the cata-
lyst used, the properties of the polycrystalline composite material can be specifically
influenced. Coarse-grained DP cutting tool materials (grain size about 25 m) are
characterized by higher hardness and thermal resistance, but their cutting edges
are rounder and more jagged than those of finer-grained types. As a result, wear
resistance increases in the case of primarily abrasive stress during the machining
process (Fig. 4.57). They are the most advantageous with respect to wear, cutting
edge quality and cutting edge strength in the machining of aluminium composite
materials and alloys, which are not critical with respect to the workpiece surface.
DP types of average grain size (approx. 10 m) are very common as multi-purpose
variants. They are used for rotating tools with high requirements on cutting edge
quality and service life. Fine-grained types (about 2 m grain size) have estab-
lished themselves especially in the automobile industry in cases demanding the best
possible cutting edge quality [Bail01].
Changing the composition of the binder phase can also increase the limits of
thermal stability, for example by using SiC. However, this considerably reduces the
thermal conductivity of the cutting tool material compared with that of materials
with the usual Co catalyst [Neis94].
Cutting edge shaping of the cutting part blank (i.e. of the cemented carbide base
with applied diamond coating) is accomplished by means of spark-erosive cutting
and grinding. The tool bodies are either soldered onto the tool bearer or clamped into
standardized tool holders, since indexable inserts made of polycrystalline diamond
14
Displacement of the cutting

12
Process: External cylindrical
turning 10
edge SV / m
Material: G-AlSi12 8
Cooling: dry
6
Cutting cond.: vc = 500 m/min
4
f = 0.1 mm
ap = 1 mm 2
Cutting time: tc = 40 min 0
DP1 DP2 DP3 DP4
DP1: grain size: 1015 m, DP2: grain size: 610 m,

binder: SiC binder: W (9%), Co (91%)
DP3: grain size: 26 m, DP4: grain size: 0.51 m,

binder: W (12%), Co (88%) binder: W (47%), Co (53%)
Fig. 4.57 Microstructure and wear of polycrystalline diamond cutting tool materials when turning
AlSi-alloy G-AlSi12, acc. to NEISES [Neis94]
correspond in shape and dimensions with commercially available cemented carbide

or ceramic indexable inserts.
Application Areas of Diamond Cutting Tool Materials

Cutting iron and steel materials with diamond tools is impossible due to the affinity
of iron to carbon. Diamond turns into graphite and reacts with the iron in the contact
zone between the tool and the workpiece due to the high temperatures arising there.
As a result, the cutting edge wears quickly in the case of both monocrystalline and
polycrystalline diamond cutting tool materials.
Monocrystalline diamond tools are especially suited to cutting light, heavy and
precious metals, hard and soft rubber as well as glass, plastics and stone. Their
field of application is mainly in finishing, since large depths of cut and feeds are
impossible due to limitations on cutting edge dimensions and relatively low flex-
ural strength. The use of monocrystalline diamond cutting tool materials promises
advantages when the demand for very high dimensional accuracy and surface qual-
ity is of foremost importance. For example, the use of nearly notch-free polished
diamond cutting edges in ultra-precision cutting (turning, fly-cutting, planing) can
result in surface finishes of between 3 and 6 nm. One classic area of application
is machining hard and soft contact lenses. Further fields include the production of
mirrors for lasers and other optical applications, of shaping tools for making impres-
sions on blank CDs, of tools for making imprints on plastics or of tools for plastic
injection moulding [Spen91, Ikaw91, Weck95, Heus96, Brin96, Kloc96, Take00].
Besides light, heavy and precious metals, the palette of materials machined with
polycrystalline diamond tools comprises different plastics, coal, graphite and presin-
tered cemented carbide. Their use is not restricted to finishing, but also includes
roughing. It is in many cases possible to unite both pre-machining and finishing in
one working cycle.
In the case of machining workpieces made of aluminium and other non-ferrous
metals, PCD tools have acquired a secure place in modern cutting processes as high-
performance tools [Sch01, Halw04, Kass04, Vogt04, Wick04, Fall05, Hedr05,
Hedr05a, Kasp05, Brun99]. Polycrystalline diamond tools are of special impor-
tance in the machining of aluminium alloys containing large amounts of silicon
(Fig. 4.58). Since these alloys have a hard/soft structure, the cutting edge cuts in
an alternating fashion through the soft aluminium phase and through the hard sili-
con particles. Due to the strong abrasive effect of the silicon particles, tools made
of cemented carbide are subject to a lot of wear. Moreover, when using cemented
carbide tools, the adhesive tendency of aluminium with the cutting tool material has
a negative effect on the machining process.
In comparison to cemented carbides, PCD cutting tool materials can be used with
much higher cutting speeds when cutting aluminium alloys with high silicon con-
tent. They have extremely high tool lives of up to 80 times higher than those of
cemented carbide tools and have excellent surface quality and precision. Their high
level of manufacturing safety is another essential reason why tools made of poly-
crystalline diamond are preferred over those of cemented carbide for this machining
task. This is especially the case in mass production on transfer lines, where short
cycle times and high safety against unforeseen cutting edge fracture are a must.
Further application examples include the milling of magnesium pressure cast alloys
and the high-performance milling of aluminium integral parts in the airline indus-
try with end milling cutters equipped with PCD [Wein69, Obel84, Kni82, Chry79,
Spur84, Hoff88, Jge89, Beck95, Wald92, Stie99, Zwah00].
Under certain conditions, it is possible to machine cast iron materials with PCD
tools as well. One example of this is drilling finishing with reaming tools equipped
HW (ap = 0.5 mm; fz = 0.023 mm; z = 24)

1600 1600 36000
DP (ap = 0.5 mm; fz = 0.15 mm; z = 8)
DP with optimal adjusted cutting edges

(ap = 0.5 mm; fz = 0.1 mm; z = 8)
- Reduction of tool change time

- Improvement of surface quality
- Reduction of rework (minimized burrs)
- Complex cutting edge survey
- Difficult regrinds
- Special tools
(settings; form fit)
- Accurate application
1600
380
2500
1130
100 360 100 880 100
16 50 60
Cutting tool material Tool life Tool costs Cutting speed / Cutting time per
costs per quantity / per workpiece [m/min] 1 m milling
workpiece / % workpieces /% distance / %
Fig. 4.58 Comparison of cemented carbide and polycrystalline diamond when milling the
aluminium-based alloy GK-AlSi17Cu4Mg
with DP. In the case of very small depths of cut, adjusted feeds and cutting speeds
as well as an intensive cooling of the cutting edge, it is possible to obtain long tool
lives as well as high surface quality and component precision in cast iron machining
[NN02].
(c) CVD Diamond Tools
CVD diamonds are diamond coatings deposited on a base body made of cemented
carbide or ceramics in a CVD process. A distinction is drawn between thin and thick
diamond coatings. As opposed to polycrystalline diamond, these diamond layers
consist only of diamond crystals, containing no binder phase. The fabrication of
tools coated with diamond is treated extensively in Sect. 4.4.2. Thin diamond coat-
ings can be deposited on tools with complex geometries such as drills, end milling
cutters and indexable inserts with chip form grooves. They are suited to machining
graphite, copper, fibre-reinforced plastics and aluminium alloys high in silicon. In
the field of superfinishing, thin diamond coatings have not been successful thus far.
The reason for this is that sharp cutting edges are blunted by the relatively thick
diamond coatings (about 20 m). Recent developments are making it possible to
produce very sharp cutting edges on diamond-coated tools as well by means of a
sharpening process [Hage04].
Thick CVD diamond coatings are excellently suited to cutting highly abrasive
materials such as aluminium-based metal composite materials. Examples of this are
the machining of brake drums made of AlSi9Mg into which 20 vol% SiC particles
are embedded or of cylinder crankcases made of AlSi9Cu3, which are reinforced
with 15 vol% Si particles and 5 vol% Al2 O3 short fibres [Suss01, Wein02, Uhlm00].
In the case of machining GFK/CFK materials as well, much longer tool lives can
be expected compared with PCD cutting edges due to the lack of a binder phase
[Feuc05].
4.5.2.2 Boron Nitride as a Cutting Tool Material

Boron nitride exists like carbon in a soft hexagonal modification, which crystallizes
in the same lattice type, and in a hard cubic modification, which has an identical
structure to the diamond lattice. There is also a third modification, which crystal-
lizes in the wurzite structure. The wurzite lattice is a lattice type with a hexagonal
symmetry but with a different atomic configuration than the graphite lattice. With
respect to hardness, this form is somewhere between the other two modifications.
In contrast to silicon nitride, naturally existing hexagonal boron nitride is soft
and not suitable as a cutting tool material for machining with defined cutting part
geometries. Only after transforming the hexagonal into the cubic crystalline lat-
tice with the help of a high-pressure/high temperature process does boron nitride
exhibit those qualities that distinguish it as a cutting tool material (Fig. 4.55).
Cubic boron nitride is, after diamond, the second hardest material. Hexagonal boron
nitride is synthesized by reacting boron halogenides with ammonia. It has a den-
sity of 2.27 g/cm3 and a melting point of 2730 C [Salm83]. Cubic boron nitride
( = 3.45 g/cm3 ) does not exist in nature. Its fabrication under the conditions
of diamond synthesis was first successful in 1957. The transformation of hexag-
onal into cubic boron nitride is accomplished with pressures of 5090 kbar and
temperatures of 18002200 K under the catalytic influence of alkaline nitrides or
alkaline-earth nitrides. Figure 4.59 shows the phase diagram of boron nitride system
with the four phase areas molten, hexagonal boron nitride with graphite structure,
hexagonal boron nitride with wurzite structure and cubic boron nitride with diamond
structure.
Despite their identical lattice structures, there are essential differences between
diamond and cBN. cBN has six cleavage planes two more than diamond.
This property is insignificant for the use of cBN in machining with defined cutting
edges, since in that case only polycrystalline tools are used.
More important is the fact that boron nitride is not a chemical element like car-
bon, but a chemical compound. The boron nitride lattice contains boron and nitrogen
atoms and can therefore not reach the same level of bonding force symmetry and
hardness as diamond, the lattice of which consists exclusively of carbon atoms.
But with respect to its chemical resistance, especially against oxidation, cBN is
far superior to diamond. It is stable from atmospheric pressure to about 2000 C,
whereas diamond begins to graphitize already at about 900 C.
In the case of machining with geometrically defined cutting edges, cBn is mainly
used as a polycrystalline cutting tool material (BN). Since the maximum crystal
size in the fabrication of cBN is limited (150 m), cBN grains are sintered with
180
160
Cast
140
Hexagonal BN (wurtzite-structure)
120
Pressure p / kbar
100
Cubic BN
(diamond-structure)
80
60
40
20 Hexagonal BN
(graphite-structure)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Temperature T / K
Fig. 4.59 Phase diagram of boron nitride
the help of a binder phase in a high pressure/high temperature process to an approx.

0.5 mm thick polycrystalline BN layer and simultaneously applied to a cemented
carbide base. A distinction is made between cutting edge blanks, which are con-
nected by soldering to the tool holder and only receive their final cutting edge shape
by grinding, and indexable inserts, which are clamped in common clamping hold-
ers [Tns81, Tll81, Wern81, Nott82, Clau85, Tll82, Wern84, Wein87, Buzd87,
Krat06].
Aluminium, titanium, titanium aluminium nitride, titanium carbide or cobalt,
nickel and tungsten are used as binders. Aluminium and titanium react chemically
with the cBN, forming AlN and AlB2 / TiN and TiB2 . Cobalt forms complex borides
with tungsten in the form of CoWB, W2 CoB2 or W2 Co21 B6 . The coW borides
arise from grain boundary reactions during the sintering process. This leads to an
extremely stable bond between the cBN grains and the Co-W binder phase [Krat06].
The currently most common cutting tool materials based on boron nitride can
be subdivided into two groups, one containing high amounts of cBN (BH) and the
other containing low amounts (BL) (Tables 4.1 and 4.2). Types with high amounts
of cBN consist of 8090% cBN and a metallic W-Co or ceramic binder phase based
on titanium and aluminium. Their grain size varies within a range of 0.510 m.
Low cBN-containing types are generally 4565% cBN and have a ceramic binder
phase based on titanium carbide or titanium nitride [Krat06]. They are as a rule very
fine-grained (grain diameter < 2 m). As Fig. 4.60 shows, the thermal conductivity
and resistance of BN cutting tool materials against abrasive wear increases with
Table 4.1 PCBN types (BH) available on the market for cutting sintered steel and sintered forged
steel, acc. to KRATZ [Krat06]
cBN content/ cBN grain Binder Knoop Thermal conductivity/ Bending

vol% diameter/m phase hardness/GPa (W/mK) strength/GPa
80 0.54 Co-W 2630 80100 1.4

85 0.55 Co-W 3841 80100 1.0
90 0.54 Co-W 4043 100110 1.3
Table 4.2 PCBN types (BL) available on the market for cutting hardnened sintered steel and
sintered forged steel in continuous cut, acc. to KRATZ [Krat06]
cBN content/ cBN-grain Knoop Thermal conductivity/ Bending

vol% diameter/m Binder phase hardness/GPa (W/mK) strength/GPa
45 0.5 Ti ceramic 24 34 0.6

50 2 Ti ceramic 28 44 0.6
60 1 Ti ceramic 33 45 1.2
increasing cBN content and grain size. Fine-grained BL types have a higher cutting
edge quality, an essential prerequisite for producing high-quality surfaces in the hard
finishing of components.
Tools made of cubic boron nitride are preferred for turning, drilling and milling
hardened steel with a hardness of 5568 HRC, high speed steel, grey cast iron, hard
cast iron, sintered metals and high temperature alloys based on nickel and cobalt
materials which are very difficult to machine using cemented carbide tools. The
main uses of BH types are generally roughing/pre-machining of hardened steel and
Cutting edge quality
90
cBN-content / Vo.-l%
80
Thermal conductivity
ce
50 istan
res
45 ar
We
Low High cBN-
cBN- content
content
0
<1 2 6 10
cBN grain size / m
Fig. 4.60 Effect of cBN-content and grain size on properties of PCBN

iron materials, machining hard cast iron, sintered metals and all machining opera-
tions made on perlitic cast iron materials. Due to its relatively high thermal conduc-
tivity, they quickly divert the heat arising in the contact zone during roughing. BL
types are primarily employed for hard finishing with depths of cut of < 0.5 mm
(turning instead of grinding). They have increased edge stability and, for these
machining tasks, better wear attributes than types containing higher levels of cBN
(Fig. 4.61).
When machining hardened steels with BN cutting tool materials, tribochemical
reactions between the cubic boron nitride (cBN) and components of the steel mate-
rials to be cut lead to intensified wearing of the boron nitride [Bmc89, Neis95,
100
Width of flank wear land BN 1
Process: External cylindrical 80 BN 2
turning
BN 3
VB / m
Material: 100Cr6 (60 HRC) 60

BN 4
Cooling: dry
40
Cutting cond.: vc = 80 m/min
f = 0.1 mm 20
ap = 0.5 mm
Cutting time: tc = 10 min 0
Crater depth KT Width of flank wear
land VB
BN 1 BN 2
BN 3 BN 4
Fig. 4.61 Wear of different boron nitride cutting tool materials when turning 100Cr6
Halp05, Barr00, Barr06]. The higher the amount of cBN in the cutting tool mate-
rial, the stronger this wear mechanism limits the performance of the BN cutting tool
materials being used for hard machining.
In order to combat this wear phenomenon, cutting tool materials made of cBN
are coated. Coating reduces tribochemical wear, increasing component quality, tool
life and process safety [Daws02, Gey05, Ohas04, Okam05]. Usually, cBN tools are
coated with TiN, TiAlN or AlCrN after the PVD process. There are also solid BN
plates coated with CVD- Al2 O3 .
When machining materials of lower hardness (4555 HRC), the higher Fe con-
tent in the materials leads to an increase in chemical wear. If hardened components
must also be machined in the hard/soft transition phase, there is still another prob-
lem. Due to declining material strength, chip formation changes from lamellar to
continuous chips. This is accompanied by changes in the friction conditions in the
contact zone on the rake face, and thermal and chemical stress on the cutting edge
increases. The BN cutting edge becomes very hot. In consequence, the solder with
which the BN blank is soldered onto the cemented carbide base can melt and the
insert can break. In these cases, the wear and performance attributes of cBN cutting
tool materials can be significantly improved by coating them.
Turning tools made of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride are becoming more
and more popular for finishing turbine blades composed of nickel-based alloys (see
Sect. 7.6.5). As opposed to cemented carbides (vc = 2040 m/min), they can be
employed at much higher cutting speeds (vc = 250500 m/min) (Fig. 4.54). In
comparison to turning tools made of whisker-reinforced cutting ceramics or SiAlon,
BN cutting tool materials are characterized by higher process safety, while the resul-
tant component have a superior surface quality. When using the appropriate BN
types (low-cBN-containing, binder phase TiC or TiN) and insert geometries (e.g.
RNGX120700E), the types of wear that affect tool life as a rule are flank and rake
face wear for high cutting speeds (vc > 250 m/min) and notch wear on the major
and/or minor cutting edge for low cutting speeds (vc < 250 m/min). Besides low
cutting speeds, small corner radii also are advantageous for the formation of notch
wear. An emulsion is used as a cooling lubricant during the cutting process dry
machining is generally impossible.
4.6 Tool Designs

Various tool designs for separate processes have become available on the market,
since different areas of use place particular demands on the design of the tools.
In order to guarantee tool functionality, the following requirements should be
considered already in the design phase:
mechanical tool stresses (cutting forces),

thermal tool stress (friction and deformation heat, coolant),
rapid changing and secure positioning of the tool cutting edge,
4.6 Tool Designs 185
simple and fast replacement of worn tool parts,

versatility in use,
manufacturing and maintenance costs
Two main tool groups have emerged based on these requirements. Tools can be
designed either as
solid tools or as
tools with inserts.
Included in the solid tool category are tools whose cutting part and shaft have
been manufactured with the same material. In the case of tools with an insert, the
shaft usually consists of a tougher and cheaper base material and the insert of a
harder, more wear-resistant material (e.g. cemented carbide, cBN). Different designs
have become established for different manufacturing processes. For example, in the
case of milling and drilling, solid tools are more economical, whereas they are only
used in special cases for turning.
In the following introduction to tools designs, special attention will be paid to
turning tools. Further specifications regarding tool systems of other chip-removing
machining processes with defined cutting edges can be found in Chaps. 9 and 10.
4.6.1 Solid Tools

Solid tools are turning tools whose tool body and shaft consist of one material
(e.g. high speed steel). This tool type, also called a tool holder bit, is fabricated
by grinding the cutting part geometry on to a wide variety of basic shapes.
Parting tool holder bits already have a ready-made geometry. The angles required
for the parting process are ground up to the tool orthogonal clearance. After
grinding the tool orthogonal clearance, these tools are placed in a clamping as
shown in Fig. 4.62. Final grinding occurs only on the flank face. Any necessary
height correction is made by subsequent adjustment of the tool holder bit in the
clamp.
One advantage of these tool holder bit is that theoretically freely selectable
geometries can be ground onto them for every regrind. Figure 4.63 shows two form-
ing tools in both round and flat design. The latter is designated as a tangential tool
because the tool can be tangentially shifted, as opposed to the radial tool, which
must be radially adjusted. Round tools are turned after regrinding by a correspond-
ing angle. These types of forming tools are reground only on the rake face, since
any regrinding of the flank face would alter the shape, which is very expensive to
produce.
These tools are advantageous only for turning materials that do not require chip
formers, since in these cases they can simply be reground. Round tools can be
prepared until the circumference of the cutting part has been reduced to 25%.
Fig. 4.62 Parting off tool

clamping
Holder bit
Solid tools are being used increasingly less commonly for turning, whereas usu-
ally tools with inserts are used. If soldering the cemented carbide inserts poses
problems (e.g. in the case of small tools), turning tools can be fabricated completely
out of cemented carbide. In order to guarantee a small amount of shaft deflection, in
the case of boring bars for example, complete cemented carbide shafts are utilized,
since cemented carbide has a larger elastic modulus.
Workpiece
e

Round formed turning tool
Flat formed turning tool
Fig. 4.63 Forming tools

4.6.2 Tools with Inserts

In accordance with joining techniques, tools with inserts should be classified as
being either
tools with fixed inserts (material connection) and

tools with detachable inserts (frictional/positive connection).
4.6.2.1 Tools with Fixed Inserts

Soldering as a technique for joining the insert and tool shaft is now only used in
exceptional cases for turning processes. It is more common in other areas, such as
in milling and drilling processes or in the manufacture of woodworking tools. Today,
inserts are most usually screwed or clamped.
For turning tool shafts, unalloyed construction steels with a strength of
700800 N/mm2 have proven successful. If tools for large chip cross-sectional areas
are required, the strength should be increased to 8001000 N/mm2 . Shaft cross
sections are standardized in DIN 770-1 and DIN 770-2.
In the case of soldered tools as in Fig. 4.64, usually inserts made of PCBN or
cemented carbide are soldered onto the tool shaft. High-speed steel is usually only
Parallel ground in chip Cemented carbide Shank

breaker
Soldered joint
Brazed carbide cutters
Fig. 4.64 Turning and milling tools with brazed carbide tipped cutters
soldered onto tools that have lower cutting edge requirements (e.g. in the case of
saw blades for woodworking).
4.6.2.2 Tools with Detachable Inserts

As opposed to tool systems with soldered inserts, tools with clamped or screwed
inserts have the advantage, among others, that several cutting edges can be used on
a single insert. If a cutting edge has reached the end of its service life, the insert is
turned or twisted after releasing the attachment, thereby bringing a new cutting edge
into action. The term indexable insert comes from this process. The designation
system for customary indexable inserts is standardized in DIN ISO 1832 and shown
in Figs. 4.65 and 4.66.
On these tools, the inserts are attached with clamping devices on the tool holder.
Of particular advantage is the safe and quick clamping of the inserts. In accordance
with the selected tolerance class, insert replacement can be accomplished quickly
during manufacture, since the cutting edge does not need to be positioned with
respect to the workpiece.
The manufacturing tolerances of indexable inserts influence the production accu-
racy of the workpieces to a very large extent when there is a change of inserts
(e.g. on NC machines). For inserts, a distinction is made between normal and
precision design. In the case of a normal design, tolerances are in the range of
0.13 mm and for precision designs 0.025 mm, whereby workpiece toler-
ances of about 0.1 mm can be observed after an insert change without additional
positioning.
According to the forms described in DIN ISO 1832, there is a variety of special
designs that are non-standard inserts for machining processes with defined cutting
edges.
Since clamping holders make it possible to clamp inserts made of diverse cutting
tool materials, they can be adjusted well and quickly to the machining task at hand.
Storage costs are relatively low, since these are limited essentially to storing the
inserts and replacement parts for the tool holders [Corn74].
One must bear in mind that the components of different products are not inter-
changeable with regard to storage. For this reason, it is uneconomical to use different
holder designs in one plant for the same purpose, since this makes the storage of
replacement parts considerably more expensive.
There are now intelligent tool dispensing systems provided by different tool
manufacturers that make it possible to manage the tools and to provide orders
automatically adjusted to the purpose of the operator [Pitt04].
As shown in DIN ISO 1832, there are inserts with and without holes. Inserts
without holes generally have a superimposed chip former and ones with holes have
moulded chip formers. Inserts made of ceramic materials and PCBN are usually
manufactured without a hole and can thus only be fixed in clamping holders and
clamping fingers.
Clamping holders for turning are standardized in DIN 4983. Figure 4.67 shows
the standard description for clamping holders by means of an example.
Example of insert notation:
C N M G 12 04 08 ... ... ...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Insert form (r) 2 Tool orthogonal clearance ( 0)
85 86
A M A F
82 3 25
B O
B G
C 80 P 5 30
D 55 R C N
75 7 0
E S
D P
H T
15 11
55 35
K V E
L W 20
80
3 Tolerance class
Acceptable variation in mm for

m d / mm m / mm s / mm
T
A 0.025 0.005 0.025
C 0.025 0.013 0.025
d
E 0.025 0.025 0.025
m F 0.013 0.005 0.025
C G 0.025 0.025 0.050.13
S H 0.013 0.013 0.025
d J1 0.050.152 0.005 0.025
K1 0.050.152 0.013 0.025
D L1 0.050.152 0.013 0.025
V M 0.050.152 0.080.202 0.013
d m N 0.050.152 0.080.202 0.025
U 0.050.152 0.130.382 0.050.13
1 Inserts
with ground edges
2 Depending on the insert size
S (See ISO-norm 1832)
Fig. 4.65 Standard description for inserts, acc. to DIN ISO 1832
Tool holders for inserts must fulfill the following basic tasks:
Indexable inserts must always be clamped in the identical position after

replacement.
Position change due to cutting forces must be avoided.
The support area must guarantee that the insert does not bend.
The mounting must guarantee that heat arising in the process is diverted well into
the tool holder.
4 Fixation and/or chip breaker 5 Size of insert
A M R
l l
B N T
= 4060
l l
C Q W
= 4060
l l
H X Drawing or accurate
= 7090 description required
l d
6 Thickness of insert 8 Formation of cutting edge
E T
rounded chamfered
s s
F S
sharp chamfered + rounded
s s 9 Cutting direction
right
01 T1 02 T2 03 T3
R
s / mm 1.59 1.98 2.38 2.78 3.18 3.97
left
04 05 06 07 09
s / mm 4.76 5.56 6.35 7.94 9.52
L
neutral
7 Design of cutting edge
r / mm 00 for diameter
02 0.2 in inches N
R
04 0.4 converted in 10 internal notations
mm.
r 08 0.8
Condition of the edge, special chip
12 1.2 M0 diameter in former geometry, for example:
16 1.6 metric system. P = polished W = with (expanded)
24 2.4 finishing cutting edge
Fig. 4.66 Standard description for inserts, acc. to DIN ISO 1832 (continued)
Cutting forces should be transferred to the holder such that the centering of the
insert is supported.
The use of a chip former is required depending on the machining task at hand.
Figure 4.68 shows different fixture designs for indexable inserts with (below)
and without (above) a hole. The advantage of mountings for hole inserts is that all
clamping elements in the holder are protected from chips. The indexable inserts
Notation example for tool holders:
Cartridge DIN 4985 C S G N R 32 25 M 16 Q
Kind of fixation of the

C
insert (clamped from above)
Basic form of the insert S
Form of the tool holder G

Tool orthogonal clearance
N
of the insert
Design of the tool holder R
Height of the cutting edge
(here: h = 32 mm) 32
Shank width of the tool holder 25
(here: b = 25 mm)
Length of the tool holder M
(here: l1 = 150 mm)
Size of the insert 16
Code letter for special tolerances Q
Fig. 4.67 Standard description for tool holders, acc. to DIN 4983
are unalterably centred and fixed in the insert seat, for example, by toggle levers
or pins.
The simplest clamping is achieved with a clamping bolt. Another possibility is
fixing with a clamping claw, which clamps the indexable insert and a continuously
Chip former Clamping screw

Excentric nut
Clamping device Clamping claw
Insert Tool shank
Underlay
Toggle Clamping screw

Clamping screw
Fig. 4.68 Types of insert fixation (Source: Widia, Hertel)

Positive insert Negative insert
6
5
6 6
Wedge angle 0 < 90 Wedge angle 0 = 90
11 11
Number of useable edges

depending on tool type
Fig. 4.69 Characteristic properties of positive and negative inserts
adjustable chip former. In this design, the chip former can be adjusted especially
well to changing cutting conditions in order to guarantee a favourable chip form.
Tool holders with clamping fingers are used when the chip former is gradually
adjustable and working conditions are mostly constant. If damage to the tool holder
occurs, the individual parts can be replaced with replacement parts offered by the
tool holder manufacturer.
In order to shorten setting-up and auxiliary process times in large-batch pro-
duction, often special designs are used such as short tool holders or cassettes.
Primarily for linked machines or tracer lathes, tools can be employed that can
change used indexable inserts automatically during workpiece loading without loss
of time.
There are negative and positive inserts. The criterion for this distinction is the
size of the tool orthogonal rake angle when fixed, i.e. in the machining position. If
there is a positive tool orthogonal rake angle, the insert is referred to as a positive
insert and vice versa (Fig. 4.69).
Positive inserts have usable cutting edges only on the upper side. Indexable
inserts for tool holders with incorporated positive tool orthogonal rake angles are
provided with tool orthogonal clearances. If, as in Fig. 4.69, the tool orthogonal
clearance of the insert is 11 (wedge angle 0 = 79 ) and the tool orthogonal rake
angle of the holder is + 5 , then the tool orthogonal clearance during tool engage-
ment is + 6 . Negative indexable inserts have a wedge angle of 90 , making cutting
edges available on both the upper and lower side of the insert.
Inserts with moulded or ground chip formers have the same basic shape as nega-
tive indexable inserts, but in effect they cut with a positive tool orthogonal rake angle
4.7 Tool Preparation 193
+ 18 + 10 + 12 + 12
Fig. 4.70 Inserts with chip former (Source: Sandvik)
due to the geometry of the chip former (Fig. 4.70). This type of indexable insert
thus combines the advantage of the positive tool orthogonal rake angle, a lower
cutting force, with the higher number of cutting edges of the negative insert. The
main function of the chip former is to produce short-breaking chips. On automated
manufacturing devices, in which case process interference due to uncontrolled chip
breakage is particularly disruptive, indexable inserts are therefore almost always
provided with chip formers [Muel93].
One must bear in mind that moulded/ground chip formers should be adjusted to
the respective cutting conditions [Sche78]. In order to expand the possible range
of applications, often several chip breakers are arranged in a row. Small chip for-
mers arranged near the corner radius guarantee good chip breakage in finishing
operations.
Figure 4.71 provides examples of tools with detachable indexable inserts for
drilling, milling, sawing and turning.
The large tool included angle of square inserts gives them a high level of cut-
ting edge stability. As opposed to triangular inserts, they can only be used in form
turning to a limited extent. Triangular indexable inserts have less cutting edge sta-
bility as a result of their small tool included angle. Very high surface qualities can
be obtained by using round indexable inserts. The disadvantage of these however
is that the smallest workpiece radius to be produced is prescribed by the cutting
inserts geometry. Rhomboid inserts have been manufactured especially for copy
turning operations. With these, deep and round contours can be reproduced.
4.7 Tool Preparation
Expensive tools, e.g. broaching tools, are as a rule prepared again, provided the cost
to do so is lower than that of a new tool. Regrinding is almost exclusively done in
Drilling tool End milling cutter Drill out tool Side and face
milling cutter
Deep hole drilling tool Side milling cutter Grooving tool Saw blade
Fig. 4.71 Typical application examples
the case of special tools and tool designs with soldered inserts. Other tools that are
typically prepared are solid carbide tools like drills and shaft millers, serration tools
made of HSS and indexable inserts made of PKD or PCBN. Preparing indexable
inserts made of cemented carbide or HSS is not economical because of the low
material value.
If a tool is to be prepared, regrinding must take place in a timely fashion in order
to save on grinding and tool costs. This means that the cutting edge should not be
used beyond a permissible level of wear. Figure 4.72 gives an overview of standard
wear data used as tool life criteria for tools.
Grinding or regrinding tools is carried out as a rule on special 5-axis tool grinding
machines. Only in this way we can always grind on the same angle and chip former
geometries. Manually ground faces are imprecise and thus have a lot of influence on
tool life and the chip forms produced.
When grinding high speed steel, the hardness and grain size of the grinding
wheel must be adjusted to the high speed steel, depending on which grinding type
is used, such as coarse or fine grinding. cBN or precious corundum discs are used
as abrasives. Extensive information on the topic of abrasives and method variants of
grinding can be found in [Kloc05a].
Special manufacturing processes in the area of finishing require sharply ground
tool cutting edges. Before coating the tools, their surfaces are pretreated by irradia-
tion. This produces a pronounced cutting edge radius on the tool. In order to be able
to use sharply ground tools for finishing purposes nonetheless, different grinding
strategies have been developed. Figure 4.73 shows different regrinding strategies
corresponding to the type of wear arising. If crater wear is predominant, the flank
face is reground so that the tools maintain the more wear resistant coating on the
rake face. On the other hand, if flank face wear is predominant, the rake face is
reground.
4.7 Tool Preparation 195
Cutting tool material Measurand Assumed wear data
Width of flank VB 0.2 to 1.0 mm

wear land VBmax 0.35 to 1.0 mm
High speed steel
Crater depth KT 0.1 to 0.3 mm
Width of flank VB 0.3 to 0.5 mm

Cemented wear land
carbide VBmax 0.5 to 0.7 mm
Crater depth KT 0.1 to 0.2 mm
Width of flank
VB 0.15 to 0.3 mm
Cutting ceramics wear land
Crater depth KT 0.1 mm
Fig. 4.72 Guidelines for the tool life criterion
Dominating flank wear... Dominant rake face wear...

Flank wear
Crater wear
(rake face)
Substrate Substrate
Coating Coating
... regrind from the rake face: ...regrind from the flank:
Regrind
ind
Regr
Common processes: Common processes:
Drill out Grooving

Reaming Parting off
Broaching
Fig. 4.73 Machined surfaces in regrinding

In regrinding, the grinding strategy and thus the surface quality has a large influ-
ence on the realizable tool life travel paths of the tool. An error-free regrind must
therefore be guaranteed by a correct choice of abrasive and adjusted machining con-
ditions. Moreover, one must take care during the grinding process that the tool does
not become heated beyond annealing temperature in order to avoid rim zone dam-
age. The avoidance of cracks caused by heat and force is of especial importance
when preparing tools with soldered cutting inserts [Weir64].
If cemented carbide is used, regrinding, fine grinding and grinding chamfers and
curves is done with diamond discs. Electrolytic grinding is also a very suitable
method for pregrinding and finishing tools [Rein69].
Chapter 5
Finite Element Method (FEM)
Machining processes have been modelled numerically with the finite element
method (FEM) for some years, leading already to highly promising results in the
modelling of cutting processes. The use of numerical models for simulating cutting
processes makes it possible to illustrate complex tools while simultaneously taking
plasto-mechanical and thermal processes into consideration. Besides FEM, analytic
and empirical process models can also be consulted that have the advantage of pro-
viding a quick representation of the process. Empirical models are of limited use:
they are generally only calibrated to be valid for a limited process range. Due to the
simplification, analytical models are only partially suitable for describing complex
processes such as can be described by FEM. FEM is a numerical method for finding
approximate solutions to continuous field problems. Originally, it was developed to
solve stress problems in structural mechanics, but its use was soon expanded to the
large field of continuum mechanics [Bett03].
5.1 Basic Concepts of FEM

It is helpful for the user to be acquainted with the basic concepts of FEM in order
to avoid errors and to be able to evaluate the results of calculations. The user should
be aware of the assumptions made by the software and their possible effects on the
calculation result. The consideration of a process with FEM is also called finite ele-
ment analysis (FEA). The following steps are taken in every FEA [Hueb82, Zien00,
Redd93, Roll93]:
1. discretization of the continuum,

2. selection of interpolation functions,
3. determination of the element properties,
4. assembly of the element equations and
5. solution of the equation system.
As the continuum is discretized, solution domains (e.g. the workpiece) are sub-
divided into a finite number of subdomains the finite elements. The type, number,
size and distribution of the elements is also determined. Continuum elements make

198 5 Finite Element Method (FEM)
1D
Bar element
2D
Triangle Quadrangle
3D
Tetrahedron Pentahedron Pyramid Hexahedron
Fig. 5.1 Types of elements for the discretization of continuum problems, acc. to STEINBRUCH
[Stei98]
it possible to grasp all normal and shear stresses. The complete definition of an
element type includes the element form, the number of nodes, the type of node vari-
ables and the interpolation functions. Figure 5.1 shows exemplary some element
types that are used for discretization.
The selection of interpolation functions, which are often designated as shape,
form or basic functions, is made in practice simultaneously with the selection of
the element type. Interpolation functions serve to approximate the profile of state
variables within an element. Element nodes function as support points for the inter-
polation. In the case of linear elements, these are the corner points of the element.
Higher order elements have a set number of additional nodes on the element edges
or inside the elements; due to their higher number of nodes, they provide a more
exact solution. Because of their differentiability or integratability, polynomials are
frequently used as interpolation functions. The order of the polynomial depends
on the number of element nodes, the number of unknowns of each node and the
continuity conditions at the nodes. Since the interpolation functions represent the
properties of the state variables within the element, the values of the state variables
at the nodes represent the unknowns of the discretized problem.
After choosing element types and interpolation functions, the element equa-
tions (element matrices) are determined. These equations describe the relations
between the primary unknowns (e.g. speed, displacement, temperature) and the sec-
ondary unknowns (e.g. stresses). To determine the unknowns, several approaches
can be considered. One approach for example is using the principle of virtual work
(energy).
One of the fundamental differences between FEM and other numerical methods
of approximation is that the solution is first formulated for each individual element.
5.3 Explicit and Implicit Methods of Solution 199
In order to approximate the properties of the total system comprising the sum of all
the elements, the element matrices are combined (assembled) into the global matrix
of the problem. The boundary conditions (clamps, external forces, etc.) are also
defined. The assembly of element equations leads to system equations that can be
solved with the help of the right methods. The numerical integration methods used
to solve the element matrices require the evaluation of the integrals at certain points
within an element, called integration points. The number of required integration
points can be reduced while maintaining the same accuracy by careful selection
of their positions. The Gauss quadrature is a very common method for numerical
integration. The positions of the integration points within an element are exactly
set and represent the positions at which stresses and strains are calculated [Koba89,
Roll93, Zien00].
5.2 Lagrangian and Eulerian Considerations of the Continuum

The continuum can be discretized from different standpoints, where the
LAGRANGian and EULERian approach are the most common in FEM [Bath96].
In the case of the LAGRANG ian approach, the nodes of an element move with
the material. An observer travelling on a node would see state variable changes of
a particular particle throughout the entire forming process. One disadvantage of the
Lagrangian method is the distortion of the mesh brought about by large plastic defor-
mations, which sometimes requires remeshing. The now necessary interpolation of
the state variables from the distorted to the newly generated mesh leads, depend-
ing on the number of remeshing cycles, to an undesirable, more or less distinct
smoothing of the state variables.
The Eulerian approach considers the motion of the continuum through a fixed
mesh. An observer on a node of such a mesh would see the states of all particles
that pass his fixed observation point. This method is especially suited to the investi-
gation of stationary processes and is frequently employed in flow simulations. The
arbitrary LAGRANGian EULERian method (ALE) is becoming more and more
accepted, which is a combination of the above approaches and permits the mesh
a motion independent of the material as long as the form of the domains under
consideration remains the same [Koba89, Wu03].
5.3 Explicit and Implicit Methods of Solution

Many FE programs utilized to calculate large plastic deformations make use of
implicit methods. For highly dynamic applications on the other hand, such as
crash simulation, explicit time integration is prevalent in FE programs.
Explicit methods consider the process under investigation as a dynamic problem
subdivided into time steps. The desired quantities at time t + t are determined
solely from the values available at time t. This is done usually with the help of dif-
ference formulae. However, this method is only stable if the time step t is smaller
than the time it takes for an elastic wave to travel a route corresponding to the short-
est element edge. In this way, the possible length of the time step is a function of the
sonic velocity c existing in the material. For solids:

E
c= (5.1)

The maximum possible length of the time step thus depends on the density
and the elastic modulus E of the material. Since the length of the time step can be
in the range of microseconds, a very large amount of computing steps is sometimes
necessary. Mass scaling, i.e. artificial increase of the materials density or artificial
reduction of the process time, represents an attempt to increase the possible length
of the time step. Mass effects caused by such interventions have to be compensated
by appropriate countermeasures [Roll93, Chun98].
When using implicit methods, there is no such limitation. Implicit solvers look
for the solution for every time t +t under consideration of the values of the desired
quantities both at time t as well as at time t + t [Hueb82]. The solution of such a
non-linear system of equations demands special iteration methods (e.g. NEWTON-
RAPHSON) [Roll93, Zien00]. The advantage of the length of the time step being up
to 1000 times larger compared to the explicit method is therefore accompanied by
the computing time required for the iterative equation solution.
5.4 Combined Thermal and Mechanical FEA

In cutting processes, heat is generated both from inelastic deformation as well as
from the work of friction on the rake and flank faces. In order to take thermal
processes into account, mechanical and thermal calculations must be combined. In
the case of simultaneous combination, this is accomplished by establishing a com-
pletely combined equation system. Non-simultaneous combination proceeds from
a purely mechanical formulation in which temperature merely serves to help ascer-
tain temperature-dependent material characteristic values (e.g. the flow curve). The
mechanical calculation determines the heat of friction, heat from plastic deformation
and heat exchange with other objects or the environment. This data serve as input
quantities for the thermal calculation. The combination can take place at every iter-
ation (iterative combination), or at every time increment (incremental combination)
[Kopp99].
5.5 Nonlinearities
Linear analysis is the analysis of a problem that exhibits a linear relationship
between the applied load and the response of the system. Linear analysis is a sim-
plification because every real physical system is nonlinear. These nonlinearities can
5.6 Material Laws 201
however be neglected in many cases. If we speak of nonlinear problems in FEM,

these nonlinearities must be taken into consideration.
Basically, there are three different types of nonlinearities:
material nonlinearities,
geometric nonlinearities and
nonlinearities in the boundary conditions.
Material nonlinearities result, for example, from a nonlinear relation between
stress and displacement, as occurs in the case of metallic materials after leav-
ing the Hookian range. Further causes of material nonlinearities include material
behaviours contingent on forming speed and/or temperature as well as material
failure. Geometric nonlinearities are caused by change in geometry during the calcu-
lation. As soon as the displacements are large enough to influence the behaviour of
the system, there is a nonlinearity. Nonlinearities in the boundary conditions arise,
for example, when there is a change in external loads or new contact, or in the case
of loss of contact between two objects (e.g. tool and workpiece). In the context of a
typical machining simulation, usually all three types of nonlinearity appear.
5.6 Material Laws

The material laws applied in FEM can basically be classified in two main groups:
those concerning elastic material properties by considering the material elastically
and in case of further deformation plastically, and those concerning the material as
rigid until the plastic limit is reached (Fig. 5.2). The use of a rigid/plastic material
law speeds up the calculation and provides satisfactory simulation results for many
applications, in which the amount of plastic deformation is significantly larger than
the amount of elastic deformation [Roll93]. Elastic/plastic material models are of
importance when elastic effects are not negligible (e.g. the calculation of residual
stresses remaining in the component).
Material laws for the simulation of chip-removing machining tasks must satisfy
the particular requirements of cutting. To this belongs the description of material
flow stress as a function of deformation , the rate of deformation d/dt and temper-
ature T. One can see from Table 5.1 how extreme the conditions are in machining
in comparison to other manufacturing processes. Large deformations (up to = 5)
and very high deformation rates (d/dt < 106 1/s) combined with high temperatures
(T < 1500 C) are common in cutting processes.
To determine the flow curves that are valid in these extreme conditions, special
test methods are used. Among these is, for example, the use of the Split-Hopkinson
pressure bar. This testing apparatus specially developed for high speed deformation
can reach deformation speeds of up to d/dt = 104 1/s.
The arrangement of the Split-Hopkinson pressure bar consists of two cylindrical
bars of equal diameter arranged in a line, the input and output bar. Between them
is found a sample of a smaller cross-section than that of the bars. An accelerated
mass strikes the input bar. This sudden stress induces an elastic compression wave
Material models for strong deformation
Material models without elastic Materials model with elastic

behaviour behaviour
Elasto-
Rigid- Visco- Elasto-
visco-
plastic plastic plastic
plastic
3
3 1, 2

1 , 2 2
2 1
1 1 2
1 2 1 < 2 < 3 1 < 2 < 3
Fig. 5.2 Classification of the material models for high plastic deformation, acc. to ROLL [Roll93]
Table 5.1 Comparison of deformation, rate of deformation and temperature for various manu-
facuring processes, acc. to JASPERS [Jasp99]
Manufacturing process Deformation Deformation rate/s Thomologous a
Extrusion 25 101 102 0.160.7

Forging/rolling 0.10.5 10103 0.160.7
Sheet forming 0.10.5 10102 0.160.7
Machining 15 103 106 0.160.9
aT
homologous = T/Tmelting
that passes through the input bar and is measured at the first strain gauge. When it
arrives at the contact area between the input bar and the sample, the wave is divided
due to the change in cross-section in the following way: part of the elastic wave is
reflected and the rest goes through the sample and plastically deforms it (because
of the smaller cross-section of the sample). The remaining part of the wave which
proceeds to the output bar is measured by the second strain gauge. With the time-
strain curve determined by the strain gauges, both the compression speed and the
flow curve can be determined [Abou05].
In order to reduce the number of experiments to a minimum and to make flow
curve extrapolation possible, a constitutive material law is required that can be
implemented in a FE program. This law must be capable of describing mechani-
cal material properties under tensile, compressive or torsion load for a broad range
5.6 Material Laws 203
Tempered
Projectile chamber
Input bar Output bar
Strike bar
Bearing
Specimen
Buffer
Compressed
air tank Mass of projectile: m = 0.64 / 2.01 kg
Projectile speed: v = 850 m/s
Compression speed: d/dt = 103104 s1
Fig. 5.3 Split-Hopkinson pressure bar, acc. to ABOURIDOUANE [Abou05]
of deformation, stress velocity and temperature. Several models have been devel-
oped for simulation, which take into consideration the influence of deformation
(strain hardening), deformation speed (strain rate hardening) and temperature (ther-
mal softening). Several of these are built on microstructure-mechanical foundations,
yet most of the models used in cutting simulation are based on empirical methods.
For empirical material laws, usually constitutive equations are applied to describe
flow curves. These equations make associations between the current values of stress,
deformation, formation speed and temperature ( , , d/dt, T as variables). The
constants contained in these equations can be viewed as material parameters and
adjusted to the experimental results with nonlinear regression or the method of least
squares. SHIRAKASHI and USUI have suggested the following empirical relation,
= A n m [ (T T0 )] (5.2)
Which was successfully applied to describe dynamic viscoplastic material

behaviour [Shir70]. Here, A, n, m and are material parameters.
MOLINARI and CLIFTON introduced a similar description,
= K(B + )n m T (5.3)
which describes the strain hardening of the material (acc. to SWIFT) and the
dependence of stress on temperature in another way [Moli83].
The material model frequently implemented in FE programs

T Tr m
= A + Bn (1 + C ln (/0 )) 1 (5.4)
Tm Tr
originates from JOHNSON and COOK [John83]. In it, A, B, n, C, m are material
constants, (d/dt)0 a reference velocity and Tr , Tm room and absolute melting tem-
perature. Material strain hardening is described in this model according to LUDWIK,
velocity dependence logarithmically and the influence of temperature by means of a
power function. However, an analytically closed formulation for the adiabatic flow
curve is not possible with this temperature function.
JOHNSON and COOK also suggested a modified, simple equation with an

exponential temperature dependence,

= A + Bn (1 + C ln (/0 )) e(TTr ) (5.5)
with which the temperature T by and d/dt can be explicitly expressed. Here, is
also a material constant, which takes into consideration the influence of temperature.
Based on physical foundations, ZERILLI and ARMSTRONG developed a semi-
empirical model to describe material behaviour, which contains two equations
[Zeri87]; the first type is meant for materials with fcc lattices:
= G + C2 1/2 exp [C3 T + C4 T ln ()] + k l1/2 (5.6)
and the second for materials with bcc lattice:
= G + C1 exp [C3 T + C4 T ln ()] + C5 n + k l1/2 (5.7)
The ZERILLI-ARMSTRONG equation consists of additive components that con-

tain an athermal component (G : influence of dissolved materials and the initial
dislocations density of inclusions), a thermal and velocity-affected component, the
LUDWIK expression and a HALL -PETCH relation. Besides , , d/dt, and T, the
grain size (l: average grain diameter) of the material to be modelled is also applied
as an additional parameter. In 1995, a generalized, combined formulation was
proposed by ZERILLI and ARMSTRONG [Zeri95]:
= C0 + C1 exp [C2 T + C3 T ln ()] + C4 1/2 exp [C5 T + C6 T ln ()] (5.8)
5.7 Software
A number of FE programs have become commercially available that are tailored
to simulating the cutting process. These programs are adapted to the requirements
of machining technology, thus making it easier for the user to build and carry out
simulations. The simplified operation of such specialized program systems usually
entails a limitation how much the model can be influenced. On the other hand, gen-
eral purpose systems are indeed highly flexible and can be used for a wide variety
of applications, but they demand a large amount of experience for setting up the
model as well as a larger amount of time. Depending on the spectrum of applica-
tions, the use of different FEM programs within one company is therefore quite
common.
The following programs are used frequently in cutting simulations: SFTC/
TM TM
DEFORM , T HIRD W AVE/ADVANT EDGE and general purpose systems like
ABAQUS or MSC/Marc [Denk04a].
TM
The FE program DEFORM was originally developed for simulating forming
TM
processes. A DVANTE DGE is a program designed specially for machining, which
5.9 Phases of a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 205
facilitates setting up and carrying out cutting simulations but is limited with respect
to the influence of the user due to its specialization. Both programs are based on
the implicit Lagrangian formulation and include an automatic remeshing routine
followed by data interpolation from the old to the new mesh in order to avoid
TM
highly distorted mesh topologies. The DEFORM software also includes the Euler
approach for calculating the quasi-stationary process condition.
Commercial FE programs make it possible to import object models from CAD
volume software over standardized interfaces. Generally, the STL standard interface
(Standard Triangulation Language) is used as the exchange format for three-
dimensional data models; often the interface generated for exchanging product data
STEP (STandard for the Exchange of Product model data) is used as well.
5.8 Hardware
With the rapid development of the computer industry, computational performance
is being steadily improved. While a few years ago costly computer equipment was
still required to carry out FEM calculations, nowadays already the majority of per-
sonal computers (PC) used at workstations fulfil the necessary requirements to carry
out simple calculations with regard to memory and computing power. As a result of
the low cost of hardware in the PC sector, the large majority of all commercial FE
packages are also available for free or proprietary operating systems used in such
computers. In order to handle very complicated problems with a large amount of
elements, such hardware can also be operated in clusters. Here, several computers
are networked in such a way that an expansive problem can be calculated on sev-
eral computers simultaneously. To do this, this function must be supported by the
FE software. The computing time for a single problem does not however become
reduced in direct proportion with the number of nodes (here: computers) in a cluster.
The effective increase in speed depends to a larger extent on the hardware and soft-
ware being used. The behaviour of a software in relation to the available computing
power is called its scalability. A software scales well if the computing time required
for a task is approximately halved when the available computing power is doubled.
5.9 Phases of a Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
A typical finite element analysis takes place in three phases from the standpoint of
the user:
data preparation with the preprocessor,
calculation and
evaluation of the results with the postprocessor.
With the help of the preprocessor, the user makes all the information necessary
for modelling the problem available to the software. To do this, the problem must
be abstract enough that the software can depict it. The simplifications made and the
quality of the data that the user inputs into the system is of decisive influence on the
quality of the simulation results. As a rule, preprocessing has the following steps:
defining the geometry,

meshing,
inputting the material data and
defining the boundary conditions
Modern programs include import filters for common CAD formats. The geome-
tries of the objects involved in the simulation can thus be taken from 2D or 3D CAD
data sets of the design or tool construction in electronic form.
After defining the geometries of all the objects, they are meshed (discretized). For
generating the mesh, most software manufacturers make tools available that make
it possible to mesh geometries quickly. If the limitations of these tools are reached,
separately offered commercial meshers can be used. If several element types are
available, it is up to the user to make a selection between them. However, specialized
software packages often specify one element type. The element type and the element
density of the mesh have a significant effect on the quality of the simulation result.
In principle, the use of a larger number of elements leads to more precise results. To
save computing time, adaptive meshes with locally varying densities are frequently
used in order to improve the resolution of local gradients in the state variables. Some
programs offer the option of an automatic adaptive remeshing in which the element
density is automatically adjusted to existing gradients.
After discretizing, we input the mechanical and thermo-physical material data.
Following this, the boundary conditions (external loads, contact conditions, friction
between different objects, speeds) are entered.
After calculation, the results are evaluated in the postprocessor. Depending on
the software, a variety of graphic representations and processing options are possi-
ble. Result evaluation also includes critical assessment by the user. It is essential to
compare the results with those from experience, rough calculations or experimental
results. Potential sources of error in FE analyses include:
discretization errors from geometry interpolation when meshing and interpolation

of the state variables,
faulty input data (e.g. material data, process data, friction conditions),
numerical errors (e.g. in numerical integration) and
rounding errors due to the limited precision of the floating point representation in
the computer.
5.10 The Use of FEM in Cutting Technology

For the most part, two-dimensional models are used to simulate the chip formation
process. The FE model treats the free, orthogonal cross section because it is consid-
erable less complex than, for example, external cylindrical turning (diagonal, bound
cross section). The corner radius of the insert does not engage with the workpiece
5.10 The Use of FEM in Cutting Technology 207
and can therefore be ignored in the FE model. As long as the tool lead angle r is
equal to 90 , the tool inclination angle s is equal to 0 and the depth of cut is many
times larger than the undeformed chip thickness, it is permissible to assume a plane
strain state of deformation, and the simulation of the cutting process is possible with
a two-dimensional FE model. This cuts down on the time required for the simulation
considerably.
5.10.1 Continuous Chip Simulation

Most cutting simulations use the Lagrangian method. In the Lagrangian formula-
tion, the FE mesh follows the material, i.e. the nodes of an element move with
the material, so that in the case of material deformation the elements are pre-
stressed/distorted. Especially in cutting processes, particularly large deformations
are seen in front of the cutting edge, the result of which is that the elements become
highly distorted. In addition, considerable deformation and stress gradients appear
in the area of the primary and secondary shear zones. For this reason, a finely struc-
tured mesh is necessary for a sufficiently precise representation in the FE model.
Besides the difficulty of representing large deformations and deformation gradients
in the model, there is also the problem of separating the chip from the workpiece.
Definite crack formation in front of the cutting edge is still contentious and has
not yet been demonstrated particularly in the case of cutting materials with ductile
behaviour. In fact, in the case of ductile material, the material is extremely deformed
in front of the cutting edge without forming an observable crack such as we see
in forming processes. Crack developments have only been observed in the case of
cutting brittle materials [Reul00, Schw36].
Basically, three different simulation methods exist for large deformations, defor-
mations gradients and chip separation:
The separation can be realized
on the basis of a geometric separation criterion, e.g. the criterion of the distance
at which the separation begins as soon as the tool cutting edge has fallen short of
a critical distance to the workpiece nodes lying ahead,
on the basis of a physical separation criterion, e.g. exceeding a defined maximum
effective strain or a previously set maximum stress, or
by dispensing with a separation criterion (Fig. 5.4).
Besides providing a separation criterion in the first two approaches, it is nec-

essary to define a separation line, along which the nodes are separated when the
separation criterion is reached. This method lends itself to the use of a geometric
separation criterion, i.e. as soon as the distance between the nodes and the cut-
ting edge is below a critical distance the length of one element edge as a rule
separation of the mesh occurs. The separation of the chip from the workpiece
can also be realized by means of erasing the elements before the cutting edge of
the tool. Element erasure is undertaken as a function of equivalent plastic strain or
Geometric separation criterion Physical separation criterion
As I As
Separation
Chip Bs criterion
Bs
Cs vc Cs vc
IKR
Ds Tool Ds tool
Es
Es Fs
X X X X
Hs,w Gs,w Fs,w Ew Dw Cw Bw Hs,w Gs,w Fw Ew Dw Cw Bw
dcr
Cutting plane Cutting plane
d
Fig. 5.4 Chip formation along a previously defined split line based on a geometrical separation
criterion (on the left) and a physical separation criterion (on the right), acc. to VAZ [Vaz00]
a) Chip Tool b)
Fig. 5.5 (a) Distorted mesh topology before remeshing (b) New, undistorted mesh topology after
remeshing
previous material damage [Sche06, Oute06]. One disadvantage of the element era-
sure method is that material is removed from the model it must be guaranteed
that this has no effect on the result of the simulation. When an automatic remeshing
routine with subsequent data interpolation from the old to the new mesh is utilized
and a purely ductile material is assumed, it is possible to simulate the cutting pro-
cess without a separation criterion. The remeshing routine is invoked as soon as the
elements are critically distorted (Fig. 5.5).
A criterion which can be used for automatically remeshing the model and
interpolating the data during a calculation should fulfill the following conditions
according to HABRAKEN and CESCOTTO [Habr90]:
The criterion represents the quality of the mesh as faithfully as possible.
The value of the criterion increases with increasing mesh deformity.
If there is a remeshing, the value of the criterion is reduced.
In the actual remeshing, usually the outer edge of the old mesh is used as the start-
ing point for the new mesh. The new mesh must now approximate the given edge as
exactly as possible and balance any tool penetrations [West00]. After the successful
remeshing, the data must finally be transferred from the old to the new discretization.
The goal of a good data interpolation algorithm is to transfer the solutions of an FE
calculation at the integration points (e.g. temperature, stresses etc.) and node points
(e.g. velocities, displacements etc.) of the old discretization as faithfully as pos-
sible to the new discretization. In the execution of the data transfer by means of
extrapolation and interpolation, faults can arise that lead to a reduction of the size
of calculated gradients. To avoid this effect, a fine discretization in the primary and
secondary shear zone is necessary. As a rule, the mesher of a FE program offers the
possibility of graduating the fineness of the mesh, whereby one should take heed
that the transition of sections of varying discretization is defined as continuously as
possible.
The information for the density distribution of elements is given with the
so-called weight factors in the model. Besides the Lagrangian solution method,
the Euler model is used to simulate static cutting processes. In contrast to the
Lagrangian formulation, the material moves through a fixed mesh. The advantage
of this is that separation criteria are unnecessary. By removing the material from the
mesh, large deformations in front of the cutting edge no longer lead to highly dis-
torted meshes, and no time-consuming remeshing is necessary. In order to represent
a chip geometry that is as realistic as possible, an iterative adjustment of the free
chip edges and chip surfaces is made in the calculation process based on an initial
meshing of the chip root. Here, the stationary state is modelled: shear bands, enter-
ing and leaving processes as well as non-stationary chip formation processes, such
as exist in milling, cannot be described by means of the Euler method [Leop01].
The fundamental advantage of the Euler method in comparison to the Lagrangian
method is, besides dispensing with chip separation criteria, the shorter computing
time for calculating a quasi-stationary process state.
5.10.2 Segmented Chip Simulation

Segmented chips are either produced by cracks and pores, adiabatic shear band for-
mation or by a combination of both mechanisms. Segmented chips can be simulated
in two ways:
simulation of the segmented chip by deformation localization based on modified
material characteristic values,
simulation of the segmented chip by crack initiation based on fracture and crack
hypotheses and
a combination of both approaches
Deformation localization can be simulated either by a corresponding modifica-
tion of the flow curve, which causes a softening of the material starting from a
plastic limit strain, or by an artificial reduction of the specific thermal capacity and
thermal conductivity. Generally, shear localization begins when thermal softening
exceeds mechanical strain hardening. This softening leads to a concentration of
plastic deformation, which results in a further increase in temperature and with it
further concentration of plastic deformation. The process accelerates itself, leading
to the formation of an adiabatic shear band [Abou05].
1600
1400
T = 0C
1200
Flow stress / MPa

1000
800C
800
600
600C
400
200 900C
1000C
0
3.50 1.75 0 0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Plastic strain Plastic strain
Fig. 5.6 Simulation of the segmented chip formation with vc = 25 m/ min and f = 0.20 mm with
appropriate flow curves which contain an artificial material hardening for high deformation
Figure 5.6 shows the simulation of a segmented chip while cutting titanium alloy
Ti6-4 with uncoated cemented carbide cutting edges [Mess07]. The flow curves in
Fig 5.6 were measured up to a strain of = 0.25 with help of high speed deformation
experiments at a deformation velocity of 3000 1/s [Klim00]. For larger deforma-
tions, a material softening was assumed such as has been determined in the case of
Ti6-4 for lower deformation speeds [Doeg86]. Between the chip segments, a local-
ization of the deformations can be recognized, which leads to a softening of the
material in accordance with the provided flow curve; the formation of shear bands
can result from this.
If the segmented chip is simulated by crack initiation, such as occurs when
cutting hardened steels, suitable fracture or crack hypotheses must be integrated
into the FE model. In this case a distinction is drawn between macromechanical
and micromechanical fracture hypotheses. Macromechanical fracture hypotheses
describe the part of the form-changing energy introduced that has dissipated up
to a crack, which serves as an indicator for the probability of failure of a mate-
rial. Micromechanical failure hypotheses come from the consideration that a ductile
fracture arises as a result of the formation, growth and consolidation of microp-
ores. Considered microscopically, an inhomogeneous plastic deformation leads to
the formation of microcracks, which form cavities under external loads [Brod01].
Macromechanical hypotheses are classified as ones that depend on the forming path
or ones that are independent of it [Zitz95]. Since the capability to change form
depends on the deformation history, hypotheses that only consider a momentary
state of local process quantities (i.e. forming path- independent) are of only lim-
ited use for predicting the time of damage. On the other hand, hypotheses that take
deformation history into account provide a damage value C, which is dependent on
stress , expansion and material-specific parameters a (Eq. (5.9)). This damage
value is added up over the forming path until a critical strain c is reached. The crit-
ical damage value Ccrit of the crack formation is a characteristic parameter of the
i ii iii iv
Initial contact Shear initiation Crack initiation Sliding
90
Material speed/(m/min)
75
62,5
50
37,5
25
12,5
0
v vi vii viii
End of sliding New segmentation Shear initiation Cracking
Fig. 5.7 Simulation of the segmented chip formation with vc = 70 m/ min, f = 0.25 mm and
= 6 (ADI-900)
material [Kloc07]. As soon as an element in the FE simulation exceeds the critical

damage value, it is erased.
k
Ccrit = f ( , , a)d (5.9)
0
Figure 5.7 provides an example of a simulation of segmented chip formation

based on the integration of a fracture hypothesis when cutting ADI-900. BROZZOs
criterion was used as a fracture hypothesis, which relates the tensile stress to the
largest shear stress [Broz72]. Because experimental investigations have shown that
the formation of segmented chips when machining ADI-900 is based on two differ-
ent mechanisms, CHUZHOYs material model additionally assumes material damage
as a function of the state values deformation and deformation velocity in order to
take into account the accelerated sliding of the chip segments due to high shear
stresses and the heterogeneous graphite sphere structure.
In the case of the segmented chip formation under consideration, after first con-
tact and shear initiation a crack develops on the free surface which runs along the
shear zone. The stagnation area disappears and the chip segment begins to slide
jerkily from the cutting edge. Due to the crack which has developed, the supporting
cross-section between the chip segment and the base material becomes smaller. The
shear angle gets larger so that the chip segment is further pushed out of the chip root
area. Starting from a critical shear angle, the original shear zone collapses and splits
up: one part wanders with the chip segment across the rake face; the other part re-
forms after repeated compression in from of the cutting edge, and the segmentation
process repeats itself [Kloc07].
5.10.3 Simulation of the Cutting Process

5.10.3.1 Simulation of the Turning Process
Computing power is becoming increasingly cheaper and faster with the rapid
development of the computer industry. This makes it possible to simulate cutting
processes that do not allow for the assumption of a plane strain state three-
dimensionally. Figure 5.8 gives an example of chip formation simulation for the
external cylindrical turning of a normally annealed heat-treated steel C45E+N. In
order to reduce computing time, only one section of the workpiece was treated in
the model. The values for friction and heat transfer were taken from the model
for machining C45E+N verified by HOPPE [Hopp03]. The mechanical material
properties of the normally annealed heat-treated steel C45E+N were determined by
EL-MAGD with the help of tensile and compression tests [Elma06]. The tool used
was a Al2 O3 /TiN-coated insert of the form CNMG120408.
When wear models are integrated into the simulation, not only stresses, tempera-
tures and chip forms can be predicted, but also possible tool wear. USUI discovered
in experimental investigations that wear velocity dW/dt can be calculated with the
vc = 300 m/min
vc ap = 1 mm
f = 0.3 mm
X Y
tc = 0 ms tc = 0.34 ms
tc = 1.03 ms tc = 2.46 ms
Fig. 5.8 Simulated first cut in external turning of C45E+N

Tool
PHASE 1
PHASE 4
Thermo-mechanical
Adaptation of the
FE-analysis of the
tool geometry
turning process
dependant on wear
VB
tool tool
chip
VBK+1
VBK B
A
t = tK+1 - tK
tK tK+1
Cutting time tc
PHASE 2 Integration of the

Calculation of the wear model PHASE 3
Calculation of the
thermo-mechanical
nodal wear rate and
load collective in c2
the resulting wear
steady state dW =
dt n v ch c 1 e
condition
Fig. 5.9 Simulation of tool wear
following equation when the normal stress n , sliding velocity vch and surface
temperature of the tool are known [Usui78]:

dW C2
= n vch C1 exp (5.10)
dt
The material constants C1 and C2 are dependent on the material/cutting tool

material combination. To determine them, ALTAN has suggested a numerically com-
bined calibration method in which the specific material constants can be determined
based on experimental results for wear velocity and numerically calculated values
for n , vch and [Alta02]. Figure 5.9 shows the basic sequence of a wear simu-
lation. After the collected thermo-mechanical load for the stationary state has been
calculated in the first and second phases, the current wear rate dW/dt is calculated
in the third phase based on the wear model provided in the user subroutine. This is
followed by the modelling of the worn tool in the fourth phase, whereby the nodes
of the tool contour are shifted as a function of the calculated wear volume W. This
4-phase wear calculation cycle is continued until a user-defined tool life criterion is
reached, and the simulation is stopped.
Figure 5.10 provides an example of wear prediction of uncoated cemented car-
bide inserts. Until the wear criterion of VBT = 200 m is reached, a total of seven
Ti6-4, depth of cut ap = 1 mm, HW-K20

cutting speed vc = 100 m/min and feed f = 0.2 mm
300
Simulation
250 Experiment
Flank wear width VB/m
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Cutting time tc /s
50x-magnification
Vergrerung 50-fach
200x-magnification
Vergrerung 200-fach 200 tc = 250 s
m
Work piece
600 m Tool
200 m
Fig. 5.10 Simulation of the flank face wear and comparison with the experimental results
4-phase cycles are calculated in the wear simulation. As the comparison of the wear
curves of the simulation and the experiment shows, the simulation deviates only in
the last calculation cycle. The SEM image of the cutting edge, which was taken at
cutting time t = 250 s in the experiment, makes it clear that width of flank wear
width VB increases erratically in the experiment as a result of the displacement of
the cutting edge. As this point, the crater broke through the cutting edge and thus
led to an acceleration of flank face wear. Since wear in the area of the rake face
was ignored because of lacking material constants for crater wear in the FE simu-
lation, simulating cutting edge displacement in the direction of the flank face was
impossible.
5.10.3.2 Simulation of the Milling Process

The following example shows how cutting simulation has been applied in the
industrial sector (Fig. 5.11):
Based on a numerical chip form simulation, the tool geometry of an inserted-
tooth cutter was optimized with respect to chip flow in the product development
X Y
Chip shape simulation

for the calculation of the
thermo-mechanical load
spectrum
Ff,c,p
CAD-Model
of the tool holder:
miller 100 mm
equipped with 10 PCD
die heads
Ultimate design
of tool holder and
cutting insert
Fig. 5.11 Chip form simulation for the development of the tool body and the tool holder (Source:
Kennametal)
phase. In the typical product development process for indexable inserts for metal
machining, prototypes are manufactured and tested in several iteration stages in
order to identify the ideal design.
The development process is time-consuming, extremely costly and usually lasts
up to 8 weeks. By integrating FE simulations of chip formation into the development
process, the number of iteration cycles in the design process can be significantly
reduced. Furthermore, the design of the tool holder can be improved with the help
of FE simulation; however, this type of simulation requires very exact input data
regarding force and directions of force, which in the past could only be acquired
with costly cutting experiments. Chip form simulation can be of assistance here. By
simulating the chip flow, which essentially is determined by the lead angle of the
cutting edge to the cutting direction as well as the chip former geometry, which is
fixed in the tool body, predictions can be made not only about chip form but also
about forces and temperatures. These can then be utilized to help design the tool
holder.
By incorporating chip formation simulation into the tool prototype development
process, in the above example of an inserted-tooth cutter, we can find an optimal
combination of adjusted, positive axial and radial lead angles as well as an opti-
mized cutting edge bevel. This in turn leads to a considerably better surface quality
after cutting. The chip is removed from the surface being produced, resulting in a
very smooth surface. The two-tier cutting edge bevel results in lower cutting forces,
which can minimize burr formation.
5.10.3.3 Simulation of the Drilling Process

Drilling is the most common means used in tool production. From the standpoint
of cost and productivity, modelling and optimizing drilling processes is thus an of
Temperature T/C
Simulation
400
Drill
200
Experiment
d
20
Workpiece
6
32
Specific feed force kf,max /(kN/mm )
ratio (dQ / d) %
5 28
24
4
20
1 3 5 7 9
Diameter d / mm
3
2 Material : C45E+N
Cutting speed : vc = 35 m /min
Feed : f = 0.012 * d Experiment
1 Cutting tool material : HW-K20
Simulation
Cutting edge radius : rn = 4 m
Cooling : dry kf,max = 2 * Fz,max / ( d * f )
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Drill diameter d/mm
Fig. 5.12 FE-model of the drilling process compared with the experiment
enormous importance in the manufacturing industry. The drilling process is particu-

larly challenging for 3D-FE simulation, demanding a lot of computing power from
the hardware and efficient simulation tools due to the numerous influencing parame-
ters involved (e.g. the complex geometry of the drill, cutting edge rounding, different
contact friction processes, difficulty definable heat transfer and thermo-mechanical
material properties) [Kloc06].
Due to its complexity, the process can not be represented by 2D simulation as
can the orthogonal cross section in turning. A plane strain deformation state can-
not be assumed in the case of drilling, since there are different cutting speeds along
the drill radius and usually very complex, curved cutting edge geometries, causing
a transverse material flow. For this reason, only a three-dimensional approach is
purposeful. However, this increases the costs of both implementation and computa-
tion exponentially, whereby the computing time with todays computer technology
is increased by the third power of the model size. Nevertheless, the tool and work-
piece must be discretized in detail as volume bodies into finite elements. In order to
reach a satisfactory level of accuracy in the simulation results, the most crucial area
of the major cutting edge should be meshed especially finely [Kloc06]. Figure 5.12
gives an example of an FE model of the drilling process. In order to shorten com-
puting time, the drilling process is considered from the point at which the entire
major cutting edge is first engaged. The cylindrical workpiece model is adjusted to
the material of the first cut process by notching a conic section on the cylinder. To
verify the drilling model, both the chip form and the calculated feed force are com-
pared with experimental results. The high level of agreement between them shows
that even for such complex processes as drilling, numerical simulation of diverse
target figures is possible.
Chapter 6
Cutting Fluids
6.1 The Functions of Cutting Fluids
By fulfilling its main functions, cooling and lubricating the machining site as well
as carrying away the chips, modern cutting fluid systems make a substantial con-
tribution to the high performance level of many manufacturing processes. This is
achieved by removing process heat from the tool/workpiece contact area by cooling
and slowing the progress of heat via lubrication. Not only must excessive heating
of the workpieces, which leads to expansion, be avoided, but also temperature load
on the cutting tool material be reduced. The fulfilment of these functions may at
first sound simple, but often requires cutting fluid properties which are not readily
combined with each other.
6.2 Types of Cutting Fluids

According to DIN 51385, cutting fluids are classified as non water-miscible, water-
miscible or water-based. Water-based cutting fluids are fabricated simply by adding
the water-miscible concentrate to water (Fig. 6.1).
Cutting fluid
Non water-miscible Water-miscible Water based

cutting fluid cutting fluid cutting fluid
Emulsifiable Water-soluble Coolant- Coolant-

cutting fluid cutting fluid emulsion solution
Fig. 6.1 Division of the most important metalworking cutting fluids, acc. to DIN 51385

220 6 Cutting Fluids
6.2.1 Non Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids

Non water-miscible cutting fluids are mostly mineral oils that contain additional
active agents to improve lubrication, wear protection, corrosion protection, durabil-
ity and foaming properties. Additives that improve lubrication (antiwear additives
or AW-additives) help to reduce friction at the cutting location. To this end, natu-
ral fat oils (palm oil, rapeseed oil) or synthetic fatty substances (ester) are added.
The polar structure of these additives gives the additives good adhesive properties
on the metal surface, on which they form a half-solid lubricating film called metal
soap. However, the effectiveness of this lubricating film is reduced in temperatures
higher than its melting point (120180 C). EP-additives (EP = extreme pressure)
are also added to the mineral oils. Compounds containing phosphorous and sulphur
as well as free sulphur are used. The chlorine compounds also shown in Fig. 6.2 are
now of secondary importance in Germany. Burning used cutting fluids containing
chlorine is now only allowed in special incineration sites, since toxic dioxins can
possibly be generated in case of uncontrolled burning. This makes disposal much
more expensive, so additives containing chlorine are largely avoided. On the metal
surface, the additives form metal salts at different temperatures. These salts can
absorb high pressures and exhibit only a low level of shear strength. In this way, not
only are forces lowered but also heat arising at the cutting location is reduced. The
temperature spheres of action of the individual additives can be seen in Fig. 6.2.
In addition to mineral oils, low-viscosity ester oils are also used as cutting fluids
in machining. Presently, mostly mineral oils (about 90%) are utilized. The reason for
this is the lower cost required to procure it in comparison to synthetic ester oils. This
Temperature
Kind of additive sphere of action
Fatty oils
until ca. 120 C
Lubrication (animal, vegetable)
improving
additives Synthetic Fats (ester)
until ca. 180 C
Chloric compounds
EP-additives until ca. 400 C
Phosphoric
compounds until ca. 600 C
Sulfidic compounds
until ca. 800 C
Free sulfur until ca. 1000 C
Fig. 6.2 Temperature range of coolant additives (Source: Mobil Oil)

6.2 Types of Cutting Fluids 221
advantage of mineral oils compared with synthetic ester oils is however becoming
increasingly smaller due to the steady increase in raw oil prices in the last several
years. Compared with mineral oils, ester oils are characterized by a lower evapora-
tion tendency, a higher flash point, more favourable lubrication properties, they are
skin-friendlier and they are biologically more degradable [Frei00]. Although ester
oils have much better lubrication properties in comparison to mineral oils because
of their polar chemical structure, as a rule tribologically active, surface-active addi-
tives in the form of phosphorous or sulphur compounds are also added to them to
improve these properties further. These additives reduce friction and wear, but they
reduce the biological degradability of the oils considerably.
With this in mind, the goal of current research [Murr07] is to develop a quickly
biodegradable family of fluids based on renewable raw materials that fulfils all of
the cooling and lubricating functions required in a machine tool. That means, non-
additive ester oils should not only be used as a cutting fluid in machining, but as
lubricating and pressure transmission media in all other tribosystems of a machine
tool. The loss of tribological functions of the lubricating medium caused by dis-
pensing with additives should be compensated by appropriate PVD wear protection
coatings, i.e. the functions of the cutting fluid should be relocated to the tool surface
[Krie01, Kloc06a].
6.2.2 Water-Based Cutting Fluids
Emulsifiable cutting fluids are supplied as a concentrate and thinned with water to
become emulsions prior to use. The high amount of water used (up to 99%) is the
cause of the good cooling effect of emulsions, but they further corrosion for that
reason as well. The fluids lightly alkaline character (pH-value of 89) helps pro-
tect against rust. Higher alloyed emulsions contain the additives shown in Fig. 6.2
to improve lubrication and compressive strength. Infestation by micro-organisms
such as bacteria, yeasts and fungi are a major problem in emulsions. The result is a
decreased pH-value and thus also a reduction of the fluids ability to protect against
corrosion. There is also an odour nuisance and hygienic conditions for the operating
staff are worsened. In addition, the emulsion becomes unstable, i.e. oil is deposited
on the surface, and deposits are formed that clog the filter and thus lead to malfunc-
tions. Biocides, which are added to the emulsion at a percentage of about 0.15%,
provide a remedy to this. If this value is significantly exceeded, it can lead to der-
matological problems in the personnel, while a percentage that is too low has no
effect.
The most important coolant additives are emulsifiers. They have the function of
dispersing the oil in the water so that a stable oil-in-water emulsion is produced after
mixing with water. A distinction is made between ionogenic and non-ionogenic
emulsifiers. They form a relatively stable film on the boundary surface between
the oil droplets and the water, which prevents the oil droplets from coalescing.
Examples of emulsifiers include, for example, alkali soaps of fatty acids or naph-
thenic acids (ionogenic) and reaction products of alkylphenols and athylene oxide.
The amount of emulsifier determines the size of the oil droplets. In the case of the
coarsely dispersed emulsions used in metalworking, this amount is between 1 and
10 m [Mang01].
Cutting fluid solutions are produced by mixing a water-soluble concentrate with
water. They are not generally used for cutting with geometrically defined cutting
edges. Their main area of application is in grinding.
6.3 Guidelines on the Use of Coolant Emulsions

When coolant emulsions are used, there are some guidelines that should be consid-
ered in order not to impair their stability and performance. As the main component
of the emulsion, the quality of the water is of decisive importance. The hardness of
the water, its most important property, is the result of the content of water-soluble
calcium and magnesium salts. It is given in dH (degree of German hardness) or
mmol/l (1 dH = 0.179 mmol/l). The waters hardness should be between 5 and
20 dH. If the water is too hard, the emulsifiers react with the calcium and magne-
sium salts, which leads to the formation of water-insoluble soaps (creaming on the
emulsion surface) and reduces the emulsifier content. The useful life of the emul-
sion is shortened drastically by this. Soft water on the other hand promotes unwanted
foaming.
There are further water requirements concerning nitrate and chloride content. In
general, drinking water quality is sufficient in order to keep the initial load on the
emulsion by bacteria, yeasts and fungi at a low level. The nitrate content should not
exceed 50 mg/l.
When applying coolant emulsions, the water must first be added to the container,
then the concentrate. The mixing process should always be carried out with vigorous
stirring so that a good oil-in-water emulsion without flocculation is formed.
One test point of the finished emulsion is concentration. This can either be done
with a hand-held refractometer or an emulsion test flask. With the hand-held refrac-
tometer, the concentration can be quickly determined on the spot. It utilizes and
displays the relation between the refraction index and concentration. A more exact
method consists in separating oil and water in a test flask by adding hydrochloric
acid. The disadvantage of this method is that it is more time-consuming.
The pH-value of emulsions should in their freshly prepared state be between 8
and 9. This is tested in practice usually with indicator paper, the coloration of which
when dipped into the fluid serves a measure of pH. Potentiometrical determination
of pH is only recommendable when higher precision is required.
During operation, impurities such as chips or dust constantly get into the cutting
fluids. They need to be removed from the emulsion, as they have a negative effect
on tool life and the manufacturing product in addition to clogging the pumps. In
order to get rid of impurities, one can choose between gravitational purification in
sedimentation tanks, centrifugal force purifiers (e.g. centrifuges, separators), magnet
filters or various designs of belt filters.
6.4 Effects of the Cutting Fluid on the Machining Process 223
When changing the coolant, one should always carefully clean the container,
since nests of bacteria immediately infect the new filling, significantly reducing
the service life of the emulsion. System purifiers or hot water jet devices have
proved effective in this task. Disposal of the coolant is a major cost factor. The
separation of the oil from the water necessary to do this can be accomplished
chemically (salt or acid separation), by ultrafiltration (membrane technology) or
by vaporization/incineration.
6.4 Effects of the Cutting Fluid on the Machining Process

As explained in more detail in Chap. 3, the tool is exposed to very high mechan-
ical and thermal loads during the cutting process, whereby the mechanical energy
created to form the chips is almost completely converted into heat in the shear and
friction zones. The result of these loads are wear phenomena such as mechanical
wear and the shearing off of adhered materials, both of which occur within the
entire effective cutting speed range, as well as diffusion processes and scaling
effects which manifest themselves only above certain temperatures (Sect. 3.7).
By virtue of their lubricating effects, cooling fluids primarily influences adhesive
wear, which occurs due to the periodical migration of built-up edges within certain
speed ranges [Opit70a, Kni66, Prim69]. Especially wear phenomena associated
with adhered material particles in the lower speed range (when using HSS) can be
effectively countered with lubrication.
To counteract surface pressure, there should be solid layers with high compres-
sive strength and low shear strength on the metal surface, which prevent a direct
sliding of materials into each other. This can stop or at least reduce welding. If nec-
essary, this can be accomplished with high pressure additives in the cutting fluid.
However, one must bear in mind that sulphur or phosphorous additives only become
effective at certain temperatures, and for this reason the composition of the lubri-
cant must be calibrated to the respective operation. The most important prerequisite
is that the lubricant has access to the contact zone. In the range of increased built-up
edge formation, this condition is met by the fluctuation of the built-up edges.
As the cutting speed increases in the range of reduced built-up edge forma-
tion the conditions for the formation of high pressure lubricating films becomes
progressively more unfavourable because the increased chip flow shortens the time
for potential reactions between the additives and the metallic surface. At the same
time, the increase in temperature leads to diffusion phenomena between the friction
partners or, in the extreme case, to plastic deformation of the cutting edge, making
it necessary to cool down the cutting area. Accordingly, at these speeds begins the
range in which tool life is improved not so much by the lubricating effect of a fluid
but by its ability to remove heat, i.e. by cooling.
On the other hand, it is thoroughly possible that wear on the tool is considerably
increased by the cooling and the tool life is accordingly reduced. This is clarified
in Fig. 6.3. There is much more crater wear in wet cut than in dry cut operations.
By cooling, the temperature of the flowing chip is lower and thus its strength is
Fig. 6.3 Wear-cutting time 300

Process: Cylindrical
diagram for dry cut and with
200 turning
application of cutting fluid
Cutting tool material: Coated carbide
100 Cutting speed.: vc = 240 m/min
80 Feed: f = 0.2 mm
60 Depth of cut: ap = 2 mm
Crater depth KT / m
40
20
Coolant-
emulsion
10
8
6
Dry cut
2
1
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40
Cutting time tc / min
higher, which manifests itself in increased forces. Since the cutting fluid mainly
cools the top of the chip, and the bottom of the chip remains largely unwetted due
to its intense contact with the rake face, a larger temperature gradient is formed in
the chip as in the uncooled process. This results in a larger chip curvature, so that
the contact surface between the chip and the tool is reduced in size. On the whole
therefore, there is an increase in the specific stress on the rake face and consequently
more crater wear.
One must also consider machining operations with low cutting speeds, which
generally are designed so that the built-up edge range is avoided. But when cooling
lubricants are used, the temperatures prevailing during the formation of built-up
edges shift to higher cutting speeds, so that a process optimized for uncooled cutting
may be incorrectly designed [Opit64].
On the other hand, we can expect clear improvements in service life when the
cutting temperature is near the softening point of the cutting tool material with-
out the use of a cutting fluid. Figure 6.4 shows how effective the cooling effect of
an emulsion is in this case using the example of drilling copper alloys with HSS
drills. The use of emulsions permits higher cutting speeds and larger feeds and a
significantly augmented tool life [Bmc85].
A further aspect to be taken into consideration is the transport of chips from
the cutting area. For example, it can be advantageous when groove milling with
6.4 Effects of the Cutting Fluid on the Machining Process 225
100
80
Dry cut
60 Emulsion
50
40
Tool lifeT(VB = 0.3 mm) / min
30
20
G-CuSn12Ni
10
8
G-CuAl10Ni
6
5
3
20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300
Tool: Twist drill (d = 11 mm)

Cutting tool material: HS6-5-2-5
Material: G-CuAl10Ni G-CuSn12Ni
dry wet dry wet
Feed: f = 0.1 mm f = 0.2 mm f = 0.2 mm f = 0.4 mm
Drilling depth: l = 30 mm l = 30 mm l = 45 mm l = 45 mm
Fig. 6.4 Influence of cooling on tool life during the drilling of copper
cemented carbide-fitted shaft millers to remove chips from the cutting edge with
compressed air or cutting fluid so that no chips are pulled into the cut, increas-
ing wear. The disadvantage that cooling increases temperature change stress on the
indexable inserts is more than compensated by this (Fig. 6.5) [Kll86].
When drilling, the cutting fluid also fulfils the main function of leading chips out
of the drill hole and thereby helping to avoid any clogging of the flutes.
Some machines are designed in such as way that specially arranged nozzles
clean the working space with cutting fluid so that chips do not hinder subsequent
operations or impede the clamping of new workpieces.
Maximum width of flank wear land VBmax / m

Fig. 6.5 Time course of wear 600
during groove milling of Dry
400
titanium in dry cut and wet
Compressed air
cut with external compressed
air Cutting fluid
200
100
80
60
40
20
10
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60
Milling time t f / min
Cutting speed: vc = 50 m/min Width of cut: ae = 32 mm

Feed per tooth: fz = 0.17 mm Depth of cut: ap = 30 mm
Tool diameter: d = 32 mm
6.5 Selection of Cutting Fluids

As a summary, those aspects of cutting fluid selection will be mentioned that are of
significance from a technological and economical point of view.
Emulsions are characterized by a number of properties that predestine them as
cutting fluids for use in machining, above all their favourable cooling and cleansing
effect as well as the low purification cost for workpieces, tools and chips (Fig. 6.6).
Their high cost of maintenance and the working area and environmental prob-
lems associated with their use have led to emulsions being replaced with non-water
soluble cutting fluids [Kloc96a].
Oils are already being used as cutting fluids in many areas, for example in pro-
cesses for manufacturing tooth systems, broaching and high-speed grinding with
PCBN. The advantage of non-water soluble cutting fluids is on the one hand their
technical properties particularly their good lubricating effect but especially their
much lower maintenance and disposal costs compared with emulsions. Their ser-
vice life is practically unlimited. Only the discharge need be replaced. From the
standpoint of occupational health, the superior skin-compatibility of oils is another
essential advantage.
The use of non-water soluble cutting fluids is however also associated with a
series of disadvantages, such as higher maintenance and refilling costs. The higher
viscosity of oil requires an adjustment of the machine with respect to the cutting
fluid and filters. The strong tendency to form vapour and mist requires a complete
enclosure of the machining area with corresponding suction. The good adhesion
6.6 Reducing or Avoiding the Use of Cutting Fluids 227
Oil Emulsion
Consumption 10% 90%
Cooling effect low very good
Lubricating effect very good low
Skin compatibility good problematical
Bacteria tolerance good less good
Water endangering class WGK 12 WGK 34
Preparation costs high low
Maintanance costs low high
Service life unlimited 2 24 Months
Disposal costs low high
Resultant wastewater very low very high
Machine compatibility good problematical
Corrosion protection good low
Fire protection requirements high not necessary
Effort for workpiece and chip cleaning high low
Reuse of cutting fluid possible not possible
Fig. 6.6 Advantages and disadvantages of using oil or emulsion as cutting fluid
of the oil to the workpieces leads to large drag-out losses, demands long periods
of draining in basins as well as extensive turning, spinning and cleansing of the
workpieces. The chips must also be spun and, if necessary, washed. Moreover, oil
vapour and mist can form a combustible mixture with air, leading to deflagration.
In conclusion, a general statement regarding the economical use of this or that
cutting fluid must be made on a case-by-case basis.
6.6 Reducing or Avoiding the Use of Cutting Fluids

Besides the technological benefits provided by cutting fluids, they also represent
a considerable hazard to the environment and humanity. Cutting fluid components
such as bactericides and fungicides, reaction products originating in the cutting fluid
and included foreign substances can all become the root cause of illnesses. Leakage
and drag-out losses, emissions, wash water and the disposal of used cutting fluids
are a burden on earth, water and air.
The handling of cutting fluids and their disposal is therefore being regulated
by lawmakers and professional associations with strict requirements. Guidelines
regarding cutting fluid requirements and associated devices, regarding maintenance
and disposal of the fluids and regarding the laws, regulations and the requirements
and rules of professional associations are given, among other places, in BG rule
143, VDI guideline 3397 and the VDMA brochure Cutting Fluids Fresh Air at
the Workplace [VDMA 2002]. For companies, these regulations and requirements
mean not only great responsibility towards their workers but in particular growing
financial burdens. For manufacture, the task of satisfying requirements concerning
environmental protection without putting the profitability of the production in dan-
ger is becoming increasingly crucial. An approach for this purpose represents the
reduction or the avoidance of the cutting fluids use.
6.6.1 Reducing Cutting Fluids

A reduction of the use of cutting fluids aims to make avail of only the technologi-
cally necessary amount of cutting fluid. Secondary tasks of the cutting fluid, such as
chip transport within the machine or bringing those chips to the right temperature
must be executed by other measures which concern not only the tool but also the
machine tool (Fig. 6.7) [Kni93a].
There are different possibilities for the machine tool. In order to transport chips,
inclined machine bed concepts, conveying systems, special chip guiding systems
Dicontinuous CF-supply
CF-use change
Optimize New tool

filtration materials
Alternative machine Tool

tool cooling coatings
Control feed alternative

pump (NC) tool cooling
Change chip alternative

transport workpiece cooling
Fig. 6.7 Tool and machine related means of reducing the demand of cutting fluid
or other alternative media (e.g. compressed air) can be used. The machine tools
temperature consistency, important for form and dimensional tolerance, can be
achieved, for example, by means of closed cooling cycles.
With respect to tools, there are a number of different approaches for reducing
the amount of cutting fluid used. One example is the internally cooled tool. Besides
drills with cooling ducts, which have been state-of-the-art for a long time, indexable
inserts with internal cutting fluid supply are also being used. The cutting fluid is
supplied directly to the cutting area by a duct in the supporting tool and the insert.
This more effective cutting edge cooling requires not only a significantly lower vol-
ume of cutting fluid, but also has, in grooving and parting-off operations, a positive
effect on tool wear, tool life, chip removal and the surface quality of the workpiece
[Kni93a].
6.6.2 Minimum Quantity Cooling Lubrication (MQCL)

A further measure to reduce the amount of the cutting fluid represents the so-called
Minimum Quantity Cooling Lubrication (MQCL) [Kloc96a, Kni93a, Wein04]. In
this cutting fluid technology, the tools are supplied with the smallest amounts of
a coolant and/or lubricant. Usually, oils are used, but also emulsions, water or air.
They are supplied to the tool and/or cutting area in the smallest possible quantities.
This is achieved either with or without a transport medium. In the case of airless
systems, the tool is supplied by means of a pump with a medium in the form of
individual, rapid, successive finely dosed droplets, usually of oil. In the second case,
the medium is atomized into ultrafine droplets with the help of compressed air in a
nozzle and supplied as an aerosol to the machining location.
In the sphere of dry machining, minimum quantity lubrication is generally under-
stood as the supply of a cooling lubricant medium in the form of an aerosol.
Depending on the type and primary task of the added medium, we can draw a dis-
tinction between a minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) and a minimum quantity
cooling (MQC) (Fig. 6.8).
When oils are used, it is their good lubricating effect that stands in the fore-
ground. Their task is to reduce friction and adhesion processes between the
workpiece, chip and tool. By reducing friction, there is less frictional heat. The
result is less heating of the tool and component in comparison to pure dry machining
(Fig. 6.9) [Eise00]. Due to the low thermal capacity of oil (cp,oil = 1.92 KJ/kgK)
and air (cp,air = 1.04 KJ/kgK) and the small quantity applied, the direct cooling
effect of the oil/air mixture is of only secondary importance. Because of the very
small cooling effect of the oil/air mixture, the use of oil as a medium is referred to
as a minimum quantity lubrication (MQL).
In comparison to oils, emulsions or water are used as media for minimum quan-
tity cooling lubrication much less often. They are generally only used when the tool
or component must be cooled more intensively than is possible with oils. Due to the
much lower lubricating effect of emulsions and waters complete lack thereof, the
use of these media are also referred to as minimum quantity cooling (MQC).
Minimum quantity cooling lubrication

(MQCL)
Minimum quantity cooling Minimum quantity lubrication

(MQC) (MQL)
Emulsion
Water (cp, Water) = 4.18 kJ/kgK Oil (cp, Oil) = 1.92 kJ/kgK
Air (cp, Air) = 1.04 kJ/kgK
Medium Cooling Lubrication Chip transport
Emulsion very good good good
Oil very good very good good
Compressed air limited nothing limited
Fig. 6.8 Definition of minimum quantity cooling lubrication
Material: C45E Drill with thermocouples
400 Dry
Tool temperature Tmax / C
200 MQL
300
250
Thermocouples near the main
200
CF cutting edge
150 Process: Drilling
Drill: Solid carbide
TiN coated
0 40 60 80 100
d = 11.8 mm
Cutting speed vc / (m/min) Feed: f = 0.2 mm
Fig. 6.9 Influence of minimum quantity lubrication on the tool temperature
Minimum quantity cooling (MQC) with emulsions, water (with a corrosion

inhibitor), cold air or fluid gases is still a relatively seldom used component of min-
imum quantity cooling lubrication technology (MQCL) and is thus little known to
users. MQC technology can however most certainly make a contribution to solving
thermal problems in the tool or component in dry machining operations.
Due to their great importance in dry machining, the following remarks are con-
cerned exclusively with minimum quantity lubrication technology (MQL). The
External MQL supply Internal MQL supply
1-channel 2-channels 1-channel

1-channel rotary feedthrough
2-channels
Injector
2- channel rotary feedthrough orifice
Supply-systems
Compressed air Oil supply Compressed air supply Compressed air supply
supply
Unpressurized tank
Mixing chamber
Oil Oil
Pump
Pressure tank
Fig. 6.10 MQL supply systems
MQL medium can be supplied to the cutting area from the outside by means of
nozzles affixed separately in the machine space or by means of the tool spindle and
internal cooling ducts inside the tool (Fig. 6.10). Both systems have their fields of
application. In optimally adjusted MQL systems, less than 50 ml/h of the lubricating
medium is used. Measured by the fact that up to 6 m3 cutting fluid can be discharged
daily in the case of a transfer line with a cutting fluid volume of 60 m3 , this means
an enormous reduction of the quantities used in MQL technology. The essential
feature of MQL is that, when correctly used, the tools, workpieces and chips all
remain dry.
In the case of external supply, the aerosol is sprayed onto the tool from the out-
side with one or several nozzles. The number and orientation of the nozzles as well
as the spray pattern, which is dependent on the nozzle design, all have a significant
effect on the result. This method is used, for example, in sawing, shaft and knife
head face milling and also in turning. In the case of internal machining operations,
such as drilling, reaming or tapping, external supply of the medium is only practi-
cal up to length/diameter ratios of l/D < 3. For larger l/D ratios, the tool has to be
retracted for a rewetting several times if necessary, which can lead to a considerable
elongation of the machining process. The use of external supply is also problem-
atic in machining tasks in which tools are used that vary significantly with respect
to length and diameter. The supply nozzles need to be manually aligned or with
the help of positioning systems, which, linked with the machine control, move the
nozzles in an axial or radial direction or pivot them by a certain range of angles
depending on the tool length and diameter. External MQL supply can however also
be indispensable if the tools used do not have internal cooling ducts.
In the case of drilling, reaming and tapping with larger l/D ratios, internal supply
of the medium by means of a spindle and the tool is advantageous, since the medium
is continuously available near the cutting area independently of the drilling depth,
and chip removal from the drill hole is supported. This is also similar for tools with
highly varied dimensions. In the case of deep-hole drilling, internal MQL supply
is indispensable because of the large l/D ratios. Further advantages of the internal
supply of a MQL medium is that positioning fields such as are seen when nozzles
are used, are avoided, and the integration of the MQL into the machine tool does not
require the working space to be restricted by feed lines.
With internal MQL supply, we make a further distinction between 1-channel and
2-channel systems (Fig. 6.10). In the case of the 1-channel variant, the aerosol is
produced outside the spindle and supplied by the latter to the tool. In 2-channel
systems, oil and air are conveyed separately by the spindle. The air-oil mixture is
produced directly in front of the tool. The essential requirement of both system
variants is that the medium be available at the cutting location at the moment the cut
begins in sufficient quantity.
Internal MQL supply requires tools with cooling ducts. Currently, drilling tools
of < 1 mm diameter with internal cooling ducts are already available. In the case of
tools without internal cooling ducts be it drills, tappers or end milling cutters
external MQL supply is absolutely essential. But even in this case, tool manu-
facturers are offering special solutions that make it possible to conduct the MQL
medium flowing through the spindle within the tool holder outside and then on the
tool circumference lengthwise to the machining location.
The media used in MQL are primarily fatty alcohols and ester oils (chemically
modified vegetable oils). Medium selection depends on the type of supply, the mate-
rial, the machining method and the aftertreatment of the component (annealing,
coating, varnishing).
In many material/method combinations, the use of a minimum quantity lubri-
cation is vital to the realization of a dry machining operation (Fig. 6.11). From
the standpoint of the material, this is especially true for dry machining aluminium
wrought alloys, and from the methodological standpoint, largely independently of
the material, for drill hole manufacture and drill hole aftertreatment. The classic
application area for MQL technology is sawing. Due to the high hot wear resistance
of the coated cemented carbide tools available today, the turning and milling of steel
and cast iron materials are done to a large extent completely dry.
Figure 6.12 shows the effect of MQL on the tools condition and tool life quantity
when drilling into an aluminium wrought alloy. In the case of dry machining without
MQL, the tool was already unusable after 16 holes due to material adhesion in the
flute. When MQL was used, neither wear nor adhered material could be detected
after 128 drill holes.
Material Aluminium Steel Casting
heat-treatable steel
High alloyed steel,
GG20 GGG70
Maching steel,
Wrought alloy
bearing steel
Process
Cast alloy
MQL / MQL /
Drilling MQL MQL MQL
dry dry
Reaming MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL
Thread
MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL
cutting
Thread
MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL
moulding
Deep hole
MQL MQL MQL MQL
drilling
Milling MQL /
MQL dry dry dry
dry
MQL / MQL /
Turning dry dry dry
dry dry
Hobbing dry dry dry
Sawing MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL

MQL /
Broaching MQL dry
dry
Fig. 6.11 Application of MQL
6.6.3 Avoiding Cutting Fluids

The most decisive step in the avoidance of problems associated with the use of
cutting fluids is dry machining. Many machining tasks, that still use large quantities
of cutting fluids today do not technologically require them. For every current or
future machining task therefore, the basic question should be posed of whether one
can dispense with cutting fluids or not.
This cannot however simply be realized by stopping the cutting fluid supply, even
if this brings about a positive effect in isolated cases. A sensible and economically
viable dry machining operation demands a very thorough analysis of given restraints
as well as an understanding of the complex relations that interconnect the process,
cutting tool material, component and machine tool (Fig. 6.13) [Kloc98, Tham98,
Adam02, Wein04].
300
128
250
Number of boreholes
200
150
100
50
16
0
Dry MQL Dry MQL
Material: AlSi9Cu3 Bling hole: l = 30 mm

Tool: Solid carbide drill, d = 8.5 mm Cutting Speed: vc = 300 m/min
Coating: (Ti,Al)N + MoS2 Feed: f = 0.5 mm
Fig. 6.12 Drilling of aluminium with and without minimum quantity cooling lubrication
Process Cutting tool material
Qsp
Qws
- Heat QW - Hot hardness

- Friction - Hot wear resistance
- Adhesion - Resistance against
- Chips Adhesion
Dry-
- Warming processing - thermal

- Material behaviour
- Surface, Rimzone - Chip transport
- Dimensional accuracy - Machine accuracy
- Machine concept
Surface
Fit Tolerance
Workpiece Machine tool
Fig. 6.13 Dry processing requirements and constraints

In dry machining, the primary cutting fluid functions of lubrication, cooling and
cleaning and rinsing, are omitted. This means for the cutting process on the one
hand that stronger frictional and adhesive processes can take place between the tool
and the material. It also means that part of the heat produced in energy conver-
sion locations and dissipated by the chip, tool and workpiece is no longer absorbed
by the cutting fluid and hot chips are no longer rinsed out of the cutting area or
the machine tool. The consequence of this is higher thermal loading of the tool,
component and machine tool, which in turn has a negative effect on tool life and
component/machine precision. When planning and designing single processes or
manufacturing sequences without cutting fluid, the goal must therefore be not only
to lay the technological foundations, but to create the prerequisites necessary for dry
machining from the standpoint of the component and the machine tool.
At present, cutting materials provide the best basis for dry machining. Cemented
carbides, cermets, cutting tool ceramics and polycrystalline boron nitride have
sufficient hot wear resistance to be used without cutting fluids. Tool coating is par-
ticularly important in this regard. This reduces the thermal load on the substrate and
reduces frictional and adhesive phenomena between the material and the cutting
tool material. Dry machining also leads however to an alteration of the heat flows
between the tool and the chip. Since there is no cutting fluid to absorb the heat, more
heat must be dissipated by the chip with a comparable heat conversion. This requires
in turn that the hot chips are removed as quickly as possible from the working space
by a suitable machine tool concept [Kloc98].
While we can do without the use of cutting fluids in many cases in turning and
milling cast iron materials, steels, aluminium alloys and non-ferrous metals, condi-
tions are generally more difficult in the case of processes like drilling, reaming and
tapping (Fig. 6.11). Problems in dry machining include higher thermal loading of
the tool, component and chip as well as the poor chip removal. Chips caught in or
welded to the flute reduce the quality of the drill hole and can lead to tool damage.
In tapping, compression, friction and adhesion phenomena lead to higher amounts
of mechanical tool load. There are a number of drills, taps, fine boring and reaming
tools available with special substrates, coating systems and tool geometries adjusted
to the particular requirements of dry machining. Dry machining tools exhibit much
better wear and performance properties than conventional wet machining tools.
Despite promising attempts to expand the field of application of dry machining
and to make it more economical by finding appropriate tool geometries, coatings
and cutting parameters, it is incontestable that a complete relinquishment of cutting
fluids will not be possible for all machining tasks. Restrictions may derive from the
method, material or required component precision.
Process substitution is a possible alternative. One example of this is the manu-
facture of internal threads by thread milling and combination drill taps. Interrupted
cuts and the use of coated milling tools made of cemented carbide are favourable
prerequisites for manufacturing threads by dry cutting, improving surface quality
and even reducing manufacturing times [Kloc98].
Effects on the rim zone and form/dimension faults in the component represent
further potential restrictions on dry machining processes. Since the components
quality is affected by the amount of heat that flows into the component, the process
must be planned such that as little as possible heat enters the workpiece. Because
they shorten the contact time between the tool and the workpiece, higher cutting
speeds and larger feeds contribute just as much here as larger positive tool orthog-
onal rake angles, which reduce cutting work. This same is true for the reduction of
friction, adhesion and wear by the use of coated tools. The distribution and number
of cuts is very important. The operation should take place in one cut if possible. This
demands components with volumes to be machined that are as small as possible as
well as equal machining allowances. Near-net-shape parts, the final contours of
which are frequently created with one cut, provide optimal conditions for this.
Manufacturing processes will in future no longer only be assessed from the stand-
point of the improvement of performance but also with respect to ecological safety.
In light of the problems associated with the use of cutting fluids, dry machining
is surely the most effective approach in cutting technology to combining ecologi-
cal objectives with economical advantages. Dry machining is feasible in numerous
manufacturing methods. Many companies have recognized this and converted at
least some components of their production to dry machining or minimum quan-
tity lubrication. But it is also indisputable that cutting fluids will remain necessary
for some machining tasks. For these processes therefore, we must look for alterna-
tive, environmentally friendly media that not only fulfil the functions of traditional
cutting fluids but are also not potentially ecotoxic [Krie01, Kloc05].
Chapter 7
Tool Life Behaviour
The term tool life behaviour was introduced to describe material and cutting tool
material behaviour during the machining process. The following definition applies:
Tool life behaviour is the ability of a working pair (tool and workpiece) to
withstand a certain cutting process [DIN6583].
This is influenced by the cutting edge durability of the tool, by the machinability
of the workpiece and by tool life conditions (Fig. 7.1).
Machinability is the property of a workpiece or material which allows chip
removal under specified conditions. Cutting edge durability is the 4x ability of a
tool to retain its cutting ability during machining. Cutting ability is the ability of a
tool to machine a workpiece or a material under specified conditions [DIN6583].
Tool life behaviour is evaluated by means of the tool life conditions, criteria and
parameters.
Machinability and cutting edge durability are both functions of the state variables
force and temperature. These state variables are influenced in turn by the tool life
conditions. The tool life conditions are all the conditions present during the cutting
process or operational test. They comprise multiple components [DIN6583]:
of the tool, e.g. its form, cutting edge geometry and cutting tool material
of the workpiece, e.g. its shape and material
of the machine tool, e.g. its static and dynamic stiffness
of the cutting process, e.g. its kinematics and cutting edge engagement
of the environment, e.g. the type of cutting fluid and thermal marginal conditions
In order to judge the tool life behaviour of the system encompassing the work-
piece, tool, clamping, machine tool and coolant, tool life criteria are used which
represent limiting values for undesired changes to the tool, workpiece or cutting
process caused by machining. Examples of tool life criteria are:
all measurable tool wear values, e.g. width of flank wear land,
all measurable workpiece data, e.g. changes to roughness,
all measurable values of the cutting process, e.g. changes to cutting power, chip
temperature and form.
To describe the tool life of the system encompassing the workpiece, tool, clamp-
ing, machine tool and coolant, i.e. from the beginning of use until the achievement of

238 7 Tool Life Behaviour
Tool life conditions
Tool Work piece Machine Cutting Environment

process
- Form - Material - Dynamic a. - Kinematics - Cutting fluid

- Cutting edge - Geometry static - Cutting - Thermal
geometry stiffness conditions boundaries
- Cutting tool
material
Cutting edge
durability Tool life Machinability
behaviour (Material)
(Tool)
Tool life criterions Tool life parameter

Tool wear Tool life
Resultant force, cutting power Tool life travel path
Surface roughness Tool life quantity
Chip form and temperature Tool life volume
Fig. 7.1 Tool life behaviour
the tool life criterion under the influence of tool life conditions, tool life parameters
are used. Tool life parameters are times, quantities or paths achieved in chipping
under specified conditions until a tool life criterion is reached. These parameters
include [DIN6583]:
the tool life,

the tool life travel path,
the tool life volume
and the tool life quantity.
In order to describe the tool life behaviour of the system of the workpiece, the
tool, the clamping, the machine tool and the coolant in a clear way, the tool life
conditions, criteria and parameters must always be specified. For example, when
describing the tool life behaviour via tool life parameter, the tool life criterion and
tool life condition are indicated in the index. If the tool life condition for describing
machinability is selected, the tool life parameter and tool life criterion must be taken
into account in the index. If the tool life criterion is used for description, the tool life
parameter and condition must both be entered in the index. To conclude this section,
the two following examples illustrate the relations explained above.
7.2 Machinability 239
(a) description by means of the tool life condition:
m
vcT15; VB 0.2 = 200 (7.1)
min
Specified parameters: T = 15 min (tool life parameter) and VB = 0.2 mm (tool
life criterion)
(b) description by means of the tool life criterion:
Fcap 2; N 500 = 4000 N (7.2)
Specified parameters: ap = 2 mm (tool life condition) and N = 500 (tool life

parameter)
Due to the interaction between machinability and cutting edge durability, both
parameters can be used to evaluate the machining system, assuming that a param-
eter is held constant with respect to the tool life behaviour (constant machinability
for evaluating the cutting edge durability of different cutting tool materials given
constant tool life conditions or constant cutting edge durability for evaluating the
machinability of different materials given constant tool life conditions).
Tool wear is highly significant. In contrast to the time-varying state variables of
the machining system, such as mechanical stress or temperature, tool wear can be
defined relatively easily. The following sections will consider this more closely.
7.1 Determining Tool Life Parameters

Tests to determine tool life parameters can basically be executed using either slow
testing methods or quick testing methods. Long-term cutting tests are executed for
detailed descriptions of the stress of tools on machine tools. Such tests are costly
in terms of both time and materials. As an alternative, different quick testing meth-
ods were developed in order to evaluate and compare the cutting edge durability
and machinability of different materials while minimizing the required time and
materials as much as possible.
7.2 Machinability
Parameters subjected to state changes during machining can be used as evaluation
parameters for judging machinability. One must strictly define, however, whether
the object of evaluation is the material (the workpiece) or the cutting tool mate-
rial. This section will focus on the material, while the cutting tool material will be
assumed to be constant.
The following parameters can be used to evaluate machinability:
cutting force,
tool life (or tool life travel path, quantity, etc.),
the surface value of the workpiece and

the chip form, etc.
It is often sufficient to use a single dominant parameter to evaluate machinability.
7.2.1 Tool Life

The tool life Tc of the tool is the most significant parameter for characterizing the
machinability of a material. The tool life Tc is the time in min in which a tool per-
forms from its first cut to its becoming unusable due to a specified tool life criterion
under specified machining conditions.
7.2.1.1 Temperature Tool Life Rotation Test

The temperature tool life rotation test was developed for cutting tool materials with
low temperature resistance (tool steels and high speed steels). The test is executed
whenever not wear, but rather the influence of cutting temperature is the predom-
inant factor for terminating tool life. The test is executed under constant tool life
conditions until the cutting edge becomes unusable due to thermal conditions. This
process of succumbing to thermal influences is also referred to as bright braking.
Bright braking can be recognized by the formation of bright lines or lines of temper
colour on the cut surface or on the machined workpiece surface or by the appear-
ance of surface alterations. Altered chip forms and noises are also indicative of an
advanced stage of damage to the cutting edge.
7.2.1.2 Wear Tool Life Rotation Test

The wear tool life rotation test is executed for cutting edge materials with a great
temperature resistance (cemented carbide, cermet, ceramics, CBN). The test is exe-
cuted whenever wear instead of cutting temperature is the predominant influence on
tool life leading to the unusability of the tool. It is held using a longitudinal round
cut with constant tool life conditions. After different cutting times, wear is mea-
sured on the flank and rake faces until the previously determined tool life criterion
has been reached. It is generally sufficient to determine the width of flank wear land
VB, the crater depth CD and the crater mean CM. The measurement results can be
represented in a diagram (Fig. 7.2).
Using the wear curves in Fig. 7.2, respective value pairs can be formed for the
tool life criterion from the cutting speed and cutting time which together form the
tool life curve (Fig. 7.3).
The curve in Fig. 7.3 can be described approximately by means of a general
exponential function. In a double logarithmic system, this function assumes the
approximate form of a straight line (Fig. 7.4).
800
Width of flank wear land VB/m

Tool life
vc1 > vc2 > vc3 criterion
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
tc1 tc2 tc3
Cutting time t c /min
Fig. 7.2 Wear of uncoated carbide during machining heat treatable steel
Fig. 7.3 Tool life curve (heat 60

treatable steel/carbide)
45
Tool life Tc / min
30
tc3 /vc3
15
tc2 /vc2
tc1 /vc1
0
0 200 400 600 800
A straight line can generally be described by the linear equation:
y=m x + b (7.3)
The following applies:
log Tc = k log vc + log Cv (7.4)
And after taking the antilog, the following equation applies:
Tc = Cv vkc (7.5)
100
80 Material: C53E
Feed: f = 0.8 mm
60
Depth of cut: ap = 2.5 mm
40
Insert geometry: SNGN120412
Tool life criterion: VB = 0.5 mm
20

Tool life Tc / min
10
8
6
Tool life graph Taylor equation
1
50 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 7.4 Tool life curve in a logarithmical system (heat treatable steel/carbide)
This is referred to as the TAYLOR equation. The parameter Cv (ordinate intercept)

indicates the tool life at a cutting speed of vc = 1 m/min (standard tool life) and the
parameter CT (abscissa intercept) the cutting speed at Tc = 1 min (standard cutting
speed). Thus the increase value k can also be expressed as follows:
log Cv
tan = k = (7.6)
log CT
The tool life function in Eq. (7.4) is designated as a simple tool life function,
since it only takes into account the influence of cutting speed on wear. This sim-
ple tool life function was developed by TAYLOR [Tayl07]. It is also known in an
expanded form which takes the influence not only of cutting speed, but also of feed
and cutting depth.
Tc = C vkc fzkfz akpa (7.7)
Research in to these basic relations essentially goes back to the American

TAYLOR [Wall08]. Further research became necessary in his wake to make the
tool life equations practically useful in a broad field of application. KRONENBERG
was to exert the most influence on this research [Kron27]. Further research by
KRONENBERG also showed that the application of similarity mechanics to chip-
ping leads to the relations named in Eqs. (7.5) and (7.7). It must be generally borne
in mind that the parameters in these functions are not constants. They can only be
assumed to be approximately constant in certain areas.
7.2.2 Resultant Force

Knowledge of the magnitude and direction of the resultant force F or its com-
ponents, the cutting force Fc , the feed force Ff and the passive force Fp , is a
basis for
constructing machine tools, i.e. designing frames, drives, tool systems, guideways
etc. in line with requirements,
determining cutting conditions in the work preparation phase,
estimating the workpiece accuracy achievable under certain conditions (deforma-
tion of workpiece and machine),
determining processes which occur at the locus of chip formation and explaining
wear mechanisms.
Furthermore, the magnitude of the resultant force represents an evaluative stan-

dard for the machinability of a material, since greater forces tend to arise during the
machining of materials which do not easily chip.
Resultant force is described by its amount and direction. In addition to amount,
the forces effective direction can also have a significant effect on mechanically
related changes to the tool or workpiece. Also, one can determine the stress state in
the material in front of the workpiece cutting edge from the resultant force (Chap. 3).
The following will focus primarily on the influence of materials on the resul-
tant force; geometrical and kinematic influences of the machining process will
remain largely excluded from consideration. Exceptions to this will be noted where
appropriate.
In practical applications, cutting force is often used instead of resultant force as
an evaluation parameter. The cutting force is the component of the resultant force in
the direction of primary motion. This procedure is reliable when the other compo-
nents of the resultant force remain negligibly small. The specific resultant force or
the specific cutting force may also be used as evaluation parameters (Chap. 3).
With respect to machinability tests in which the resultant force is used as an
evaluation parameter, the distinction must be made between two different types of
cut which respectively cause fundamentally different stress states in the material:
Those that cause a biaxial stress state or one which lies at least in direct proximity
to a biaxial stress state.
Those that are far removed from a biaxial stress state.
7.2.2.1 Resultant Force Measurements

Measurements of resultant force are carried out by means of dynameters, which
measure the average mechanical strain on the cutting tool in three directions which
are orthogonal to each other [Schl29], preferably in the direction of the axes of the
machine tool (Chaps. 3 and 8).
SALOMON discovered that there is an approximate exponential relationship
between specific force and chip thickness [Salo26, Salo28]. Since this discovery,
force measurements have been represented in relation to chip thickness values
(Fig. 7.5). It must be borne in mind that extrapolations are not permissible, espe-
cially in the region of small chip thicknesses, since in this case at least the same
exponential function is no longer valid.
By means of a representation in a double logarithmical diagram in which
the exponential function follows a straight line, the specification parameters of the
straight line may simply be determined by means of the axial sections and the
gradient (see Fig. 7.6). The following equations apply:
log kz = log kz1.1 + mz log h (7.8)
kz = kz1.1 hmz (7.9)
mz = tan (7.10)
5000
4500
Specific resultant force kz / (N/mm2)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500 vc1
vc2
1000 vc3
vc1 < vc2 < vc3
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Undeformed chip thickness h / m
Fig. 7.5 Gradient of specific resultant force depending on the chip thickness (schematic diagram)
10000
Specific resultant force kz / (N/mm)

kz1.1
1000
100
100 1000 10000
Undeformed chip thickness h
Fig. 7.6 Specific resultant force depending on the chip thickness in a double logarithmical
diagram
7.2.3 Surface Quality

Surface quality can also be used to estimate machinability. The most important fac-
tors for this are the elastic and plastic deformations of the material in the area of the
minor cutting edge [Djat52].
Low cutting speeds and certain material-tool combinations may lead to the adhe-
sion of material particles on the rake face. This is referred to as the growth of built-up
edges (Fig. 7.7). Due to mechanical and thermal stresses, the material which builds
up on the rake face is sporadically stripped off und transferred to the workpiece
surface.
Built-up edges are undesirable. They increase tool wear and lead to a poor
surface quality (Fig. 7.7). With increased cutting speeds, this influence becomes
increasingly insignificant.
The kinematic roughness is yielded by the relative motion between workpiece
and tool and by the edge radius. During turning, it is primarily influenced by the
form of the cutting edge and the feed. Figure 7.8 compares calculated and measured
roughness values given a constant cutting speed without process disturbances caused
by built-up edges.
BRAMMERTZs theory accounts for plastic deformations and also the elastic
spring-back of the material effected after the cutting edge reaches a certain area
25
20 Material: C45N
Average roughness Rz / m

Depth of cut: ap = 3 mm
15 Feed: f = 0.25 mm
Cutting section geometry:

o = 6
Built-up edge
10 o = 5
s = 0
r = 70
5 r = 90
r = 1.2 mm
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 7.7 Influence of cutting speed on surface quality
of the material [Bram61]. A minimum cutting depth must be achieved in order to

guarantee chip formation. Otherwise, the material is only deformed elastically by
the cutting edge. The yield point can be used to judge the elastic behaviour of the
material to be machined.
28
r = 0.25 mm
24
0.5
1
20 2
Roughness R /m
16
2
12 Rt = 8rf
Measured roughness
4
Theoretical roughness (Rt)
0
Fig. 7.8 Comparison of 0 0.4
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6
calculated and measured
roughness Feed f /mm
Trace of the plane of the rake face A
Trace of the
Tool plane of the
flank face A
fmin hmin
Work piece
assumed working plane Tool-cutting edge normal plane
Fig. 7.9 Schematic sketch of minimum feed and minimum chip thickness
Since the material is not only stressed on the finished surface, but also on the cut
surface, elastic deformation must also be taken into account in this case. This means
that a minimum feed fmin must also be achieved as to allow a material separation
to take place. This material separation depends on the cutting edge radius r and
the yield point Re of the material. In theoretical cutting theory, minimum feed is
frequently projected to the tool-cutting edge normal plane Pn and referred to as
minimum chip thickness hmin (Fig. 7.9).
There is no material separation below the minimum chip thickness value and thus
no chip formation. As soon as the cutting edge radius assumes higher values than
the chip thickness, the influence of the nominal tool orthogonal rake angle becomes
insignificant, since the effective tool orthogonal rake angle becomes increasingly
negative with an increasing cutting edge radius. The effective tool orthogonal rake
angle represents a major influence on minimum chip thickness. If the minimum chip
thickness is not reached, material accumulates in front of the cutting edge radius, as
a result of which the workpiece material becomes pressed, squeezed and conveyed to
the flank face (ploughing effect) [Albr60]. This compromises the achievable surface
quality. The literature varies with respect to the minimum chip thickness hmin . As
reference data for hmin , Knig and Klocke cite a factor of two to three of the cutting
edge radius or the bevel width. In reference to the turning of steel, Sokolowski cites
a dependence of minimum chip thickness on cutting speed, with hmin decreasing
with increasing cutting speed [Soko55]. He investigated cutting speeds between 8
and 210 m/min, leading to values for hmin /rn between 0.25 and 1.125.
Further notable influences on surface quality are material inhomogeneities and
hardening.
7.2.4 Chip Form

In the machining of different materials, different chip forms are formed under the
same tool life conditions. Examples of typical chip forms are shown in Fig. 7.10.
Long chip forms make the evacuation of accumulating chips difficult. Flat helical
chips tend to migrate outside the engagement length via the flank face, thus causing
damage to the tool holder and the cutting edge. Ribbon, snarled and discontinuous
chips represent an increased hazard to machine operators.
The formation of the different chip forms depends greatly on the friction con-
ditions in the contact area between the chip and the rake face, the tool orthogonal
rake angle, the cutting parameters and the material properties. Chip forms can be
altered through alloying different chemical elements, such as phosphorous, sulphur
and lead, or by means of a targeted heat treatment of the material. Chip breakage is
generally favoured by the materials increasing strength and decreasing toughness.
Especially advantageous are chip forms that do not inhibit the machining process.
These may not damage the tool system, the machine tool and the surface of the
processed component. The spatial requirement for the chips and chip evacuation are
also important parameters (chip volume ratio).
Unfavourable Favourable Good Favourable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Ribbon chip 6 Helical chip segment

2 Snarled chip 7 Cylindrical helical chip
3 Flat helical chip 8 Spiral chip
4 Angular helical chip 9 Spiral chip segment
5 Helical chip 10 Discontinous chip
Fig. 7.10 Conventional chip forms
7.2.5 Cutting Speed

The following will evaluate the influence of cutting speed on machinability and
discuss this influence via and analysis of specific cutting force. Figure 7.11 shows a
typical curve for the specific cutting force when machining non-heat-treated steels.
Adhesion and the growth of built-up edges occur with lower cutting speeds. The
adhesion tendency decreases with increasing cutting speed. A temperature range is
7.3 The Machinability of Steel Materials 249
2500
Specific resultant force kz/( N/mm)

2000
1500
Propensity to adhesion
Cutting speed range

1000 Thermal softening
of blue brittleness
500
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Cutting speed vc/ (m/min)
Fig. 7.11 Material properties depending on the specific resultant force
reached in which the specific resultant force again rises until a maximum value is
achieved. This is the area in which blue brittleness occurs. Blue brittleness refers
to a material condition in which the dislocation mobility is strongly limited by the
interaction with nitrogen present in the microstructure. As a result, deformability
decreases, thus increasing the specific resultant force. If the cutting speed is further
increased, the temperatures in the shear zone increase sharply and the material is
weakened, which causes the resultant force to be lowered again.
The following will describe materials frequently processed by chipping methods
and their machinability.
7.3 The Machinability of Steel Materials

Steels can be classified according to their alloying elements, their metallographic
constituents and their mechanical properties. Such a classification aids both in
selecting a material with respect to the properties required for their future function
and in determining machining conditions. Depending on their alloy content, steel
materials are divided into the following groups:
unalloyed steels,
low-alloyed steels (alloy content < 5%) and
high-alloyed steels (alloy content 5%).
In the case of unalloyed steels, we must furthermore differentiate between those

steel materials that are not to be heat-treated (common construction steel) and those
that are (grade and special steel). Steels referred to as common construction steels
(e.g. S235JR, S355J2G3) those whose mechanical properties exhibit minimum

values. Construction steels are used in practice when no special requirements are
made with respect to their structure.
7.3.1 Metallographic Constituents

The machinability of steels essentially depends on their respective crystalline
structure. The crystalline structure of steel is mainly composed of the following
components:
ferrite,
cementite,
perlite,
austenite,
bainite and
martensite
Depending on carbon content, alloying element content and heat treatment,
one or more of these metallographic constituents predominate, whose mechanical
properties (Table 7.1) affect the machinability of the given steel.
Table 7.1 Mechanical properties of metallographic constituents, acc. to VIEREGGE [Vier70]
Hardness/HV 10 Rm /(N/mm2 ) Rp0,2 /(N/mm2 ) Z/%
Ferrite 8090 200300 90170 7080

Cementite >1100
Perlite 210 700 300500 48
Austenite 180 530750 300400 50
Bainite 300600 8001100
Martensite 900 13803000
Ferrite (a-ferrite, cubic body-centred, maximal solubility for carbon: 0.02%) is

characterized by relatively low strength and hardness and by a high deformability.
Ferrite complicates the chipping process through the following:
its strong tendency to adhere, which favours material smearing on the tool and
the formation of built-up edges and built-up edge fragments.
its tendency to form undesirable ribbon and snarled chips due to its high
deformability
poor surface qualities and increased burr formation on the workpieces
Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3 C) is hard and brittle and thus cannot be machined.
Depending on carbon content and cooling speed, cementite can occur either by itself
or as a structural constituent of perlite or bainite.
Perlite is a eutectoid phase mixture composed of ferrite and cementite. The eutec-
tic point lies at 723 C and 0.83% carbon. Perlite appears in iron materials given a
carbon content between 0.02 and 6.67%. Given a carbon content of 2.06%, it is the
only metallographic constituent; above 2.06%, it is a constituent of ledeburite. For

the most part, lamellar, linear cementite appears in perlite. After to a corresponding
heat treatment (soft annealing) however, globular (spheroidal) cementite can also
be formed. Heat treatable steels with a carbon content < 0.8% are referred to as
sub-eutectoid.
During machining, the low deformability and greater hardness of perlite causes,
on the one hand,
significant abrasive wear and

high resultant forces.
On the other hand,
Perlite reduces the adhesion tendency and the formation of built-up edges,
promotes the formation of favourable chip forms,
causes less burr formation on the workpiece and
improves the surface quality.
Austenite refers to the -mixed crystal of iron. It has a face-centred cubic struc-
ture. The maximum solubility for carbon is 2.06%. The structure exhibits only
minimal hardness, although its strength can be increased by means of cold-forming.
Austenite is the main constituent of many non-rusting steels and is not ferromag-
netic. In unalloyed and low-alloy steels below approximately 723 C, austenite is
transformed into perlite and, depending on the carbon content, into ferrite or cemen-
tite. Thus austenite is only present at room temperature in alloys. Examples of
austenite builders are nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn) and nitrogen (N).
Essential properties of austenitic steel materials relevant to machining are:
their high deformability and toughness: The high ductility of this material is
based on the good plastic deformability of its face-centred cubic crystal lattice,
which has four slip planes each with three slip directions and thus 12 slip systems
in total. The result is a strong tendency of the material to form built-up edges,
gluing-points and built-up edge fragments and to form unfavourable ribbon and
snarled chips.
their strong tendency to adhere to the cutting edge material: face-centred cubic
materials tend to adhere much more than hexagonal or space-centred cubic met-
als, which means that built-up edges, gluing-points and built-up edge fragments
occur more frequently when machining these steel materials.
their tendency towards strain hardening: in the area of the workpiece surface
being created, the deformation of the material caused in chip formation causes a
hardening of the material forming the surface. This results in additional stress to
the tool cutting edge, especially in subsequent cuts.
their relatively low heat conductivity, which is 1/3 lower than in unalloyed steels.
It impairs heat removal through the chip and increases the thermal stress of the
cutting edge.
Bainite forms in the temperature range between those of perlite and martensite:
iron diffusion is no longer possible, and carbon diffusion is already considerably
hindered. There are two main forms of bainite:
acicular bainite (with continuous cooling and isothermal transformation)
granular bainite (only with continuous cooling)
Independently of the form, bainite consists of carbon-supersaturated ferrite, with
the carbon partially precipitated as carbides (e.g. Fe3 C) whose size (from rough to
very fine) is determined by the conversion temperature. Among the acicular bai-
nite forms, one distinguishes according to the transformation temperature between
lower bainite (strong similarity to martensite) and upper bainite (strong similarity to
perlite).
Martensite forms when a steel material with a carbon content of > 0.2% is rapidly
cooled from the austenite temperature range to a temperature below the martensite
starting temperature. Due to the rapid cooling, the carbon dissolved in austenite is
forced to remain dissolved in the mixed crystal. By means of a diffusionless trans-
formation, a tetragonally deformed, body-centred martensite lattice forms from the
face-centred cubic austenite lattice.
Martensite has a fine-acicular, very hard and brittle microstructure which is
difficult to machine. The cutting tools used are subject to
an increased abrasive wear and
high mechanical and thermal stresses
7.3.2 Carbon Content

The metallographic constituents of steels can be seen in the iron-carbon phase dia-
gram (Fig. 7.12). Steels with C-content < 0.8% precipitate ferrite when cooling
from the austenite zone. The remaining austenite disintegrates into perlite below
723 C. With a carbon content of 0.8%, only perlite is formed as a eutectoid mixture
of ferrite and cementite. In steels with a C-content > 0.8%, perlite and secondary
cementite are formed. The secondary cementite is precipitated from the austenite
predominately at the grain boundaries.
The machinability of steels with a carbon content < 0.25% is essentially charac-
terized by the properties of the free ferrite. Because of the high deformability of the
material, the resulting cut surface roughness is high. Since ferrite has an intrinsically
large adhesion tendency, built-up edges form with low cutting speeds. Tool wear
and cutting temperature only increase slowly with a rising cutting speed. Because
of ferrites low strength, only tools with the greatest possible positive tool orthog-
onal rake angle (e.g. with turning: o > 6 ) should be used. In order to decrease
the adhesion tendency and to improve the surface quality, oils are generally used
as cutting fluids, with their lubrication properties being more significant than their
cooling effect. Steels with a carbon content of < 0.25% pose particular problems
for grooving and parting off, as well as for boring, reaming and thread die cutting.
Steel Cast iron

1600
A Melt + -Mc
1536
H B
I Melt
-Mc
-Mc
+ -Mc Melt
+ Austenite
Melt
Temperature T/C
+ Primary cementite
Cementite (Fe 3 C)
1147 Austenite
E C F
( -Mc)
Ledeburite
Austenite
-Mc Ledeburite
+ Secondary cementite
911 G + Primary cementite
+ -Mc + Ledeburite
Austenite
M O + Secondary
769 S cementite
P
723
Perlite Perlite K
Primary cementite
Perlite
-Mc Ferrite + Secondary + Secondary cementite

+ Ledeburite
+ Perlite Cementite + Ledeburite
L
Q
500
0 0.8 2.06 4.3 6.67
Carbon concentration / mass-%
Fig. 7.12 Section of the iron-carbon phase diagram (metastable system)
Due to high deformability and relatively low cutting speeds, the achievable surface
qualities are markedly inferior. Moreover, burr formation occurs to a greater extent.
The amount of perlite in the structure increases with increasing carbon content
(0.250.4%). In this way, the special property of this metallographic constituent is
granted a stronger influence on the machinability of the material. The strength of
the structure increases, its deformability decreases. This results in the following:
a lower adhesion tendency and thus a shift of built-up edges to lower cutting
speeds,
increasing tool wear and higher temperatures in the tool contact zones due to the
higher material strength,
an increase in abrasive wear,
an improvement of surface quality and chip form.
Machinability can be improved by means of coarse grain annealing given a low

C-content and by means of normalizing given a C-content above 0.35%. Tools with
a positive orthogonal tool rake angle should be used. Cold-forming has a positive
effect on machinability, especially with respect to chip formation. This is important
to the extent that these materials are frequently deformed through cold extrusion and
then finished through cutting.
A further increase of carbon content (0.40.8%) causes a further decrease of the

amount of ferrite with a corresponding perlite increase until only perlite remains at
0.83% carbon. Due to increased strengths, high rake face temperatures already arise
at low cutting speeds. At the same time, the increasing mechanical stress of the
rake face causes increased wear, also in the form of crater wear. Problems related
to chip form are more rare. The chip form improves with increasing carbon content,
with wear also increasing. Steels with a carbon content of 0.40.8% are generally
regarded as having good machinability only with respect to surface quality and chip
form.
After slow air cooling, the structure of supereutectoid heat-treated steels
(C > 0.8%) consists of secondary cementite and perlite. Perlite formation initi-
ates directly from the austenite grain boundaries. Secondary cementite precipitates
at the grain boundaries given a carbon content significantly exceeding 0.8%. The
free cementite forms shells around the austenite/perlite grains [Schu04]. Such shells
cause very strong wear in cutting processes. In addition to the strongly abrasive
effect of the hard and brittle metallographic constituents, the high pressures and
temperatures which arise cause an extra stress for the cutting edge. Strong crater
and flank face wear is to be observed even at relatively low cutting speeds. The
cutting edge parts must have a stable design. For turning, tools with positive orthog-
onal tool angles o up to 6 and mildly negative tilt angles s up to 4 should
be used.
7.3.3 Alloying Elements

Alloying and trace elements can influence the machinability of steel by changing
the composition or by forming lubricating or abrasive inclusions. The following
will discuss the influence of some important alloying elements on the machinability
of steel.
7.3.3.1 Manganese
Manganese improves temperability and increases the strength of steel (approx.
100 N/mm2 per 1% alloying element). Because of its high affinity to sulphur, man-
ganese forms sulphides with sulphur. Manganese contents up to 1.5% facilitate
machinability in steels with low amounts of carbon due to good chip formation.
In the case of steels with larger amounts of carbon, however, machinability is
negatively affected by increased tool wear.
7.3.3.2 Chrome, Molybdenum, Tungsten

Chrome and molybdenum improve temperability, thereby influencing the machin-
ability of case-hardened and heat-treated steels in terms of structure and strength.
In the case of steels with a greater carbon or alloy content, these elements and also
tungsten form hard special and mixed carbides which impair machinability.
7.3.3.3 Nickel
Nickel is among the group of elements which expand the -phase zone in iron
alloys. By adding nickel, the strength of steel materials increases. Nickel increases
toughness, especially at low temperatures. This generally leads, especially in the
case of austenitic nickel steels (with larger amounts of nickel), to an unfavourable
machinability.
7.3.3.4 Silicon
Silicon increases the strength of ferrite constituents in steel. With oxygen, it
forms, in the absence of stronger deoxidation agents like aluminium, hard Si-oxide
(silicate) inclusions. This results in increased tool wear.
7.3.3.5 Phosphorous
Alloying phosphorus, which is carried out only in some free-cutting steels, leads
to segregations in the steel which cannot even be removed with subsequent heat
treatment and heat deformations and to an embrittlement of the ferrite. This allows
for the formation of short-breaking chips. Up to an amount of 0.1%, phospho-
rous has a positive effect on machinability. While higher amounts of phosphorous
lead to an improvement of the surface quality, they also cause increased tool
wear.
7.3.3.6 Titanium, Vanadium

Titanium and vanadium, even in small amounts, can increase strength considerably
due to the extremely dispersed carbide and carbon nitride precipitations. They lead
to a high grain refinement, which has a negative effect on machinability with respect
to mechanical stress and chip form.
7.3.3.7 Sulphur
Sulphur is only slightly soluble in iron, but it forms, depending on the alloying
components of the steel, various stable sulphides. Iron sulphides (FeS) are unde-
sirable, as they exhibit a low melting point and deposit primarily at the grain
boundaries. This leads to the unwanted red brittleness of steel. What are desirable
on the other hand are manganese sulphides (MnS), which have a much higher melt-
ing point. The positive effects of MnS on machinability are short-breaking chips,
improved surface quality and a smaller tendency towards forming built-up edges.
With an increased inclusion length, MnS exerts a negative influence on mechani-
cal properties like strength, strain, area reduction and the impact value, especially
when it is included transversely to the strain direction. In practice, however, special
alloying additives (e.g. tellurium, selenium) can effectively help to counteract the
deformability-related extension of MnS.
7.3.3.8 Lead
Lead is not soluble in iron; it is present in the form of submicroscopic inclusions.
Because of the low melting point, a protective lead film forms between the tool
and the material. This film reduces tool wear. The mechanical stress of the tool can
be lowered by up to 50%, with the chips becoming short breaking. This effect is
exploited especially in machining steels (see Sect. 7.4.1).
7.3.3.9 Non-metallic Inclusions

The elements added to the steels for deoxidation, i.e. aluminium, silicon, man-
ganese or calcium, bind the oxygen released by steel solidification. The hard,
non-deformable inclusions then found in the steel, e.g. as aluminium oxide and sil-
icon oxide, diminish machinability, especially when the oxides exist in the steel in
larger amounts or in linear form [Wink83]. However, by choosing a suitable deox-
idatizing agent, the machinability of steel can also be positively influenced. For
example, under certain machining conditions, wear-inhibiting oxidic and sulphidic
layers may form after deoxidation with calcium-silicon or ferro-silicon [Kni65,
Opit67].
One measure for improving the machinability of steels deoxidized with alu-
minium is calcium treatment. In this process, calcium is added to the steel melt
by means of secondary metallurgy. This converts the sharp-edged aluminium
oxides present in steel in conventional melting which act abrasively during cut-
ting into globular and, in machining conditions, plastifyable calcium aluminates.
Analogously to manganese sulphides among machining steels, these calcium alu-
minates are able under certain cutting conditions to form friction-reducing and/or
wear-inhibiting coatings in the contact zones of the tool cutting edge [Kni65,
Tns89, Kloc98a, Zink99].
7.3.4 Types of Heat Treatment

When executed in a targeted manner, heat treatments can influence microstructures
with respect to quantity, form and the configuration of their constituents. In this
way, mechanical properties and thus machinability can be customized to the given
requirements. According to DIN EN 10052, heat treatment is defined as follows:
Heat treatment is a sequence of heat treatment steps during which a workpiece is in
whole or in part subjected to time/temperature sequences in order to cause a change
of its properties or its structure. In certain circumstances, the chemical composition
of the material may be changed during the treatment (thermochemical treatment).
Three basic categories of heat treatment may be distinguished:
establishing an even structure in the entire cross-section, which to a great extent

is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium (e.g. soft annealing structures, struc-
tures consisting of ferrite or austenite) or in thermodynamic disequilibrium (e.g.
perlite, bainite, martensite),
1300
Austenite ( Mc)
1200
(E)
1100 Homogenisation t
ne
ide
carb
1000 of
ion
o sit
Temperature T / C
G Coarse grain annealing mp

co Ac m
900 Har
den De
ing Austenite
+N
orm + Secondary cementite
Mc Ac3
alisi
ng
800
+ Mc O
P S (K)
723 C Ac1 Soft annealing
700
Recrystallisation annealing
Mc
600 Low-stress annealing
Recrystallisation annealing
500
(Q)
400
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
Fig. 7.13 Partial iron-carbon diagram with heat treatment range data
establishing a hardening structure that is restricted to smaller areas of the

cross-section at unaltered chemical composition (in particular: surface layer
tempering),
establishing structure types that are starkly differentiated over the cross-section,
especially in the rim zone, as a result of a change of the chemical composition
(nitriding, carbonitriding, carburizing, carburizing hardening).
There are different heat treatment methods with a broad field of application
which, depending on the chemical composition of the steel, can affect machinability
in a targeted way with respect to, for example, chip form and tool wear. The tem-
perature ranges for the individual types of heat treatment can be found in Fig. 7.13.
7.3.4.1 Homogenization
Homogenization is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: annealing at a
high temperature with a hold sufficiently long enough to minimize local differences
in chemical composition due to diffusion-related segregations.
7.3.4.2 Coarse Grain Annealing

Coarse grain annealing is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: anneal-
ing at a temperature usually considerably above Ac3 with a hold sufficiently long
enough to achieve coarse grain.
Coarse grain annealing followed by isothermal transformation is utilized for
subeutectoid steels with a C-content of 0.30.4% (ferritic-perlitic steel) in order to
produce a coarse-grain structure with a ferrite network which is as closed as possi-
ble in which either perlite or bainite is enclosed [Hors85, Schu04]. Tool wear when
machining such a structure is relatively low, and chip formation generally good.
High surface qualities remain achievable. The application of coarse grain annealing
to improve machinability is, however, limited by interference by strength properties
and due to financial considerations.
7.3.4.3 Normalizing
Normalizing is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: a heat treatment
comprising austenitizing and subsequent cooling in still air.
Through normalizing (+N), a nearly even, fine-grain structure is achieved whose
machinability is, depending on the carbon-content, determined by the predominant
structural constituent, i.e. either by ferrite (low wear, poor chip formation) or perlite
(increased wear, improved chip formation) [Hors85]. A / transformation takes
place in the process. Subeutectoid steels are heated to temperatures above Ac3 .
Supereutectoid steels are heated to temperatures 3050 C above Ac1 or, if the
carbide network is to be dissolved in structures with higher carbon content, to
temperatures exceeding Ac3 . In general, this heat treatment should be suited to
achieving an even, fine-grain perlitic-cementitic structure.
Stronger carbide bands cannot be fully dissolved, which means that normalized
supereutectoid steels can still cause relatively high tool wear. However, they allow
a high surface quality of the finished surfaces.
7.3.4.4 Soft Annealing

Soft annealing is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: a heat treatment
for reducing the hardness of a material to a specified value.
Soft annealing (+A) is applied in order to take away the high hardness and low
deformability from structures with lamellar perlite or lamellar perlite and cementite.
By means of annealing at temperatures just below the PSK line (Fig. 7.13) or, if
necessary, oscillating at the PSK line and subsequent slow cooling, a soft and
low-stress state can be created as the lamellar perlite and strands of cementite are
caused to disintegrate. The goal is to achieve a perlite structure which is as granular
as possible consisting of ferrite with globular cementite. Such a structure is soft and
easily deformable. The machinability of such a structure becomes more favourable
with respect to wear effects on the tool, while chip formation worsens to the extent
that ferrite predominates in the structure.
7.3.4.5 Annealing to Specific Properties

In practice, other types of treatment are required in addition to classic soft annealing
which target specific properties or structures.
A special type of soft annealing is annealing to spherical carbides (+AC) or
spherical cementite (also referred to as GKZ annealing). The goal of this type of
annealing is to mould the cementite completely as a sphere. Temperatures are held
in the region of the PSK line for a longer period of time, if necessary oscillating
at this temperature. Since, when the cementite is fully moulded, its machinability
approximates that of pure ferrite, it may worsen [Opit64].
Given steels with a carbon content of 0.100.35%, materials with
Widmannsttten structure may be created by means of high austenitizing
temperatures, long holding times and rapid cooling. The result is an acicular
ferrite with extraordinarily finely distributed lamellar cementite. Such a structure is
characterized by good chip formation and chip form, though it exhibits poor usage
properties [Schu04].
Case-hardened steels are heat treated to a ferrite/perlite microstructure (+FP). In
this state, they can achieve a similarly good machinability as with machining steels
with low carbon content, and this with respect both to low tool wear and to good
chip formation. A further heat treatment for improving machinability used primar-
ily with case-hardened and heat-treatable steels is annealing to a specific tensile
strength (+TH).
For energy-saving reasons, targeted heat treatments are executed directly using
the heat of the forge, e.g. controlled cooling from the heat of the forge (BY anneal-
ing) [Fasc80]. Machinability investigations [Wink83] have shown that heat-treatable
steels cooled from the heat of the forge (e.g. C45E+BY) may exhibit a more
favourable wear behaviour than the same materials in a heat-treated or normalized
state. Differences with respect to chip formation could not be ascertained. The rea-
son lies in the relatively coarse-grain structure of the steels used and in the fact that
the ferrite network also encloses the perlite grains during the shear process.
7.3.4.6 Recrystallization Annealing

Recrystallization annealing is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: a heat
treatment with the goal of achieving the formation of new grain in a cold-formed
workpiece by means of nucleation and growth without a phase change.
Recrystallization annealing refers to annealing following cold forming at a tem-
perature below Ac1 , which for steel is usually between 500 and 700 C, without
causing a --transformation of the crystal lattice. This is usually applied between
the individual shaping stages, e.g. when cold rolling or cold drawing metal sheets
and wires [Schu04, Meta06].
Strain hardening becomes noticeable in the structure through the occurrence of
displacements, glide lines and the splitting of brittle crystal types (cementite).
Recrystallization annealing prevents changes to properties associated with this,
such as increased hardness and strength and decreased strain and toughness. If the
material reaches its forming limit in the process of cold forming, a recrystallization
must be executed to form new grains. The composition of the microstructure is not
newly formed during recrystallization; only the grains are newly formed. The greater
the strain is, the greater the tendency towards the formation of new grains. At high
strain levels, the size of the newly formed grains can lie below that of the original
grains [Schu04].
7.3.4.7 Low-Stress Annealing

Low-stress annealing is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: a heat treat-
ment comprising heating and holding the material at a sufficiently high temperature
and a subsequent cooling appropriate for eliminating internal stresses as much as
possible without essentially changing the structure.
The usual temperatures for low-stress annealing steel workpieces lie between 550
and 650 C. A microstructural transformation does not take place.
Low-stress annealing is mainly applied to workpieces which exhibit high internal
stresses either as a result of irregular cooling following casting, welding, forging or
another thermal process or after strong mechanical processing through milling, turn-
ing, planing, deep drawing, etc. Low-stress annealing serves to reduce these stresses.
This prevents the release of existing internal stresses during the further process-
ing of such workpieces and the formation of geometrical deviations resulting from
warpage. The strain hardening in the deformation zones induced by cold-forming,
however, is reduced by means of recrystallization annealing.
7.3.4.8 Hardening
Hardening is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: a heat treatment
comprising austenitizing and cooling under conditions conducive to an increase
in hardness caused by the more or less complete transformation of austenite into
martensite and, if applicable, bainite.
When hardening steel (+Q), the precipitation of carbon from the -mixed crys-
tal which happens at a normal cooling speed counteracted through a high cooling
speed. At supercritical cooling speeds, martensite forms after falling short of the
Ms-temperature (Ms = martensite starting) [Schu04].
At cooling speeds lower than the critical cooling speed, the conversion processes
proceed in the intermediate stage and in the perlite stage [MPI61, MPI72, MPI73].
Transformation in the intermediate stage is basically characterized by that fact that
only the carbon can diffuse. Processes of continuous and isothermal transformation
for the heat-treatable steel C45E are shown in Figs. 7.14 and 7.15.
These structure types are not as easy to machine because of their greater strength.
Chip formation can be considered good. The cutting edge must have a stable design.
7.3.4.9 Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is defined according to DIN EN 10052 as follows: Hardening and
tempering at higher temperatures in order to achieve the desired combination of
mechanical properties, especially high toughness and ductility.
1000
900
800
Ac3
60 Ac1
700 50
Temperature T / C
30
20 40
70 50
600 F 80
P
179
500
A B
400
Ms 2 A Austenite
300 5 F Ferrite
P Perlite
M B Bainite
200
M Martensite
210 Hardness/HV
100 548 20 Part of the
274 224 structure/ %
0
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 s 105
1 10 10 2
min 103
Time
Austenitisation temperature 880 C Specimen dimension / mm: 3 x 15
(holding time 3 min) heated up in 2 min Material: C45E
Fig. 7.14 Time-temperature-transformation diagram for continuous cooling of C45E steel, acc.
to MPI
The strength values of steel can also be increased through quenching and temper-
ing (+QT). When the material is tempered, the martensite formed during hardening
is broken down again in a targeted way through re-heating. At low tempering
temperatures, carbon precipitates in a finely distributed form, while at higher tem-
peratures coarser cementite grains develop [Schu04]. The machinability of the
tempered structure increases with increasing martensite decay.
Several possibilities for a targeted influence on structure by various heat treat-
ments are shown in Fig. 7.15 using the heat-treatable steel C45E as an example.
The allocation of the partial images to the heat treatments is as follows
(Fig. 7.16):
1. Coarse grain annealing. Metallographic constituents: coarse-grain perlite with
lamellar cementite, a ferrite network between the grains (white).
2. Normalizing. Metallographic constituents: perlite with lamellar cementite, fer-
rite. These are the same constituents as in coarse-grain annealing, but the
structure is finer-grain and more homogeneous.
3. Quenching and tempering. Structure: tempered martensite.
4. Soft-annealing. Metallographic constituents: ferrite (white) with globularly
shaped cementite.
1000
900 Start of ferrite formation Start of perlite formation
800
Ac3
Ac1
700
Temperature T / C
A 28
600 F AAustenite
25 75 29 FFerrite
30
15 P 85 End of PPerlite
500 33 transformation BBainite
B 33 MMartensite
400 Ms 42 Hardness/HRC
50 20 Part of the
300 M
structure/ %
50 %
90 % Specimen dimension
200
Outside diameter 4 mm
Insidediameter 3.2 mm
100
Length 30 mm
1 10 102 103 104 105 s 106
2 3 4
1 10 10 10 min 10
Material: C45E Time
Austenitisation temperature 880 C, (Holding time 5 min) heated up in 1 min
Fig. 7.15 Time-temperature-transformation diagram for isotherm conversion of C45E steel, acc.
to MPI
Fig. 7.16 Crystalline

structure for different heat
treatments (C45E)
7.4 Machinability of Various Steel Materials 263
7.4 Machinability of Various Steel Materials

In addition to the categorization of steels according to their alloy content, they
are also categorized in practice with a view to their uses and applications. The
categories are:
free cutting steels,

case-hardened steels,
heat-treatable steels,
nitrided steels,
tool steels and
rust- and acid-proof, heat-proof and highly heat resisting steels.
7.4.1 Machining Steels

The free cutting steels are materials which are distinguished by especially good
machinability. Characteristics in this respect are a favourable breakage, clean work-
piece surfaces and low tool wear. They can be machined without difficulty on
automatic lathes and multi-spindle lathes and are thus highly suited to serial and
mass production. The high cutting speeds can be used, these being often limited
by the workpiece diameter and the respective machine tools (multi-spindle lathes).
Depending on their chemical composition and field of application, free cutting
steels are subjected to heat treatments like carburizing hardening or quenching and
tempering.
These favourable properties with respect to machinability are given to machining
steels primarily by adding different alloying elements. The main alloying elements,
sulphur, lead and phosphorous, as well as tellurium, bismuth and antimony reduce
the strength of the material in the shear zone. The reduced strength results in short-
breaking chips with a low level of compression.
Machining steels are predominately cut with coated cemented carbide tools and
moulding tools consisting of high speed steel. The development of wear on these
tools is relatively slow. The low-carbon machining steels in widespread use (e.g.
11SMn30, 11SMnPb30, 9S20) are characterized by high ferrite and low perlite
content. The result of this is a low level of abrasive tool wear. Even at low cut-
ting speeds, adhesion in the form of built-up edges plays an important role with
respect to tool wear. When machining low-carbon machining steels at low cutting
speeds (vc < 100 m/min), friction-reducing layers (MnS, Pb) form which contribute
to reducing tool wear [Zink99].
The machinability of free cutting steels is relatively low for machining purposes.
Reasons for this are the large amount of ferrite in the microstructure as well as the
strength-reducing properties of the main alloying elements.
The achievable surface qualities are considerably influenced by the adhesion ten-
dency of the material caused by the formation of built-up edges. MnS layers, Pb
and P reduce this adhesion tendency, positively influencing the surface quality of
the workpieces.
As a function of the steel production process, phosphorous causes a formation

of segregations (demixing) in the steel because of its relatively small diffusion
coefficient. This undesirable property can only be partially removed through sub-
sequent heat treatment. High-temperature diffusion annealing can only compensate
microsegregations (crystallization segregations, concentration differences). In con-
trast, segregations at the macro-scale (macrosegregations) cannot be removed
extensively by means of a subsequent heat treatment. This is because of the large
distance from the middle to the edge of the steel ingot. Sufficiently eliminating
macrosegregations would require annealing times of such a length as would lead to
a significant coarsening of the grains. Smaller macrosegregations can be achieved
by deoxidizing the steel prior to casting.
Nitrogen and carbon precipitations are promoted by phosphorous and induce
an embrittlement of the -mixed crystal (ferrite embrittlement). These precipita-
tions increase with increasing temperature, which means that tempering brittleness
occurs to a greater degree and the impact value is already reduced from 100 C.
The degradation of strength properties caused by phosphorous are responsible for
the embrittlement of machining steels at the average shear level temperature of
approximately 200400 C. The result is a more favourable chip formation with
short-breaking chips when machining. The adhesion tendency in the contact zone
continues to be reduced and the surface quality is positively influenced. Machining
steels contain up to 0.1% phosphorous.
The positive effect of MnS on machinability is explained by the fact that both
the internal friction of the material in the shear zone and the friction in the contact
zone are reduced. Recent investigations prove the inclusion of MnS as the basis
for glide line formation in the shear zone. Since sulphur reduces tool wear but
hardly influences tempering brittleness, it is favoured over phosphorous as alloying
element.
MnS causes the chips to be short, improves the surface quality of the workpiece
and reduces the tendency toward the development of built-up edges. The form of sul-
fidic inclusions in machining steel is determined by the quantity of oxygen released
upon solidification. Three different types of sulphides are found in steel:
Type 1: This type of sulphide forms as a liquid phase at an oxygen content of

> 0.02% corresponding to the quasiternary system Fe-MnO-MnS in iron-rich
melts. After solidification, this sulphide appears in the form of regularly dis-
tributed, globular particles or irregularly rounded particles. These brittle type 1
sulphides are clearly separated from each other in the steel, enclosed in cells.
Type 2: In iron melts with an oxygen content of < 0.01%, this form of sulphide
precipitates from melts rich in manganese sulphide at the primary grain bound-
aries as a MnS phase similar to an eutectic point. Type 2 sulphides are not present
in steel in enclosed cells, but rather grow as if radiating from individual centres.
In the process, furcations form or, in some places, the sulphides growing out of
the funnel-shaped cells fuse together.
Type 3: This type of sulphide crystallizes from Fe melts with a reduced melting
point. An essential requirement for the formation of these sulphides is a carbon
and silicon content between 0.1 and 0.4% and an aluminium content between
0.05 and 0.3%. Type 3 sulphides precipitate in interdendritic regions. However,
like those of type 1, they are evenly distributed. Their composition and form
correspond to that of the angular, face-centred cubic -MnS.
With respect to machinability, type 1 sulphides are considered to be the most

favourable. As a result, different metallurgical measures are taken to create this sul-
phide type for free cutting steels. The formation of round manganese sulphides is
favoured, for example, by alloying tellurium. The machinability of machining steel
improves in an essential way with an increasing quantity of larger manganese sul-
phides. Such sulphides prevent the pressure welding of the ferrite grains by forming
scale-like layers and create a protective zone between the chip and the tool [Kni66].
Machinability is improved by adding up to 0.35% lead. Lead does not dissolve in
-Fe and penetrates the steel microstructure in the form of sub-microscopic inclu-
sions. The strength properties and toughness of steels are negatively influenced,
especially in the region of 250400 C. Lead liquefies at relatively low tempera-
tures (TS = 326 C). When machining steels containing lead, a thin lead film may
wet the contact surfaces between the tool and the workpiece. This reduces the ten-
dency towards pressure welding and facilitates the shearing-off process. At cutting
speeds exceeding 100 m/min or with large feeds, the lead film becomes ineffective
and wear accelerates. The specific cutting forces fall by up to 50% and the chips
become short-breaking.
Adding lead (about 0.25%) to machining steels can increase tool life by approxi-
mately 5070%. The effect of lead on tool wear depends on the cutting speed. Given
a lead-content increase of 00.29% and cutting speeds below 100 m/min, there is
a reduction of flank face wear on HSS tools. In the cutting speed region above 100
m/min, an increased lead content has a negative effect on the development of flank
face wear. With respect to crater wear, the effect of lead is not affected by the cutting
speed.
As opposed to sulphur, lead can be alloyed with almost all steels, but these
steels may only be stressed in a temperature range below 200 C. Typically, about
0.150.30% Pb is added to machining steels. Substituting lead as an alloying ele-
ment in machining steels gains in importance with a view to its harmfulness to health
[Wink83]. Similarly to lead, tellurium, bismuth and antimony also help to achieve
improved chip breakage and bring about a lubricating effect in the contact zone
which reduces tool wear. Investigations have shown that adding bismuth consider-
ably improves the machinability of lead-free machining steels (e.g. 16SMn30) with
respect to their chip formation, surface roughness and forces arising during machin-
ing. In comparison with alloys containing lead, however, the onset of abrasive wear
on uncoated cemented carbide tools is considerably more aggressive when turning.
This effect is not to be observed with coated cemented carbide tools. Machining
steels in which lead has been replaced by tin exhibit a significantly reduced ten-
dency towards chip breakage and are thus only recommendable for methods with
interrupted cutting, such as milling [Esse06].
Free cutting steels in common use include 9SMn28, 9SMnPb28, 35S20, 45S20.
7.4.2 Case-Hardened Steels

The case-hardened steels include unalloyed machining steels, grade and special
steels as well as alloyed special steels. Common to all of these is a relatively low
carbon content (C < 0.2%). Case-hardened steels are predominately utilized in the
manufacture of wear-stressed and variably stressed parts like cogwheels, gear shafts,
joints, connectors etc.
Case-hardened steels are almost exclusively processed by chip removal prior
to case-hardening. Since the microstructure of these steels contains mostly ferrite
and only a small amount of perlite, the onset of wear on the tool is low. Beyond
this, cutting speeds should be kept above 200 m/min in order to avoid the growth
of built-up edges. The machining of case-hardened steels is mostly achieved with
coated cemented carbide tools belonging to application group P (e.g. HC-P10) or
with cermets in order to withstand the thermal stress caused when machining at
high cutting speeds.
Because of the high ferrite content and low perlite content in their microstructure,
the machinability of case-hardened steels in a soft state is low.
The adhesion tendency of case-hardened steels leads to the formation of built-
up edges and to bad surface qualities when procedures with low cutting speeds are
used, such as tapping, boring, broaching and shaping. In order to improve machin-
ability with respect to surface roughness, case-hardened steels are heat treated to a
certain ferrite/perlite structure (BG) or to a certain strength (BF), depending on their
alloying elements. Coarse-grain annealing is often applied to alloyed case-hardened
steels in order to reduce difficulties caused by their adhesion tendency. At the same
time, this reduces the strong tendency of the structure towards linearity, which is
highly disadvantageous for machining purposes, especially for reaming and broach-
ing, since individual lines may be cut out. This linearity can be partially suppressed
by means of a rapid cooling during heat treatment, but it appears again when re-
heating over the transformation point. The best possible surface quality is achieved
furthermore by applying suitable cutting fluids, by changing the tool geometry (pos-
itive tool orthogonal rake angle) and through reducing the feed [Opit64, Peke74].
The applicable cutting conditions are little influenced by the heat treatment
used provided that machining is executed with cemented carbide tools and the ten-
sile strength of the material is under 650 N/mm2 [Well72]. Tools made of HSS, on
the other hand, react more sensitively to differences in strength, so that different cut-
ting speeds are required depending on the heat-treatment condition of the material.
Because of their very high toughness and low carbon content, case-hardened
steels tend towards forming long chips. This lends especial importance to the selec-
tion of a suitable chip breaker when turning carbide indexable inserts. Chip breakage
can be improved by alloying, for example, sulphur and lead (e.g. 16MnCrS5).
Alloying sulphur reduces the strength of steel. This is because of the formation
of manganese sulphides (see also Sect. 7.3.3). A reduction of strength by alloying
lead is only observable from a temperature of over 300 C.
After machining, the case-hardening process follows in three steps: carburiz-
ing, hardening and tempering. The workpiece rim zones are carburized to obtain
0.60.9% carbon. After case-hardening (direct hardening, single hardening, double

hardening), the hardness values in the rim zone increase up to 62 HRC. As a result
of the warpage of the components caused by the case-hardening, a cutting post-
machining process must be executed in some cases. Finest-grain carbides, mixed
ceramics and PCBN cutting tool materials are especially suited to finishing highly
heat-treated or hardened steels (> 45 HRC). Very high resultant forces arise in the
process. Because the chip is annealed in the clearly high temperatures, chip break-
age does not become a problem. As a rule, very high surface qualities are achieved
in this way (see also Sect. 7.4.6).
Frequently used case-hardened steels include C15E, 16MnCr5, 20MoCr4,
18CrNi8.
7.4.3 Heat-Treatable Steels

Heat-treated steels have carbon contents between 0.2 and 0.6% and are there-
fore stronger than case-hardened steels. The main alloying components are silicon,
manganese, chrome, molybdenum, nickel and vanadium.
The machinability of heat-treatable steels depends primarily on their crystalline
structure, which is a result of the respective heat treatment applied, and can thus
vary to a great extent. The influence of the material structure on machinability is
generally stronger than that of the alloying elements.
The development of wear is essentially determined by the ferrite- and perlite-
content in the microstructure. In the case of unalloyed heat-treatable steels with a
carbon content up to about 0.5%, regularly formed ferritic/perlitic microstructures
have a positive effect on machinability. Increasing the perlite content accelerates the
development of tool wear and increases the resultant force. This limits the applicable
range of cutting speeds. At higher cutting speeds, the end of tool life is brought
about through crater lip breakage, especially when the steel contains larger amounts
of chrome, manganese and vanadium (alloyed heat-treatable steels).
The length of the chips when machining heat-treatable steels depends consider-
ably, as do other machinability criteria, on the respective type of heat treatment and
the crystalline structure of the steel. Similarly to case-hardened steels, chip breakage
can be improved by means of tool geometry and by alloying lead and sulphur. The
intended use of the heat-treatable steels is of particular importance when selecting
alloying elements which promote chip breakage, since this can lead to a reduction
of strength.
Cementite spheroidization (soft annealing) is advantageous with respect to the
wear behaviour of steels with larger ratios of carbon. This allows higher cutting
speed to be used. However, the adhesion tendency also increases, which degrades
the surface quality of the workpiece. Soft-annealed structures with a mixture of
lamellar and granular cementite also lend themselves to machining at higher cutting
speeds.
Abrasion and thermal wear become insignificant when machining heat-treatable
structures (predominantly tempered martensite). The cutting speed should be
reduced correspondingly. The most appropriate cutting edge materials for machin-
ing heat-treatable steels are coated cemented carbides for rough-machining and,
for planing, cermets. Tools made of high speed steel are used in many cases for
boring and thread die cutting. In view of abrasion and thermal wear, the selection
of a suitable coating is recommendable here. Material hardness values > 45 HRC
require highly wear-resistant cemented carbides, cutting ceramics or CBN as cutting
materials.
For turning, milling and drilling, sulphur additives at a ratio of approximately
0.06-0.1% effect a clear improvement of the steels machinability. At higher values,
this improvement is reduced and the steels strength is lowered.
Heat-treatable steels are heat treated in order to regulate their mechanical prop-
erties with respect to their intended purpose. They can only be adjusted for good
machinability in few cases. Moreover, heat treatment procedures for achieving
good machinability vary. For example, the machinability of steel C60E is improved
through soft-annealing, that of steel C22E through coarse-grain annealing (or
cold-forming).
In some cases, hardening and tempering takes place between rough-machining
and planing or precision machining. Rough-machining, for which the most impor-
tant factor is a high chip-removal rate, is performed on materials in a normal-
ized state whose machinability is characterized, because of their ferritic/perlitic
microstructure, by relatively low wear. Most components made of heat-treatable
steel are machined in a heat-treated state. The associated strength values exceed
those of the annealed state. For this reason, high cutting speeds induce a strongly
increase in tool wear.
Among the heat-treatable steels frequently used in practice for machining are
C45E, 42CrMo4, 30CrMoV9 and 36CrNiMo4. These materials are utilized for
components of medium and high strain, especially in automobile and aircraft
construction (connecting rods, axles, axle-pivots, rotor and crank shafts, springs,
cogwheels).
7.4.4 Nitrided Steels

The carbon content of nitrided steels lies between 0.2 and 0.45%. They are heat-
treatable and are alloyed with Cr and Mo for improved hardenability, as well as
with aluminium or vanadium (nitride formers). Nitriding is carried out at tempera-
tures between 500 and 600 C, i.e. below the --transformation temperature of the
material [MDH80].
As opposed to case-hardened steel, for which high levels of hardness are achieved
by means of a --phase transformation and the production of the metastable phase
martensite, nitrided steel has a very hard surface traced back to the brittle metal
nitrides. The nitrogen diffusing into the surface layer during the nitriding process
forms with the alloying elements Cr, Mo and Al special nitrides. These mostly
precipitate in submicroscopic form and cause high latticework tensions, i.e. high
surface hardness.
The machining of these steels is done prior to nitriding, and usually in a heat-
treated state. This structural state (i.e. fine, regularly distributed carbids, tempered
martensite), which is favourable for subsequent nitriding, exhibits unfavourable
machinability properties.
The heat-treated structure usually found when machining and the carbides dis-
tributed in the structure lead to high mechanical and thermal stresses on the tools.
A short tool life is to be expected, especially at high cutting speeds. Due to the high
strength values of heat-treated steels, the resultant force is relatively high.
If the nitrided steels are machined in a soft state, burr formation may cause
a degradation of the surface quality and an impairment of the quality of the
component.
When machining nitrided steels in a heat-treated state, one can expect predomi-
nately acceptable chip forms. In a non-heat-treated state, however, problems related
to chip breakage will arise during machining.
Greater precipitations of ferrite in nitrided steel lead to an embrittlement of the
rim zones and to an irregular transition in the core zone. Coarse-grain annealing for
achieving good machinability is not to be recommended with respect to the steels
later use, since the ferrite would become even more coarse-grain and the strength
would further decrease.
Nitrated steels with increased nickel content, such as 34CrAlNi7 with approx.
1% Ni, are difficult to machine. Nitrided steels containing aluminium are funda-
mentally more difficult to machine than aluminium-free ones, such as 31CrMo12,
which exhibits a lower adhesion tendency. The addition of sulphur (34CrAlS5) has
a positive effect on machinability. Nitrided steels are used in a similar range of
applications as case-hardened steels (cogwheels, guide strips, etc.).
7.4.5 Tool Steels

One generally distinguishes between non-alloy and alloyed tool steels. Tool steels
are required for different stresses. On this basis, the following categories are used:
cold-working steels,
hot-working steels and
high-speed steels.
These categories are also useful for describing the machinability of tool steels.
Non-alloy tool steels in a forged or rolled state with a carbon content up to
0.9% contain lamellar perlite and ferrite, while those with higher carbon contents
have lamellar perlite and a cementite network. Irrespective of carbon content, soft-
annealed steels should have more or less regularly distributed cementite grains in a
ferritic matrix. With an even higher carbon content, the cementite network cannot
be removed by means of conventional soft annealing.
In a hardened state, the structure consists primarily of martensite in the rim
layers. The martensite gradually transforms into intermediate structures as well as
fine-lamellar perlite in the direction of the workpiece interior. In the case of supereu-
tectoid steels, cementite grains are embedded in the matrix as well, if the steel was
soft-annealed prior to hardening. Should this treatment be left out, then remnants of
the brittle cementite network take the place of the cementite grains.
Non-alloy tool steels with a carbon content between 0.5 and 1.5% are machined
in a soft-annealed state. Subeutectoid, non-alloy tool steels can also be machined in
a normalized state or in the condition of delivery after hot working. In both cases, a
relatively inferior machinability is to be expected because of the increased adhesion
tendency and the growth of built-up edges.
The resultant force when machining tool steels is determined to a great extent by
the special alloy composition and the type of heat treatment used. When machining
alloyed tool steels, the dissolution of carbide formers and the increase in strength
associated with this leads to an increase in the resultant force.
When machining tool steels in a normalized or soft-annealed state, the increased
adhesion tendency and associated growth of built-up edges have a negative effect on
surface quality. This can be partially remedied by means of a quenching and tem-
pering to a higher strength. Because of the high deformability of ferrite, long chips
with bad breakage form when machining tool steels in a soft-annealed state. An
increasing carbide moulding degrades the chip breakage. If machining is executed
in a heat-treated state, chip breakage is not to be considered a problem.
The amount of carbide formers is bears little importance for the machinability
of alloyed tool steels. Carbide formers only increase the wear effect on the steel
in an obvious way when they have dissolved during austenitizing and have not
formed any carbides during subsequent annealing. The alloyed tool steels, espe-
cially high-alloyed high speed steels, are poorly machinable in an annealed state.
This is due, as with unalloyed tool steels, to the marked formation of gluing-points
and built-up edges. Disruptions may form at the outlet points of the tool. The adhe-
sion tendency can be reduced by quenching and tempering to greater strengths
(12001400 N/mm2 ). This increases abrasive wear and the thermal stress on the
cutting edge, however. The cutting speeds which are applicable in machining tool
steels are, as a rule, relatively low and increase with the level of carbide mould-
ing. However, the adhesion tendency of these steels, with finely distributed granular
carbides, increases to an equal extent. Cutting materials most often used for machin-
ing tool steels are cemented carbides containing titanium carbides and tantalum
carbides with medium toughness (e.g. from application group P20) as well as cer-
mets. Following machining in an annealed state, tool steels can also be machined
in a heat-treated state (Rm < 2000 N/mm2 ) using cutting edge materials made
of CBN.
Selecting alloying additives for tool steels is based first and foremost on their
influence on surface hardness, hardness penetration depth, tempering consistency,
toughness and wear resistance, whereby a suitable coordination with the carbon con-
tent is necessary, especially for higher-alloyed steels. The carbon content of the steel
determines the ratio of carbides, which significantly promote abrasive wear. Carbon
also influences hardenability and contributes decisively to tempering consistency
and toughness via carbide reactions during hardening and tempering.
7.4.6 Hardened Steels

For a long time, grinding used to be the only way to machine hardened steels. The
development of ultrahard cutting edge materials in the 1980s led to the machining
of these materials with geometrically defined cutting edges. Since then, the machin-
ing of hardened materials exceeding a hardness of 50 HRC has come to be known
as hard machining.
While hard turning had been implemented almost exclusively in single and small-
batch production up to a few years ago, it is now used increasingly for large-batch
and mass production. As a rule, hard turning is advantageous if a machining multiple
sides can be achieved in a single clamping. When machining in one clamping, a very
high accuracy of position of the functional surfaces can be realized. Hard turning
procedures for machining interiors and contours are still very important.
For turning hardened steel, almost the only options are ultrahard non-metallic
cutting edge materials, such as crystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) and with
some limitations mixed ceramics. This is because of the extremely high require-
ments on hot hardness and the cutting tool materials consistency against diffusion
resulting from the high temperatures and from cutting pressures in the machining
zone. Because of their low hot hardness, however, finest-grain cemented carbides
and ultrafine-grain cemented carbides are only suited to hard machining with low
cutting times, such as turning with interrupted cutting, hard milling, broaching, gear
skiving and -shaping. Because of their toughness, which clearly exceed both that
of the very heat-resistant, though relatively brittle PCBN and, even more so, that of
cutting edges made from mixed ceramics, they exhibit very good working behaviour
in these applications [Koch96, Wina96].
The spectrum of chemical and physical properties of commercially available
PCBN cutting materials is relatively large. In addition to clear differences in hard-
ness and resistance to bending, properties that vary especially are heat conductivity,
resistance to thermal shock and thermo-chemical inertia with respect to the material
to be machined. This variance can be attributed to the cBN grain size and to the type
and concentration of the binder phase [Kloc05b, Joch01].
When machining hardened steels with PCBN, the surface quality can be
improved by modifying the cutting edge geometry. By selecting a large tool orthog-
onal clearance, one can principally increase the cutting time without changing the
amount of free flank wear and simultaneously increase the displacement of the cut-
ting edge. For the cutting edge fillet, an optimum radius of approximately 20 m
is recommended. Small bevels and radii lead to disruptions and wavering tool
life, while larger bevels and radii cause larger forces and may induce oscillations
[Kloc05c].
Mixed ceramics represent a further application group which can be used for hard
machining with continuous cutting. In comparison to PCBN cutting edge materials,
the use of mixed ceramics as cutting edge materials places less stress on the cut-
ting edge with the result of clearly smaller chip thicknesses of a maximum 100 m.
The use of round indexable inserts or the selection of the greatest possible corner
radius is recommended for pre-machining with smooth cutting [Abel93]. Because
of the low toughness, anything but smooth cuts cannot be recommended [Kni89a,
Momp87]. In consideration of the fact that tool costs are lower by a factor of
1020, mixed ceramics for smooth-cutting represent a widespread alternative to
cutting edge materials with a small ratio of CBN.
High resultant forces and high rake face temperatures arise during hard machin-
ing with rough cutting. Specific cutting forces kc between 4000 and 4700 N/mm2
and rake face temperatures which may even, in exceptional cases, exceed the local
melting temperature of the material to be machined have been recorded [Berk92].
As opposed to soft machining, the passive force takes on very high values in this
case. These values may even be higher than those of the cutting force [Kni84b,
Tns93, Wobk93]. The normal compression stresses in the region of the wear mark
on the side of the minor flank lead to a high mechanical and thermal stress on the
workpiece rim zone.
The mechanical stress is the result of flank load similar to H ERTZian pressure.
The stress state in the workpiece caused by this pressure induces a residual austen-
ite transformation and cold-forming in the rim layer of the workpiece [Gold91].
Through this process, compressive stresses are induced which increase with increas-
ing flank wear of the minor cutting edge. For this reason, when hard-machining, the
maximum amount of compressive residual stresses are shifted to the greater depths
of the workpiece rim zone with an increase in flank wear.
The thermal stress is a result of the friction between the flank face and the
workpiece. Both high normal stresses and high shear stresses lead, in combination
with the relative movement between the tool and the workpiece, to high friction
forces. High contact temperatures are the result, and these cause, via rapid cooling,
the formation of martensite when the --transformation temperature is exceeded.
The martensite is recognizable in the microsection as a white, unetched layer
(Fig. 7.17, right). A darker zone with a tempered structure can be seen below the
white rim layer. Phenomena which occur at high temperatures because of trans-
formations and high cooling gradients cause tensile residual stresses which are
superposed on mechanically induced compressive residual stresses [Jonk87]. The
magnitude of the flank face wear on the minor cutting edge has a significant influ-
ence on the distribution of stress in the workpiece rim zone. Metallographic studies
20 m
Fig. 7.17 Formation of the rim zone during hard turning

h > 20 m h < 20 m
Fig. 7.18 Longitudinal section of a saw tooth chip (left) and a ribbon chip (right)
of hard-machined workpiece surfaces confirm the influence of tool wear on the

formation of a new hardening zone. How the distribution of stress and the new
hardening zones ultimately affect the behaviour of the component has not been suf-
ficiently explained yet. Of particular interest are the effects on the fatigue strength of
rolling contact stressed functional surfaces. The formation of new hardening zones
during hard machining cannot be inhibited, not even by using coolants. Since the
use of coolants effects no improvement of the tool life behaviour of the cutting
edge material, hard-machining is generally performed in a dry state. When machin-
ing with interrupted cutting, the thermo-shock sensitivity of superhard cutting tool
materials even forbids the use of coolants [Acke89, Tns91].
Highly heat-treated steels which receive their hardness mainly from their marten-
sitic crystalline structure are practically non-deformable in room temperature and
environmental pressure. This deformability behaviour results in a special chip for-
mation, one different from the classic chip formation of unhardened steels. When
machining hardened steels, two different chip forms may develop depending on
the chip thickness. With high chip thicknesses (h > 20 m), a saw-tooth chip
develops [Acke89, Berk92, Naru79] (Fig. 7.18), while smaller chip thicknesses
(h < 20 m) tend to cause the formation of a ribbon chip [Kni93b].
The development of saw-tooth chips initiates material separation via a crack
formation on the surface which transmits itself into the workpiece under an angle of
the greatest shear stresses [Acke89]. The released chip segment slides off between
the rake face and the newly developed separating surface. If the chip segment has
slid so far that the increasing compressive stresses in turn cause the critical shear
stress to be exceeded, the next crack forms. One theory ascribes the connection of
chip segments to the fact that the crack is caught up in front of the cutting edge and
a plastic deformation takes place due to the compressive stresses and high temper-
atures. Chip segments on a plasticized material thus slide off [Berk92]. In the case
of high chip thicknesses, the transition from a ribbon chip to a saw-tooth chip is
a function of the hardness of the material. With the predominately martensitically
hardened, unalloyed tool steel C105W2 (1.1645), for example, this transition takes
place at approximately 50 HRC [Naru79]. At low chip thicknesses (h < 20 m), the
chip thickness is in the region of the cutting edge radius rn with a tool orthogonal
rake angle which acts in a correspondingly strongly negative way. A triaxial stress
state with a high ratio of hydrostatic compressive stress is thereby caused in the
area of the material directly in front of the cutting edge with no material separation
ensuing. The shear stress hypothesis put forward by MOHR offers an explanation
of these phenomena. VON KRMN already indicates the possibility of a plastic
deformation of brittle materials under pressure on all sides [Karm11]. If such a state
of compressive stress exists, the shear yield stress becomes a decisive criterion.
If, however, the strain on the material is characterized by a monoaxial compressive
stress state as it occurs on the workpiece surface, the failure of the material is caused
by a cleavage fracture.
Precision hard turning (vc 100200 m/min, f 0.050.15 mm, ap
0.10.5 mm) is used for manufacturing ready-to-use components. Surface rough-
ness values in the region of Rz = 2.54 m can be achieved in series manufacturing
in a procedurally reliable way. A further development of precision hard turning
tending toward higher component quality is high-precision hard turning (vc
150220 m/min, f 0.010.1 mm, ap 0.020.3 mm), which has the potential
of achieving surface roughness values which lie clearly below those of conventional
precision hard turning processes. The surface roughness Rz achievable when using
special machine tools lie below 1 m. However, one must also expect that increas-
ing tool wear will bring about a degradation of surface quality. The procedure shows
potential for creating surfaces with Rz 3 m with long tool life.
7.4.7 Non-rusting Steels

Non-rusting steels contain at least 10.5% chromium and a maximum of 1.2% car-
bon. Their main alloying elements are chrome and nickel. Amounts of chromium
exceeding 12% render the steel material corrosion-resistant. Nickel expands the
-region and, in the case of steels with a high chromium content, leads to the
stabilization of the austenitic structure, which is generally unstable in the case of
low-alloyed carbon steels and which disintegrates into ferrite and cementite below
the Ac1-temperature. Nickel starkly decreases the heat conductivity of the steel
material. Chrome steel is the usual term for ferritic steel types and Cr-Ni steel
for austenitic steel types. According to their essential usage properties, DIN EN
10088-1 categorizes non-rusting steels into:
corrosion-resistant steels,
heat-resistant steels and
high-temperature steels.
Non-rusting steels are distinguished by good persistence against chemically
aggressive substances. In general, they have a chromium content of at least 12%.
Protection is achieved with a chromium content of more than 10.5% by means of the
spontaneous formation of a protective chromium oxide layer [DINEN10088]. With
respect to their metallographic constituents, the corrosion-resistant steels are subdi-
vided into ferritic, martensitic, austenitic and ferritic-austenitic steels. Figure 7.19
40
60
30
70
%
Nic
t/
ke
ten
l
on
co
80
20
nc
nte
Austenite
Iro
n t/
Marten-
%
site
+
Auste- 1
10
90
nite
Austenite
+
Martensite
Ferrite
Ferrite
3 2
0
0
10
0 10 20 30 40
Chromium content / %
1 : X5CrNi1810; 2 : X6Cr17; 3 : X39Cr13
Fig. 7.19 Phase diagram of Cr-Ni-steels with metallographic constituent data after quenching,
acc. to IGNATOWITZ [Igna97]
shows the phase diagram of Cr-Ni steels. One can see from this diagram which
structure is to be expected, depending on chromium and nickel content, with a non-
rusting chromium-nickel steel after quenching. Point 1 corresponds to the austenitic
steel X5CrNi18-10 with 18% chromium, 10% nickel and 72% iron, point 2 cor-
responds to the ferritic chrome steel X6Cr17 and point 3 to the martensitic steel
material X39Cr13 [Igna97].
The ferritic steels are primarily chrome steels with a chromium content of
12.518% and a C-content below 0.1% (e.g. X6Cr13, material no.: 1.4000, X6Cr17,
material no.: 1.4016). They are magnetic and not hardenable.
Martensitic steels are primarily chrome steels with a chromium content of
1218% and a C-content of 0.11.2% (e.g. X12Cr13, material no.: 1.4006;
X39Cr13, material no.: 1.4031). Depending on the quality, these steels also contain
additional Ni and Mo. They are magnetic and can be heat-treated and tempered by
means of a corresponding heat-treatment. With increasing C-content, the hardness
of the steel increases when in a hardened state. A hardness of 40 HRC is achievable
with a C-content of 0.1% and a hardness of 59 HRC with a C-content of 0.9%.
The steels the most used by far are austenitic steel materials. They contain
approximately 1726% Cr, 726% Ni, less than 0.12% C and, in some cases, small
amounts of Si, Mo, V, Nb, Ti, Al or Co (e.g. X5CrNi18-10, material no.: 1.4301;
X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2, material no.: 1.4571). They are not magnetic and cannot be
hardened by means of heat treatment. In an annealed state, they are characterized by
very good toughness properties which are retained even at extremely low tempera-
tures. Especially given a high carbon content, they tend when cold-formed towards
considerable strain hardening. Through cold-forming, therefore, their strength val-
ues can be increased dramatically. When strain-induced martensite forms, however,
the strain is reduced to a very considerable degree.
Among the products made from the abovementioned corrosion-resistant steels
are household devices, razor blades, knives, surgical instruments, parts for automo-
bile construction, agricultural and materials handling technology, mechanical and
plant engineering and devices and instruments for the food industry, the chemical
industry, the textile industry and for shipbuilding [Stah01].
A further group of corrosion-resistant steels are the ferritic-austenitic steel
materials, also either referred to as duplex steels (e.g. X2CrNiMoN22-5-3, mate-
rial no.: 1.4462) or super duplex steels (e.g. X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4, material
no.: 1.4501). The name duplex refers to their two-phase crystalline structure con-
sisting of ferrite and austenite. These steels have optimal properties at a balanced
ferrite/austenite ratio of approximately 50/50%. In comparison to normal austenitic
steels, the duplex steels contain less nickel (about 48%), though usually a
significantly higher amount of chromium (about 1825%). In order to increase their
resistance to intercrystalline corrosion, a certain amount of nickel is exchanged
for additional nitrogen as an austenite former and molybdenum. The optimal
microstructure is created by means of a heat-treatment at 10001100 C. These steels
find the most use in the gas and oil industry, in the petrochemical industry, in chem-
ical tankers and in sewage treatment plant construction. In comparison to austenitic
rustproof steels, the duplex materials have a strain limit which is almost double as
high (Rp0,2 about 400550 MPa) given similar or markedly higher strength values.
Heat-resistant steels are mainly ferritic and austenitic steels with a high resis-
tance against oxidation as well as against the influence of hot gases and combustion
products above 550 C. As a rule, the heat-resistant ferritic steels contain at least
12% chromium as well as aluminium and silicon (e.g. X10CrAlSi13, material
no.: 1.4724; X10CrAlSi25, material no.: 1.4762). Heat-resistant austenitic steels
are additionally alloyed with at least 9% nickel (e.g. X8CrNiTi18-10, material no.:
1.4878; X15CrNiSi25-21, material no.: 1.4841). These steel types are used, for
example, in ovens and apparatus construction for annealing bells, baskets and tubes
[Stah01].
The high-temperature steels are mainly martensitic and austenitic steel types
with a high long-time rupture strength with a long-term mechanical strain above
500 C. Among the products made from high-temperature martensitic steels (e.g.
X20CrMoV11-1, material no.: 1.4922; X20CrMoWV12-1, material no.: 1.4935)
are components for thermal power plants, steam boilers and turbines, as well as for
the chemical industry and nuclear technology. High-temperature austenitic steels
(e.g. X6CrNi18-10, material no.: 1.4948; X5NiCrTi26-15, material no. 1.4980) are
used in the construction of pressure vessels and armatures, pressure tanks and steam
boilers, but also in the manufacture of blades, discs, axles and bolts for steam and
gas turbines as well as in shipbuilding [Stah01].
Non-rusting steels with a ferritic structure lend themselves to machining rel-
atively well. The onset of wear through abrasion and adhesion is comparatively
low. The machinability of martensitic steels is a function of hardness, which is in
turn a result of the heat treatment used. Depending on the heat treatment, the struc-
ture consists either of martensite (hardened) or tempered martensite with chromium
carbides and ferrite (quenched and tempered). Duplex steels are considered to be
extremely hard to machine. Characteristic reasons for this are a marked adhesion
tendency, high strain hardening of the workpiece rim zone and an unfavourable chip
formation.
Because of the eminent importance of corrosion-resistant austenitic steel mate-
rials, the following will go into more detail on their machinability properties.
Austenitic steel materials are machined in either a quenched or a solution-annealed
state. In comparison to ferritic-perlitic or quenched-and-tempered steels, they are
significantly harder to machine. This is due to their high deformability and tough-
ness, their tendency towards strain hardening and towards adhesion with the cutting
material, as well as their lower heat conductivity, which is about 1/3 lower than with
non-alloy steels. The latter impairs heat removal through the chip and increases the
thermal stress of the cutting edge. In spite of the comparatively low tensile strength
of austenitic Cr-Ni steels, the results of these specific material properties are a high
thermal stress of the tool cutting edge, pronounced flank face and/or rake face wear,
material gluing, notch wear, pitting of the cutting tool material, cutting edge break-
ages and unfavourable chip forms, which allow for machining tasks to be performed
only at relatively low cutting speeds, for short tool lives and with insufficient sur-
face qualities. In the case of coated tools, one can observe in many cases that the
adhesion between the material and the hard material coating is stronger than their
adhesion on the substrate and that this leads to the delamination of the coating.
Austenitic steel materials are machined preferably with uncoated or coated
WC-Co cemented carbides of the main application group M. Because of the high
thermal stress of the cutting edge, cutting speeds are used which, in comparison to
those used in turning ferritic-perlitic steels, are lower by a factor of 25. Applicable
cutting speeds range from vc = 50 m/min (X5NiCrTi26-15) to vc = 160 m/min
(X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2), depending on the alloy. The tool life is between 5 and
15 min.
A type of wear which limits tool life when turning austenitic steel materials with
uncoated cemented carbides is the formation of a pronounced crater on the rake face
(Fig. 3.41, left). Due to this strong crater wear, uncoated cemented carbides can
only be used at relatively low cutting speeds (vc < 100 m/min) [Gers04]. The use of
high cutting speed is only made possible when turning austenitic steels through the
application of coated tools (Fig. 3.41, right).
Significantly improved performance in turning austenitic steels requires cutting
tool materials with properties customized with respect to the respective machining
task (Fig. 7.20). The more the cutting tool material system reaches the physical
limits of the substrate and the hard-material coating in the chipping process, the
40
30
20 A
B
Tool life Tc / min
10
9
8
7 R
6 R
5
4 *
*
3
X5CrNi18-10 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2
2
100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300
Cutting tool materials:

A: WC-7.5Co-6.8MK-0.75Cr3C2 / TiN-TiCN-Al2O3-HfCN
B: WC-7.5Co-6.8MK-0.75Cr3C2 / TiAlN
R: Reference cutting tool material
Tool life criterion:
flank wear VB = 0.3 mm, *: plastic deformation of cutting edge
Process: external cylindrical turning
Cutting parameters: feed: f = 0.32 mm, depth of cut: ap = 2 mm
Cutting fluid: emulsion 6%
Fig. 7.20 Examples for the performance of carbides with tailored substrates and coating
systems compared to a common cutting tool material during roughing of austenitic steel, acc. to
GERSCHWILER [Gers04]
more carefully the substrate, the hard-material coating and the tool geometry must
be customized to the individual machining task [Gers04].
In addition to a high resistance to wear, machining tools used to turn austenitic
steel materials are also required to exhibit performance in terms of chip forma-
tion and chip breakage. Because of their high deformability, the austenitic steels
tend more than any others towards the formation of long ribbon and snarled chips.
The latter represent a high hazard potential not only for the component and the
machine, but also for the operating personnel. It is thus essential, and not only in
automated manufacturing plants, that this type of chip formation is avoided through
all available means to secure a higher level of machining safety.
A safe chip breakage is guaranteed in two ways. Firstly, on the material side,
through alloying measures. In many ways, however, there are narrow limits on these
measures placed by the usage properties of the material and the component. The
more promising way in most cases is thus the optimization of the cutting part geom-
etry. In case of varying cutting depths and/or small feeds, however, this places an
extremely high demand on the geometric design of the cutting edge. Especially with
small chip cross-sectional areas, the tools must possess chip shaping components
which lie close enough to the cutting edge so that they come into any contact at all
with the fine chips [Kni90a].
The high ductility of austenitic materials requires tools with the sharpest possi-
ble cutting edges. Sharp tool cutting edges facilitate the separation of the material
during chip formation and, by reducing the resultant forces, contribute in a highly
essential way to lowering the plastic deformation of the workpiece rim zone, to the
creation of high-quality workpiece surfaces and to the reduction of burr formation.
On the other hand, however, one can also observe that, with increasing mechanical
stress, very sharp cutting edges lead also contribute to an increased pitting of the
cutting tool material, which in turn leads to accelerated wear. As experiments have
shown, a defined cutting edge fillet can stabilize the cutting edge and significantly
improve tool life. When finish turning with small chip cross-sectional areas, how-
ever, a cutting edge fillet no greater than 30 m should be selected. When rough
turning, on the other hand, a highly stable cutting edge can be designed with a
4060 m fillet in order to prevent edge breakages and pittings of the cutting tool
material.
Burr formations become a further serious problem when machining ductile
austenitic steel materials. In the case of components which are to be burr-free,
up to 20% of manufacturing costs may result from burr removal [Kni93]. In
addition to the costs for burr removal, increasing demands on component qual-
ity and workplace attractiveness entail combating burr formation through suitable
measures.
As a rule, austenitic steels are machined by wet cutting. However, dry machining
is thoroughly possible with corresponding process dimensioning. One must con-
sider, however, that due to the lack of the cooling effect of the cutting fluid, both
chip and tool exhibit higher temperatures than is the case with wet machining. The
results of this are an increased in smeared material on the tool, clearly inferior chip
formation, more aggressive notch wear on the major and minor cutting edges and,
as a result, increased burr formation and inferior surface qualities. In comparison
to wet machining, dry machining austenitic steels can lead to a drastic reduction of
tool life, the latter being limited as a rule not by flank face wear, but rather by the
degradation of the surface quality associated with notch formation on the minor cut-
ting edge. Machining austenitic steels in an economical way thus requires special
measures. In addition to a tool geometry customized to the machining task, suitable
coating systems and cutting parameters, the most important of these is the use of a
minimum quantity lubrication. This lubrication in particular can reduce rewelding
of the material and significantly improve the surface quality. Mediums used for this
are, as a rule, synthetic ester oils [Gers04] (also Chap. 6).
7.5 Machinability of Cast Iron

Cast iron refers to iron-carbon alloys which have a carbon content above 2.06%. In
the iron-carbon two-material system, cast iron becomes a steel (up to 2.06% C). The
material is usually shaped by means of casting and a final machining operation.
Cast-iron alloy material groups are classified on the basis of the appearance of
their fracture faces into white and grey cast iron (Fig. 7.21). Among the white cast
iron materials are chilled cast iron and malleable cast iron, both of which solidify
according to the metastable iron-iron carbide system and in which carbon is thus
present in the form of cementite (Fe3 C). As opposed to this, the solidification of
grey cast iron takes place according to the stable iron-graphite system, with the
carbon thus being present as graphite. Depending on the form of the graphite, grey
cast iron materials are divided into cast irons with lamellar graphite (GJL), cast irons
with vermicular graphite (GJV) and cast irons with spheroidal graphite (GJS).
Cast iron
White cast iron Grey cast iron
White Black Chilled Lamellar Vermicular Spheroidal

malleable malleable cast iron graphite cast iron graphite
cast iron cast iron (GJH) (GJL) (GJV) (GJS)
(GJMW) (GJMB)
Fig. 7.21 Cast iron classification
In addition to the metallic matrix, the machining properties of iron-cast mate-

rials are also heavily influenced by the amount and formation of the embedded
graphite. Graphite inclusions, in the first place, reduce friction between the tool and
the workpiece and, on the other, disrupt the metallic matrix. This leads to improved
machinability in comparison with graphite-free cast iron or steel materials. The
results are short-breaking chips, small grinding forces and higher tool lives.
The metallic matrix of cast iron is, to a high degree, crucial to its machinability.
The matrix is influenced by the respective chemical composition (alloying elements)
and heat treatment and consists, in the case of materials with low strength, predomi-
nately of ferrite. The material becomes stronger as the amount of perlite rises, which
also leads to a more significant abrasive tool wear. Cast irons of high strength and
hardness often have a bainitic, ledeburitic or martensitic structure and are therefore
very hard to machine.
7.5.1 White Cast Iron
As mentioned above, the solidification of white cast iron takes place according to
the metastable Fe-Fe3 C system (Fig 7.22). If the cooling speed is high, a eutectic
7.5 Machinability of Cast Iron 281
Steel White cast iron

1600
A Melt+ -Mc
1536
H B
I Melt
-Mc
-Mc D
Melt
+ -Mc
+ Austenite
Melt
Temperature T / C
Cementite (Fe3C)
+ Primary cementite
1147 Austenite
E C F
(-Mc)
Ledeburite
Austenite
-Mc Ledeburite
G + Secondary cementite
911 + -Mc + Primary cementite
+ Ledeburite
Austenite
M O + Secondary
769 S cementite
P
723
Perlite Perlite K
Perlite
-Mc Ferrite + Secondary + Secondary cementit Primary cementite

+ Perlite cementite + Ledeburite + Ledeburite
Q L
500
0 0.8 2.06 4.3 6.67
Fig. 7.22 Section of the iron-carbon phase diagram (metastable system, fast cooling)
(1147 C, C-content = 4.3%) forms which is referred to as ledeburite (austenite +

cementite). Depending on the carbon content, additional perlite and secondary
cementite is found in hypoeutectic compositions and additional primary cementite
in hypereutectic alloys.
The high ratio of iron carbide in white cast iron leads to great hardness with a
pronounced level of brittleness. If the white cast iron is not subjected to further heat
treatment, it is referred to as chilled cast iron. If a further heat treatment is executed
(tempering), malleable cast iron forms.
7.5.1.1 Malleable Cast Iron

The usage properties of malleable cast iron are adjusted by means of a metastable
solidification and subsequent heat treatment (tempering). On the basis of the frac-
ture appearance, malleable cast irons are subdivided into white malleable cast irons
(GJMW) and black malleable cast irons (GJMB).
In order to produce white malleable cast iron, the white cast iron is annealed
in an oxidizing atmosphere (approx. 1000 C, 60120 h). The aim is to produce
a partially or completely decarburized material by removing the carbon from the
casting [DINEN1562]. The degree of decarburization of the material is strongly
dependent on the duration of the tempering process and on the section thickness
of the casting. A complete, uniform decarburization is only achievable with low
section thicknesses; with thicker castings, a rim decarburization and a disintegration
of the cementite in the workpiece interior take place. The remaining graphite is then
present as temper carbon. In the case of partial carburization, therefore, there is a
purely ferritic rim zone structure and a perlitic-ferritic core structure.
As opposed to white malleable cast iron, black malleable cast iron is heat-treated
in an oxygen-free atmosphere. The cast iron is thus not decarburized. The cementite
disintegrates entirely into temper carbon [DINEN1562]. A characteristic property of
black malleable cast iron is that, because of the non-decarburizing annealing, there
is a uniform structure across the workpiece cross section, irrespective of the section
thickness. As a function of cooling speed, a ferritic matrix forms given slow cooling,
with the temper carbon evenly distributed in the form of nodular formations. Given
a more rapid cooling, a perlitic or even martensitic matrix forms. Perlitic-ferritic
mixed matrices are also possible.
In contrast to steels, malleable cast iron is excellent for machining purposes. In
spite of the good plastic deformability of the different types of malleable cast iron,
the manganese sulphides and temper carbons embedded in the steel-like ferrite or
perlite matrix cause short-breaking chips which can be removed without difficulty
[Wern83]. Moreover, the temper carbon reduces the friction between the workpiece
and the tool and interrupts the base metallic material, which leads to low resultant
forces and higher tool life. Given identical workpiece hardness, black malleable cast
iron is more easily machined that white. This circumstance is attributable to white
malleable cast irons purely ferritic rim zone structure (without temper carbon).
Problems arising when machining ferrite are the growth of built-up edges (adhesion
tendency of ferrite), the formation of ribbon and snarled chips (high deformability
of ferrite) and the reduction of the surface quality with increased burr formation.
Cutting tool materials usually employed for machining malleable cast iron are
uncoated and coated cemented carbides, cermets, oxide ceramics and PCBN of the
main application groups P and K.
As a result of heat treatment, a remarkable consistency is achieved in the produc-
tion of malleable cast irons with respect to their mechanical/technological material
properties, which allows optimal cutting conditions for economic manufacturing.
Furthermore, malleable cast irons are characterized by high strength and toughness
properties as well as excellent casting processability. Workpieces can be achieve
with accuracy of form with high surface quality, even thin-walled and intricate work-
pieces. Because of their high ductility, malleable cast irons are especially suitable
for components which are subjected to dynamic stresses oscillating or impulsive
and which must resist mechanical forces of great magnitude [Wern00].
White malleable cast iron is both weldable and hardenable. When selecting a
hardening procedure, one must consider that white malleable cast iron exhibits
a structure which is dependent on section thickness and a carbon content which
increases from the outside to the inside. Thus only a thermochemical proce-
dure can be applied for the low-carbon rim layer, e.g. case-hardening or nitriding
[Sch06].
7.5.1.2 Chilled Cast Iron

White malleable cast iron without heat treatment is referred as a result of its high
zementite-content as chilled cast iron (GJH). It is both very hard and brittle and
thus suitable for components which are to exhibit a high resistance to wear with low
dynamic stresses, e.g. for rollers and grinding tools.
Because the cementite is very hard, chilled cast iron is very difficult to machine.
Tool cutting edges are subjected during machining to high mechanical and thermal
stresses. Therefore, high demands must be made on the cutting tool material with
respect to wear resistance and pressure resistance. Materials used for machining
chilled cast iron are, almost exclusively, cemented carbides, and, especially with
high hardness values, cutting ceramics (oxidic mixed ceramics) and PCBN cutting
tool materials of the main application group H. In comparison to cemented carbides,
the use of cutting ceramics allows for an increase of the cutting speed by a factor of
34. The higher material removal rate, however, comes with the disadvantage of an
increased susceptibility to breaking.
In order to keep the mechanical stress of the tool cutting edge as low as possible
when machining chilled cast iron and thus to improve the tool life parameters, the
cutting speed and the feed should be reduced with increasing material hardness.
Commonly used in chilled cast iron machining are a lead angle of 1020 and a tool
orthogonal rake angle of 5 to 5 .
7.5.2 Grey Cast Iron

In grey cast irons, the carbon is ideally present in the structure exclusively in the
form of graphite. The melt solidifies according to the stable iron-graphite system
(Fig. 7.23). In reality, however, because of the final cooling speed, small amounts
Grey cast iron

1600
1536 D
Melt
Melt Melt
+ Austenite + Graphite
Temperature / C
1153
E C F
911 Austenite + Graphite (+ Fe3C)
769
738
K
Ferrite + Graphite (+ Fe3C)
L
500
0 0.8 2.06 4.25 7
Carbon concentration / Mass-%
Fig. 7.23 Section of the iron-carbon phase diagram (stable system, slow cooling)
Fig. 7.24 Cast iron with lamellar graphite (left) and spheroidal graphite (right)
of Fe3 C are found in the structure in addition to graphite. In order to maximize the
amount of graphite, so-called graphitizing elements such as silicon can be added to
the melt.
As mentioned above, both the mechanical properties and the machinability prop-
erties of cast iron materials containing graphite depend in a very clear way on the
crystalline structure of the matrix and the form of the graphite inclusions.
The type of metallic matrix can vary broadly according to the selection of chem-
ical composition and heat treatment. Cast iron types with a ferrite matrix have the
lowest strength and the highest plasticity and toughness; the types with a perlitic
matrix have the highest strength and the lowest plasticity and toughness. Types with
a mixed matrix (with different ferrit-perlite percentages) fall somewhere between
these limits [Herf07]. In practice, the matrix is usually either ferritic-perlitic or
purely perlitic. Only after an especially long annealing process does a purely ferritic
matrix form.
The graphite inclusions take on varying forms depending on the conditions of
their origination, which are also controllable through metallurgical measures (Mg-
content). These forms vary from disc-like forms (lamellar) to fissured forms (worm-
like, i.e. vermicular) to globular particles (Fig. 7.24) [Hors85].
One can say in sum that the machinability of grey cast irons is not determined
by the hardness and strength of the alloy alone; the form, quantity and distribution
of the graphite inclusions in combination with the given type of matrix play an
important role [Sth65, Tns91]. The following will treat the different types of grey
cast iron.
7.5.2.1 Cast Iron with Lamellar Graphite

Cast iron with lamellar graphite (GJL) is the most frequently produced type of cast
iron. The graphite is present in the form of thin, unevenly formed discs referred to
as graphite lamellae. These graphite lamellae interrupt the base metallic mass to a
very great extent. Also, when stress caused by external forces is present, stress peaks
form at the margins of these graphite lamellae. The lamellae then act as internal
notches (predetermined breaking points), for which reason the tensile strength of
this type of cast iron is relatively small (100350 N/mm2 ), the material being desig-
nated as brittle [Herf07a]. On the other hand, lamellar graphite gives the material a
high heat conductivity, favourable damping properties and, due to the embrittlement,
high stiffness. Cast irons with lamellar graphite are especially suitable for machine
beds and stands and bearing, gear and machine housings.
When machined, GJL is distinguished by excellent self-lubricating properties.
These result from the circumstance that the graphite lamellae are cut during the
machining process, with the graphite consequently forming a lubrication layer on
the tool. This leads to lower wear and higher tool life. In addition, the graphite
lamellae act favourable on the chip form, since they stop any incipient shear early
on and induce cracking leading to the formation of segmented or discontinuous
chips. Short-breaking chips develop, usually spiral chip segments or discontinuous
chips.
The mechanical strain on the tool cutting edge when machining GJL tends to
be low, leading to low resultant forces. A major advantage when machining GJL is
derived from the formation of wear-reducing manganese sulphide layers on the flank
and rake faces of the cutting insert. With increasing cutting speeds, the manganese
sulphides form a layer on the insert which becomes thicker and thicker. This layer
reduces the friction coefficient on the one hand and acts as a diffusion barrier and
a protection from wear on the other. The formation of wear-reducing coatings only
sets in with higher cutting speeds (from approximately 200 m/min onwards), i.e.
due to the resultant increase in the machining temperature. This effect ensures long
tool lives when machining GJL.
The surface quality of machined workpieces made of GJL is a function of the
finishing method, the cutting conditions and the composition, fineness and evenness
of the cast structure [Opit70]. There is generally no burr formation at the workpiece
edges during machining; instead, because of the material brittleness, there are edge
disruptions.
The hardness of the material is a reference value in the first approximation
for the applicable cutting speed. Cast iron with lamellar graphite only having a
small amount of perlite (about 10%) after annealing treatment, for example, can be
machined, with the same tool life, at a cutting speed three times faster than with a
cast iron with a large amount of perlite (about 90%). Other hard metallographic con-
stituents, e.g. the phosphide eutectic steadite, increase tool wear and reduce tool life
in the same way cementite does in perlite. They significantly reduce the applicable
cutting speeds (Fig. 7.25).
The rim zone structure of cast iron workpiece generally exhibits lower machin-
ability than the core zone. This can be attributed, on the one hand, to non-metallic
inclusions and, on the other, to the altered graphite structure and microstructure
directly beneath the outermost cast layer, as well as to high temperature oxidations.
This results in stronger abrasive wear and the formation of a wear notch on the tool
cutting edge. In practice, this is often compensated by means of a reduction of the
cutting parameters.
Cutting section geometry

Tool life criterion:
Cutting tool material:
VB = 0.75 mm o o s r r r
HW-K20
Cross-section of undeformed chip: apf = 2.5 0.25 mm 6 6 0 90 84 1.2 mm
300
vc = 20 m/min
Ferrite vc = 60 m/min
250
Cuttingspeed vc/(m/min)
200
Ferrite + Perlite
Perlite (coarse grained)

150
Perlite (fine grained)

100
50
Quenched structure
0
0 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
Brinell hardness HB 30/5
Fig. 7.25 Influence of the crystalline structure and hardness on the cutting speed during turning
of cast iron with lamellar graphite
A rich array of cutting tool materials lends itself to machining cast iron with
lamellar graphite. The use of high speed steels is generally limited to tools with
very fine cutting edges. Typical procedures used are boring, reaming and thread
die cutting. The classic types of cemented carbide for machining cast irons with
lamellar graphite are those in the main application group K. Types K01-K05 and
especially cermets are especially suited to precision and ultra-precision machin-
ing. The material removal rate can be increased considerably by coated cemented
carbide, cutting ceramics and especially PCBN cutting tool materials of the main
application group K.
Coated cemented carbide indexable inserts are used for turning, boring and
milling grey casts. The longest tool lives and highest cutting speeds can be achieved
in the process by using cemented carbide with ceramic multi-layer coatings. Silicon
nitride ceramics are suitable for rough machining with large interrupted cuts or
extreme irregularities in the contour of the workpiece as well as for machining with
cutting fluids.
7.5.2.2 Cast Iron with Vermicular Graphite

In cast irons with vermicular graphite (GJV), the graphite doesnt form in lamel-
lar or globular form, but rather in coral-like form, worm-shaped in microsection
(lat. Vermicular: worm-shaped). The rounded edges of the graphite inclusions are
reduced by internal stress peaks, as they appear on the tapered ends of graphite
lamellae in GJL.
With respect to its mechanical and thermal properties and its machinability, ver-
micular cast iron lies between cast iron with lamellar (GJL) and with globular (GJS)
graphite inclusions. In comparison to lamellar cast iron, GJV has higher strength
(up to 70% higher), higher toughness, higher stiffness, higher hardness, higher
endurance strength, higher oxidation-resistance and higher thermal shock resistance.
In comparison to cast iron with spheroidal graphite, GJV has better pouring prop-
erties, a better machinability, a better damping ability, a lower tendency to warp,
a lower thermal expansion and a better deformation resistance with temperature
change. Because of these properties, cast irons with vermicular graphite can be cast
more with thinner walls than GJL and GJS, which allows for lighter components.
These combinations of properties render GJV suitable as a construction material
for combustion engines. These highly resistant types of cast iron are particularly
suited to the demands of modern direct injection diesel engines. Particularly when
faced with the conflicting interests of high component strength vs. low component
weight, GJV offers a good alternative to traditional construction materials such as
aluminium and cast iron with lamellar graphite. In comparison to traditional motors
made with GJL, the use of GJV allows for a weight reduction of up to 20%. In
addition to vehicle-related areas of application, such as engine blocks, crankcases,
cylinder heads, cylinder liners, exhaust manifolds, brake and clutch discs, there is a
growing general interest in using GJV in other applications than those in automobile
construction [Kloc01, Leng06, Rhr06].
The industrial implementation of GJV in the automobile industry is slow because
of the uneconomical and difficult machinability of this material in comparison with
cast iron with lamellar graphite. The main difference between the machinability of
GJL on the one hand and that of GJV and GJS on the other is that, when machin-
ing GJL, wear-reducing manganese sulphide coatings form on the flank and rake
faces of the cutting insert. When machining cast iron with vermicular and spheroidal
graphite, no sulphur and no manganese sulphide is present and thus no wear-
reducing layer. This is because of the magnesium treatment necessary for the for-
mation of graphite. With lower cutting speeds (vc < 200 m/min), at which, because
of the low temperatures, no wear-protective coating develops when machining GJL,
tool life travel path differences when machining different cast iron materials are
essentially determined through differences in the mechanical characteristic values
(hardness, tensile strength) as well as in the graphite morphology.
An essential impact on tool life is made by alloying elements, e.g. titanium. The
alloying element titanium forms titanium carbides which are harder than WC-Co
cemented carbides and thus cause an increase in the abrasive wear of the tool.
Studies have shown that doubling the titanium content reduces the tool life travel
path by about half. In GJV types used most frequently at present, the titanium
content is less than 0.015% [Kopp04].
When machining GJV, chip formation is discontinuous within a broad range of
cutting speed, with the result of short-breaking chip forms. The inhomogeneity of
the material resulting from the different mechanical properties of the phases ferrite,
perlite and precipitated graphite encourage this form of chip development [Rhr06].
Among the cutting tool materials for machining cast iron with vermicular
graphite, coated cemented carbides (HC) and, in particular, aluminium oxide ceram-
ics (CA) show great potential for machining GJV. When comparing the tool life
travel paths of HC and CA at different cutting speeds, however, one can see that
each of the two cutting tool materials is suited to a respective cutting speed range.
Coated cemented carbide is suitable for machining at conventional cutting speeds,
while aluminium oxide ceramics is the preferable cutting tool material for high-
speed machining. Because of the dynamic excitation caused by the discontinuous
chip formation, tougher WC-Co-based cutting tool materials can better compen-
sate for the high stress reversals in lower cutting speed ranges than ceramic cutting
tool materials. At higher temperatures, however, the hot hardness and the chemical
resistance of the cutting tool material become decisive factors, giving CA tools good
usage behaviour at high cutting speeds and temperatures at which HC tools become
weak and thus fall victim to increased chemical and abrasive wear [Rhr06].
Generally, because of their high hardness and wear-resistance, PCBN cutting
tool materials allow for significantly cutting speeds and a correspondingly higher
productivity compared to cemented carbides. Even when using PCBN as cutting
tool material, because of the absence of an MnS protective layer when machining
GJV, the optimal cutting speeds for machining GJV lie at an approximate value of
300 m/min, clearly lower than those used for GJL (up to 1500 m/min). If high cutting
speeds are used (5001000 m/min), significantly reduced tool live travel paths can
be expected compared to GJL [Leng06, Reut02].
Initial studies have shown that PKD appears to be an interesting cutting tool
material, one with which the tool lives achieved when machining GJV are compa-
rable to those for GJL. In comparison to cemented carbides, PKD has the capacity
to machine workpieces at twice the speed and achieve a 10- to 20-fold increase in
tool life in the process. The machining temperatures, however, must be kept under a
certain limit value in order to prevent a sudden change from mechanical to thermal
wear. It is recommendable to use compressed air or minimum quantity lubrication
as a coolant/lubricant. PKD tools have a great potential for milling applications with
GJV, with the cutting temperatures generally much lower than with continuous cut-
ting. Since PKD cutting tool materials have a higher fracture resistance and strength
than ceramics, it is recommendable to apply neutral to positive geometries to PKD
tools. This can reduce the resultant force and contact zone temperature, which in
turn allows for the application of higher cutting speeds [Pret06].
7.5.2.3 Cast Iron with Spheroidal Graphite

In cast iron with spheroidal graphite, also referred to as spheroidal cast iron, graphite
is present in the form of spheroidal inclusions. In comparison to other cast irons with
graphite inclusions, the base mass is less often interrupted by the graphite spheres
and the internal notching is almost nonexistent. This increases the strength, with
spheroidal cast iron reaching a high ductility [Herf07b].
The mechanical properties of this material, such as tensile strength and tough-
ness, are determined by the ratio of ferrite to perlite in the matrix. Types with low
strength and good toughness qualities (e.g. GJS 400-15) consist predominately of
ferrite. High strength in combination with low toughness is typical for types with a
predominately perlitic matrix (e.g. GJS 600-3). This ratio of ferrite to perlite is the
result of the amount of bonded carbon in the matrix, which can be altered by means
of a heat treatment. The machinability is also influenced by the perlite-ferrite ratio
in the material matrix.
With an increasing perlite content, the strength of the cast iron rises along with
the abrasive tool wear. The result of this is low tool life [Stau84]. Particularly
suited to machining cast iron with spheroidal graphite are uncoated cemented car-
bides (HW), coated cemented carbides (HC) and oxide ceramics (CA) of the main
application group K.
The resultant forces and the resultant effective mechanical stress of the tool cut-
ting edge are relatively low when machining the GJS cast iron. Interrupted cuts can
be used without difficulty because of the good damping property of the material.
Increasing the cutting speed lightly reduces the values of the individual resultant
force components.
Surface roughnesses of just under Ra = 1 m are achieved in the finishing pro-
cess. On a microscopic level, the surface is characterized by disembedded and
in part, lubricated graphite inclusions. This effect only marginally degrades the
measured roughness values.
Chips formed when machining cast iron with spheroidal graphite are, first and
foremost, segmented chips. Only with very sharp cutting edges does a continuous
chip develop which turns into a segmented chip given even a small cutting edge
fillet. Helical chips may form which are slightly brittle because of the reduction in
chip strength due to graphite inclusions. Because of the high temperatures in the
contact zones between the workpiece and the tool, the material plasticises and is
discharged between the workpiece cut surface and the flank face or between the
lower side of the chip and the rake face. This phenomenon, referred to as the growth
of built-up edge fragments, can occur when dry cutting at high cutting speeds.
In comparison to steels of the same hardness and similar strength, cast iron with
spheroidal graphite must be machined at somewhat lower cutting speeds, especially
when fine-machining with cemented carbides. Higher feeds, optimized tools and
fewer steps as a result of a smaller material allowance can compensate for this
disadvantage [Schm07].
A special heat treatment in the bainite stage can produce an austenitic/ferritic
(also called ausferritic) matrix in cast iron with globular graphite. The term ADI
(austempered ductile iron) is common for this. Figure 7.26 shows the structure of
ADI. It consists of acicular ferrite and a high carbon-containing stabilized austenite.
The material was erroneously referred to as bainitic cast iron in older publications
due to the visual similarity of its structure with the ferritic carbide structure of steel.
In addition to its increased strength and hardness, the matrix is characterized by
increased toughness (e.g. GJS 900-7).
The special combination of abrasive and adhesive wear behaviour when machin-
ing ADI leads to extensive crater wear near the cutting edge, which leads in turn
50 m 10 m
Spheroidal graphite Acicular ferrite Rest austenite
Austenitic-ferritic
matrix Stabilized
Initial grain size
austenite
Fig. 7.26 Crystalline structure of austenitic-ferritic cast iron with speroidal graphite (ADI)
to a destabilization of the cutting edge. Therefore, the weak edge breaks before the
critical flank wear will be reached. The use of a cutting fluid is recommendable for
continuous cut operations. Mostly, coated cemented carbide tools of the main user
group K, cBN and cutting ceramics are used as cutting tool materials [Kloc03].
The average forces arising when machining ADI are comparable to those of other
cast irons with globular graphite. Due to its particular finely-striped grain structure,
the average cutting forces are superimposed with a high dynamic. Surface quality
is comparable to that of conventional cast iron with globular graphite. In the rim
zone, the austenite converts into martensite because of mechanical stress, which is
accompanied by an approximately 200300 HB increase in hardness. Segmented
chip formation is similar to that of conventional cast iron with globular graphite.
ADIs high fracture strain has a negative effect on this [Klp07].
ADI is basically not more difficult to cut than higher-strength GJS types.
However, cutting strategies specially adjusted to the material are required. Lower
cutting speeds due to high amounts of heat release can be compensated by increased
feeds. Tool geometries specially tuned to ADI machining, such as drills with a radius
or facette shape have a longer tool life. The use of cutting fluids is beneficial in con-
tinuous cut operations. For discontinuous processes such as milling, cutting fluids
are not recommendable due to thermoshock stress on the tool [Schm07].
7.6 Machinability of Non-ferrous Metals
7.6.1 Aluminium Alloys
Mentionable areas of application of aluminium alloys as constructional materials

include the following industries:
7.6 Machinability of Non-ferrous Metals 291
automotive engineering
aerospace engineering
installation and apparatus engineering
electrical engineering
food technology
chemical industry
optical industry
From the realm of aeronautic engineering, the example of a modern commer-

cial aircraft, which consists of up to 6581 mass percent aluminium, makes it clear
how many aluminium components are used [Star96, Tns01]. Aeronautic engineer-
ing traditionally uses a large amount of aluminium components, which are often
characterized by a large percentage of machined semifinished products. In the chip-
removing manufacture of structural components, this percentage can be in the order
of 9095% [Schu96, Berk01].
Aluminium alloys are distinguished by a low density of Al = 2.7 kg/dm3 but
also by low strength. In order to expand the use of aluminium alloys, obviously
their strength must be increased. Alloy technology makes this increase possible
with the main alloying elements manganese, magnesium, silicon, zinc and copper.
A distinction is made between wrought alloys and casting alloys. Alloys of both
groups can exist in both a self-hardening or hardened state. In the case of wrought
alloys, the semifinished products are manufactured by forming. Here, the properties
of the formed structure are decisive for machining. In the case of hardening (hot
age hardening or room temperature precipitation hardening), strength is increased
by depositing hard structural components, which generally are located on the grain
boundaries.
The intermetallic phases should also be mentioned as another important group,
the properties of which are very different from those of its components. Materials
whose structure primarily consists of intermetallic phases are often abbreviated
simply to intermetallic phases in common usage. NiAl, Ni3 Al and TiAl are key
examples.
The machinability of aluminium alloys depends on their composition and struc-
tural state. Compared with cutting steels, boundary surface temperatures are much
lower, around 350 C. Due to the low melting point of aluminium alloys, one must
take care that the boundary surface temperature does not get too close to the melting
point. The boundary surface temperature is very much contingent on the tribologi-
cal conditions. Because of its low strength compared with steel, lower mechanical
and thermal stresses on the cutting edge are to be expected for the same cutting
parameters. The low boundary surface temperature makes it possible to use higher
cutting parameters than in steel machining, most importantly higher cutting speeds,
which are delimited from below by adhesive wear and from above by temperature
resistance of the material.
The tool life parameters of machining tools used on aluminium alloys vary
depending on the alloy and the structural state. Generally, more favourable tool life
parameters can be expected than in steel machining. Adhesion is mostly dominant in
the lower cutting speed range, although, as mentioned already in Chap. 3, abrasion
is always active as well, increasing especially with a larger distribution density of
hard particle inclusions. Such particles can be intermetallic compounds and non-
metallic inclusions such as impurities of the molten bath. Hardened wrought alloys
and casting alloys with a silicon content of up to 12% cause increased tool wear
with increasing amounts. Due to the higher boundary surface temperatures, plasti-
cized material can escape between the cut surface and the flank face and/or between
the chip and the rake face. This phenomenon contributes to the deterioration of sur-
face quality. The cutting speed must be reduced in these conditions. Cutting tools
made of uncoated cemented carbide (HW) and diamond (DP) are the most com-
monly used cutting materials for machining aluminium alloys. Cemented carbides
are used as cutting tool materials for machining wrought alloys and sub-eutectic
casting alloys due to their wear resistance and hardness. In contrast to diamond,
here the main stress is on toughness and the ability to manufacture complex tool
geometries such as highly twisted end mill cutters with sharp edges. Diamonds, in
polycrystalline form (DP) and in monocrystalline form (DM), are the first choice for
machining strongly abrasive super-eutectic casting alloys. For all aluminium alloys,
the use of cutting tool materials of the material group DP is not to be recommended
for drilling into solid blocks due to compression processes in the area of the chisel
edge. In the case of boring, especially aluminium alloys with high amounts of sil-
icon, cutting tool materials of the material group DP are superior tot hose of the
HW group with respect to tool life parameters and material removal rate. All cut-
ting tool materials for main application group K can be used sensibly. Selection is
based on general criteria such as cutting speed, cross-section of undeformed chip,
and continuous or interrupted cut [Bech63, Opit64b, Zoll69, Bmc87]. Cutting tri-
als have shown that CVD diamond coatings on cemented carbide substrates have the
potential to combine the advantages of cemented carbides with those of polycrys-
talline diamond. When machining the wrought aluminium alloy AlCu4Mg1 (2024),
the CVD diamond coating makes it possible, for example, to improve the tool life
in comparison to uncoated tools. In interrupted cut with low cutting speeds and
high material removal rates, high-speed steel (HSS) can be used advantageously to
machine alloys with small amounts of silicon.
The specific resultant force of the types AlMg5 (5019), AC-AlSi6Cu4
(AC-42000) and AC-AlSi10Mg (AC-470000) is about 25% below those of the
heat-treated steel C35.
Diamond cutting tool materials are often used to create highly reflective surface
properties. Generally, these processes use high cutting speeds and small cross-
sections of undeformed chip. The surface quality depends to a great extent on
the wear mechanism of adhesion, which manifests itself in built-up edges and can
be influenced by the process kinematics. Adhesion prevents the attainment of an
optimal surface quality.
When there is a high material removal rate in an aluminium alloy machining
operation, a large amount of chips has to be removed. For the sake of undis-
turbed manufacture, the chip form is a particularly important criterion for judging
machinability.
The chip form can be affected by the alloy components, by heat treatment and by
the process kinematics. When machining non-hardenable and hardenable alloys in a
soft state without any percentage of silicon, long ribbon chips arise which make the
machining process difficult. These alloys should be avoided as much as possible for
components requiring machining [Bech62]. In hardened wrought alloys and casting
alloys with a silicon content of up to 12%, increased silicon content leads to a more
advantageous chip breakage. Hard and brittle inclusions such as Al2 O3 and silicon
also benefit chip breakage.
In summary, it can be said that cutting aluminium alloys forms the more
favourable chips the harder they are. The most difficult to cut are especially non-
hardenable aluminium alloys and hardenable aluminium alloys in a soft state. For
this reason, it is recommendable if possible to cut these alloys in a condition of
increased strength (cold-twisted/hardened) [John84].
7.6.2 Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium alloys have been used in Germany since the end of the 1930s espe-
cially in automotive engineering as light constructional materials in Volkswagen
manufacture. Approximately 80% of the cast pieces produced in Germany cur-
rently consist of magnesium alloys [Wolf03]. Examples include transmission
housings, steering parts, seat frames, inner linings, instrument supports and engine
mounts in magnesium-aluminium composite structures [Drn04]. Other products
using magnesium include manual electronic devices, laptop housings, mobile
phones and other devices in the area of consumer electronics as well as machine
parts and sports articles. In comparison, sand casting is of only minor impor-
tance. The same is true of products made of magnesium wrought alloys. It has
become clear that magnesium alloy machining is focused primarily on die-cast
components.
The low density of Mg = 1.74 kg/dm3 in comparison with Al = 2.7 kg/dm3 and
steel with steel = 7.8 kg/dm3 has predestined magnesium alloys for applications
in lightweight construction in particular. Alloy engineering aims to improve the
strength properties of magnesium, especially for applications at temperatures above
ca. 100 C. Another important goal of alloy technology is the improvement of the
corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys, with respect to both inner corrosion and
contact corrosion. The most important alloying elements include aluminium, zinc,
manganese, silicon and rare earth elements such as cerium, lanthanum, neodymium,
praseodymium and yttrium. Of the many types of magnesium alloys, the following
will take a closer look at the example of one alloy group.
The alloy AZ91hp is the most frequently utilized magnesium alloy for die-cast
parts. The notation hp (high purity) means that only trace elements of iron, copper
and nickel are found. These elements cause inner corrosion in magnesium alloys.
AZ91hp is characterized by good mechanical properties and very good casta-
bility [Kamm00, DINEN1753]. Solidifying the alloy in a temperature range of
465598 C favours inhomogeneous crystalline structures in the cast piece and the
formation of porosities. This can impair the density of cast pieces, especially after
machining.
Magnesium-aluminium-manganese alloys (AM-alloys) have very good strength
properties together with higher fracture strain and notched-bar impact work. The
corrosion resistance of alloys of this AM group is better than that of group AZ. The
alloying element manganese bonds corrosive elements like iron, copper and nickel.
Manganese and aluminium combine to form hard MnAl deposits, which acceler-
ate tool wear. Because of their good castability, AM-alloys are used in automotive
engineering, e.g. for structural parts, steering parts and rims.
AS-alloys (magnesium-aluminium-silicon) have similar mechanical parameters
as AM-alloys. They are inferior however with respect to toughness. Their particular
advantage is improved creep strength for temperatures up to about 150 C. Further
alloy systems that aim to improve mechanical properties and creep strength include:
Magnesium-zinc-RE-Zr (ZE-group)
Magnesium-RE-Ag-Zr (QE-group)
Magnesium-yttrium-RE-Zr (WE-group)
Magnesium-aluminium-RE (AE-group)
The rare earth elements (RE) include cerium, lanthanum, neodymium,
praseodymium and yttrium. The alloy AE42 contains RE as a misch metal
with the composition 50% cerium, 25% lanthanum, 20% neodymium and 3%
praseodymium. With the exception of higher fracture strain and higher creep
strength, it has similar attributes as the alloy AS41. In order to classify material
properties into a material spectrum, fracture strain at room temperature is a helpful
mechanical parameter (A = 714% for magnesium alloys).
Beyond a certain temperature, about 225 C in the case of magnesium alloys,
material behaviour shifts from brittleness to toughness. This phenomenon can be
explained by the material structure. Magnesium has a hexagonal lattice structure
at room temperature. Only the base planes act as slide planes at room temper-
ature. Above = 225 C, it changes into a cubic lattice structure. This increases
deformability.
When cutting magnesium, lamellar chips are formed (Fig. 7.27). The distance
between the lamellae or frequency of chip formation depends essentially on the
tribology of the boundary surface, which can in turn be affected by feed and cutting
speed. Characteristic of magnesium alloy cutting is the marked stick-slip friction,
which is indeed contingent in a certain way on the material-cutting tool material
combination, but can also be influenced by process kinematics. This means that
a smart choice of process kinematics can adjust the amplitude and frequency of
dynamic stress on the cutting edge to its loadability. Near the tool-chip boundary
surface, friction causes temperatures to increase, plasticizing a thin material layer
which holds the individual chip lamellae together.
Sharp tool cutting edges and smooth rake faces lead to good machining results.
The tool geometry is based on those of tools for machining aluminium (Sect. 7.6.1).
In drilling and milling with small tool diameters, the maximum spindle rotation
speed puts a limit on the cutting speed. When rotating tools with large diameters are
Chip bottom side Chip upper side
Material: AM60 Cutting speed: vc = 1000 m/min

Cutting tool material: HC-N10 Feed: f = 0.5 mm
(CVD-Diamant) Depth of cut: ap = 1.0 mm
Tool geometry: DCGX11T308-AL
Fig. 7.27 Chip of the magnesium alloy AM60
used, the maximum allowable tool rotation speeds are the limit criteria. Workpiece
stiffness can limit the chip cross-section and material removal rate, especially in
finishing.
With respect to machinability, magnesium alloys are characterized by the fact
that they contain few abrasive components. This is also true for the rim zones of the
pieces to be machined, since these are predominately manufactured by die casting.
When cutting magnesium alloys have only a slight tendency to adhesion, so no built-
up edge formation is to be expected. The melting point of this alloy is in the range
of 420435 C. This makes it clear that the thermal load on the tool is relatively low
in machining magnesium alloys.
Fitting cutting tool materials for machining include high speed steel (HSS),
uncoated and coated ultrafine-grain cemented carbide (HF, HC), polycrystalline
diamond (DP) and diamond-coated ultrafine-grain cemented carbides. In practice,
ultrafine-grain cemented carbides of the application group N10/20 and polycrys-
talline diamond (DP) are the usual cutting tool materials. Tools made of these
materials allow for high cutting speeds and feeds. They are characterized by espe-
cially high wear resistance and contribute to a great extent to process safety.
The resultant force is relatively low in magnesium machining, below those of
sub-eutectic aluminium alloy machining.
Figure 7.28 compares experimental results from dry face milling aluminium alloy
AlSi9Cu3 and magnesium alloy AZ91hp [Kloc00]. Both alloys are used, for exam-
ple, for transmission housings. When drilling both of these alloys with tools made
of cemented carbide, the resultant force of the magnesium alloy is also below that
of the aluminium alloy. Differences in cutting momentum are marginal [Wein00].
The possibility of machining magnesium alloys with high and extremely high
cutting speeds is a good foundation for creating high surface qualities on machined
components. Milling produces satisfactory surface qualities both in wet cutting
when oil or emulsions are used and in dry cutting. In the case of the cutting
200
AlSi9Cu3
Hardness of materials:
AlSi9Cu3 102HBW 5/250
AZ91hp
150 AZ91hp 67HBW 5/250
Resultant force Fz / N
vc = 2000 m/min
ae = 30 mm
ap = 3 mm
100
Tool: Face mill, D = 80 mm, z = 5
Down milling in dry cut
Cutting tool material: DP
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Feed fz / mm
Fig. 7.28 Comparison of force components during face milling (dry cut)
conditions given in Fig. 7.28, an arithmetical average roughness of Ra = 0.6 m

was measured after wet face milling. For seal faces of motor vehicle components,
Ra -values of about 1.5 m are often required. These values can be safely adhered to
with feeds of fz = 0.3 mm [Kloc02]. In drill hole finishing, top surface qualities in
the range of Ra = 0.2 0.4 m can be safely obtained under production conditions,
even when the highest cutting parameters are used [Wein00]. To achieve this, the
process must be stable.
Due to the formation of lamellar chips, longer chips are almost completely
absent, mostly spiral chip segments and discontinuous chips occur. Longer chip
pieces break into smaller pieces when they make contact with the tool, the work-
piece and the cutting medium because of their low stability. In general, the chip
form poses no problem in magnesium machining.
7.6.3 Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys are still a relatively recent group of construction materials. The first
alloys were developed at the end of the 1940s in the USA, including the classic alloy
TiAl6V4.
With a density of Ti = 4.51 kg/dm3 , titanium is the heaviest element in the light
metal group. The great technical importance of titanium alloys is based above all on
their high strength, but in particular on the ratio of yield strength to density, which is
not even closely approached by any other metallic material (Fig. 7.29). Even high-
strength steels with yield strengths of ca. 1000 Mpa are still little more than half that
of a TiAl6V4 titanium alloy with respect to this ratio. Another important property of
titanium alloys is their good corrosion resistance. They are resistant to temperatures
of about 550 C. The maximum operating temperature is limited by the increase
Comparison of thermophysical and

mechanic characteristics
Ti99.7G 451
Density
TiAl6V4G 442 [g/100 cm]
C45+QT 785
17.2 Ti99.7G 100145

Thermal conductivity Young s modulus
[W/(mK)] 5.8 TiAl6V4G 110140 [GPa]
50 C45+QT 205
Specific heat 52 Ti99.7G 180 Yield strength

[J/(100gK)] 56.6 TiAl6V4G 8001100 Rp0,2 [MPa]
46 C45+QT 370490
87 Ti99.7G 40 Ratio of
Heat dimension
80 TiAl6V4G 215 yield strength
[m/(10mK)]
120 C45+QT 55 and density
150 100 50 0 0 200 400 600 800
Fig. 7.29 Mechanical and physical properties of titanium materials in comparison to the heat
treatable steel C45+QT (reference data)
in oxidation beyond 550 C [Essl91]. Also worthy of mention is the excellent

biocompatibility of titanium alloys. Titanium alloys are used above all in these areas:
aerospace industry
chemical industry
medical technology
power engineering
sports equipment technology
Titanium appears in various lattice modifications, of which each is only stable

within a certain temperature range. At lower temperatures, pure titanium and most
titanium alloys exist in the modification of a hexogonally close sphere packing,
which is called -titanium. The high-temperature phase on the other hand has cubic
body-centred crystal lattice and is called -titanium. The conversion of the -phase
into the -phase takes place above 822 C, the transus temperature. The existence
of these two phases and the associated structural transformation is the foundation
for the diverse properties of titanium alloys [Pete02].
In accordance to their influence on transus temperature, a distinction is drawn
between neutral (Sn, Zr), -stabilizing (AL, O, N, C) and -stabilizing (Mo, V, Ta,
Mn, Cr, Cu, Fe) alloying elements. The -stabilizing elements which include alu-
minium, the most important alloying element of titanium extend the -phase zone
to higher temperatures and form a two-phase ( + )-zone [Pete02].
The properties of titanium alloys are basically determined by their chemical com-
position and structure. The chemical composition primarily determines the parts
by volume of the und phases. Structure is defined here in the case of almost
exclusively two-phase titanium alloys primarily as the size and arrangement of

both of these phases. The two extreme forms of phase arrangement are the lamel-
lar structure, which arises by simple cooling from the -zone, and the globular
structure, which results from the recrystallization process. Both structural types
can exist in a fine or coarse form. Basically, the always varying structure is cre-
ated by means of thermomechanical treatment. This involves a complex sequence of
solution heat treatment, deformation, recrystallization, aging and stress-relief heat
treatments [Pete02].
Titanium materials can be classified in the following groups:
pure titanium
-alloys
( + )-alloys
near--alloys
metastable -alloys
-titanium aluminide alloys
Pure titanium (e.g. ultrapure titanium: 99.98% Ti, pure Ti: 0.2Fe-0.18O or
0.5Fe-0.40O) and titanium alloys (e.g. Ti-5Al-2.5Sn, Ti-0.2Pd), which only
contain -stabilizing and/or neutral alloying elements, are designated as -
alloys. Because they are single-phase, -alloys are relatively low in strength
(Rm = 280740 N/mm2 ). They are primarily used in the chemical industry and pro-
cess engineering, since what is of chief interest here is good corrosion resistance
and deformability. Pure titanium types contain up to 0.40% oxygen, which, as an
interstitial alloying element, drastically increases the yield strength. Whereas oxy-
gen is the only element intentionally added in order to meet strength requirements,
there are other elements, such as iron or carbon, which represent impurities caused
by the manufacturing process. The high level of corrosion resistance is achieved by
alloying palladium (up to 0.2%). These titanium types are generally used in low tem-
peratures. If higher strength is required, titanium materials alloyed with aluminium
and tin (TiAl5Sn2,5) are also available [Pete02, Schu04].
The microstructure of ( + )-alloys is characterized by a bimodal structure.
It consists partially of globular (primary) -phase in a matrix of lamellar - and
-phase. This microstructure combines the good properties of lamellar structures,
such as high resistance to creeping and fatigue crack growth, with those of globu-
lar structures, such as higher strength and fracture strain. The ( + )-structure is
fabricated by thermo-mechanical treatment, consisting of a combination of form-
ing and heat treatment. By hardening, ( + )-alloys reach very high strengths in
the range of Rm = 9001300 N/mm2 . Moreover, these alloys are characterized by
high temperature resistance. Among the ( + )-alloys is the by far most common
titanium alloy TiAl6V4 (Ti-6Al-4V). More than half of all titanium materials are
melted with this composition. It was already developed in the early 1950s in the
USA and is both the most researched and tried titanium alloy. It is used above all
in the aerospace industry. Titanium alloys are used to manufacture guide blades,
impeller blades, plates, housings, pipes and distance rings between the rotor stages
[Adam98, Pete02, Schu04].
Near--titanium alloys (e.g. Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1Si) are the classic high

temperature alloys, used in operating temperatures of 500550 C. This alloy class
combines the good creep properties of -alloys with the high strength of ( + )-
alloys. Also, they exhibit a favourable combination of mechanical properties and
oxidation resistance. These alloys have become very important in engine construc-
tion. They make it possible to increase operating temperatures up to 600 C. While
the standard ( + )-alloy TiAl6V4 can be utilized only in the relatively cold tem-
perature range of the compressor, near--alloys can also be used in hotter areas,
e.g. in high-pressure compressors. Two essential representatives of this alloy group
are the titanium alloys Ti-6-2-4-2 (Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo) and IMI834 (Ti-6Al-4Sn-
3.5Zn). Both alloys have a bimodal structure (Fig. 7.30), however with a much
higher percentage of -phase compared with the standard alloy TiAl6V4.
Metastable -alloys (e.g. Ti-4, 5Al-3V-2Mo-2Fe, Ti-15V-3Cr-3Al-3Sn) con-
tain vanadium, molybdenum, manganese, chrome, copper and iron. Vanadium and
molybdenum form a continuous series of mixed crystals with titanium, which
remain stable at low temperatures. The mixed crystals decompose with the other
alloying elements eutectoidically at low temperatures. Metastable -alloys can be
hardened to extremely high strengths of over 1400 MPa. Their complex microstruc-
ture allows for an optimization of the ratio of high strength to high fracture
toughness. These alloys are used to produce foils, aerospace components and
automobile components. Their use is limited however by their larger specific
weight, moderate weldability, poor oxidation properties and the complexity of their
microstructure [Pete02, Schu04].
Another material group based on titanium are the titanium alumnide alloys
(2 -Ti3 Al, -TiAl) first developed in the 1970s. Titanium alumnides are counted
among the intermetallic phases. These are defined as compounds of metals with
metals or non-metals, which have a different lattice structure than the initial com-
ponent, from which their specific properties result. Intermetallic phases of the TiAl
Crystalline structure of TiAl6V4

Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo: heterogeneous duplex Material Primary -phase, hexagonal,
brittle, bad deformable,
tends to strain hardening
-phase, bodycentered cubic,
good deformable, distinctive
adhesion tendency
White needles:
secondary -phase
Melting point: 1677 C
100 m
Fig. 7.30 Typical (+) mixed structure as in a compressor blade made of the near--alloy Ti-6-
2-4-2, acc. to ADAM [Adam98]
type are characterized by low density, high high-temperature strength, high oxida-
tion resistance and creep strength up to temperatures of 650 C. They thus are more
temperature-resistant than the above-mentioned titanium alloys and are in direct
competition with established nickel alloys with high density, which can be used
in temperatures up to about 700 C [Pete02]. -titanium alumnide alloys are also
characterized by their very low fracture strain at room temperature, in the area of
A = 0.51%.
Titanium alloys are difficult to machine because of their mechanical and phys-
ical properties. Their strength is high, and their fracture strain (A5 = 515%) is
low. Their Youngs modulus is almost half that of steel. The hexagonal -phase is
relatively hard, brittle, poorly deformable and has a high tendency towards strain-
hardening. This phase affects the active tool cutting edge like the strongly wearing
cementite lamellae in the perlite grains of carbon steels. The cubic body-centred -
phase is very similar in its machinability to ferrite, which also crystallizes into the
krz lattice type: it is easily deformable, relatively soft and ductile and has a high
adhesive tendency (Fig. 7.30).
One important physical property for the machinability of titanium alloys is their
low thermal conductivity, which is only about 1020% that of steel (Fig. 7.29). As
a result of this, only a small amount of the arising heat is removed with the chip. In
comparison to machining the steel material C45E, about 2030% more heat must
be absorbed by the tool, depending on the thermal conductivity of the cutting tool
material, when the titanium alloy TiAl6V4 is machined (Fig. 7.31). The result of
this is that the cutting tool is subjected to high thermal stress, much more than is the
Wear relevant characteristics

of TiAl6V4
100 1300
Chip TiAl6V4 1100 TiAl6V4

Tool temperature t / C
Heat flow ratio w / %
80
900
60 C45E f . ap = 0.25 . 1.5 mm
700
40
500 C45E
Tool
20 Thermal conductivity / W/(mK) 300
f . ap = 0.21 . 2 mm
0 42 84 126 168
100
HW-P10 HW-K10 PKD 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
HSS Cutting speed
Ceramic vc / (m/min)
Comparison of tool and chip heat
distribution while turning steel Comparison of tool temperature
and TiAl6V4 while turning steel and TiAl6V4
Fig. 7.31 Heat distribution coefficient of heat flow on the rake face and the thermal tool stress
during turning of TiAl6V4 compared to C45E steel, acc. to KREIS [Krei73]
case when cutting steel (Fig. 7.31, right). This means that cutting titanium alloys
not only exposes the cutting tools to considerable mechanical strain, but also to
extremely high thermal stress [Krei73].
Another characteristic of titanium alloy machining under conventional cutting
conditions is the formation of lamellar chips. The cause of this is a constant shift
between compression and sliding phenomena in the shear zone (Fig. 7.32). In posi-
tion I, the shear zone is already fully formed. The lamella slides over the rake face
while a new lamella is compressed. Since the deformation resistance of the tita-
nium material is rapidly decreased immediately after the shear zone is formed as
a result of the high shear/deformation speed, the cutting force is steadily reduced.
The simultaneously introduced compression of the newly forming lamella causes
the cutting force to go up again (position II), until the cutting force or shear force is
so high in position II that the shear strength of the material is exceeded and a new
lamella is formed [Krei73]. Such discontinuous chip formation subjects the tools to
a mechanical and thermal alternate load, the frequencies and amplitudes of which
depend directly on the cutting conditions. The dynamic cutting force can amount to
about 2035% of the static cutting force. Mechanical and thermal alternating stress
can lead to tool fatigue and encourage tool failure due to the formation of cracks,
I II III
Cutting force Fc
Work piece Work piece Work piece
vc Chip vc Chip vc Chip
Tool Tool Tool
Cutting time tc
Fig. 7.32 Chip formation during turning of titanium, acc. to KREIS [Krei73]
shell-shaped spalling, the fracture of cutting tool material particles or cutting edge
fracture [Krei73, Yang99, Kita97].
Titanium materials are generally turned with uncoated cemented carbides of the
main application group S. Due to the high thermal and mechanical load, the tools
can however only be used at relatively low cutting speeds. The range of usual cutting
speeds is about 5070 m/min for rough turning and 6090 m/min for finish turning.
Cemented carbides containing titanium (P-types), cermets or coated cemented
carbides are generally not suitable for turning titanium alloys. Elements of the sub-
strate (Ti) or the finishing material (Ti, O, N) react with the workpiece material,
which greatly reduces the wear resistance of the tools. In isolated cases, good results
have been reported in the case of machining with TiB2 -coated tools.
Cutting tool materials based on Al2 O3 and Si3 N4 do not come into considerations
for machining titanium materials due to their low thermal conductivity and the great
affinity of aluminium, silicon, oxygen and nitrogen to titanium.
One alternative to uncoated cemented carbide tools in the case of finish turn-
ing titanium alloys are tools made of monocrystalline diamond, polycrystalline
cubic diamond (PCD), CVD-diamond thick films and polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride (PCBN). These cutting tool materials are characterized by high hardness
and wear resistance, excellent thermal conductivity compared to other cutting tool
materials (Fig. 7.31), low thermal expansion and low friction between the rake
face and the chip (or between the flank face and the workpiece). Compared with
cemented carbides, they make it possible to use higher cutting speeds, thus clearly
reducing production time while maintaining the same or even improving cutting
quality. The range of speeds applicable for tools made of these cutting tool mate-
rials is vc = 100200 m/min. Of the PCBN cutting tool materials, above all type
containing high level of cBN are good for finish turning several types of titanium
alloys.
When turning titanium alloys with PCD tools, the interactions that effect wear
taking place between the workpiece material and the cutting tool material are
extraordinarily complex. They are characterized by diffusion and graphitization,
thermally caused cracking, surface damage as a result of lamellar chip formation
and the potential formation of wear-reducing reaction films on the diamond grains
[Bmc89, Neis94]. Due to these diverse interactions between the workpiece and
cutting tool materials, the performance capacity of PCD cutting tool materials in the
case of titanium machining is highly dependent on the composition of the cutting
tool material. Especially mentionable in this context are above all the composition
of the binder phase, its quantitative amount as well as the size of the diamond grains
[Neis94].
The most dominant form of wear when turning titanium alloys with PCD tools
is the formation of craters on the rake face. Flank face wear is of secondary impor-
tance, especially at high cutting speeds. In experiments where the titanium alloy
TiAl6V4 was cut using external cylindrical turning, the lowest amount of crater
wear was measured in the case of a PCD variety with SiC as binder. In the case of
PCD types with cobalt-containing binders, it was seen that crater wear was greatly
effected by the binder content and the grain size. The largest amount of crater wear
was observed when using the PCD type with the largest quantity of binder and the
smallest grain size [Kni93c, Neis94, Kloc07].
Due to its catalytic effect, cobalt promotes the graphitization of diamond. The
result is that the cutting tool material becomes less resistant to abrasive wear.
Furthermore, cobalt and diamond have different thermal expansion coefficients,
which favours the formation of microcracks. This process can be observed above
all in the case of fine-grain types. In conjunction with dynamic stress on the cut-
ting tool material by lamellar chip formation, microcracks further the separation
of individual diamond grains or entire grain bonds from the cutting tool material
compound [Bmc89, Kni93c, Neis94] (Fig. 7.33).
The lower amount of crater wear when turning with SiC-containing or coarse-
grain cobalt-containing PCD is attributed in the literature to the formation of a wear-
inhibiting film made of titanium carbide on the diamond grains. It is believed that
there is a reaction caused by diffusion between the titanium from the material and
the carbon from the cutting tool material in the area of the crater. The TiC film
that is formed in the area of the contact zone on the rake face adheres tightly to
the diamond grains that make up the surface during the machining process. Since
the speed of diffusion of carbon to titanium carbide is more than 10 times slower
than that of carbon to titanium, the wear process is significantly reduced [Hart82].
Thus, to reduce crater formation when turning titanium alloys with PCD as much
as possible, PCD cutting tool materials with large diamond grains, low amounts of
cobalt or with a binder phase made of -SiC should be used.
100
80 Width of flank wear land VB

Crater wear KT/m
PCD 1
PCD 3
60
PCD 2
40
Crater wear KT
20
PCD 3
0 PCD 2
PCD 1
200 400 600 800 1000
Path length due to primary motion lc/m
Composition PCD 1 PCD 2 PCD 3 Binder phase: WC-Co
* Volume percentage
Diamond * 92 % 92 % 80 % Face turning, TiAl6V4
Binder * 8% 8% 20 % vc = 110 m/min
ap = 2.0 mm
Grain size 610 m 26m 0.51 m
f = 0.1 mm
Fig. 7.33 Diamond as cutting tool material for turning of titanium alloys
Weight reduction is an essential criterion for modern airplane engines. This

can be realized by using materials of lower density, but also with the help of an
innovative component design. One example of a modern component concept is the
blade integrate disk or blisk. To manufacture a blisk, the blades must be carved
from the solid material. This is an extremely demanding machining task, especially
considering that the blades must meet the highest demands regarding surface quality,
rim zone formation and formal/dimensional accuracy.
For blade lengths up to 80 mm, blisks are produced using end milling or form
cutting. For blisks with a diameter of 600 mm and about 70 blades, up to 55 h of
pure milling time is required. Cutting becomes progressively more difficult with
increasing blade lengths and thus with increasing milling cutter protruding lengths.
In such cases, ECM machining is preferred, though all the blades must first be pre-
milled to an overmeasure of 3 mm. Here too, machining also requires up to 45 h
depending on the size of the blisk, as well as 7 or 8 more hours should an ECM
operation be included. Blisk production has thus proven to be very time-consuming
and cost-intensive.
Blisk pre-milling is done with end milling cutters made of high performance high
speed steel or conventional cemented carbides. Due to the large volume of material
to be removed, tools with relatively large axial (D) and radial (D/2) depths of cut are
used to realize large material removal rates. On the other hand, in order to finish the
blades only very small overmeasures need to be removed. The main concern in this
case is above all high process safety, surface quality as well as form and dimensional
accuracy. For this type of machining, tools made of ultrafine-grain cemented carbide
is recommendable due to its excellent wear and toughness properties.
Because of their high level of wear resistance and bending strength, higher speeds
and larger material removal rates can be realized with end milling cutters made of
ultrafine-grain cemented carbide than with ones made of conventional cemented
carbide. In the example provided (Fig. 7.34), it was possible to reduce the total
machining time required for blade finishing by about 50% by using ultrafine-grain
cemented carbide milling cutters in conjunction with an adapted machining strategy.
Cutting blades with these tools at high speeds lead moreover to still further advan-
tages, the most important of which include improved surface quality of the milled
blades and lower resultant forces, which make it possible to realize higher levels of
component precision.
Trochoidal milling is one way to reduce milling time when pre-machining blisk
blades (Fig. 7.47). Using this method, even curved blade surfaces can be manu-
factured in one cycle to nearly the final contour with end milling cutters on 5-axis
machine tools by superimposing a wobbling motion.
Analogously to the remarks given above on milling nickel-based alloys (Sect.
7.6.5), the formation of the cutting edge has a key role with respect to tool wear
when milling titanium alloys as well. Here too, results from research and indus-
trial praxis have shown that stabilizing the cutting edge with a defined rounding
in the order of 520 m leads to a significant increase in tool life not only for
long-protruding tools when end milling titanium alloys.
When milling materials that are difficult to machine, of which titanium alloys are
an example, down milling should generally be given preference. In up milling, the
Blisk production:
Material: TiAl6V4
Working time with conventional
Finishing Tool: End mill, D = 8 mm
milling up to 55 h
Conventional
Conventional High finish milling
milling Performance Carbide S10/20
milling vc = 100 m/min
100 %
fz = 0.045 mm
Planing ap = 0.80 mm
annular ae = 0.30 mm
space High performance
finish milling
Micrograin
carbide S10/20F
vc = 350 m/min
Finishing 45 % fz = 0.045 mm
ap = 0.80 mm
ae = 0.30 mm
Rough milling
Carbide S10/20
vc = 100 m/min
Roughing fz = 0.045 mm
ap = 4 mm (D/2)
ae = 8 mm (D)
Working time
Fig. 7.34 Reduction of working time by applying high performance milling during finishing a
blisk made of the titanium alloy TiAl6V4 (Source: MTU)
tool enters with a chip thickness of h = 0 mm. Due to the high elastic deformability
of titanium alloys, chip formation is preceded by a long friction phase between the
tool and the workpiece, which greatly promotes wear on the flank face. The tool exits
with h > 0 mm except for the fluting from the solid. Chip root [Peke78] and tensile
residual stresses can develop in the cutting edge as a result of this. Tensile residual
stresses can lead to crack formation and then to local cutting tool material fracture
and tool failure. Chips adhering to the cutting edge are partially compressed upon
re-entry of the cutting edge into the material on the up milling flank, or they wind up
between the cutting edge and the material. Faulty component surfaces and/or cutting
tool material fractures on the cutting edge are the result.
In down milling on the other hand, the cutting edge enters with h > 0 mm and
exits with h = 0 mm. Chip root formation is not possible when the tool exits the
material. Potentially adhering chips are only connected with the cutting edge by
a thin strip of material and are usually wiped from the tool upon its re-entry. The
resultant surface quality of the down milling flank is much better than that of the up
milling flank.
The special characteristic of down milling is that the cutting edge exits with a
chip thickness of h = 0 mm. This is of great importance when milling grooves, also
during the phase in which the tool enters the workpiece. If the tool enters in a straight
line, the cutting edge always exits with h > 0 mm until the groove is fully cut,
such as in up milling. If the tool enters on the other hand with an arc lead, the
Work piece 400

Straight lead
350
Circular-arc lead
300
Straight Circular-arc
VBmax/m
lead lead 250
200
150
A
100
50
M M 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
Number of leads
End mill Material: TiAl6V4

h>0 h=0 Cutting tool material: HW-K40
Cutting parameters: ap = 5 mm
vc = 50 m/min
h : cross-section of undeformed chip fz = 0.17 mm
at tool exit while lead Process: end milling
Tool diameter: D = 25 mm
Fig. 7.35 Influence of the entering path on tool wear during milling the titanium alloy TiAl6V4
cutting edge will exit the material with h 0 mm, analogously to down milling.
Both first cut strategies have a significant effect on the wear and performance of
end milling cutters. Compared to the conventional lead, the arc lead results in much
lower tool wear (Fig. 7.35).
In contrast to turning, coated tools can also be employed for many machining
tasks when milling titanium alloys. Causes of the good wear and performance prop-
erties of coated tools in milling could include the lower tool temperature caused
by the interrupted cut and the compressive residual stresses characteristic of PVD
coatings.
Because of the high thermal stress on the tool, titanium alloys are usually
machined using wet cutting. Due to the long engagement times, an intensive cool-
ing is necessary, especially when turning. One extremely effective method in this
context is supplying a cutting fluid under high pressure (p > 80 bar). In experiments
in turning the titanium alloy TiAl6V4 with uncoated cemented carbides, the cutting
fluid was supplied both conventionally with a pump pressure of 6 bar and under high
pressure with 140 bar (Fig. 7.36). Under the conditions of high pressure lubricoolant
supply the resultant tool life was higher by a factor of 2.3 (VB = 0.3 mm) compared
with conventional cutting fluid supply. As this example shows, a cutting fluid jet
supplied with high pressure can be used to improve not the tool life, but above all
the cutting speed and thus the processs productivity [Gold07]. The cutting fluid jet
supplied to the gap between the chip bottom side and the rake face not only cools the
tool intensively, it also improves chip fracture. Instead of long ribbon and snarled
chips, short-breaking chips are formed under the selected conditions, the removal
of which from the chip formation location and the machine tool no longer presents
any problems. Especially in grooving operations, high pressure lubricoolant supply
500
Material: TiAl6V4
400
VBmax /m
pKSS = 6 bar Cutting tool material: HW-K10/20

300 Cutting speed: vc = 90 m/min
200 Feed: f = 0.4 mm
pKSS = 140 bar
100 Depth of cut: ap = 0.5 mm
0
0 5 10 15
Cutting time tc / min
pKSS = 6 bar pKSS = 140 bar
tc = 4 min tc = 14 min
Fig. 7.36 Increase of tool life due to high pressure lubricoolant supply
can lead to enormous improvements in chip formation and tool performance. One
method variant is supplying the cutting fluid through the insert. The cutting fluid
exits near the cutting edge in the area of the flank or rake face.
The use of the high pressure lubricoolant supply is not limited to turning. It can
also be used for drilling and milling operations. In the case of drilling, the cutting
fluid is supplied via the spindle and the cooling ducts in the tool. The use of the
high pressure lubricoolant supply when drilling into titanium-based or nickel-based
alloys increases performance significantly. Compared with conventional supply, the
resulting tool life is many times higher. While in the case of internal supply via the
machine spindle, the pressure applicable through the pivoting feedthrough is cur-
rently limited to about 140 bar, in the case of external supply in turning or milling,
the cutting fluid can be supplied with much higher pressure. At present, high pres-
sure units with pressures of up to 1000 bar are available [Fili02]. Whether it is
technologically necessary and economically sensible to work with such high cutting
fluid pressures is currently being researched. As the first results have shown, cutting
fluid pressures in the range of 100200 bar should be sufficient for most machining
tasks. In high pressure lubricoolant supply not only the pressure is important, but
also the volume flow. The latter must also be optimally adjusted to the respective
machining task.
Analogously to turning, cutting fluids are regularly used when milling titanium
alloys as well. As in the case of milling steel materials, the basic problem is that the
highly heated cutting edge emerging from the material is abruptly cooled down by
the cutting fluid. The thermoshock caused by this promotes the formation of comb
cracks and hence tool wear. In unfavourable cases, comb cracks, in conjunction with
mechanical shock load of the cutting edge when entering the material, can lead to
Down milling with ae < D Groove milling in TiAl6V4

600 600
Dry
ae = 15 mm wet
* Fracture 400 Compressed air
Width of flank wear land
400 ae = 7.5 mm wet

Cutting fluid
200
*
VBmax / m
200
100
80
100 60
ae = 15 mm dry
80 40
60
ae = 7.5 mm dry 20
40 Cutting edge phase: 0.08 x 26
30 10
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60
Cutting time tc / min Cutting time tc / min
Material : TiAl6V4 Down milling ae < D Groove milling ae = D
Cutting tool material : HM-S40 D = 25 mm D = 32 mm
Cutting parameters : vc = 50 m/min ap = 3 mm ap = 30 mm
fz = 0.17 mm Z =1 ae = 32 mm
Fig. 7.37 Influence of wet or dry cutting conditions on the tool wear development during milling
TiAl6V4
tool failure due to fracture. Numerous investigations into dry milling steel materials
have proven that dispensing with the cutting fluids leads to a significant increase in
tool life. In order to diminish thermal alternate stress and the resulting formation of
comb cracks, the question is whether it makes technological sense to dispense with
cutting fluids when milling titanium alloys too.
Comparative studies [Kll86] in down milling TiAl6V4 with ae < D have con-
firmed the general results gathered when dry milling steel materials (Fig. 7.37). In
comparison to wet machining, dry cutting also leads here to a significantly lower
amount of wear on the end milling cutters used. In the case of down milling with
ae /D = 7.5/25, the tools life had ended already after 8 min with wet cutting, while
in dry cutting its life was extended to 200 min.
This result changes fundamentally when milling in full groove cutting, i.e. as
soon as the cutting edge penetrates the material with a chip thickness of h = 0 mm.
In this case, the lowest amount of wear was recorded when milling with a cutting
fluid. The reason why wear is increased when dry milling is that chips adhering to
the cutting edge or found in the groove end up in the material between the cutting
edge and the groove flank, are compressed on the surface of the up milling flank
and cause cutting tool material fracture on the cutting edge. When milling in full
groove cutting, the cutting fluid has the essential task of separating the chips from
the cutting edge and transporting them out of the slot [Kll86].
In principle, it is also possible under certain conditions to dry machine titanium
alloys. In most application cases in praxis however, cutting fluids are used, not the
least because of the safe chip removal and therefore for reasons of higher process
safety. In these cases, one should take care that cutting fluid supply to the tool is
carefully adjusted in order to reduce thermoshock and that the tools are intensively
cooled.
60
50
CF3, 10%
CF1, 10%
40
Water
CF2, 10%
30
CF1, 5%
20
Liquid nitrogen
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 90 120
Cutting time tc/s
Material : TiAl6V4 Cutting parameter : vc = 32 m/min ap = 50 mm
Prozess : End milling, down milling fz = 0.1 mm ae = 15 mm
Tool : D = 50 mm, Z = 7
Fig. 7.38 Influence of cutting fluid on the tool wear development during milling TiAl6V4
One alternative to conventional flood cooling when milling is, in analogy to turn-
ing (Fig. 7.36), supplying the cutting fluid under high pressure. The use of cold
or liquid gases is an extreme form of tool cooling. Investigations with various cut-
ting fluid media, concentrations, water and liquid nitrogen had the following results
(Fig. 7.38). There are at points significant differences in performance between the
cutting fluid media. When milling titanium alloys, unsatisfactory results can also
stem from the use of an unsuitable cutting fluid. Since tool cooling is especially
important in titanium machining, the amount of oil in the emulsion should not be
too high. In this investigation, a 5% emulsion lead to less tool wear than a 10%
emulsion. As the more pronounced wear formation when milling with pure water
containing only a rust inhibitor proves, a certain amount of oil must however be
present in the cutting fluid in order to reduce friction.
In this comparison, cooling with liquid nitrogen delivered the best results
(Fig. 7.38). The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is 195.8 C. The use of this cooling
medium led to an extreme cooling of the tool and the chips. Similarly positive results
can be obtained by the use of cold gases. One example of this is the use of CO2 -
snow (dry ice) when turning a duplex steel. By means of the intensive cooling, tool
wear and burr formation could be reduced in addition to chip formation and surface
quality being improved [Wein07]. As these examples show, the use of extremely
cold media can contribute to the solution of difficult machining tasks. Whether the
cost associated with their use is economically worthwhile must be decided on a
case-by-case basis.
Titanium alumnides may have the potential to raise the operating temperatures
of titanium alloys to 800 C. They are for this reason a possible alternative to nickel-
based alloys at about 50% the weight, not only for high pressure compressors but
also for the low pressure turbine. Their low elongation at break (< 1% at ca. 700 C)
and low thermal expansion ( = 10 W/(mK)) make these alloys problematic for
machining. The problems include high tool wear, extremely low applicable cut-
ting speeds and insufficient surface quality. Components made of titanium alumnide
have predominantly been machined with uncoated cemented carbides (HW-K10/20)
[Ecks96, Aust99]. When turning however, tools made of PCD or with CVD thick
diamond films can also be successfully employed.
The main problem in machining these materials under conventional process con-
ditions is the formation of defects in the form of microcracks and micro-fractures
on the surface of the machined workpieces (Fig. 7.39). The cause is the high level of
brittleness of the material and its incapacity to deform plastically. This becomes very
clear in consideration of the discontinuous and segmented chips that are formed.
Chip formation such as it is familiar when machining steels or titanium alloys, is
not found in conventional machining. Instead, angular, needle-shaped chip lamellae
30 m 2 mm
60 m 10 mm
Fig. 7.39 Surface formation and chip forms during turning of -titanium aluminide with
conventional and adapted cutting conditions
are formed whose separating surfaces are very rough, have obvious fracture struc-
tures and extensive cracks. Plastic deformation of the material during chip formation
has not been observed. The material to be removed is, so to speak, pried out of the
workpiece material. Such surface structures are unusable above all for components
requiring high levels of safety such as are needed in engine construction.
As the basic research has shown, the machining result can be significantly
improved by an adjustment of the cutting edge geometry and process parameters.
With sharp-edged tools and the choice of a small ratio of depth of cut ap to the corner
radius r , it is possible to produce smooth damage-free surfaces by turning work-
pieces made of Ti-45Al-8Nb-0.2C. Under these conditions, coiled chips are formed
such as one finds in steel machining. When cemented carbides of the S10/20 group
are used, cutting speeds of up to 100 m/min can be used.
7.6.4 Copper Alloys

Copper alloys are privileged because of their excellent thermal conductivity and
corrosion resistance in the following areas:
air-conditioning
hydraulic engineering
recuperator technology
food technology
chemical equipment and apparatus technology
auxiliary equipment
Copper alloys are defined as alloys in which there is at least 50% copper. They
can range from the superhard two-material system copper/aluminium to types of
pure copper with low strength and high fracture stress. In comparison to other
metallic construction materials, most copper alloys, as will be explained below, are
considered easy to machine.
A distinction is drawn between wrought and cast materials. Within this clas-
sification, it is generally sensible to classify according to alloy groups. Although
the properties of copper alloys are essentially determined by their chemical com-
position, this organizing principle is not suitable for classifying the machinability
of copper alloys because of highly varying machinability of copper alloys of the
same type [DKI83]. With respect to machinability, the following categorization is
suggested:
Pure copper and copper alloys with zinc, tin, nickel and aluminium, the addi-
tive elements of which are adjusted to each other such that they only form a
homogeneous mixed crystal. Such alloys are easy to deform when cold and
have a high level of deformability. This group is considered to be moderately
to poorly machinable. Alloys of this group are especially familiar in the form of
the two-material system copper-zinc, known as brass.
Alloys with the elements zinc, tin, nickel, aluminium and silicon, however
without chip-breaking additives, which form a second mixed crystal. Such het-
erogeneous alloys are harder than the previously mentioned group. They have
less deformability than the previous group, but have higher machinability. This
group is especially characterized by the three-material system copper/tin/zinc and
copper/nickel/zinc, also known as nickel silver.
Alloys of both above groups, to which are added lead, sulphur, selenium and tel-
lurium as insoluble components in order to improve chip breakage. Strength is
hardly affected, notched impact strength and deformability are reduced [Seid65].
This group is the most machinable because of its improved chip fracture. This
group is made up of automatic alloys, to which the elements lead, tellurium
or selenium are added so that an unproblematic chip breakage can reduce
disturbances in the manufacturing process.
Special alloys can contain nickel, cobalt, tin or vanadium. Lead, bismuth, anti-
mony and cadmium are contained in free cutting alloys as chip-breaking additives
[John84]. Beryllium, boron and natrium are supplemented as trace additives in order
to affect crystallization.
The emphasis of the main criteria of machinability changes depending on the
machining task at hand, especially when machining copper alloys. For this rea-
son, it is difficult to make a general classification of these alloys with respect to
their machinability. However, there are a few essential points which influence the
machinability of copper alloys that should be considered:
the manufacturing process for producing semifinished products, e.g. primary

forming or shaping
heat treatment, e.g. hardening
the chemical composition of the alloy
7.6.4.1 Influence of Semifinished Product Manufacture

When machining cast copper alloys, one must consider the structure of the rim zone,
which is different from that of the core structure and is called casting skin in practice.
This rim zone is characterized by a higher level of hardness and strength compared
to the core structure, resulting in an acceleration of tool wear. The core structure of
cast alloys is generally more machinable than that of wrought alloys [DKI83].
In the case of cold forming copper alloys, their hardness and strength are
increased while their deformability is reduced. This leads to a positive influence
on machinability due to improved chip fracture compared with materials that have
not been shaped [DKI83].
7.6.4.2 Influence of Heat Treatment

Machining hardenable copper alloys is preferably executed with a cold-worked
material prior to heat treatment, since machining after hardening would cause
accelerated tool wear. On the other hand, the harder material state is preferable for
subsequent grinding and polishing work.
7.6.4.3 Influence of Chemical Composition

Brass and pure copper (Group 1) are difficult to machine because of their high levels
of toughness and deformability. They are characterized by high chip compression,
which has a large impact on the tribology in the chip/rake face boundary surface and
causes high mechanical stress on the cutting edge. In practice, these phenomena are
known as snagging. The effect of the alloying elements lead, sulphur, selenium
and tellurium on the form of insoluble components in copper alloys is comparable
to the effects of these elements in automatic steel [Isle73, Lore74].
7.6.4.4 Wear
When machining tough alloys in the case of continuous chip formation and low
temperature at the boundary surface between the chip and the tool, built-up edges
can be observed that lead to accelerated wear of the cutting edge [Klei66, Mess69].
Due to hardness and deformability, the tool life parameters are less favourable when
machining nickel silver than when machining brass [Vict72]. Built-up edges are
formed in brass machining as a result of the wear mechanism of adhesion. In the case
of high speed milling, uncoated cemented carbide of the application group K10/20
is recommended in order to guarantee good cutting edge durability. In the case of
materials that are difficult to machine and tend to adhesion, such as pure copper or
brass containing large amounts of copper, polycrystalline diamond (DP) has proven
superior as a cutting tool material not only in terms of better wear resistance but
also by its favourable tribological conditions, leading to improved surface quality
and lower resultant forces. Ceramic cutting tool materials are not suited to cutting
copper alloys because of their adhesive tendency [grei91].
7.6.4.5 Resultant Force

As the cutting speed rises the specific cutting force kc falls in the case of copper alloy
machining as well. When the cutting speed is increased from 5 to 160 m/min when
performing an external cylindrical turning operation on copper, the specific cutting
force is reduced, for example, by about a third [DKI83]. Further increase of the
cutting speed causes the specific cutting force to converge asymptotically towards
a constant value. It has become clear that, in the case of the cutting speeds com-
monly used today with cemented carbides as cutting tool materials (> 160 m/min),
the influence of cutting speed can be neglected. Since the specific resultant force
in the case of copper alloys is generally considerably lower than that in cutting of
steel, difficulties due to insufficient driving power of the machine tool can hardly be
expected in practice. For cast alloys, the casting method used to produce the semifin-
ished products has a considerable effect on the amount of specific resultant force.
Machining experiments have determined that with constant cutting values parame-
ters the amount of specific resultant force is lower for centrifugal casting than for
sand casting, although the centrifugally-cast workpieces had higher tensile strength,
Brinell hardness and strain. Due to the finer crystalline structure of centrifugally-cast
parts, chip formation also proved more favourable.
7.6.4.6 Surface Quality

Built-up edge formation and flank face wear of the minor flank face lead to poor sur-
face quality [Klei66, Mess69]. In the case of thin-walled workpieces, deformations
of the workpiece due to the cutting force can appear as a result of the low elastic
modulus of copper alloys (e.g. CuZn30: 115.000 N/mm2 with RT). These defor-
mation not only endanger dimensional accuracy, but also induce undesired residual
stresses in the rim zone. Lowering the cutting force can lead to improved quality.
As a rule, the use of a cutting fluid improves the surface quality as well [Grei91].
7.6.4.7 Chip Form

The machinability of nickel silver (Group 2) can vary to a great extent depending
on the respective amounts of the alloying elements zinc, tin, nickel, aluminium and
silicon. Usually, acceptable chip forms are obtained however. The chip formation
of pure and homogeneous copper is relatively unfavourable. Large cross-sections of
undeformed chip and an unhindered chip flow promote long ribbon chips. With
additional alloying elements (Pb, Te, S, Se), chip fracture can be significantly
improved, and thus the chip form as well. For example, an alloy made of tellurium-
containing copper CuTeP can even be machined on automatic machines because of
the short-breaking chips. In contrast to unalloyed copper, the alloy CuTeP has only
slightly less thermal conductivity [DKI83].
7.6.5 Nickel Alloys

Nickel alloys are materials with nickel as their main component, which are alloyed
with at least one other element. They are characterized by good corrosion resistance
and/or excellent high temperature strength.
Nickel has a cubic body-centred crystal lattice and, at low temperatures, also has
excellent ductility and cold-formability. It is one of the ferromagnetic materials.
Some nickel alloys have special physical properties. One example is the soft-
magnetic nickel-iron alloy with about 15% Fe, 5% Cu and 4% Mo, also familiar
under the name Mumetall, which is used for shielding magnetic fields because of its
high magnetic permeability [Schu04].
Nickel alloys are often applied as construction materials due to their superior
properties. Examples include:
chemical industry (cauldrons, heat exchangers, valves, pumps),
environmental protection and waste management (flue gas desulphurisation
plants),
power production (power plant generators),
aerospace (engines).
The specific properties, adjusted to the respective application area, are essentially
dependent on the chemical composition, possible cold-shaping and the type of heat
treatment. In accordance with their most important alloying elements, nickel alloys
can be classified in the following main groups (Fig. 7.40) [DIN17742, DIN17743,
DIN17744, DIN17745, Ever71]:
I nickel-copper alloys
II nickel-molybdenum alloys and nickel-chrome-molybdenum alloys
III nickel-iron-chrome alloys
IV nickel-chrome-iron alloys
V nickel-chrome-cobalt alloys
Materials of group II are not hardenable by heat treatment. Groups I, III and
IV comprise both non-hardenable and hardenable alloys. Materials of main groups
III and IV, which can be hardened provided they have a corresponding amount of
aluminium and/or titanium in conjunction with heat treatment, are called super
alloys as do those of group V. The respective trade name of each alloy to have
been offered on the market was assigned to each main groups IV. The classifi-
cation in Fig. 7.40 is not very precise; for example, not all materials classified as
nimionic contain cobalt as an alloying element, yet this classification is still good
Main group Ib Main group II Main group IIIa

Alloy of Type Alloy of Type Alloy of Type
K-MONEL HASTELLOY INCOLOY
hardenable non-hardenable non-hardenable
Al
Ti Cr
Mo
Fe Al
Cu
Cr Ti
Main group Ia Main group IIIb

Alloy of Type Ni Alloy of Type
MONEL INCOLOY
non-hardenable hardenable
Cr Cr
Fe Co
Al
Ti Al
Ti
Main group IVa Main group IVb Main group V

Alloy of Type Alloy of Type Alloy of Type
INCONEL INCONEL NIMONIC
non-hardenable hardenable hardenable
Fig. 7.40 Classification of nickel alloys in main groups (Source: Wiggin Alloys, Huntington
Alloys), acc. to EVERHART [Ever71]
for orientation purposes. It should be noted that every manufacturer provides its
products with its own trade name.
The main stress of this chapter is on hardenable high temperature resistant nickel-
based alloys, which are chiefly utilized in aeroplane engines and stationary turbines.
The alloying elements of these materials can be grouped into three categories in
accordance with their effect on the microstructure. Some elements effect it in several
respects.
The elements Cr, Co, Mo and W form mixed crystals with nickel. Besides an
increase in strength at low temperatures, they cause an increase in the alloys creep
strength at high temperatures because dislocation creep is limited in the mixed
crystals [Schu04]. Chrome improves oxidation and corrosion resistance, cobalt
promotes the stability of the phase.
The most essential strength-increasing mechanism among high temperature
resistant nickel-based alloys is the deposition of intermetallic phases (Ni3 (Al,Ti))
and (Ni3 (Nb,Al,Ti)). The phase, which is coherent to the matrix, causes
particle-hardening of the structural matrix that remains effective up to the high tem-
perature range. It is formed by alloying aluminium, which can also be substituted
with titanium and tantalum. The phase can already originate from the molten
bath. In the cast state however, it exhibits an uneven particle size, formation and
distribution in the microstructure. For this reason, wrought alloys are subjected to
a multistage heat treatment after melting in a vacuum and solidification. Solution
annealing first dissolves the phase in the mixed crystal matrix. During cooling
from solution annealing temperature, it is deposited again in a in comparison to
the cast state more consistent form in the structural matrix. Final storage at high
temperatures brings about a further improvement of the consistency of the particle
size and form of the phase in the structure [Schu04].
In the case of materials that have an increased amount of niobium, such as Inconel
718, there is also a hardening via the phase in addition to the hardening. In
contrast to the phase however, the phase tends toward a more rapid coarsening
and thermal instability, which limits the long-term use of Inconel 718 to 650 C
[Brg06, Kenn05].
More recent nickel-based alloys, such as Allvac 718Plus, thus have a larger
amount of titanium and cobalt than Iconel 718 with the same Nb-content in order
to improve the formation and stabilization of the phase. For example, the con-
tinuous operation temperature of Allvac 718Plus was able to be raised to 704 C.
In the case of the nickel-based alloy Udimet 720, the phase appears in the shape
of Ni3 (Al,Ti) and (Ni,Co)3 (Al,Ti). A higher amount of cobalt (14.7%) reduces the
solubility of titanium and aluminium and thus makes it possible for the phase to
form in average temperatures. Udimet 710 is applicable for continuous operation
temperatures of up to 730 C [Tors97, Helm00, Mark05, Brg06].
In the case of polycrystalline alloys it is differentiated between forging alloys
and casting alloys. Forging alloys, such as Inconel 718, Waspaloy, Udimet 720LI
and Allvac 718Plus contain a volume percentage of about 3040% of phase.
With increasing amounts of phase, deformability and machinability become
increasingly limited. In the microstructures of cast alloys however, such as Inconel
713C and MAR-M-247LC, there are larger amounts (up to about 70%) of phase
[Schu04]. Because of the larger amount of phase, cast alloys are no longer forge-
able and are generally machined using grinding methods. Machining using methods
with geometrically defined cutting edges is possible to some extent, depending on
the cast alloy. Due to the poor machinability of cast alloys, usually fine casting meth-
ods are used close to the final contour that do not require extensive mechanical after
treatment [Schu04].
The elements Cr, Ti, Mo, W and Ta form carbides of various chemical composi-
tions (MC, M6 C and M23 C6 ) with carbon, which is present in small concentration
in the alloys. In polycrystalline alloys, these carbides are formed chiefly at the grain
boundaries. They bring about an increase of creep resistance because they inhibit
sliding of the grain boundary [Schu04].
In addition to cast-metallurgical fabrication, parts made of nickel-based alloys
can also be produced using powder-metallurgical methods. The goal of PM engi-
neering is to avoid all forms of segregation during solidification as well as
concentration and structural gradients. In addition, it is possible to increase the
strength of alloys by pulverizing and compacting ultrahard, non-forgeable alloys
(cast alloys) generally containing high amounts of phase. PM technology makes
it possible to develop alloys with a higher high temperature strength than forg-
ing alloys. One central problem of PM technology is that no foreign components
may infiltrate the powder, since even those of the same size as the powder par-
ticles can lead to cracking in the sense of fracture mechanics. The powder is
encapsulated, hot-isostatically compressed and then forged in order to decrease the
possibility of a larger foreign component inclusion or remaining inhomogeneity.
One method variant in this context is gatorizing. This is a process in which the
powder is isothermally forged using a creep forming process. PM alloys are used to
manufacture turbine blades for both civil and military aeroplane engines [Adam98].
The varying chemical compositions and crystalline structures of nickel-based
alloys have a direct effect on their machinability. With respect to their machinability,
nickel-based alloys can be divided into five machinability-groups (Fig. 7.41).
Here, group 1 represents easier, 3 average and 5 difficult levels of machinabil-
ity. Representative materials are listed for each machinability-group, which are
designated by their trade name as is customary for nickel-based alloys.
In the case of alloys of machinability-groups 1 and 2, cold-shaping (strain-
hardening) has a positive effect on chip formation and surface quality. The machin-
ability of these groups is comparable to that of corrosion-resistance austenitic
steel.
Machinability-groups 3 and 4 comprise nickel-based alloys that are hardenable
by heat treatment, also called super alloys. With respect to tool wear and potential
surface quality, roughing of the materials of both groups should take place in a
solution-annealed state and finishing in a hardened state. With respect to machining,
there is practically no difference between wrought and cast alloys of groups 1 and 4
with the same composition. Due to their higher strength and usually high amount
of phase in the structure, PM alloys are assigned to machinability-group 4. Cast
alloys of group 5 are very difficult to machine because of the large amount of
Machinability group
1 2 3 4 5
Wrought alloy Cast alloy
Non-hardenable Hardenable alloys of main

alloys of main group
Alloy of main
group II.) Ni-(Cr)-Mo Leg. High
group
III.) Ni-Fe-Cr Legierungen temperature cast
I.) Ni-(Cr)-Mo Leg.
I.) Ni-Cu Leg. IV.) Ni-Cr-Fe Legierungen alloys
III.) Ni-Fe-Cr Leg.
IV.) Ni-Cr-Fe Leg. V.) Ni-Cr-Co Legierungen
Examples Examples Examples Examples Examples

Monel 400 Hastelloy B Incoloy 901 Nimonic 90 IN100
Monel 401 Hastelloy X Inconel 718 Rene 41 Inconel 713C
Monel 404 Incoloy 804 Inconel X750 Udimet 720LI Inconel 718C
Monel R 405 Incoloy 825 Nimonic 80 Astroloy LC PM Mar-M247LC
Inconel 600 Waspaloy Ren 95 PM Nimocast 739
Inconel 601 Allvac 718Plus
Fig. 7.41 Classification of nickel-based alloys in machinability-groups (Source: Machining Data

Handbook, Huntington Alloys)
phase and of carbides, their coarse-grain microstructure and low grain boundary
strength; fractured material particles and cracks in the grain boundaries frequently
cause problems when manufacturing functional surfaces [Lenk79].
Due to their mechanical, thermal and chemical properties, nickel-based alloys
are generally included among materials that are hard to machine. Their high
high-temperature strength in comparison to steel, low thermal conductivity, their
considerable tendency to form built-up edges and to strain hardening as well
as the abrasive effect of carbides and intermetallic phases lead to extremely
high levels of mechanical and thermal stress on the cutting edge during machin-
ing. Under the machining conditions shown in Fig. 7.42, 60% higher cutting
forces and about 35% higher temperatures were measured on the chip bottom side
when turning Inconel 718 with vc = 50 m/min compared to the heat-treated steel
42CrMo4 + QT [Kloc06b]. Due to the high thermal and mechanical stress, tools
made of high speed steel and cemented carbide can only be used at low speeds
when machining nickel-based alloys. Common cutting speeds when turning Inconel
718 and Waspaloy with uncoated cemented carbides of ISO-application group HW-
K10/20 are vc = 2050 m/min. In the case of finish turning, cutting speeds of up to
100 m/min can be reached with coated cemented carbides.
Presently, turning operations are still executed to a large extent with cemented
carbides. In the case of pretreatment under average roughing conditions however,
ceramic materials are being used increasingly in the case of finishing both ceramic
and PCBN cutting tool materials.
800
X5CrNi18-10 42CrMo4+QT Inconel 718
chip bottom side Tch /C
250 150
700
Temperature at the
200 100
200 + 35 % 50
150
600
100 150
50 100 Tch
Tch 20
500 50
+ 10 %
400
15 % Fc + 60 %
0
0 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Cutting force Fc / N
Depth of cut: ap = 2 mm, feed: f = 0.1 mm, insert geometry : CNMG120412,

coated cemented carbide, dry cut, tc = 10 s
vc = 20 m/min
vc = 50 m/min vc = 150 m/min Insert with chip
breaker
vc = 75 m/min vc = 200 m/min
vc = 100 m/min vc = 250 m/min Quartz fibre 2-colour pyrometer
Fig. 7.42 Comparison of measured cutting forces and chip bottom side temperatures during
turning of different types of steel and the nickel-based alloy Inconel 718
In many machining tasks today, the use of cutting ceramics is the state of
the art. Of the ceramic cutting materials, composite ceramics ductilized with SiC
whiskers (CW) have shown the greatest performance potential so far. They are
suited both for finishing and for pretreatment of turbine parts under average rough-
ing conditions (vc = 150300 m/min, f = 0.120.3 mm, ap = 0.52 mm). Of the
silicon nitride cutting ceramic group (CN) especially the /-SiAlONs have
proved equal to whisker-reinforced cutting ceramics in their wear properties
(vc = 150200 m/min, f = 0.120.3 mm, ap 4 mm). /-SiAlONs consist of
needle-shaped -Si3 N4 and globular SiAlON crystals. In this way, they combine
the toughness of -Si3 N4 -ceramics with the high hardness and wear resistance of
SiAlONs in one cutting material [Gers02].
CBN cutting materials are primarily used for finishing components made of
nickel-based alloys (vc = 250350 m/min, f = 0.120.2 mm, ap 0.5 mm).
When machining nickel-based alloys with CBN, the selection of a type of cutting
materials suited to the particular machining task is of primary importance. CBN
cutting tool materials available on the market can differ considerably with respect
to the modification and amount of boron nitride, grain size and the structure of the
binder phase. The resultant chemical, physical and mechanical cutting tool mate-
rial properties affect the wear and performance of CBN tool to a large extent. For
nickel-based alloy finishing, fine-grain CBN types with a TiC or TiN-based binder
and a percentage of 5065 vol% of cBN have proven especially suitable [Gers02].
The arc-shaped profile of its tool life graphs (Fig. 4.54) is characteristic of turn-
ing nickel-based alloys with ceramics and CBN cutting tool materials. This is the
result of various wear phenomena which are predominant in dependence of the cut-
ting speed. While flank face wear is the primary wear criterion limiting tool life
in the case of turning with cemented carbide tools, tool life is limited at lower
speeds by notch wear and only at higher speeds by rake and flank face wear in the
case of ceramics and CBN cutting tool materials. The arc-shaped curve of the tool
life graphs indicates that there is a range of optimal cutting speeds. The closer the
ascending and descending branches of the tool life graphs are to each other, the more
important it is to work within a range that is as narrow as possible around the tool life
maximum.
Ceramic and CBN inserts with a neutral tool orthogonal rake angle (o = 0 ) have
become standard for finishing nickel-based alloys. CBN inserts should have a small
rounding of about 10 m on the cutting edge. In contrast, ceramic cutting inserts
are usually provided with a small protective chamfer to stabilize the cutting edge.
The formation of wear notches on the major and minor cutting edges of insert is
characteristic of turning nickel-based alloys with cutting ceramics or CBN cutting
tool materials. This significantly affects tool performance and component quality.
Notch formation on the major cutting edge leads to the formation of a burr on the
workpiece edge; notch formation on the minor cutting edge leads to a deterioration
of surface quality (Fig. 7.43).
Notch wear at the major cutting edge Burr formation at the workpiece edge
distinctive feed ridges on the

Notch wear at the minor cutting edge workpiece surface
Fig. 7.43 Notch wear at the major and minor cutting edges significantly affect the performance
and surface quality
Wear mechanisms that lead to the formation of wear notches include:
fatigue, cracking and crack development phenomena initiated by the high ther-
mal and mechanical alternate stress on the cutting tool material as a result of
lamellar chip formation and transverse material flow,
adhesion caused by the tendency of the kfz-crystal lattice to form micro-
welding and the mechanical snagging of the chip edge, flowing laterally into the
notches, with the cutting tool material particles,
abrasion caused by the solidified, partially sawtooth-shaped chip edge, by the
workpiece edge and the peaks of the feed groove pattern
tribooxidation caused by the chemical reaction of the workpiece material and/or
the cutting tool material with components of the surrounding medium.
Wear notches arise as the result of the superimposition and mutual influence
of these individual mechanisms (Fig. 7.44). A clear separation of these mecha-
nisms with respect to their effect on total wear is only possible to a certain extent
[Mtz67].
In order to reduce notch wear formation on the major cutting edge, the ratio of
corner radius r to depth of cut ap should be as large as possible and the effective
lead angle in the area of the contact zone end on the major cutting edge as small as
possible. A small lead angle reduces the chip thickness and thus the effect of abra-
sion of the chip edge on the cutting edge as well (Fig. 7.45). A lead angle of r 45
has proven effective for turning with tools made of cutting ceramics and CBN.
The effective use of round inserts is explicable in this context. Depending on
the geometry, they exhibit not only a high amount of mechanical stability and thus
Direction of
chip flow
Chip lamella
Direction of
feed motion Formation of a sawtooth profile
at the edge of the chip lamella
Transverse material Abrasion
flow following Rake Surface damage
upsetting of the face
chip lamella Cutting edge sector with :
Flank - high pressures
face - high temperatures
- high shear stresses
- high thermal and mechanical
stress gradients
Direction of workpiece - high thermal and mechanical
rotation alternating stresses
Surface damage
Burr formation at the workpiece edge
Adhesion
Abrasion
Surface damage Tribooxidation
Fig. 7.44 Schematic illustration of reasons which cause notch wear at the major cutting edge
[Gers98]
r r
RCGX090700T VBGW160408F
r = 21 r = 51
f h = 0.06 mm f h = 0.11 mm
ap ap
Material: Udimet 720Li Cutting speed: vc = 250 m/min

Feed: f = 0.15 mm Depth of cut: ap = 0.3 mm
Fig. 7.45 Influence of the corner radius on wear formation during turning of a nickel-based alloy
with PCBN
more resistance to insert fracture, but, especially with small depths of cut, they also
generally result in small lead angles. It is thus recommendable to use round index-
able inserts if the machining task allows for it. However, the disadvantage of round
indexable inserts are the high passive forces, which can cause a more pronounced
plastic deformation of the rim zone. Furthermore, the larger contact arc in the area
of the minor cutting edge promotes the formation of wear notches. This has been
observed especially in the case of turning with round indexable inserts made of cut-
ting ceramics. If very high demands are placed on surface quality, CBN inserts with
corner radii of 0.81.2 mm should be used [Gers02, Kloc07a].
Notch wear formation of the major cutting edge can also be effectively reduced
and tool life improved by the selection of an appropriate cutting strategy. One mea-
sure that has proven very effective particularly in pre-machining with round cutting
ceramics is ramping. Here, the material is removed in pairwise pass with contin-
uously decreasing (1st step) and increasing depths of cut (2nd step). As a result of
the continuously changing depth of cut, the effect of the highly abrasive chip edge
is concentrated not on one location of the cutting edge, but rather it extends along a
larger area thereof. In this area, the cutting edge is indeed subject to more wear, but
notch wear proceeds much more slowly, so that the insert can be used for a longer
time (Fig. 7.46).
Conventional: Constant ap Modified: Variable ap (ramping)
ap = 1.8 mm a p1 : 0.8 1.8 mm

ff f
Verschleikerbe
Notch wear a p2: 0.8 0.8 mm
Inconel 718, whisker-reinforced cutting ceramic, vc = 180 m/min, f = 0.15 mm
I c = 261 m I c = 1281 m
Fig. 7.46 Adapted cutting strategies allow a reduction of notch wear and a longer tool life
(Source: Greenleaf)
Because of the extremely high stress on the cutting edge, milling nickel-based
alloys requires cutting tool materials of high toughness and wear resistance. Because
of the interrupted cut and high heat resistance of the material, the tools are subject
to an extremely high mechanical and thermal alternate stress. As a result, both HSS
and cemented carbide tools can only be used with relatively low cutting speeds and
feeds, so that only low material removal rates can be realized. The milling of such
alloys is thus an extraordinarily time-intensive machining process.
HSS tools are used with cutting speeds of vc = 510 m/min when machining
nickel-based alloys because of their low high temperature wear resistance. Their
excellent toughness properties allow however for the use of relatively large feeds
(fz = 0.100.16 mm). Due to the large number of cutting edges being engaged as
well as the milling cutter with the fine knurled splines, milling with HSS tools is
extraordinarily quiet. Coated end milling cutters made of PM-HSS are therefore
suited above all for roughing nickel-based alloys. With a cutting edge geometry
adjusted to the particular requirements of these materials, high material removal
rates and a large amount of manufacturing safety is possible.
End milling cutters made of superfine and ultrafine-grain cemented carbides have
a much higher level of high temperature hardness than HSS tools. They can there-
fore be used at much higher cutting speeds (vc = 20100 m/min), allowing for a
significant reduction of machining times. They are commonly used for average
roughing and especially for finishing operations. When end milling cutters and
inserted-tooth cutters that are fitted with HM indexable inserts are used, the perfor-
mance capacity of the tools is determined to a great extent by cutting tool material
spalling on the cutting edges of the indexable inserts when nickel-based alloys are
machined. They are formed as a result of a mechanical overload of the relevant sec-
tion of the cutting edge. For the sake of a dynamically stable and quieter milling
process, one should strive to have as many cutting edge rows as possible in simulta-
neous engagement. This demand cannot always be fulfilled for the given machining
task due to the design of milling cutters fitted with cutting inserts [Gers02].
If grooves must be generated by rough milling in full groove cut into com-
ponents made of nickel-based alloys, the tools are subject to very high levels of
thermal and mechanical stress. Due to the wrap-around angle of 180 between
the tool and the workpiece, a very strong force component affects the tools in the
feed direction which strongly subjects the end milling cutter to bending. Faults in
shape and dimension on the groove flanks are the result. Due to the high static
and dynamic stress, the tools can only be used in full groove cut at relatively low
speeds (vc = 2040 m/min) and axial depths of cut (ap = 0.5 D). In the case of
long-protruding tools, the cutting parameters must be further decreased in order to
reduce mechanical stress and the danger of cutting edge fracture and total breakage
of the tool.
Economical alternatives to conventional end milling of grooves into materials
that are difficult to machine include trochoid milling (Fig. 7.47) and plunge
milling. In the former case, the feed motion of the milling cutter, whose diameter
is smaller than the width of the groove, superimposes an approximately circular
motion. Usually, down milling is used. What is special about this method is that,
as a function of the ratio of milling cutter diameter to groove width and the chosen
feeds in axial and radial direction, the wrap-around angle is significantly smaller
than 180 , thus corresponding to finishing conditions. Trochoid milling leads to a
considerable reduction of mechanical tool loading. As a result, not only the cutting
speed but in particular the axial depth of cut can be significantly increased compared
with conventional groove milling. Especially in the case of slender, long-protruding
tools, the realizable depth of cut is several times more than that of conventional
milling. Because of the larger potential depths of cut, the material volume to be
machined is distributed across a larger cutting edge length. The tools are thereby
used more effectively and tool life is much higher with respect to the amount
of material machined, lowering tool costs drastically. A further advantage of this
method is that the width of the groove that is to be manufactured is independent of
the tool diameter and can be produced accurately in one milling cycle. Since in this
method only low forces act upon the tools on both flanks when entering and exiting,
errors in form and dimension on both groove flanks are extraordinarily few.
By superimposing a wobbling motion, not only straight but also curved flanks
can be created with this method. In the case of plunge milling, the end or plunge
milling cutter is plunged axially into the workpiece with low radial feed. In this
way, the tool is primarily stressed in the axial direction [Kloc04]. The radial tool-
bending forces are, dependent on the radial feed and the corner design of the end
Conventionel milling Trochoide milling

Angle of contact Angle of contact
180
0
-6
30
** **
**: rotation
Direction of
1 Feed motion 3 1
0.5 x Tool-
2 x Tool-
1540 vc/(m/min) 60120
< 0.5 x Tool- ap/mm <= 2 x Tool-

1 x Tool- ae/mm 0.23
180 / 3060
Fig. 7.47 Trochiod versus conventional end milling
milling cutter, relatively small. By plunge milling, very deep and narrow cavities
can be produced. The disadvantage of this method is that the stress is concentrated
exclusively on the corners of the tool.
When machining materials that are difficult to machine, the performance of an
end milling cutter can be affected significantly by the micro-geometry of the cut-
ting edge as well. In the past, popular opinion held that end milling tools should
have cutting edges that are as sharp as possible to machine materials like nickel and
titanium alloys because of the small realizable cross-sections of the undeformed
chip. Highly positive and sharply formed cutting edges do indeed have good cutting
properties, but, as a rule, the sharper a cutting edge is the greater is its jaggedness
caused by cutting edge spalling. As investigations have shown, the jaggedness of the
Without CER (sharp-edged) CER 5 m CER 20 m
Material: IN100
Tool: End milling cutter, long projecting: l/d = 6
CER-process: Drag grinding
Without cutting edge rounding (CER)
With cutting edge rounding (CER)
Tool life travel path
Fig. 7.48 Influence of the cutting edge rounding on tool wear during end milling of a nickel-based
alloy with long cantilever length
cutting edge produced as a function of the grinding process, cutting tool material
microstructure and cutting edge geometry influences the performance capability
of a tool quite considerably. A small rounding of the cutting edge in the order of
520 m can significantly increase the wear properties of end milling tools, espe-
cially when machining materials that are hard to machine (Fig. 7.48). Cutting edge
rounding stabilizes the cutting edge and either evenly smoothens or removes small
defects caused during manufacture by grinding in the form of micro-fractures, loos-
ened cemented carbide crystals or micro-cracks. In this way, an even wear zone is
formed on the cutting edge, and wear progresses in a continuous fashion. The cut-
ting edge can be prepared in different ways. Besides drag finishing, used on the tools
shown in Fig. 7.48, brushing, jetting with abrasive media or cutting edge rounding
with laser beams can be used [Denk05].
The use of cutting ceramics based on silicon nitride and whisker-reinforced alu-
minium oxide when rough or finish milling with inserted-tooth cutters has opened a
new dimension in the milling of Inconel 718 (Fig. 7.49). Applicable cutting speeds
extend to more than 1000 m/min and are thus many time more than those com-
monly used for milling with cemented carbide. At a cutting speed of vc = 800 m/min
and a feed of fz = 0.1 mm compared with cemented carbide with vc = 40 m/min
and fz = 0.06 mm, this means an increase in cutting performance by a factor of 33
[Krie02, Gers02].
The causes of such a high performance capacity are based on the chemical and
mechanical stability of ceramics. However, the use of cutting ceramics still has
restrictions because of their limited toughness. A sufficiently high level of toughness
7.7 Machinability of Non-metals 327
Cutting tool material:

CA + SiC-whisker
Matrix: Al2O3 + ZrO2
vc = 1310 m/min
fz = 0.076 0.10 mm
vf = 1.8 2.0 m/min
Trockenschnitt
Engine bracket of
Inconel 718, 28HRC
Milling with cemented carbide: 59 h

Time:
Milling with ceramic: 14 h 76 %
Fig. 7.49 High-performance milling of Inconel 718 with cutting ceramics (Source: Kennametal)
is necessary to avoid cracks and fractures especially in the case of interrupted cut.
Reinforcing ceramic cutting tool materials with needle-shaped -Si3 N4 crystals
or with SiC whiskers meets this requirement and contributes considerably to the
improvement of toughness. The needle-shaped crystals or whiskers embedded into
the ceramic matrix can transfer tensile stress and thus reduce cracking. The energy
required to loosen these crystals delays crack development. At the needle-shaped
crystals, cracks extending in the matrix are forced into energy-consuming alter-
nate routes, reducing the speed of crack development. These effects increase the
toughness of the cutting tool material and its dynamic loading capacity. [Krie02].
7.7 Machinability of Non-metals

The most technically important non-metals that are commonly machined include
graphite and fibre-reinforced plastics.
7.7.1 Graphite
Graphite is like diamond a modification of carbon and is crystallized in a
hexagonal lattice structure. It is manufactured by coking coal. The fabrication pro-
cess allows for a considerable degree of freedom in process design, whereby the
resulting material properties can be to a great extent adjusted to the specific applica-
tion. Industrial graphite is characterized by good electric and thermal conductivity
and is temperature-resistant up to 3000 C. Further properties such as density, ther-
moshock resistance, corrosion resistance and chemical resistance can be adjusted
to a large extent and across a large range by the manufacturing process. The main
application areas of graphite are above all in those with high operating temperatures
as electrodes, heating conductors, sealing and sliding elements as well as support
materials in
the semiconductor industry (e.g. the preparation of ultrapure silicon),
non-ferrous metal production (e.g. heating elements in furnace installations),
energy transfer (e.g. sliding contacts),
machine construction (e.g. sliding rings) and
the metalworking industry (e.g. electrodes for spark erosion).
Graphite grains are 315 m large and firmly integrated in a coked binder matrix.
This structural composition leads to brittle material properties with a removal mech-
anism which differs fundamentally from that of steel processing. This implies
especially that experiences made in steel machining are difficult or impossible to
relate to graphite processing with geometrically defined cutting edges. There is no
plastic deformation in graphite upon penetration of the tool cutting edge into the
material. Therefore, there is no chip formation and removal such as is found when
machining ductile materials. Instead, the following effects predominate:
Compressive stresses introduced under the tool cutting edge that are reduced by
secondary cracking lead to material disintegration, and there is also a pronounced
formation of ultrafine dust.
Due to leading crack fronts, there is a chipping of graphite particles and formation
of fracture planes in front of the tool cutting edge (Fig. 7.50).
Depending on the cutting values and engagement conditions of the tool, one of
these two effects is predominant. By increasing the cross-section of undeformed
chip and the cutting speeds, there is a reduced lowering of stress by secondary
Dimension deviation
ap
Rotational speed n Feed per tooth fz Contact width ae Depth of cut ap

Surface finish Rz
Rotational speed n Feed per tooth fz Contact width ae Depth of cut ap
Fig. 7.50 Qualitative influences on the machining of graphite electrodes

cracks, so crack development and thus the development of larger fracture planes
are favoured.
The previously described effects influence the obtainable surface quality and tool
wear differently. Surface roughness increases with the grain size of the graphite and
with increasing chip cross-section by enlarging the width of cut ae , feed per tooth
fz and depth of cut ap as well as increasing the cutting speed vc by the formation of
crack fronts leading from the cutting edge.
The dominant wear mechanism in graphite machining is abrasion due to the flow
of ultrafine dust and friction (wear type: particle jet erosion). Since by increasing the
cross-section of undeformed chip the formation of ultrafine dust is reduced, this also
reduces tool wear considerably. In general, wear is reduced by all measures taken
to remove graphite dust quickly from the machining area (blowing, dust extraction).
The obvious use of wet cutting has negative effects however, since the resultant
abrasive suspension increases tool and machine wear. When roughing with high
material removal rates of electrodes soaked in dielectric, investigations have shown
a clear increase in tool life parameters due to the reduction of ultrafine dust, which
however was not reproducible in the case of finishing with small chip cross-sections.
Tool selection in graphite machining is usually made in the context of wear min-
imalization. Abrasion by means of hard graphite dust (particle jet abrasion) leads to
craters and fractures on the rake face. Friction contact promotes wear on the flank
face by the abrasive washing of the cemented carbide matrix. Improving tool life
with coatings such as are familiar in steel processing (e.g. TiAlN, TiN) is only pos-
sible to a certain extent. The only effective protection against the abrasive effect of
graphite dust is polycrystalline diamond (DP) as cutting tool material or the use of
diamond coatings because of their high levels of hardness (Fig. 7.51).
Length of cut per edgefz Lfz / mm
25 250
Length of cut per edge Lfz /mm
20 200
15 150
10 100
HM K10
HM P25
5 50
HM K10 (TiN) K10, diamond coated
Cermet PKD CD10
0 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Cutting speed vc / (m/min) Cutting speed vc / (m/min)
Material: EK85 Tool: End mill Cutting parameters:

Grain size: 13 m D = 12 mm fz = 0.05 mm
z=2 ap = 3 mm
ae = 12 mm
Fig. 7.51 Wear behaviour of different cutting tool materials

The rounding of the cutting edge associated with coating causes increased chip-
ping of graphite particles and leads to a somewhat worsened surface quality. By
using a positive tool inclination angle, particle jet wear is reduced due to the flatter
inflow and graphite removal from the machining location is favoured. Increasing
the tool orthogonal clearance angle lowers wear. Weakening of the cutting edge is
of secondary importance due to the low resultant force. Since the material attributes
of graphite differ fundamentally from those of metallic materials, other machining
strategies can and must be employed in order to get the best results. The goal of
roughing is a high material removal rate with high tool life and constant residual
machining allowance. The low resultant force in graphite machining allows for a
groove cut D = ae ) with large depths of cut. To reduce turnaround motions, an
envelope-curve-limited cut distribution should be made. The goals of finishing are
a high surface quality and precision of contour as well as low machining times and
high tool life. As in steel machining, a distinction must be made between different
machining and engagement situations. When machining curved surfaces, up milling
with a falling machining direction leads, as opposed to steel machining, both to bet-
ter surfaces and to higher tool lives. On steep contour areas, machining with a falling
direction is preferable to a rising one, since in the former case stress on the milling
cutter is in the direction of maximum tool stiffness and cutter-drift can be reduced.
When machining slim webs, there is a danger of fracture on the workpieces edges.
In this case, the use of tools with a negative tool helix angle is recommendable
in order to lower the risk of fracture due to tensile stresses. Up milling reduces
the risk of fracture upon entry of the tool, just as down milling upon the tools
departure. In order to avoid these contrary demands, it is recommendable to work
completely in an up milling process and to place the tool exit in the allowance still to
be machined of a neighbouring surface. Especially when thin tools are used, mate-
rial accumulation in the area of the grooves requires pre-processing along the groove
before the neighbouring surfaces can be finished and the groove pulled behind.
The danger of tool-drift is higher with smaller grain sizes and increasing graphite
hardness.
In summary, it is clear that the material properties of graphite, with its brittle
attributes, demand a fundamentally different process design in the case of milling.
The low machining forces and low thermal stress make it possible to use high cut-
ting speeds and feed velocities and thus place special demands on the tool/process
kinematics/machine tool system. To reduce wear, diamond-coated cemented carbide
milling cutters with cutting edge rounding and a large tool orthogonal clearance or
PCD milling cutters should be utilized. The machine tool used must be capable of
implementing the high potential process parameters even when machining complex
geometries. To do this, high spindle rotational speeds and a high axial dynamic are
required, as well as a rapid NC control. Dust formation demands efficient ventilation
and filtering in an encapsulated working space. During NC programming, machin-
ing strategies that are adjusted to the peculiarities of graphite should be implemented
in order to guarantee consistent component quality.
Figure 7.52 shows two graphite electrodes typically used in tool and mould con-
struction. In the case of sinking electrodes such as are used in the manufacture of
Fig. 7.52 Examples of sinking electrodes for electro discharge machining
a computer mouse (Fig. 7.52, left) usually complex free-form geometries must be
generated. Frequently, divided electrodes must be produced which are required for
the fabrication of grooves in injection moulding tools.
7.7.2 Fibre-Reinforced Plastics

Fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP) consist of a duro-plastic or thermoplastic polymer
matrix into which short or long fibres are embedded. Long fibres can be introduced
as roving or a sheet material. To produce components made of fibre-reinforced
plastics, as a rule post-production operations are required in order to form the
components in accordance with their function and geometrical characteristics. As
opposed to metallic materials, with which the component is often fabricated from
solid, it is attempted to fabricate components made of FRP close to the final contour
so that the ratio of the volume machined to the total volume remains small.
Fibre-reinforced plastic press parts can be deburred both by methods with geo-
metrically defined and geometrically undefined cutting edges. Since this volume
of the compendium deals exclusively with machining methods with geometrically
defined cutting edges, these methods will be in the foreground. Of this subgroup
of manufacturing processes, milling and sawing have proven the most effective. If
functional surfaces must be manufactured from plastic, high demands with respect
to formal and dimensional accuracy or high levels of surface quality cannot be
met, or at least only at unwarrantable cost. For example, only grinding methods
are used as the typical finishing method for producing clearances such as bearing
seats [Wuer00, Kni90b, Wien87, Wuns88].
To machine a component made of fibre-reinforced plastic, the mechanical and
thermal material properties are of especial importance. These are affected during
machining essentially by the properties of the fibre type used in the plastic.
This has a decisive influence on method selection or also, for example, the suit-
ability of tool designs. The fibre is characterized by high tensile strength, its elastic
modulus and this low fracture strain compared to the matrix. In addition, it has,
depending on the fibre type, highly varied thermal parameters, which sometimes
deviate a great deal from those of the plastic matrix. However, reinforcement fibres
have differing properties under mechanical strain in accordance with their respec-
tive structure. Figure 7.53 clarifies this by looking at the fracture behaviour of single
fibres in different load cases.
Certain conclusions can be drawn from the results of the shear experiments, with
or without axial prestressing, regarding the machinability of the respective fibre
types. Glass and carbon fibres exhibit brittle fracture properties under tensile, shear
or bending strain, whereby the fracture plane of carbon fibres is somewhat rougher.
The much tougher aramid fibres tend on the other hand to deflect the cutting edge
under shear or bending stress, which can lead to a frayed cut surface during the
machining process. These fibres can only be satisfactorily cut when prestressed and
are frequently divided axially [Bns92].
The properties of the matrix have more of an effect on process management.
Its machinability is characterized by the low elastic modulus, low strength, high
fracture strain and above all by low temperature resistance of plastics. As opposed
to thermosetting plastics, which stay in a solid state until their decomposition tem-
perature is reached, the thermoplastics used for composite materials soften beyond
a temperature of about 200 C. This further lowers the already low temperature
resilience of the matrix. The low temperature conductivity of the polymer matrix
materials is a further problem. As a result of this, the process heat introduced to the
material can only be poorly removed from the active site, and thus the component is
damaged by burns and the tool by thermal strain (Fig. 7.54).
Glass fibre Carbon fibre Aramid fibre
Shearing without
prestressing 2 m 1.5 m 6.5 m
2.5 m 5 m
F
1.2 m
Shearing with
prestressing
2.5 m 11 m
Fig. 7.53 Fracture behaviour of different fibre types

Surface Cutting particle

0-Fibre orientation
Fibre fracture Matrix fracture 20 m
45-Fibre orientation
Crack
deflection 50 m
Fibre-/Matrixpackage
90-Fibre orientation
Fibre fracture Matrix fracture
10 m
Fig. 7.54 Failure mechanisms during machining of fibre-reinforced plastics
Due to its inhomogeneous structure, the machining of fibre-reinforced plastics

involves the formation of highly diverse chips compared with metallic materials.
The development of very fine particles made of fragments of the base material and of
fibres, causing a large amount of dust, is characteristic of machining fibre-reinforced
plastics [Rumm96, Wuer00]. The quality of the machined surface is dependent to a
large extent on the orientation of the fibres in the polymer matrix.
When machining under the 0 -fibre orientation, the particles formed are primar-
ily fibre and matrix packets, which lead to a high level of machined surface quality.
If on the other hand it is machined with a 90 -fibre orientation, particle formation
of single fibres and matrix fragments is predominant. The rim zone of the machined
area near the surface is then characterized by microcracks. Machining with a 45
or 135 -fibre orientation leads to a superimposition of the above particle formation
types. Due to the high levels of mechanical stress, the surface is always heavily
damaged by the cutting edge. This results in high surface roughness values as well
as the formation of very small particles made of fibre and matrix packets.
Measurements of these particles have shown that respirable sizes do exist
(particle < 5 m) that can have a negative effect on the health of the operator. An
efficient suction and filtering of these particles is therefore absolutely necessary. In
addition, it is advisable to seal off the working area.
The most common machining method when manufacturing components made of
fibre-reinforced plastics are turning, milling and drilling [Kni91, Tras92]. Selection
of the most proper tool should be made in analogy to machining metallic materials
with reference to the technological, economical and ecological limitations.
7.7.2.1 Machining Method: Milling

During machining, the high hardness of glass fibres and in particular of carbon fibres
leads to pronounced wear phenomena on the tools employed.
Such tools must therefore have a high level of resilience against abrasion and
of toughness. Suitable cutting tool materials are ultrafine-grain cemented carbides
(HF), polycrystalline diamonds (DP) or diamond-coated cemented carbide tools
(HC) of application group K10.
To make a precise separation of the fibres possible, the cutting edge must be
very sharp. With respect to the geometry of the cutting edge, it must have a very
low level of raggedness, and the cutting edge radius should be in the range of the
fibre diameter (~10 m). The grinding of a chamfer on the flank face of the milling
tool has also proved effective. In this way, elastic rebound of the fibres embedded
in the base material can be considerably reduced, reducing thermal and mechanical
stress during machining. A classification into areas of application is made according
to the type of fibres, their length and their percentage in the composite material.
Untwisted two-edged milling cutters with sharp cutting edges should be used to
mill components made of directed long fibres with a large fibre amount, since only
such a tool can separate the fibres cleanly. DP-fitted milling tools are superior to
cemented carbide milling cutters with respect to realizable tool life parameters and
surface quality, but they involve much higher acquisition costs.
Because of the large number of possible material combinations, generalizations
can be made regarding optimal cutting parameters. In many cases, cutting speeds of
8001200 m/min with moderate feeds per tooth have yielded successful machining
results.
For a high-quality machining of aramid fibre-reinforced laminate, standard cut-
ting edge geometries can be used so long as it is taken into consideration that
the fibres can only be acceptably cut when prestressed. This prestressing can be
achieved with special tools that have been specially designed for this purpose
(Fig. 7.56).
Further tool requirements include a high level of cutting edge sharpness com-
bined with a small cutting edge radius and a high level of rake and flank face surface
quality in order to minimize friction on the workpiece [Kni90b]. As in the case of
glass fibre and carbon fibre-reinforced plastics, the use of tools made of cemented
carbides of application group K10 have also proven effective here.
Figure 7.56 shows a distinction made on the basis of the thickness of the com-
ponent to be machined. For thin workpieces, tools twisted in two ways towards
the middle were developed that make it possible to change the distribution of the
machining forces acting on the workpiece. To use these tools successfully, the tool
must be precisely aligned with the workpiece. For thicker components, it is advis-
able to use a two-way mill twisted in contrary directions. In the case of this tool
Electroplated Diamond Double-edged Cemented

grinding bolt toothed cemented carbide mill
cemented carbide mill with DP-
carbide mill edges
Glass fibre Carbon fibre
Short fibre Long fibre
Fig. 7.55 Tools for machining fibre-reinforced plastics (GRP, CRP)
Special tool geometry

Low cutting edge radius r < 1015 m
Slight cutting edge chipping
Very high sufrace quality at rake and flank face Rz < 0.8 m
High wear resistance
Carbide special mill, Carbide special mill, Carbide special mill

alternating twisted to right-left twisted with contrary fixed
the middle DP-edges
d < 3 mm d > 3 mm
Fig. 7.56 Tools for machining aramid-fibre-reinforced plastics
variation as well, the permanent alternate stress prevents the fibres from eluding the
cutting edge.
The following describes difficulties involved with particles arising when machin-
ing fibre-reinforced plastics (dust, fibre particles).
Figure 7.57 clarifies the high concentration of particles that remain in the work-
ing space even after the machining process and that is only gradually reduced.
Especially the small particle sizes, thoracic (4.510 m) and alveolar (< 4.5 m)
dusts, remain in the air long after machining is finished and sediment very slowly. As
250
Total dust
Concentration / (mg/m) Thoracic dust
200
Alveolar dust
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time t/s
Milling time
Fig. 7.57 Dust particle size during milling of fibre-reinforced plastics
an experiment, a 90 s long machining process was conducted and the machine was
immediately switched off. It is important to know that even after 500 s, the legally
prescribed fine dust limit of 1.5 mg/m3 was not yet reached. These particle sizes
are highly carcinogenic, so this limit must be strictly observed. The percentages of
these sizes in the entire volume of dust can be influenced by tool selection and the
cutting parameters. The experiment shows that it is nonetheless absolutely neces-
sary to isolate the working area and to suction off and filter the resulting particles.
7.7.2.2 Machining Method: Drilling

In the case of drilling, it is necessary just as in milling to differentiate in accordance
with the materials to be machined, glass-fibre and carbon fibre-reinforced plastics or
aramid fibre-reinforced plastics. To drill CFP and GFP, highly wear-resistant tools
with standard cutting edge geometries can be used as long as the cutting edge radius
is as small as possible. In many cases, solid cemented carbide tools produce good
results. Tools that are equipped with DP cutting edges are far superior, but they can
only be used for manual drilling operations to a limited extent.
Standard tools cannot be utilized to machine aramid fibre-reinforced plastics. In
this case, special cutting geometries should be used in order to guarantee separa-
tion of the fibres while prestressed (Fig. 7.58). Cemented carbide drills with very
positive rake angles have become established for this. Besides a small cutting edge
radius, high levels of surface quality on the flank and rake faces are required so
that friction between the chip and the tool and between the workpiece and the tool
reduces potential adhesion of the material on the cutting edge.
Potential surface roughness depends heavily on the type and length of the fibres.
When the tool is rotated, all fibre lengths are always cut, so that, depending on the
orientation of the fibres, there is a highly aberrant surface formation in the drill hole.
Low cutting edge radius

High surface quality at rake and flank face
High wear resistance
Conventional macroscopic Special, macroscopic

cutting wedge geometry cutting wedge geometry
Side rake angle 20 .. 30 Side rake angle 30 .. 35

Side clearance angle 10 .. 12 Side clearance angle 10 .. 14
Drill point angle 120 Rear clearance angle 0
Tool cutting angle 125 .. 140
CFRP und GFPR AFRP
Fig. 7.58 Tools for drilling fibre-reinforced plastics
It is characteristic of the material that, in the case of fibre-orientations of

105135 with a simultaneous compressive load, only very poor surface qualities
can be realized. As opposed to CFP and GFP, there are no fibre fractures in aramid
fibre-reinforced plastics, but the fibres are pulled far out of the cut surface and
bent against the cut surface. This is due to the tough material properties and poorer
adhesion of the aramid fibres to the base material.
Chapter 8
Process Design and Process Monitoring
8.1 Finding Economical Cutting Parameters
8.1.1 Cutting Parameter Limits

The further development of workpiece materials and cutting tool materials and
the increasing automation of machine tools demand an occasional correction of
machining standard values.
Standard values should be determined under consideration of machinability and
provide reference data concerning depth of cut, cutting speed, feed and the expected
tool life parameters for the given tool life criteria. Variation in the machinability of
a material of the same standard designation but different batch can be larger than
three to one in extreme cases. This ratio is the more unfavourable the larger the
permissible wear and the higher the cutting speed [Kluf83]. For an optimal cutting
value determination, the tool life parameters and wear properties of the tool are the
most important criteria for evaluating the tool life behaviour of a material/cutting
tool material combination [Kni71].
Generally, widths of flank wear land of VB = 200800 m are permitted for
flank face wear when cemented carbides are used. The tool life criterion for crater
wear should be determined as a function of the feed f with the following equation:
KT = 0.06 + 0.3 f (8.1)
In addition to tool wear, the other main evaluation parameters of machinability

the cutting force, surface quality and chip form also serve, depending on the case at
hand, as tool life criteria. When determining the cutting parameters, the limits of the
system workpiece/cutting medium/tool/machine must be taken into consideration.
Specification of these limit values refers to the description of the cross-section of
undeformed chip using the theoretical parameters uncut chip thickness h and unde-
formed chip width b and must be converted in accordance with geometrical relations
that are true for the respective cutting process into the technical parameters depth of
cut ap and feed f (Chaps. 9 and 10).
In order to obtain the largest possible volume removal rate within a given tool life,
first a depth of cut ap should be selected that is as large as possible provided it is not

340 8 Process Design and Process Monitoring
Table 8.1 Maximum of

undeformed chip width Tool included angle r / Chip width b
8090 2/3 cutting edge length

already defined by the machining allowance to be lifted in one cut. A large depth of
cut reduces the number of required steps, so that besides the primary processing time
(Sect. 8.1.2), the secondary processing time for lifting, returning and reengagement
is economised.
The maximum depth of cut apmax is limited by the stability of the tools cutting
edge. For roughing, tools with a large tool included angle r are used. The rules of
thumb given in Table 8.1 serve as the standard values.
Larger depths of cut or undeformed chip width can lead to cutting edge fractures.
After determining the depth of cut, the feed should be set as large as possible in order
to minimize the primary processing time. The smaller influence of feed on wear
formation compared with cutting speed and the fact that specific cutting force is
reduced with increased feed both speak for this sequence in determining the cutting
parameters. In this way, the machines power can be exploited more fully.
In addition to the maximum and minimum permissible feed of the machine, tool
limits must again be considered in selecting the feed. In order to avoid unmachined
areas on the workpiece, the following inequality can serve as a guide:
fmax r (8.2)
The lower feed limit is determined using the minimum chip thickness hmin , which
is a function of the stiffness of the system workpiece/cutting medium/tool/machine
and is intended to guarantee chip removal especially in the case of rounded off
or chamfered cutting edges. Following S OKOLOWSKI [Soko55], the following can
serve as a standard value, for turning for example:
hmin
0.25 < < 1.125 (8.3)
rn
This minimum chip thickness can be limited both by the material (e.g. in the
case of austenitic steels, which have a propensity to strain hardening) and by the
tool cutting edge form. For example, coated indexable inserts always have a cutting
edge rounding due to manufacturing conditions, the radius of which is between 20
and 60 m. In the case of roughing and when interrupted cuts require a large amount
of cutting tool material toughness, these roundings stabilize the cutting edges just
like the chamfer of the rake face. In the case of very small chip thicknesses or chip
widths, the elastic portion is greatly increased during the separation process and
chip removal can no longer be guaranteed.
8.1 Finding Economical Cutting Parameters 341
1.0
0.9 Discontinuous
chips
0.8
0.7
Feed f / mm
0.6
0.5
Long
0.4 cylindrical
helical chips
0.3
Ribbon
0.2
chips
0.1
Snarled chips
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Depth of cut ap / mm
Fig. 8.1 Chip form recommendation for inserts with chip breaker
Another parameter which limits feed is the predefined surface roughness. This
depends primarily on the feed, so the feed should not be set too high in order to
maintain a certain level of surface quality (Sect. 3.5).
The chip form is of great importance for an undisturbed manufacturing process
(especially in the case of automated manufacture with NC and CNC machines)
and for the protection of the machine operator. Figure 8.1 shows solution fields
of favourable chip forms in feed as a function of the depth of cut for two index-
able inserts of the same dimensions with different chip breakers. The images on the
edges of the respective solution field show what chip forms can be expected.
Such solution fields are applicable only:
for the applied manufacturing method,

for the applied process kinematics,
for the applied tools,
for the applied workpiece material and
for the applied cutting tool material
The cutting speed is determined in accordance with the previously defined tool
life parameter on the basis of a preset tool life criterion by a tool life parameter
function (Chap. 7) or with standard value tables.
The cutting speeds given in the standard value recommendations are usually
applied to stable cutting conditions on pre-machined workpieces. When machining
workpieces with rim zone structures that are especially difficult to cut (e.g. forging,
rolling or cast iron skin) the given cutting speeds should be multiplied by a factor of
0.650.8.
8.1.2 Optimizing the Cutting Parameters

Due to labour costs, machine investment costs, the constantly dropping costs for
tool cutting edges and improving wear properties, the cutting parameter recom-
mendations of cutting tool material manufacturers currently refer to a tool life of
15 min. The necessity of shortening the tool life in the case of capital-intensive
machine tools is understandable when one considers the costs. Moderate cutting
conditions result in a long tool life, little tool change and low tool costs. On the
other hand, long machining times also result, which lead to high labour and machine
costs depending on the volume machined. Figure 8.2 illustrates the relation between
cutting parameters and labour costs.
Since labour and machine costs have increased considerably while tool and tool
change costs have risen much more slowly (e.g. by the use of automated tool
changers), tool life reduction by increasing the cutting conditions leads to lower
manufacturing costs. Improving the cutting tool materials also results in improved
wear resistance. This allows for higher potential cutting speeds.
Depending on the machining task, a target value must be selected. In rough-
ing, two optimization targets stand in the foreground, proceeding from the aims of
management policy:
minimal manufacturing costs KFmin

minimal allowed time for a process temin
In the case of finishing, other optimization targets are required. Here, lower work-
piece tolerances, predefined surface qualities or other parameters that are important
for the functional reliability of the component must be observed. The following
is oriented formally and content-wise towards the guideline published by VDI
regarding cutting parameter optimization [VDI3321]. When optimizing individual
machining processes as well, marginal conditions stemming from the production
process such as machine availability or cycle times of linked production plants
must be considered when determining the machining parameters. Corresponding
to the required optimization target, the optimal value function is derived from the
High cutting parameters

Short tool life
High application intensity
High wages Expensive tool Expensive machine
Low application intensity

Long tool life
Low cutting parameters
Fig. 8.2 Impact of cutting parameters by values of labour costs, acc. to VDI 3321
manufacturing time or manufacturing cost equation. Time per unit te is composed of

the basic time tg , additional time tv and recovery time ter :
te = tg + tv + ter (8.4)
The additional time tv is the total time required for all irregular events such as
procuring necessary resources.
The recovery time ter takes all pauses into consideration during which the
machine tools are not in operation.
The basic time tg is the sum of the main process time th and auxiliary process
time tn :
tg = th + tn (8.5)
The main process time th is the time in which direct progress in the sense of the
production order is made via machining [VDI 3321].
The following is valid for the main process time:
L i Sj
th = + (8.6)
vfi vfj
i j
To calculate the main process time, the feed paths Li and cut lengths Sj are con-
sidered in conjunction with the respective feed velocity vf . The number of processes
required until completion is taken into account by the number of feed paths i and
the cut length j.
The auxiliary process time tn is the time during which all indirect processes aris-
ing during the machining operation (e.g. tightening, measuring, adjusting, pro rata
tool change and workpiece change) are executed [VDI3321]. The following is valid
for the auxiliary process time:
tr tW
tn = + + tWST (8.7)
tWM nWT
Tool change time tW is the time that passes until a tool is changed, and both
the position correction and positioning for re-entry have taken place. This time is
partially contained in the auxiliary process time tap [VDI3321].
The workpiece change time tWST is the time that passed until a workpiece is
changed.
Since the addends of the auxiliary process times sometimes do not accrue for
every workpiece or every process, they are considered proportionately. Set-up time
is based on the batch time m:
number of workpieces per machine: nWM = m (8.8)
The tool change time is based on the tool life T or the tool operating life nWT :
T
number of workpieces per tool life: nWT = (8.9)
tc
Here, the cutting time tc is the time in which the tool is actually cutting.
Finally, the following is true for the time per unit te per workpiece or process:
1 tc
te = th + tr + tWZ + tWST (8.10)
m T
8.1.2.1 Optimal-Cost Cutting Speed

The manufacturing costs per workpiece KF comprise labour and non-wage labour
costs KL , pure machine costs KM , tool costs and residual factory overheads Kx .
KF = KL + KM + KW + Kr (8.11)
Labour costs are calculated as follows:
KL = KLH te = L (1 + pL ) te (8.12)
with KLH as labour and non-wage labour costs per hour, L as hourly wage and pL as
the amount of non-wage costs.
Machine costs are derived from the machine-hour rate and the time per unit te :
KM = KMH te (8.13)
The proportionate tool costs are defined as
KWT tc
KW = = KWT (8.14)
nWT T
with KWT as tool costs for the tool operating life nWT including pre-adjustment
costs, number of workpieces per tool life T and tc as cutting time. For the tool costs
per tool life for re-grindable tools we have:
KWa KWu + ns KWs

KWT = + KWv1 + KWv2 (8.15)
ns + 1
with KWa as the tool acquisition value, KWu as the tool residual value, ns the number
of potential regrinds, KWs costs per regrind and KWv1 and KWv2 as pre-adjustment
costs outside and inside the machine.
The following is true for tools with indexable inserts:
KWP KWH KWE

KWT = + + + KWv1 + KWv2 (8.16)
nTP nTH nTE
with KWP as the indexable insert acquisition value, KWH as the tool holder acqui-
sition value and KWv1 and KWv2 as pre-adjustment costs outside and inside the
machine.
The tool operating life nT with i = P, H, E usually has highly differing values.
The residual factory overheads are calculated in the following way:
KxH
Kx = teB (8.17)
60
with KxH as the residual factory overheads per hour and teB as the occupation time
on the machine.
The machine and labour cost hourly rate KML is defined as:
te
KML = KLH + KMH + Kx (8.18)
teB
with KLH as the labour and non-wage labour costs, KMH as the machine hour-rate
and Kx as the residual factory overhead. By using the machine and labour cost
hourly rate, manufacturing costs can be summarized in the following manner:
KF = KL + KM + Kx + KW = KML teB + KW (8.19)
Figure 8.3 shows graphs of the manufacturing costs, tool costs and costs
contingent on the main processing time as a function of cutting speed.
Steadily increasing the cutting speed cannot lower the manufacturing costs fur-
ther. Due to the shortening of the tool life with increasing speeds, more frequent
tool change is necessary, raising the tool costs. Thus at very high cutting speeds the
proportionate tool costs can become the largest addend of the manufacturing costs.
The cutting parameters depth of cut ap , feed f and cutting speed vc should be
evaluated differently with respect to their optimization. The influence of the depth
of cut on tool wear is minimal. In the first step in cost-optimization, one can first
select the optimal-cost depth of cut apok at the maximum.
Manufacturing costs CM
Manufacturing
costs
Tool-
CMmin costs
Primary
processing
voc costs
Cutting speed vc
Fig. 8.3 Manufacturing costs as function of cutting speed

Although manufacturing costs have an absolute minimum as a function of feed

and cutting speed, the feed is of only secondary importance as a freely selectable
optimization parameter since the optimal feed is above the technically possible
feed for most practical cases. In due consideration of the cutting parameter lim-
its (Sect. 8.1.1), the second step is to select the maximum technically possible
feed as the optimal-cost feed fok . As opposed to the parameters ap and f, the cut-
ting speed vc is freely selectable across a wide range utilizable for optimization.
Cutting speed has a considerable influence on the wear behaviour of the tool,
which is designated by the tool life parameter, which in turn influences the tool
change costs.
Rising machine and labour costs as well as shorter auxiliary process times cause
a shift in the economical cutting speeds towards the lower range of tool life parame-
ters. The description of tool life behaviour is limited in general to a range linearized
in a double logarithmic system in which this behaviour can be described with suf-
ficient accuracy (Sect. 7.2.1 and Fig. 8.4). Mathematically, a regression analysis is
executed applying a general exponential function.
Figure 8.4 clarifies the dependence of the slope of the tool life straight lines on
the cutting tool material when machining iron materials. Steeply falling tool life
straight lines are characteristic of temperature-sensitive cutting tool materials (e.g.
high speed steel), levelly falling tool life straight lines on the other hand for more
high-temperature resistant cutting tool materials (e.g. cutting ceramics).
The expanded tool life function from a formulation made by TAYLOR contains
all three parameters depth of cut, feed and cutting speed:
T = Cv vkc Cf fzkfz Ca apka (8.20)
Cemented
High speed steel carbide Ceramic
logT / min
k = 5 k = 2.5 k = 2.5
k = 8.5 k = 4 k = 2
k = 12 k = 8 k = 1.25
log vc / (m/min)
Fig. 8.4 Tool life straight lines for cylindrical turning, acc. to VDI 3321
Since both the optimal-cost depth of cut apok and the optimal-cost feed fok
have already been selected, it is sufficient to use the TAYLORs simplified tool life
equation to derive the optimal value function of the costs.
T = Cv vck (8.21)
The optimal value function fow is set up by inserting the tool life Eq. (8.21) and
the main process time Eq. (8.4), taking into consideration the process being used,
into Eq. (8.19).
tc
KF = KML (th + tn + tv + ter ) + KWT (8.22)
T
Using the known structure of the auxiliary process time we obtain:

tw tr tc
KF = KML th + + + tWST + tv + ter + KWT (8.23)
nWT nWM T
Here it is advisable to consider the dependencies of the individual amounts of

cutting speed. All time parameters that are not a function of the cutting speed are
viewed as constants and substituted in the following way:
tr
C1 = + tWST + tv + ter (8.24)
nWM
Inserted, we obtain:
tc t
c
KFo (vc ) = KML th + tw + C1 + KWT (8.25)
T T
Since the optimal value function should be a function of cutting speed, the time
amounts have to be substituted by the cutting speed. In the case of a machining
method using a rotational main motion with constant cutting parameters, the fol-
lowing equations are valid for the main process time and for the cutting time using
Eq. (8.6) and substituting the constant items with the constant C3 :
Ci sj
th = + = C2 + tc (8.26)
vfi vfj
i j
tr tw
tn = + + tWST (8.27)
nWM nWT
D sj 1
tc = j = C3 (8.28)
vc fok vc
The tool life equation must also be valid, so for the optimal value function we
obtain:

1 tw 1
KFo (vc ) = KML C2 + C3 + C3 + C 1 + C3 KWT
vc vc T vc T

1 C3 tw C3
= KML C2 + C3 + + C1 + KWT
vc Cv vc k+1 Cv vc k+1
(8.29)
Now the methods of a general extreme value task can be used so that the nec-
essary and sufficient condition are met. For the first derivation according to cutting
speed we first obtain:

dKF0 1 C3 tw C3 KWT
= KML C3 2 (k + 1) (k + 1) (8.30)
dvc vc Cv vc (k+1) Cv vc (k+2)
This expression can be simplified as follows:
dKF0 KML C3 C3 (KML tW + KWT )

= (k + 1) (8.31)
dvc vc 2 Cv vc (k+2)
The necessary condition for extreme value tasks demands that the first derivation
becomes zero so that the following is true for the optimal cutting speed:

dKF0 (k + 1) C3 (KML tw + KWT )
= 0 vc = k
(8.32)
dvc KML C3 Cv
To make the cutting speed minimal-cost, the second derivation must be greater
than zero. At this location however, we shall dispense with the proof. After
re-substitution, the following is valid for the optimal-cost cutting speed:

(k + 1) tw + KWT

k KML
vok = (8.33)
Cv
After inserting the optimal-cost cutting speed, Eq. (8.33) into the tool life
equation, Eq. (8.21), we obtain the following for the optimal-cost tool life:

KWT
Tok = (k + 1) tw + (8.34)
KML
8.1.2.2 Optimal-Time Cutting Speed

To determine the optimal-time cutting speed, the manufacturing time must be opti-
mized with respect to the cutting speed. Figure 8.5 clarifies the difference between
cost and time optimization.
Costs respectively time

Busy time
Manufacturing
costs
C Mmin Primary
processing
costs
Tool costs
Tot Toc Tool life T
Fig. 8.5 Difference between time and cost optimum, acc. to VDI 3321
This means that a cutting speed should be selected which allows for a short main
process time and a long tool life, and thus the ratio of cutting time to tool life only
comprises a small amount of the auxiliary process time.
Analogously to the determination of the optimal-cost cutting speed (Eqs. (8.26)
and (8.33)), this can be carried out for the optimal-time cutting speed, obtained via:

tw
vot = k (k + 1) (8.35)
Cv
After inserting the optimal-time cutting speed (Eq. (8.35)) into the tool life Eq.
(8.21), we obtain for the optimal-cutting time tool life:
Tot = (k + 1) tw (8.36)
After determining and optimizing the cutting parameters, the cutting parameters
ap , f and vc must be evaluated for their realizability with respect to available spindle
power and spindle moment. In so doing, the following demands must be met:
Pspindel > Pc = Fc vc (8.37)
D
Mspindel > Mc = Fc (8.38)
2
The cutting force can be determined by the calculation basis given by SALOMON
[Salo24], which is used here in KIENZLEs notation [Kien52] in expanded form with
Kvk as the correction factor for tool wear [Lang72, VDI3206, Degn00].
Fc = kc1.1 b h1mc Kvk (8.39)
One can assume 5% per 100 m width of flank wear land as a standard value for
the correction factor Kvk .
If the spindle power is insufficient, the depth of cut or feed should be reduced
accordingly.
8.1.3 Calculating the Machine Hour-Rate

The machine hour-rate describes the costs to be calculated of a machine tool per
hour. When determining the machine hour-rate, the
imputed amortizations KA,
imputed interest KZ,
maintenance costs KI,
room costs KR,
and energy costs KE
are taken into consideration. The machine hour-rate KMH can be calculated as
follows:
KA + KZ + KI + KR + KE
KMH = (8.40)
TN
The yearly machine runtime TN amounts for example to 16001800 h/a for
single-shift operation. In the case of multi-shift operation, the runtime is increased
proportionately (e.g. two-shift operation ca. 3200 h/a or three-shift operation ca.
4800 h/a).
The imputed amortizations KA are comprised of the acquisition value of the
machine KAW , the amortization duration t and the sales revenue of the machine
KVE after expiration of the amortization duration:
KAW KVE
KA = (8.41)
t
The duration of amortization t is relevant for determining the imputed amorti-
zation KA . The duration of amortization is calculated from the minimum of the
expected technical or economical service life. The decreasing value of capital assets
is designated in fiscal terms as allowance for amortization (AfD). The financial basis
for the duration of amortization can be found in such AfD lists, since they turn out
differently for different assets.
Figure 8.6 clarifies the calculation of the imputed interest for the amortization
term. The sales revenue KVE can be depreciated over the entire term. The acquisi-
tion value KAW does not remain constant over the entire term however, but gradually
decreases. The imputed interest over the amortization term KZges can be interpreted
geometrically as surface area under the cost function. It should be taken into consid-
eration that the symbol I always indicates the rate of interest per year. The following
is valid:

KAW KVE KAW + KVE
KZges = KVE + it = it (8.42)
2 2
Fig. 8.6 Imputed interest

calculation
Costs
Cav
0.5 (KAW KVE) i t

KVE
KVE i t
t
Amortization period
Since the costs of Eq. (8.39) relate to 1 year, the imputed interest for 1 year KZ
must be inserted in this equation, resulting in:
KAW + KVE
KZ = i (8.43)
2
Amortization, interest, room costs and fixed maintenance costs are all fixed
quantities. On the other hand, energy costs, tool consumption and the variable main-
tenance costs are variable quantities. If the manufacturing labour is dependant on the
machine run-time, it can be included in the rate of payment. In this case, we refer to
it as a cost per man-hour.
8.1.4 Planning Methods and Tools

According to the type of data determination, we distinguish between manual
(external) and computer-aided cutting data determination. The boundaries here,
depending on the computer use, are fluid (Fig. 8.7).
In the case of manual cutting parameter determination and optimization, docu-
ments from various sources are utilized:
guidelines of different standardization committees
catalogues and cutting parameter recommendations of the tool manufacturers
trial results from research papers
in-house data banks for cutting parameters
Machining standards, such as are published by the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
(VDI) (English: Association of German Engineers) for various machining processes
as VDI guidelines, give the process planner only very rough reference values for the
target cutting parameters [VDI3206, VDI3208, VDI3209]. Usually, cutting speeds
are recommended for broadly associated material groups independently of chip
cross-section, tool life behaviour, machine type and machine-hour rate that often
Methods for
process optimization
Manual fixed Manual Computer aided off- Computer aided

value optimization off-line optimization line optimization on-line optimization
Indicators
- Standard value - Process opti- - Process opti- - Process optimization

tables mization by end mization with with continuous
- Nomograms of tool life intermittent sensors and adaptive
- Formulas sensors control adaption
Fig. 8.7 Methods of process optimization, acc. to GEBAUER [Geba80]
lead to an uneconomically high tool life. Many tool manufacturers today offer soft-
ware systems (e.g. CIMSOURCE, CoroGuideTM , WinTool, etc.), with the help of
which the determination of the cutting parameters can be combined directly with
the selection of a suitable tool. More exact results can be obtained from test reports,
which however are valid in most cases for special machining conditions and can
only be applied to other machining cases with reservations.
Based on these sources, internal cutting data collections are often made as part
of a companys process preparation. These collections make reference to the accu-
mulated practical machining cases in manufacture and also take into consideration
the long-term experiences of specialists and skilled workers. Information centres for
cutting data, which collect cutting data from industry and research and make these
available to companies in a form specifically tailored to them, are another modern
phenomenon. Figure 8.8 shows the input mask of a data bank as an example of such
a type of cutting parameter selection. These data bank systems contain cutting data
for set tool life parameters for a comparable workpiece material/cutting tool mate-
rial combination and under consideration of geometrical influencing variables. Such
a data bank makes it possible to process large collections of previously determined
machining data under consideration of many influencing parameters and to provide
improved target values.
8.2 Process Monitoring

Secure process monitoring has a crucial role in manufacturing technology.
Uninterrupted, fully or partially automated manufacturing processes guarantee high
productivity and optimal capacity utilization. Process disturbances are, however,
unavoidable. Stochastically occurring tool failure, deviations in the composition of
8.2 Process Monitoring 353
Fig. 8.8 Example for technology data organization (Source: CIM GmbH)
the machined material or faulty planning/programming prior to machining are all

potential causes for such interruptions.
The goal of process monitoring in manufacturing technology is to recognize these
process disturbances in a timely fashion and to introduce proper countermeasures.
For example, extensive tool, workpiece or machine tool damage can result from tool
fractures if the proper countermeasures are not promptly applied, be it manually
or automatically (i.e. with the help of monitoring systems). This means, among
other things, that the machining process must be monitored in order to minimize
consequential costs of process disturbances.
Process monitoring systems make it possible to monitor cutting tools. The tools
are thereby monitored for sudden tool fractures or overloads and for increasing
tool wear. Tool monitoring has been developed to varying extents depending on
the various machining processes with defined cutting edge geometries. Monitoring
of the drilling process has been widely researched and finds extensive use in indus-
try. There are also different approaches from research and practice for realizing
a reliable tool fracture and wear-recognition monitoring system for turning pro-
cesses. In the case of milling, fracture and wear monitoring is much more costly
than in the abovementioned processes due to the more complicated process kine-
matics. Accordingly, there are only a few monitoring solutions that exist for milling
processes.
Common to all monitoring systems is that process-relevant information is mea-
sured with the help of specialized sensors. The most common sensors and sensor
principles today will be introduced in the next chapter.
8.2.1 Sensors for Process Monitoring

A number of sensors are available on the market for monitoring manufacturing
processes, of which most can be classified in six physical functional principles.
Table 8.2 shows an allocation of typical measurement parameters and the physical
functional principles that primarily underlie them.
In order to standardize usage and to lend semantic clarity to the terms used, the
essential fundamental concepts of metrology will first be defined [Pfei01]:
The measurement parameter is the physical parameter that is to be

measured.
Measurement is the execution of activities planned for the quantitative compari-
son of measurement parameters with the unit.
The measurement result is the value taken from the measurements estimated as
the true value of a measurement parameter.
The measurement principle is the physical basis of the measurement.
The measurement method is defined as a special kind of procedure used in the
measurement independent of the measurement principle.
A measurement process is the practical application of a measurement principle
and a measurement method.
A further distinction is drawn between direct and indirect measurement meth-

ods. Direct measurement methods record the measurement parameter of interest
by means of a comparison with a normal of the same physical parameter. Indirect
measurement methods, in order to determine the measurement parameter, capture
an auxiliary parameter which stands in a known and describable relation to the
measurement parameter [Pfei01].
While for direct methods, it is often difficult to reach the measurement loca-
tion with suitable sensors, the problem with indirect measurement methods is in the
determination of an assignment rule, the validity of which should not be affected
Table 8.2 Relation of measurement parameters to physical functional principles
Physical functional principles

for process description Associated measurement parameters
Mechanical (motion, displacement, stiffness) Position, acceleration, velocity, force, torque,

longitudinal/torsional stress,
longitudinal/torsional strain, pressure etc.
Thermal (kinetic energy of atoms and Temperature, heat flow, specific heat, thermal
molecules) conductivity etc.
Electric (electric field) Voltage, current, charge, conductivity etc.
Magnetic (magnetic field) Permeability, magnetic current etc.
Radiation (electromagnetic radiation) Energy, intensity, emission, reflection,
permeability etc.
Chemical (forces between atomic nuclei and Chemical components, concentrations etc.
electrons, bond energies of molecules)
Fig. 8.9 Process emissions

for monitoring of cutting
process
n
tio
dia
ra
Ac
at
He
ou
st
ic
em Resultant
is
Acceleration
si force
on
Ac
ou
st
ic
em
iss
io
n
by changes to the process parameters. Yet the advantages and disadvantages of

the direct and indirect measurement methods cannot be generalized and must be
weighed for every particular case.
The following is concentrated on the monitoring of cutting processes. Figure 8.9
shows the process emissions relevant for this area.
Numerous sensors use the strain of an object as an auxiliary function for mea-
suring force, torque and acceleration. For this reason, the following sections will
examine the workings of strain gauge strips and piezoelectric sensors.
8.2.1.1 Strain Gauges

A strain gauge converts a mechanical strain into an electrical resistance change. The
OHM resistance R of a metallic conductor is a function of the material ( e ), length
(L) and cross-section (A) according to the following relation:
L
R = e (8.44)
A
In the simplest case, a strain gauge consists of a resistance wire, which is fre-
quently incorporated into a supporting matrix. The strain gauge is fastened to
the shifting position on the measuring body. The adhesive is of great importance,
because the strain or compression of the measuring body must be transferred unal-
tered to the strain gauge via the adhesive connection. Assuming that the material
properties of the strain gauge are not changed by the strain ( e = constant), the
resistance change is dependent only on the length and cross-section change. In gen-
eral, the relation between strain and relative resistance change can be described by
Eq. (8.45). Strain sensitivity k, for example for a constantan strain gauge, amounts
to k = 2.044. The normal operating range of strain gauges extends up to a relative

strain/compression of about 1%.
R/R = k (8.45)
In order to reduce the dimensions in comparison to the single-wire form, usually

meander-formed designs are utilized (Fig. 8.10).
However, the deflection areas cause a sensitivity of up to 3% transverse to the
measurement direction. Strain gauges are not limited to the use of resistance wires.
Semiconductor, foil and thin-film materials are also employed.
The resistance changes arising during the use of strain gauges are very small
and are only a fraction of its total resistance. With the help of a bridge circuit, it is
possible to measure the arising resistance changes in the form of a voltage variation
UM . For a balanced bridge circuit with R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R and a feed voltage
U0 , UM = 0. The WHEATSTONE bridge circuit is shown in Fig. 8.11.
Also valid is the relation given in Eq. (8.46)
(R + R1 ) (R + R4 ) (R + R2 ) (R + R3 )

UM = U0 (8.46)
(2R + R1 + R2 ) (2R + R3 + R4 )
Depending on whether two or four active strain gauges are used, this relation can
be simplified in the form of a quarter, half or full bridge. For a quarter bridge with
Fig. 8.10 Sketch of a strain Carrier foil

gauge strip with measurement
meander
Connectors
Measurement meander
R1 R3
UM
U0
R2 R4
Fig. 8.11 Wiring diagram of a WHEATSTONE bridge

R1 = R and R2 = R3 = R4 = 0 and R << R the Eq. (8.47) is valid. It
is used for simple measurements with a single strain gauge.
R
UM = U0 (8.47)
4R
A half bridge can be used to increase sensitivity by applying two identical strain
gauges so that the amount of strain of one is equal to the amount of compression of
the other, i.e. R1 = R, R2 = R and R3 = R4 = 0. Eq. (8.48) is true in
this case.
R
UM = U0 (8.48)
2R
In the case of the full bridge, all four arms of the bridge circuit are fit with strain
gauges. This makes it possible to raise sensitivity ever further and, in case all the
strain gauges are exposed to the same temperature, a temperature compensation is
also possible. Equation (8.49) is valid here with R1 = R4 = R and R2 =
R3 = R.
R
UM = U0 (8.49)
R
8.2.1.2 Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectricity is caused by the electromagnetic interaction between the mechan-
ical and electrical state of crystals that have no centre of symmetry, e.g. Quartz
(SiO2 ), tourmaline and ferroelectrical ceramics. By deforming the crystal lattice
along the polar axes, the positive and negative lattice elements are displaced relative
to one another, generating an electrical dipole moment. This charge transfer can be
converted into a voltage signal with the help of a charge amplifier. In the case of
piezo-actuators, the inverse piezoelectric effect is utilized, in which a mechanical
change in length is produced by applying voltage.
Piezoelectric materials have one or more polar axes. Their piezoelectric coef-
ficient is direction-dependent and indicates sensitivity in the direction of the
corresponding axis. Piezoelectric coefficients range from 2 to a present maxi-
mum of 1500 pC/N. This should be taken into consideration when cutting crystals
(Fig. 8.12).
Fig. 8.12 Possible cuts

through a synthetic crystal
(Source: Kistler)
Fig. 8.13 Longitudinal effect Unstressed crystal Stressed crystal

in piezoelectric materials Fx
+ +
Si O

x
y
+ +
+ +

++++++++++
Fx
In the case of the longitudinal effect, a charge transfer occurs on the force contact
surface as a result of a mechanical deformation along a polar axis of the crystal
perpendicular to the pickup of the charge (Fig. 8.13).
The charge difference should not be increased with the geometrical dimensions
of the crystal plates, but only by mechanical series connection and electrical par-
allel connection of several plates. The amount of charge can be calculated for the
longitudinal effect with Eq. (8.50), with d11 as the piezoelectric coefficient in the
x-direction, Fx as force in the x-direction and n as the number of crystal plates.
Qx = d11 Fx n (8.50)
In the case of the shear effect, stress occurs as in the longitudinal effect along the
polar axis of the crystal. However, in this case a shear force arises in the direction
of the charge pickup (Fig. 8.14).
Unstressed crystal Stressed crystal

Fx

O + +
+ y +
x

Si
+ +
+++++++++
Fig. 8.14 Shear effect in
Fx
piezoelectric materials
Unstressed crystal Stressed crystal

Fy
O + + +
-
+ y
+
-
+
x
+
-
Si +
+ + -
Fy
Fig. 8.15 Transversal effect in piezoelectric materials
The charge thereby released can be computed using Eq. (8.51), with d11 as the
piezoelectric coefficient in the x-direction, Fx as force in the x-direction and n as the
number of crystal plates.
Qx = 2 d11 Fx n (8.51)
In the case of the transversal effect, stress is applied in the direction of a neu-
tral axis of the crystal, and the charge occurs orthogonally to it on a polar axis
(Fig. 8.15).
In this case, the amount of charge should be influenced by the dimensions of the
piezo-element and can be calculated with Eq. (8.52), with d11 as the piezoelectric
coefficient in the x-direction, Fy as force in the y-direction and b/a as the geometric
ratio.
b
Qy = d11 Fy (8.52)
a
Another essential component of piezoelectric sensors are the isolators. Isolators
are subject to extremely high requirements in order to prevent small, piezoelectri-
cally generated charge transfers from flowing off rapidly and distorting the reading,
especially in the case of static and quasistatic measurements. The isolation effect
must also be guaranteed during use under high temperatures and under the influ-
ence of moisture. Furthermore, the isolation materials must have a high level of
stiffness for transferring mechanical stresses in order to support the piezo-element
against the housing.
8.2.1.3 Force Sensors

For measuring forces and torques in manufacturing technology, piezoelectric sen-
sors and, occasionally, inductive and capacitive position transducers are utilized. In
general, all systems convert a stress into an electrically evaluable magnitude.
Fundamentally, one can measure either in the main force connection or in the sec-
ondary force connection. Especially when the sensor is arranged in the main force
connection, one must be sure that, on the one hand, the stiffness properties of the
entire system are not negatively affected by the integration of the sensor and, on the
other hand, that the sensor itself is not damaged by an overload. The high stiffness
and high overload stability are advantageous in this regard. However, the sensors
can sustain only extremely low tensile stresses, so that they must be sufficiently
prestressed with a compressive stress in the case of tensile or tumescent stress.
Figure 8.16 shows the structure of a piezoelectric sensor used for measuring force
components. Two longitudinally sensitive quartz plates serve as the sensor elements.
In order to measure torque, two basic principles can be used. When longitudi-
nally sensitive force sensors are used, it is possible to make inferences about the
torque from non-parallel sensors under consideration of their reference coordinates.
If shear-sensitive force sensors are used, the torque applied can be directly mea-
sured (Fig. 8.17). The plates are arranged mechanically in a series and connected
electrically parallel so that the charge is proportional to the torque applied. Since
the shear stresses are non-positively transferred, the sensors require a high level of
pre-stressing.
In the case of sensors designed to capture several components, a corresponding
number of additional quartz plate pairs of varying orientation are used. Figure 8.18
shows a four-component dynamometer used for measuring three force components
and torque.
Circular covering plate Housing

Quartz plates
Electrode Connector
Base plate
Fig. 8.16 Schematic view of a piezoelectric dynamometer
Shear sensitive
quartz plate
Fig. 8.17 Schematic view of

assembly of shear sensitive
quartz plates in a torque
sensor
Fig. 8.18 Dynamometer

for drilling processes
(Source: Kistler)
Similar systems exist for turning and milling processes as well. Figure 8.19
shows a rotating four-component dynamometer for milling.
Piezoelectric measuring systems are characterized by their high levels of stiff-
ness. If beyond this the oscillating mass located in front of the sensor element is
small, the measurement section has a high characteristic frequency. In this way it
is possible to analyze reliably dynamic process parameters even in high-frequency
areas. In common usage, this is often designated as the capacity of piezoelec-
tric measuring systems for highly dynamic measurement. Figure 8.20 shows the
schematic of tool holder for turning, in which a small piezoelectric force sensor for
measuring cutting force has been fit beneath the cutting edge.
This principle can also be applied to rotating tools. In this case, a signal transmis-
sion between the rotating and stationary parts of the measuring system is required.
Such systems are currently still in prototype stage.
If however high dynamics are unnecessary in the measurement, measuring in the
secondary force connection has as a rule the advantage of simpler sensor integration
into the machines structure. Besides strain gauges, above all piezoelectric force
Fig. 8.19 Rotating

dynamometer for milling
processes (Source: Kistler)
Fig. 8.20 Turning tool with Insert

integrated dynamometer Intermediate element
Slim-line-
sensor
Insert holder
Fig. 8.21 Quartz transverse

measuring pin
(Source: Kistler)
measurement pins are suitable as sensors in such cases (Fig. 8.21). These indirectly
measure force via the strain of the structure into which they are integrated.
A general disadvantage of measuring in the secondary force connection is that
it is necessary to analyze the machine structure in order to determine the optimal
assembly location. If this is chosen correctly, it is then possible to monitor tool
fracture and overload.
Force measurement rings integrated into the main or feed spindle bearings
of drilling, turning and milling machines are another possible way to measure
resultant force. Figure 8.22 shows a piezoelectric ring sensor. In some cases, it is
also possible to apply strain gauges on the outer bearing ring or in a special bearing
sleeve.
Fig. 8.22 Multicomponent force sensor for integration into spindle bearings (Source: Kistler)
8.2.1.4 Accelerometers
For measuring mechanical process dynamics in machining, usually piezoelectric
accelerometers are used. The basic functional principle is based on the propor-
tionate relation between force and acceleration. The factor of proportionality is
the inert mass of the body upon which the force is acting. The main components
of an accelerometer are therefore the seismic mass, sensor element and housing
(Fig. 8.23).
In detail, we differentiate between three different accelerometer designs, in which
a charge transfer is produced by normal forces, shear forces or flexural forces. A sen-
sor element acting on normal forces is shown in Fig. 8.24. As a result of the design,
the large surface contact between the sensor element and the base plate leads to
the stresses of the measured object being transferred via the base plate to the sen-
sor element. This brings about a measurement error. Furthermore, the pre-stressing
is altered by temperature changes, so that thermally caused errors in measurement
can also occur. The susceptibility of the sensor type to these sources of disturbance
is much lower in the case of shear-sensitive accelerometers (Fig. 8.24). Besides
their lower basic strain sensitivity, shear-sensitive piezoelectric ceramics exhibit no
thermally caused charge transfer (pyroelectricity).
Every mass additionally mounted on the measured object changes its vibrational
properties (characteristic frequency) and thus in certain conditions call into question
the result of a measurement. It is especially important to take this fact into consid-
eration in the case of experimental modal analysis. The mass of the accelerometer
must be much smaller than that of the structural mass to be analyzed. One example
Seismic mass
Sensor element
Connector
Fig. 8.23 Schematic assembly of an accelerometer

Fig. 8.24 Accelerometer Seismic mass

with shear sensitive sensor
element
Sensor element
Connector
Fig. 8.25 Accelerometer a

Tap
with a piezoelectric beam
Piezoelectric ceramic
beam
Charge amplifier
of a mass-reduced accelerometer is shown in Fig. 8.25. The active component of

the accelerometer consists here of a piezo-ceramic bending beam. Upon displace-
ment of the beam due to acceleration, a charge transfer is caused. In this case, the
sensor element and the seismic mass are identical. Besides the low characteristic fre-
quency and the pyroelectric attributes of the sensor, improper use results in marked
sensitivity to mechanical destruction due to beam fracture.
The sensor is selected primarily in accordance with the measurement range,
sensitivity, the mass and characteristic frequency. Simultaneous fulfilment of all
goals represents an optimization problem due to physical limitations. For exam-
ple, increasing sensitivity over a larger seismic mass results in a lower characteristic
frequency and thus to a more limited available frequency range. This can been seen
in Eq. (8.53), in which f0 is the characteristic frequency, c the stiffness of the sensor
element and m the seismic mass.
Tool turret
Tool
Tool holder
Magnet
Accelerometer
Fig. 8.26 Application of an accelerometer at the tool holder

1 c
f0 = (8.53)
2 m
In comparison to quartz, some piezoelectric ceramics provide charge differences

that are 100 times higher under otherwise identical conditions. This property can
be utilized in order to reduce the seismic mass by a factor of 100 at equal sensor
sensitivity. However, ceramic elements are generally not as stiff, so this approach
leads to losses with respect to the characteristic frequency.
In order to capture the dynamics of manufacturing process as freely as possible
of disturbances in practice, a triaxially measuring accelerometer should be applied
close to the action point, e.g. directly under the turning tool. This ideal solution is
not always realizable within the machining space of a machine tool. In Fig. 8.26,
the sensor was thus fastened with a magnet on the tool holder.
8.2.1.5 Acoustic Emission Sensors

There are also dynamics in the province of acoustic emissions [Eise88]. Depending
on the type and magnitude of the emission source, the frequency range extends from
audible sound (ca. 16 kHz) to the high ultrasound range (ca. 30 MHz). Figure 8.27
shows a diagram of possible sources and causes of the development of acoustic
emission (AE) in machining processes.
Figure 8.28 shows an AE-sensor in cross-section. The surface waves arrive via
a thin membrane with integrated docking element at the sensor element, which is
surrounded by a damping mass. No additional seismic mass is required to detect
5
1 Plastic deformation
in the shear plane
2 Friction at the rake face
3 Crack initiation and crack

So growth
un
d 6
pr
op 4 Friction between tool and
ag workpiece
at
io
n 7
5 Collision of the chip on the tool
1 or workpiece
3 6 Chip breakage
So
4 un
d
pr 7 Friction by redirecting the
op
ag chip on the rake face
2 at
io
n
Fig. 8.27 Sources of acoustic emission
Piezoelectric element Damping mass
Membrane and docking element
Fig. 8.28 Schematic assembly of an AE-sensor
the AE signal. The inertia of the sensor element itself is sufficient to produce a
measurable charge transfer at typical frequencies between 50 kHz and 2 MHz.
Piezoelectric ceramics are especially suited to AE-measurement because of their
high sensitivity. AE-sensors are constructed such that the mechanical oscillation
direction is either perpendicular or parallel to the electric polarisation. In practice
however, still other piezoelectric or elastic coupling possibilities exist that can lead
to undesired resonances during the vibration measurement [Saxl97]. Thus, the area
of use of sensors is limited to suitable frequency ranges. Typical frequency ranges

are, for example, 50400 kHz or 100900 kHz.
Surface sensors are attached to the machine structure and register the surface
waves produced by the AE-signals. It is important that the optimal position for
sensor assembly is determined. Sensor selection and positioning are decisive crite-
ria for a successful process monitoring. AE-signals are attenuated at joining points
and material inhomogeneities in an order of about 11 dB per point of intersection
[Dorn93, Kett96]. The extent of this signal attenuation is also strongly dependent
on frequency. High-frequency signal components are more strongly attenuated than
low-frequency ones. When applying AE-sensors therefore, one is faced with the
basic conflict of goals between attachment near the process in order to receive sig-
nals that are as little attenuated as possible and a positioning which protects the
sensor from interference from hot chips or cutting fluid and does not obstruct tool
or workpiece change. In order to guarantee constant and reproducible coupling con-
ditions, the surface making contact with the sensor element must be machined to a
high level of surface quality.
Fluid acoustic sensors measure the AE-signal via a fluid jet (e.g. cutting fluid),
which is directed either at the workpiece, the tool holder or the tool.
With AE-sensors, fracture and wear can be recognized in turning as well as
in milling and drilling operations [Diei87, Dorn89, Kett96, Kni89b, Kni92b,
Mori80, Reub00]. Another area of application is in the recognition of unfavourable
chip forms in automated turning processes [Kutz91, Kni96, Kloc05a]. One exam-
ple from the sphere of grinding operations (see Manufacturing Processes, Volume 2)
is the recognition of burn by means of acoustic emission analysis [Saxl97].
Monitoring solutions based on acoustic emission are suitable for finishing processes
as well, since the use of other sensor principles has remained problematic due to the
small cross-sections of undeformed chip and low resultant forces.
8.2.1.6 Effective-Power Sensors

Changes to the resultant force components lead not only to dislocations or defor-
mations but also to a change in current and power consumption of the main and
feed drives. The power consumed by the motor of a machine tool is composed of an
effective and an idle component. Because of its proportionality to the torque emitted
by the motor, the effective power is often used as a signal within the control system
for quantifying the motor load. When monitoring cutting processes, usually exter-
nal effective-power measurement tools are used, often with associated evaluation
software and visualization unit.
The principle of effective-power measurement is based on determining the volt-
age U, current I and phase shift between both quantities. The effective power
is obtained from these using Eq. (8.54). We make a distinction between one, two
and three-phase systems, whereby three-phase systems have the highest resolution
because they execute the measurement in all three phases.

Pw = 3 U I cos (8.54)
Fig. 8.29 Wiring diagram

for the assembly of
effective-power measurement Frequency
system converter
Effective-power
measurement-
transducer
I1
I2
I3
L1
L2
L3
3~
External effective-power modules are installed in machine tools between the fre-
quency converter and the motor. Figure 8.29 shows a typical wiring diagram for a
three-phase system. To read the current, hall sensors are used that measure the cur-
rent along with its phasing via the magnetic field surrounding the conductor in a
circular shape. During integration into the machine tool, signal adaptation is very
simple. Hall sensors are offered in various performance classes. The initial adapta-
tion can be achieved by varying the number of conductor loops that are led through
the hall sensors. Current systems also have electronic signal conditioners.
Effect-power measurement systems are characterized above all by the fact that
they do not affect the mechanical properties of the machine tool. The machining
torque can be measured during the operation without the integration of external
sensors into the electric flux of the machine. The primary area of application is the
recognition of tool fractures and collisions in the workspace. Sufficiently large force
changes are necessary for efficient wear monitoring. Furthermore, the systems are
inexpensive and easily retrofittable. Their suitability as an efficient process moni-
toring tool depends to a decisive extent on the ratio of the power input generated
by the machining process and the total power of the drive. Small machining torques
can thus no longer be reliably measured in the case of spindles with a collectively
large power input. Reliable monitoring is particularly difficult in the case of small
cross-sections of undeformed chip or small process forces and torques, e.g. in the
case of finishing or of drilling with small diameters. The method is hardly suit-
able for measuring dynamic machining torques due to the high inertia (of the motor
armature, clamping mechanism and so on) in front of the sensors. The inert masses
of the power train represent a low-pass filter that considerably impedes the swift
measurement of dynamic magnitudes because of the low cutoff frequency.
8.2.1.7 Temperature Sensors

The cutting temperature is an important process-characteristic quantity for evaluat-
ing thermal stress on the workpiece and cutting tool material surfaces in the contact
zone. In addition to thermoelements, resistance thermometers and thermocameras,
quotient pyrometers are also used for measurement purposes, which provide highly
dynamic, precise and absolute information on temperature.
Thermoelements make use of the thermoelectrical effect between two metals.
Besides the single-cutter system and the twin-cutter system [Gott25, Vier70], it is
also possible to integrate a thermoelement into the tool [Kst54] or the workpiece
[Hopp03].
Resistance thermometers utilize the temperature-dependence of the resistance of
a conductor/semiconductor for temperature measurement. Usually metallic materi-
als are used, particularly platinum and nickel, the resistance of which increase with
temperature in an easily reproducible manner. Some semiconductors have negative
temperature coefficients, i.e. their resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
Thermocameras allow for a non-contact, extensive measurement of temperature.
They function according to the principle of thermography. Every object emits a
band of infrared radiation, the intensity of which is a function of temperature. The
wavelength range is between 0.7 and 1000 m. The majority of commercial infrared
cameras use however only the spectral range of medium and long-wave infrared
from 3.5 to 14 m.
In the case of a quotient pyrometer also referred to as a ratio pyrometer or
2-colour pyrometer intensity is not only measured with one wavelength but by
the ratio of the intensities of two different wavelengths. Infrared radiation is cap-
tured fibre-optically and sent to an evaluation unit. The glass fibre is sheathed with a
protective tubing. In the pyrometer housing are the optics, filter, detectors and a mea-
suring amplifier (Fig. 8.30). The principle of the quotient pyrometer is extensively
discussed in the dissertation of Mller [Mll04].
The electronic housing contains the control of the Peltier element cooling and the
power supply. Data acquisition and evaluation can be automatically executed with
an attached laptop.
Variations in intensity that are not caused by temperature, but rather, for example,
by partial impurification of the optics, have no influence on the measurement result.
Furthermore, measurement by quotient formation is for almost completely indepen-
dent of the degree of emission of the material so long as there is no significant
dependence on wavelength.
Surface of the Colour

measured divisor
object Lens Light sensor
Light duct IR-filter
Measuring
amplifier
Fig. 8.30 Functional principle of a quotient pyrometer (Source: WSA RWTH Aachen)
Metallically sheer surfaces have small degrees of emission. In order to measure

at optically difficult to access and thermally/mechanically heavily stressed areas, it
is possible to position a fibre-optic cable very close to the contact zone between
the tool and the workpiece. To do this, the measurement location must as a rule be
prepared with a hole, into which the fibre can be inserted. Figure 8.31 shows a typ-
ical application on an indexable insert for measuring temperature on the machined
surface of the workpiece.
Measurement data acquisition and evaluation can be carried out with a PC. The
result of the measurement is a temporally and spatially high-resolution temperature
signal such as is shown in Fig. 8.32 using an example from drilling.
Workpiece
Chip
Carbide tipped cutters
Quartz fibre of the

2-colour-pyrometer
(D = 0.42 mm)
Radiation
1 mm
Fig. 8.31 Temperature measurement of machined workpiece surface

800
0.1 mm = f
700
Temperature T /C
0.05 mm = f
800 0.05 mm = f
Temperature /C
600
700
600
500
500
400
400
300
200
300
18.86 18.88 18.9 18.92 18.94
Drilling distance/mm
200
18.7 18.8 18.9 19 19.1

Drilling distance/mm
Fig. 8.32 Example of a highly detailed temperature signal
In the case of the system described here, the lower limit of measurable tempera-
ture is about 200 C. The potential temperature resolution depends on the selection of
the amplification factor. A higher amplification factor results in a higher resolution
but also reduces the measurable temperature range and the measurable maximum
temperature. While losses of intensity by partial impurification of the optics do not
distort the measurement result, measurement errors do occur in the case of differing
emission degrees for both of the wavelengths on which the measurement is based.
When cutting fluids are used, measurements are extremely unstable due to the dif-
ferent optical properties of the cutting fluid and the fibre material if the optic is
wetted.
8.2.2 Signal Processing and Monitoring Strategies

In order to develop process monitoring strategies, signal processing is first required.
Independently of whether the signals are obtained from external sensors or by
machine tool control readouts, these signals should exhibit a close correlation to
the process.
Depending on the required system reaction speed, the methods used either
accompany the process or are intermittent. A continuous, process-concomitant
measurement offers the most rapid possibility of detecting events and introducing a
suitable reaction. The intermittent measurement permits reaction after reinstatement
of the measurement cycle at the earliest, so it is possible that disturbances arising

outside the measurement cycle are not reflected in the measured signals.
No new information is generated during signal processing. Signal processing
has the exclusive function of extracting from the total received information that
information which relates to the process parameters to be monitored. A basic dis-
tinction is drawn between online and offline signal processing systems. In the case
of online processing, signal reception and signal processing occur simultaneously.
In offline processing, signal reception and processing are physically and temporally
separated.
The properties and characteristics of the systems used determine to quite a sig-
nificant extent the basic properties of the signals that are picked up. Therefore, it
is necessary to determine signal processing strategies with an eye to the signal
properties. Figure 8.33 shows an example of a measurement path for the acquisi-
tion of AE-signals in a machining process. This measurement path is characteristic
of many other manufacturing processes. The signals generated by the sensors
generally have low energy contents. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is thus low,
making disturbance-free signal transmission and evaluation more difficult. In order
to improve the SNR therefore, the signal is subject to preamplification. Often the
signal data is then filtered in accordance with the frequency range that is relevant
for the given monitoring task. Depending on the monitoring task and the type of
sensor signals, either highpass, lowpass, or bandpass filtering takes place.
Signal acquisition
Process
and assessment
Reaction on
FZ detected process
solutions
Documentation
MZ of process
developments
A-D
Sensor /-s Highpass converter
A
fg f
A Bandpass
P1 P2
Pre-intensification fu fo f Main amplification RMS-ractification
A Lowpass
fg f
Fig. 8.33 Measurement path for acquisition of acoustic emission

The essential function of signal filtering is to filter out those signal components
from the raw signal that do not correlate with the process parameters to be moni-
tored. The irrelevant signal components might contain information assigned to the
process but which is not relevant for the application at hand, or they might be extra
disturbance signals that were introduced into the measurement chain from outside.
Examples of disturbances include irrelevant machine vibrations or external electro-
magnetic disturbance fields. After signal filtering, amplification takes place in the
main amplifier. Optionally, especially in the case of AE-signals, the effective value
of the sensor signals can be rectified following Eq. (8.55).

T

1
seff = s2 (t)dt (8.55)
T
0
For the sake of simplicity, preprocessing is applied to a signal with constant fre-
quency (Fig. 8.34). In the effective value rectification, a time-dependent, sliding,
quadratic average the RMS (root-mean-square) is formed from an output signal
[Saxl97, Reub00].
Burst fraction
Bandpass filtered signal

Voltage U
Continuous signal fraction
Rectified signal
Voltage U
Lowpass filtered signal

Voltage U
0
Time t
Fig. 8.34 Filtering and RMS-rectification

RMS signals have only positive signal components and are used to determine
monitoring parameters. After the effective value is rectified, further filtering or
amplifying of the signals may be necessary depending on the case at hand. In
order to make information-technological processing of the signals possible, the ana-
logue measurement values are digitalized in an analogue/digital (A/D) converter.
The measurement values can then be acquired, evaluated with the help of software
and further processed in digital form.
Principally, it is possible to consider signals in the time range or frequency range.
Wave analysis makes it possible to combine information coming from both ranges.
Table 8.3 compares general attributes of the three methods [Reub00].
In the case of time-consuming monitoring processes, signal evaluation in the time
range has the advantage that it does not require a time-consuming transformation
into the frequency range that demands a large amount of computer capacity. In the
simplest case, process disturbances lead to significant signal changes that can be
determined directly from the temporal signal profile.
Action limits and tolerance zones are useful for identifying disturbances.
Figure 8.35 shows some classic examples. Besides a static limit value, a trend, a
tolerance zone and revolving thresholds, it is also possible to identify characteristic
signal profiles.
Monitoring by means of static thresholds is the simplest type of signal-based
monitoring. The signal level for the undisturbed process profile is determined in
preliminary tests. This signal level is then used for monitoring in the form of a
stable limit. In the case of monitoring with dynamic thresholds, a sliding average
is calculated from the recorded signal over a defined time period. This average is
Table 8.3 Characteristics of signal analysis in the time and frequency ranges
Time range Frequency range
Temporal signal profile Transformation of the signal into the

frequency range
Continuous signal analysis or in temporally Spectral signal composition
limited sections
Almost no information regarding signal Discontinuous signal evaluation in temporally
frequencies limited signal sections
No time-consuming transformation No information regarding temporal signal
changes in the transformed signal section
Limited information regarding the temporal
signal profile by analysis of several
consecutive signal sections
Tolerance zones Static thresholds

Stable limits
Signal
Signal
Signal
Time Time Time
Fig. 8.35 Action limits and tolerance zones

associated with a percentage addition or deduction, making it possible to monitor

the signal profile dynamically. The advantage of this strategy compared with a stable
limit is that it is also possible to monitor signals that do not proceed uniformly or
whose level constantly changes even in an undisturbed process.
Saxler provides an example of signal analysis in the time range in his disserta-
tion on the structure of a system for recognizing grinding burn via acoustic emission
analysis [Saxl97]. Grinding burn is a form of undesirable thermal rim zone damage
and is described more thoroughly in volume 2 of this series. When profile grind-
ing tooth flanks, a structure-borne sound sensor is affixed near the workpiece. The
profiles of the RMS values of the signals are shown in Fig. 8.36 for the roughing
and finishing phases of the machining of a total of 1650 gearwheels. Of particular
interest is that both graphs have asynchronous profiles until the 900th gearwheel.
Beyond that point, the graphs are almost parallel and differ by a signal difference of
about 1 V. After reaching the end of tool life (i.e. after grinding 1550 gearwheels)
are found the highest RMS values of the acoustic emission within the tool life with
the exception of the first two evaluation points.
Irrespective of the fact that the appearance of grinding burn at the first two evalua-
tion points can not be detected by exceeding the threshold value, the total amplitude
differences are not large enough to lead to reliable information about the develop-
ment of grinding burn. This practical example will be taken up again when dealing
with signal analysis in the frequency range.
Besides the pure detection of deviations, breach of the action limits can be used
to produce an automatic reaction of the machine by altering the process parameters
(Fig. 8.37).
URMS / V
6.5 Roughing
6
5.5
4.5
Averaged AE-RMS
3.5
3
Finishing
2.5 Grinding burn
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Amount of gearwheels/pcs.
Fig. 8.36 Analysis of acoustic emission in time interval

Process Machine
Drives
Actuators
Fixed parameters External sensors
Sensors
Material Force
NC-kernel
Workpiece Path
Geometry Internal signals
Speed
Machine Acceleration Path
Clamping Effective-power Speed
Temperature Acceleration
RPM
Power
External control Cutting fluid
Variable parameters pressure
Control algorithm
Feed
Cutting speed Revision
Cutting strategy
(Cutting depth)
Coupling module Storage
(Tool geometry)
Definition of interfaces
Drives
Actuators
Fig. 8.37 Concept for intervention in the manufacturing process
For this purpose, there are two basic control strategies, adaptive control constraint
[Gies73, Hns74, Mll76, Gath77] and adaptive control optimization [Esse72,
Otto76]. In the case of adaptive control constraint (ACC), the variable of the con-
trol loop is varied such that the control variable reaches a level that is as constant
as possible. One classic example of an adaptive control constraint in machining is
the maintenance of a constant level of torque by adjusting the feed in the case of
an alternating overmeasure. Adaptive control optimization involves varying one or
more variables so that the control variable follows a learning curve. The learning
curve could represent, for example, the profile of spindle performance over the feed
path and be stored for a specific machining situation as an optimal process sequence.
The parameters feed and speed could then be freely selected within defined limits
so that the performance follows the learning curve despite wear.
New developments in process monitoring are focused on model-based monitor-
ing methods or simultaneous evaluation of different sensor signals in order to obtain
a maximum amount of security from interruption. This is necessary because fre-
quent false alarms are a major problem in the industrial use of process monitoring
systems in the case of the devices used today. For adaptive control constraint and
adaptive control optimization, often control algorithms are therefore implemented

that combine and evaluate one or more pieces of sensor information. The output of
the system can be characterized by several variables.
Signal evaluation in the frequency range is especially sensible when different
periodic signal components are superpositioned. This is often the case in machining
operations since dominant process frequencies such as turning or tooth engagement
frequencies as well as their overtones are superpositioned by the characteristic fre-
quencies of the machine and tool. From the representation of amplitude performance
spectra over frequency, information can be obtained regarding the appearance of
signal components at different frequencies and across frequency shifts. Often, fre-
quency analysis also makes it possible to identify process disturbances, for example
the appearance of chatter vibrations or significant changes on selected cutting edges
in milling operations. Process disturbances of this kind are easier to detect in the
frequency range than in the analysis of process signals in the time range.
The most well-known method of frequency analysis is based on the FOURIER
transformation. The method most used in industrial practice today is the fast Fourier
transformation (FFT), which is characterized by its fast and efficient transformation
algorithm.
Generally, when analyzing process information in the frequency range, one must
bear in mind that the time information of when a certain signal event occurs is lost.
For this reason, often analyses in the time and frequency ranges are combined. This
will be dealt with later (wavelet analysis).
Saxlers system for recognizing grinding burn via acoustic emission analysis
again provides a practical example for signal analysis in the frequency range.
Roughing and finishing signals during tooth flank profile grinding undergo an FFT
within a frequency range of 200400 kHz. Throughout the tool life of the grinding
wheel, the profiles show an increase of about 1 dBV in the averaged acoustic emis-
sion amplitude. Analysis of the measurement data gathered from the finishing phase
demonstrates a clear relation between the averaged acoustic emission amplitudes
and the appearance of grinding burn (Fig. 8.38).
Averaged AE-Amplitude U /dBV
48
-
Roughing
49
50 Grinding Burn
51 Finishing
52
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Amount of gearwheels/pcs.
Fig. 8.38 Analysis of acoustic emission in frequency range

Both in the time range and in the frequency range, it is possible to form sig-
nificant signal characteristic values and to set them in relation with each other. The
characteristic values are calculated either from very narrow frequency bands or from
the amplitude spectrum in one relevant frequency band. In the first case, the values
of the amplitude peaks are usually directly drawn upon for evaluation, in the sec-
ond often integrating characteristic values are ascertained from the profile of the
amplitude spectrum that correlate with the energy content of the signal. Figure 8.39
compares example signals from the time and frequency ranges and illustrates the
corresponding characteristic values [Reub00].
The Fourier transformations usefulness is limited in the case of time-critical
signal analyses and highly dynamic processes. One weak point is in the delayed
preparation of the evaluation result because information about included signal
characteristics can only be made after complete transformation of the signal sec-
tion. The maximum delay results in case a disturbance-related signal characteristic
appears at the beginning of the signal section under consideration and is only rec-
ognized after the end of that section. No information about the time or temporal
sequence of the appearance of the frequencies contained in the signal exist within
the analyzed signal section.
One possibility of increasing the time resolution consists in selecting the width
of the signal section so narrow that every signal segment can be considered as quasi-
stationary and then to consider the sequential progression of several successive
signal sections. This is the functional principle of the short-time FOURIER analysis
(STFT). In comparison with FFT, short-term changes in amplitude are not as level.
The result for the shortened signal section is represented analogously to FFT. The
faster the relevant signal changes arise and the shorter the permissible delay time
for their recognition, the smaller the signal sections should be selected. However, a
Characteristics from the amplitude spectrum

Amplitude A
Time t
Frequency-transformation
maxpeak Maximum of amplitude

maxpeak
Amplitude A
AFB Integral of amplitude

AFB spectrum in a
frequency band
Frequency f
Fig. 8.39 Transformation from time into frequency range and characteristic values
wide signal section is necessary for a high frequency resolution capacity in order to
obtain information about the low-frequency signal components that is as complete
as possible. One approach to solving this goal conflict is raising the sample rate
when digitalizing the signal. This makes a larger amount of discrete values avail-
able for the transformation, but requires a larger amount of computing time and
memory requirements.
Wavelet analysis is the logical development of the notion of analyzing a signal in
real time and completely in its contained frequencies. Different frequency ranges of
a signal can be investigated with different temporal resolution. While in the case of
the FOURIER transformation only a constant signal section can be selected for the
entire frequency range of the signal, the wavelet algorithm adjusts the size of the
section to the respective frequency band under consideration. So in the case of high-
frequency signal components, there is a very good temporal resolution and at low
frequencies very good spectral resolution. Another advantage is that the transformed
signal can be fully reconstructed by means of an inverse wavelet transformation.
We differentiate between continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) and discrete
wavelet transformation (DWT). In CWT, the output signal is multiplied by a wavelet
function. The wavelet function has a constant number of vibrations and is thus a
wave packet. It has a shifting parameter and a scaling parameter s (Eq. (8.56)).

1 t
,s = (8.56)
s s
The shifting parameter contains the time information in the transformation range,
while the variation of the scaling parameter correlates with the frequence-related
evaluation (Fig. 8.40).
Stretched wavelet function Forged wavelet function
Big scaling para- Small scaling parameters si

parameters
meter si (e.g. si = 1) (e.g. si = 0.25) for high

Scaling
for slow signal- frequency signal fractions

changes and low
frequencies
Acquisition of temporally signal changes by shifting the wavelet function
t j
parameter t
...
Amplitude
Amplitude
Shifting
...
Time Time
Fig. 8.40 Shifting and scaling of the wavelet function

The signal is temporally resolved by shifting the wave packet along the time
axis, as the shifting parameter contains the current location along the time axis. By
varying the scaling parameter, the wave packet is expanded or compressed so that
its length becomes a measure for the analyzed frequency range.
In accordance with the principle of multiple solutions, the temporal signal pro-
file is transformed several times while varying both parameters. The product of the
respective signal section x(t) with the wave packet creates a function whose integral
corresponds with the wavelet coefficient c (Eq. (8.57)).

1 t
c ( , s) = x (t) dt (8.57)
|s| s
The calculated coefficient is a measure for the similarity between the analyzed
signal section and the shifted or scaled wave packet. Pattern recognition is an impor-
tant strength of the algorithm. In order to exploit this property, it is necessary to
adjust the wave packet to the current signal characteristics by selecting a suitable
basic form.
For practical applications in signal transmission, often the discrete wavelet trans-
formation (DWT) is used since they require less computing time and provide
extensive possibilities in signal profile evaluation and presentation. The key differ-
ence between CWT and DWT is that in the case of discrete wavelet transformations
the signal is broken down into individual frequency ranges by repeated highpass and
lowpass filtering. The individual layers of analysis are called decomposition layers.
Only the highpass-filtered signal components are coded with wavelet coefficients.
The output signal of the lowpass filtering is prepared for the next evaluation level
(Fig. 8.41) [Reub00]. Downsampling compresses the signal by purging the num-
ber of discrete individual signal values of information represented in the wavelet
coefficient (making it redundant) after highpass/lowpass filtering.
In the case of DWT, a wavelet coefficient represents, simply considered, the dif-
ference of two individual signal values. In every decomposition level, a vector of
wavelet coefficients is thereby formed which has half as many inputs as the decom-
posed signal. It represents exactly that signal information that is contained in the
frequency band resulting from highpass filtering of the respective decomposition
level and can thus be assigned to a certain frequency band. The signal vector result-
ing from lowpass filtering forms the basis for the next evaluation level. It is thereby
reduced by half of the individual signal values, which is possible, in agreement with
the Shannon sampling theorem, for the half-band frequency range considered in the
next evaluation level without loss of information.
The advantage of this procedure is that the amount of individual signal values
used in every transformation level for the computation algorithm is adjusted to
the decomposed frequency band. While transformation into the frequency range is
bound to a constant number of signal values as a function of the spectral resolution,
in the case of downsampling during wavelet transformation the number of dis-
crete signal values in each processing level is clearly reduced. This saves not only
H(d) 2 D1
Signal H(d) 2 D2
L(d) 2 H(d) 2 D3
L(d) 2
L(d) 2 ...
Input signal of decomposition level
Half-band filtering of input signal
2 H(d) 2
...
L(d)
Lowpass Shifting Downsampling Highpass Shifting Downsampling

output information ofWaveletkoeffizenten
decomposition level
Signal for the next level Wavelet coefficients

Value of coefficients
300
200
100
0
-100 6 12 18 24 30 36
Amount of coefficients
Fig. 8.41 Signal decomposition by discrete wavelet transformations
memory capacity but also computation time, which is advantageous particularly in

the context of online monitoring.
The dissertation of PLAPPER provides a practical application of wavelet analysis
[Plap04]. In it, the good pattern recognition properties of the method is utilized to
detect local defects on the guideways of ball screw guides. Some defects on the
guideways made their presence known in such an unsteady fashion in the internal
control signals of the machine tool that they could not be traced back to the overrun
frequencies in the time signal by means of a Fourier transformation. A clear retrace
was possible with wavelet analysis.
A further practical example is given by REUBER in his dissertation on process
monitoring finish milling operations on free formed surfaces [Reub00]. In it, the
distinct sensitivity of the algorithm with respect to deviations from the constant
signal patterns of the disturbance-free process is exploited to generate dynamic,
wear-dependent characteristic values. In the investigations, a wavelet function of
the D AUBECHIES family [Daub93] was used with the regularity 8 (degree of dif-
ferentiability). Due to its steep flanks, the function approximates the profile of the
resultant force signals very closely and also makes it possible to separate the indi-
vidual frequency ranges effectively. Three characteristic values were investigated
Partly weared tools

1800
Tools at end of tool life
1600 Progressive weared tools
Sensitivity /%
1400
1200 Rise of characteristic values at defined
1000 end of tool life (VB = 0.15 mm) 930%
800
600
400
200 115% 170%
0
Time based charac- Frequency based Wavelet based
teristic value characteristic value characteristic value
variance integral 350650 Hz variance db 84
Fig. 8.42 Comparison of wear sensitivity of dynamic wear characteristic values
with respect to their sensitivity to wear: variance of the temporal signal profile, the
integral of the amplitude spectrum in the frequency range of 350650 Hz and vari-
ance of the wavelet coefficient in the respective wear-sensitive decomposition level
(Fig. 8.42).
Comparison of these characteristic values shows that variance of the wavelet
coefficients exhibits a significantly higher level of sensitivity than the characteristic
values from the time signal and the amplitude spectrum. The pattern recognition
effect represents wear-relevant signal developments much better than they can be
recognized with the increased intensity of signal amplitudes in the frequency range
or from the temporal signal profile.
Chapter 9
Processes with Rotational Primary Movement
Machining methods with geometrically defined cutting edges in which the main
movement is rotational are subdivided in accordance with Fig. 9.1 into
turning,
milling,
drilling and
sawing.
Turning Milling Drilling Sawing
Fig. 9.1 Classification of processes with rotary primary movements
A propos of sawing, it should be noted that a purely rotational main movement

is only executed in the case of circular sawing. In the case of hacksawing and band-
sawing, the tool diameter theoretically assumes an infinite value (translatory cutting
movement).
9.1 Turning
Turning is a machining process with a geometrically defined cutting edge, a
rotational cutting motion and an arbitrary transverse translatory feed motion
[DIN8589a]. For kinematical classification, one always takes into consideration the
relative movement between the workpiece and the tool.
Turning methods can be classified from various standpoints. For example dif-
ferent objectives of the machining task lead to the distinction between finish and
rough turning. In the case of rough turning, a high material removal rate is reached.
In the case of finish turning, the objective is to realize a high level of dimensional

384 9 Processes with Rotational Primary Movement
accuracy and surface quality via small cross-sections of undeformed chip. The flex-
ibility of this manufacturing process allows for economical use from prototype
and mass production. In the case of automated and NC operations, several tools
can be engaged simultaneously during the machining process in order to reduce
manufacturing times and to increase the material removal rate.
The subdivision of turning process variants according to DIN 8589-1 will be
presented in the following. Since some of the process variants that appear in the
standard are of secondary importance, only the most important process variants will
be explained in detail.
Figure 9.2 right shows the cross-section of undeformed chip A. In it,
b is the width of undeformed chip

h undeformed chip thickness
ap depth of cut
f feed
r tool cutting edge angle
Neglecting the inclination, the values can be approximated with the following
equations:
ap
b (9.1)
sin r
h f sin r (9.2)
Figure 9.2 and Eq. (9.3) show various calculation possibilities for the nominal
cross-section of undeformed chip.
A = b h = ap f (9.3)
Po h
Tool orthogonal plane Po

Workpiece

vf
Assumed working b ap
A
plane Pf
r
Pf
r
f
Ps Pp
Tool back plane Pp

Cutting edge plane Ps
Fig. 9.2 Tool-in-hand system and nominal cross section of undeformed chip
9.1 Turning 385
Right-hand direction of cut Left-hand direction of cut Neutral direction of cut
Fig. 9.3 Styles of insert holders
The turning tools of the various process variants are classified analogously to
Fig. 9.3 according to the design of their tool holder.
9.1.1 Face Turning

Face turning is a turning method used to produce an even surface orthogonal to the
axis of rotation of the workpiece. Process variants include, amongst others, trans-
verse face turning and transverse parting-off for sectioning workpiece components
or the entire workpiece [DIN8589a] (Fig. 9.4).
The cutting path of all transverse face turning variants lies on an Archimedean
spiral. In the case of cylindrical face turning variants on the other hand, the cutting
path is in the shape of a coil (helical line). Face turning operations are usually carried
out with automatic lathes, especially in the case of small parts, which are manufac-
tured from a bar. In transverse parting-off operations, the tools are designed to be
slender in order to minimize loss of material. Both minor cutting edges are tapered
toward the tool shaft in order to avoid jamming. Under heavy strain, the tools tend
to clatter due to their geometric design. During face turning processes, one must
bear in mind that the cutting speed changes with the tool diameter when machining
Transverse face turning Transverse parting off Cylindrical face turning
Workpiece Workpiece Workpiece
Tool Tool Tool
Fig. 9.4 Process variants of face turning, according to DIN 8589-1

with a constant rotation speed. On conventional lathes, a certain cutting speed range
is maintained, for example, by multiple, gradual adjustment of the rotation speed
to the machining diameter [Degn00]. In the case of lathes with continuous rotation
speed control, the cutting speed is kept constant.
9.1.2 Cylindrical Turning

Cylindrical Turning is used to produce a cylindrical surface that is coaxial to the
axis of rotation of the workpiece. The use of this method extends from finishing
very small parts (e.g. in the clock and watch industry) to heavy roughing forged
turbine blades or drive shafts for plant engineering (e.g. cement mills with lengths
of up to 20 m).
The most important variants of cylindrical turning are longitudinal cylindrical
turning and centreless rough turning (Fig. 9.5). Longitudinal cylindrical turning is
the most common method variant, which will be used to exemplify many different
machining phenomena as in Chap. 3.
Centreless rough turning is cylindrical turning with several major cutting edges
arranged on a rotating tool. The feed movement is made by the workpiece and
the rotation movement by the tool. This combination leads to a very high mate-
rial removal rate. This process variant is predominantly used for removing oxide
and roller coatings as well as the surface cracks of rolling and forging blanks such
as is required, for example, in the manufacture of cold drawn steel. The surface
quality of intermediate products can thereby be improved and impermissible shape
deviations avoided. To do this, the minor cutting edge angle r is kept in the range
of 0 < r < 2 . The depth of cut is generally kept small (ap < 1 mm). The feed
is limited by the length of the minor cutting edge and dependent on the demanded
surface quality. In steel machining, feeds of up to f = 15 mm are used. Surface qual-
ities in the range of Rkin = 2 10 m can be obtained. Centreless rough turning
is much more productive than longitudinal cylindrical turning and reduces the need
for subsequent machining due to its high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
Another advantage is that the long rod material need not be guided by steady rests
since the rotating tool stabilizes the position of the workpiece, and the protrusion
lengths of the workpiece are very short.
Longitudinal cylindrical turning Centreless rough Transverse turning

turning
Workpiece Workpiece
Workpiece
Tool Tool Tool
Fig. 9.5 Process variants of cylindrical turning, according to DIN 8589-1

9.1 Turning 387
9.1.3 Helical Turning

Helical turning is used to manufacture helical surfaces with profiling tools. Feed
corresponds to the pitch of the screw thread. Figure 9.6 shows a few important
process variants that fall under this category: thread turning, thread chasing and
thread die cutting [DIN8589a].
In the case of thread turning, the thread is manufactured by only one profiled
cutting edge in several passes until the required thread depth is obtained. It is charac-
teristic of this process variant that the pitch is produced by the feed. On conventional
lathes, the translatory motion is mechanically linked to the rotation motion. In the
case of numerically controlled lathes, this link is made electronically.
Thread turning tools are available as both part and full profile tools. Part pro-
file tools can only be used when the workpiece is brought to the required external
diameter before thread turning, since only the pitch is cut and the external surface is
no longer machined. After thread turning, the depth of the thread must be checked.
Full profile tools on the other hand are shaped in such as way that the corresponding
thread depth is directly cut from the material so that the output workpiece must not
be prepared beforehand (Fig. 9.7).
Thread chasing is similar to thread turning with the exception, shown in Fig. 9.6,
that several cutting edges of a tool, offset by the pitch, are engaged simultaneously.
Thread turning Thread chasing Thread die cutting
Tool Tool Tool
Fig. 9.6 Process variants of helical turning, according to DIN 8589-1
Fig. 9.7 Helical turning: part and full profile tools, chaser
By arranging several profile cutting edges beside each other on one tool, of which
every subsequent one is shifted back by the infeed, the thread can be manufactured
completely in one pass.
Chasers can be designed as flat or round thread chasers. Round chasers have to be
designed as threads themselves so that they do not destroy the manufactured pitch.
To chase right-hand threads, a tool with a left-hand thread must be used, and for
left-hand threads a tool with a right-hand thread. For internal thread turning chasing,
round chasers are usually preferred, as they allow for both a better use of space and
a solid tool design. Chasers are also used in die heads, which allow for a radial
resetting of the chaser after the thread die cutting process. In this way, it is possible
to reset the die head without changing the direction of rotation. We differentiate
between three types of thread die heads depending on the type and arrangement of
the cutting edges:
radial chasers,
tangential chasers and
round chasers
Chasers are also offered with part profile and full profile. Using a full profile tool
makes a higher material removal rate possible. Tool manufacturers sometime also
designate chasers as thread turning tools of multi-point design (23 teeth as a rule).
Thread die cutting represents a further development of thread chasing thread
chasing with tangentially distributed cutting edges. These modifications alter the
process kinematics to the effect that this variant should in fact be considered a helical
broaching technique (Chap. 10).
9.1.4 Profile Turning

Profile turning is used to produce rotation-symmetrical workpiece shapes by repro-
ducing the tool profile. Profile turning variants are classified according to their
process kinematics. The most common methods, shown in Fig. 9.8, are face profile
grooving, transverse profile grooving and transverse profile turning [DIN8589a].
Face Transverse Transverse

profile grooving profile grooving profile turning
Tool Tool Tool
Fig. 9.8 Process variants of profile turning, according to DIN 8589-1

9.1 Turning 389
In the case of profile turning, tools made of both high speed steel and cemented
carbide are used. Profile tools made of high speed steel are very common, as they
are very tough, easy to manufacture and to regrind.
In the case of large cross-sections of undeformed chip and deep profiles, the
grooving tools are equipped with chip breakers in order to prevent jamming of the
chips in the profile. Overhead clamping of the tool can also be beneficial to chip
flow. In order to avoid potential clattering during grooving processes due to insta-
bilities in tool clamping, grooves should have a limited width of cut, b = 15 mm (in
special cases up to 30 mm) and be up to a depth double the size of the chip width
(in special cases up to triple the size is possible).
9.1.5 Form Turning

Form turning is used to produce workpiece shapes by controlling the feed move-
ments. Form turning is categorized as in Fig. 9.9 into NC form turning, copy turning
and kinematic form turning [DIN8589a].
In NC form turning, the feed movement is realized by electronically linked feed
drives. NC form turning is the state of the art today.
Copy turning involves deriving the feed movement from a reference shape, a
moulding or a masterpiece. Pure copy turning was developed further when machine
tool controls were made available that could store a contour that had once been
applied. These are called teach-in processes.
Kinematic form turning was often used in the past to produce ball heads. In
this case, the feed axes were kinematically linked via a transmission. This process
variant has also been replaced by NC form turning.
Non-circular turning is a special method used to manufacture non-round work-
piece surfaces by periodic control of the cutting direction [DIN8589a].
As shown in Fig. 9.10, a distinction is drawn between cylindrical and transverse
non-circular turning.
NC-form turning Copy turning Kinematic

form turning
Workpiece
Workpiece Workpiece
Tool
Tool
NC Tool
Gear box
Calibre
Fig. 9.9 Process variants of form turning, according to DIN 8589-1

Cylindrical non-circular turning Transverse non-circular turning
Direction of instantaneous
Workpiece Workpiece
primary motion
Tool Tool
Fig. 9.10 Process variants of non-circular turning, according to DIN 8589a
By control, the turning tool can be advanced with an advancing rotational motion
of the workpiece. This can also mean however that the tool is partially no longer
being engaged (e.g. square turning). The rotation movement of the workpiece and
the feed movement of the tool have a fixed transmission ratio.
9.1.6 Further Process Variants

Up to this point, selected process variants were basically explicated using the exam-
ple of external machining. In principle, these process variants can also be used for
internal machining as shown in Fig. 9.11.
When using internal turning to produce deep contours however, stability prob-
lems can arise due to the long protrusion length of internal turning tools. For this
reason, the protrusion length and the shaft diameter, which depends on the size of
the contour to be machined, should be taken into consideration when selecting the
cutting parameters.
Figure 9.12 shows some typical tools used in internal turning.
Boring Undercutting Internal Grooving
Tool Tool Tool
Fig. 9.11 Internal turning, according to DIN 8589-1
9.2 Milling
Milling is a machining production method with a circular cutting movement of a
usually multi-tooth tool for producing arbitrary workpiece surfaces. The direction
of cut is perpendicular or sometimes transverse to the tools axis of rotation.
9.2 Milling 391
Fig. 9.12 Internal turning: tool design (Source: Sandvik Coromant)
Milling processes are categorized in DIN 8589-3 in accordance with the surface
produced, the tool shape (profile) and kinematics as (including others) [DIN8589c]:
slab milling,
circular milling,
hobbing,
form milling and
profile milling.
If the workpiece surface is produced by the front face of the tool with the minor
cutting edge, it is called face milling (Fig. 9.13). Analogously, milling processes
in which the surface is manufactured by the cutting edges on the milling cutter
periphery are called peripheral milling (Fig. 9.14).
Depending on the tools rotation and feed direction, we distinguish further
between up and down milling. In order to distinguish up and down milling from
each other, Fig. 9.15 shows the movements performed with reference to the work-
piece. In practical applications, often the cutting motion is often carried out by the
tool and the feed movement by the workpiece.
In order to distinguish both process variants however, it is advisable to relate the
movements collectively either to the tool to the workpiece. Down milling is shown
in Fig. 9.15, left. At the cutting edges point of exit, the cutting speed vector vc and
the feed velocity vector vf point in different directions. The feed direction angle
between both velocity vectors is = 180 . In the case of up milling, the cutting
speed vector vc and the feed velocity vector vf both point in the same direction at
the cutting edge exit point. The feed direction angle is = 0 . Depending on the
position of the milling tool relative to the workpiece, a milling process can contain
elements of both up and down milling, so a clear classification is not always possi-
ble. In the case of pure down milling, the cutting edge exits with a undeformed chip
thickness of h = 0 mm, i.e. the minimum undeformed chip thickness is undershot
beyond a certain angle of engagement. No definite chip removal occurs at that point,
vf
Tool orthogonal plane Po
n
Tool cutting edge plane Ps
Tool
kr
ap
Assumed
working plane Pf
Workpiece
fz Tool reference plane Pr
Tool back plane Pp
Fig. 9.13 Kinematics of face milling

vf
fz
Ps Pp n Tool
vc
ae Pf Po
Workpiece
Fig. 9.14 Kinematics of peripheral milling
and solely compressive and frictional processes are occurring. Correspondingly, the
cutting edge enters the workpiece with a undeformed chip thickness of h = 0 in the
case of pure up milling.
The tool orthogonal rake angle is composed of a radial component f and an
axial component p . As in all other processes, we make a distinction between a
positive (f and p > 0 ) and a negative (f and p < 0 ) cutting part geometry.
9.2 Milling 393
vf vf
vc
vc
Down milling Up milling
Fig. 9.15 Up and down milling
In all milling processes, the cutting edges, as opposed to other processes like
turning or drilling, are not constantly being engaged. Rather, at least one cut inter-
ruption occurs per cutting edge during each tool rotation. Because of the constant
cut interruptions, the contact conditions between the tool and workpiece are of par-
ticular importance for the wear properties of the cutting tool materials in addition
to the cutting conditions. Different contacts can result depending on the geometric
conditions determined by the milling cutter diameter, size of cut and cutting part
geometry (Fig. 9.16).
It is particularly inauspicious if the cutting edge point that is the most sensitive to
impact is the first point to make contact with the workpiece. Such S-contact can be
Workpiece
Milling cutter
T T
f > 0 f > 0 f > 0
p > 0 S S
Insert p < 0 p = 0
Reference plane
S-Contact T-Contact ST-Contact
f < 0 f < 0 f = 0
p < 0 p > 0 V p > 0 S
V
U-Contact V-Contact SV-Contact
Fig. 9.16 Forms of contact in milling

avoided by varying the cutting edge geometry and feed rate accordingly. The most
favourable type of contact is U-contact, in which the cutting edge point that is
furthest removed from the minor and major cutting edges is the first to make contact
with the workpiece. All other types of point or line contact are regarded as inter-
mediate stages between S-contact and U-contact with respect to impact sensitivity
[Kron54, Beck69, Damm82].
Helical chip milling (f < 0, p > 0) has become established as a method
for improving chip removal, which is often problematic in the case of rotating tools
(Fig. 9.17).
In comparison to the entry conditions, greater importance is attached to the exit
conditions with respect to wear caused by fractures [Kron54, Okus63, Hosh65,
Beck69, Lola75, Peke78, Peke79, Kll86]. In the case of tool exit with finite unde-
formed chip thickness (e.g. in up milling), tensile stresses can arise in the cutting
edge in the unencumbered state because of resilience, which lead to cutting edge
fracture.
This phenomenon must be taken into account when determining milling strate-
gies. The use of tougher cemented carbides may increase the length of tool life until
failure, but that alone cannot prevent premature failure in the case of unfavourable
exit conditions. In order to improve cutting edge stability, additionally stabilizing
protective chamfers are fitted near the corner and on the cutting edge.
Cutting interruptions mean thermal and dynamic alternate stresses for the cutting
tool material, which can cause comb and parallel cracks and thus lead to cutting edge
fracture. The cutting tool materials used must therefore be very tough, temperature-
resistant and have high edge strength [Vier70].
For steel-working, high-speed steel and tough cemented carbides of machining
application groups P15 to P40 are used; for machining cast iron, NE metals, plastic
and hardened steels types K10 to K30 are used. The cutting tool materials used for
milling were developed with an eye to increased thermal and mechanical alternate
stress and are thus usually not directly comparable with the cutting tool material
types used for turning.
Fig. 9.17 Helical chip milling cutter in use (Source: Walter)

9.2 Milling 395
Further developments in cemented carbides and coating technologies have made

it currently possible to use coated cemented carbides when milling cast irons as well
as steels. When fine milling steels (HB < 300), cermets have also found increas-
ing use. For rough milling grey cast iron, Si3 N4 ceramics can be used successfully
with a high material removal rate. Oxidic and mixed ceramics are suitable cutting
tool materials for finish milling grey cast iron, chilled cast iron, case-hardened
steels, heat-treated steels and hardened steels, while in the case of hardened or
high-strength heat-treated steels (> 45 HRC) PCBN is also suitable. Supereutectic
Al alloys, fibre-reinforced plastics and the milling of graphite electrodes for spark
erosion are typical applications of PCD-coated tools when used for milling.
9.2.1 Process Variants, Specific Characteristics and Tools

Milling processes are used most frequently to produce level surfaces (linear feed
movement: slab milling). Figure 9.18 shows the most important slab milling pro-
cesses, which differ by their kinematics and engagement conditions, and designates
the slab milling tools associated with them. In practice, milling processes are usu-
ally named according to the type and form of milling tools used, e.g. plain milling,
end milling, side and face milling, face milling, profile milling etc.
Plain milling cutter Shell end mill Side and face milling cutter
Face milling cutter End milling cutter
Fig. 9.18 Slab milling processes
9.2.1.1 Face Milling

In the case of face milling, the width of cut ae is much larger than the depth of cut
ap , and the workpiece surface is created by the minor cutting edge. If the lead angle
is r = 90 , this milling process is also referred to as edge milling. In this case, the
workpiece surface is created with both the minor and major cutting edges.
vc
vf Ff
Fcn
Fc
Ffn Fa
= 0
Fig. 9.19 Cutting force components at head face milling, according to KAMM [Kamm77]
According to DIN 6584, the resultant force F involved in milling can be broken
down into an active force Fa on the working plane and a passive force Fp perpen-
dicular to the working plane (see also Sect. 3.8.1). The direction of the active force
Fa depends on the feed direction angle . The components of the active force can be
related to the direction of the cutting speed vc (cutting force Fc and cutting normal
force Fcn ) or to the direction of the feed velocity vf (feed force Ff and feed normal
force Ffn ) as in Fig. 9.19.
KIENZLEs resultant force equation [Kien52] can also be applied to milling. For
the components of the resultant force F cutting force Fc , cutting normal force Fcn
and passive force Fp , we have:
|F
1mi

i | = ki b |h| (9.4)
with:
i = c, cn and p
Due to the wide range of undeformed chip thicknesses covered by milling, the
K IENZLE relation is only valid for certain areas. The range of undeformed chip
thickness of 0.001 < h < 1.0 mm is subdivided into three sections (Fig. 9.20). For
each range, a line can be ascertained, which is defined by the specific resultant force
ki and the exponent mi :

mi0,01 for 0.001 < h < 0.01 mm
|ki | = ki1.0,01 |h|

mi0,1 for 0.01 < h < 0.1 mm
|ki | = ki1.0,1 |h|

mi for 0.1 < h < 1.0 mm
|ki | = ki1.1 |h| (9.5)
with:
i = c, cn and p
As long as the characteristic values are known for the existing marginal condi-
tions (material, cutting tool material and cutting conditions), the respective resultant
9.2 Milling 397
102
8 kc1.0.01 = 75 MPa
6 1 mc 0.01 = 0.150
4
kc1.0.1 = 998 MPa
2 1 mc 0.1 = 0.440
kc / (GPa)
101 kc1.1 = 2100 MPa

8
6 1 mc = 0.764
4
2
Range 3 Range 2 Range 1
1
103 2 4 6 8 102 2 4 6 8 101 2 4 6 8 100
h / (mm)
Material: Ck45N f p f p s r r
Cutting tool material: HW-P25 4 7 6 23 6 75 90
vc = 190 m/min
Fig. 9.20 Specific cutting force in face slab milling [Kamm77]
force component Fi can be calculated for milling. To estimate the resultant force
however, characteristic values are often utilized that have been established in turning
processes.
To mill very small, level and right-angled surfaces, grooves with square cross-
sections and long slots, solid face milling cutters made of HSS or cemented carbide
are used, beyond a tool diameter of D = 1016 mm tools with clamped cemented
carbide indexable inserts and in case of increased requirements on surface qual-
ity, dimensional accuracy and performance milling cutters with soldered cemented
carbide cutting edges [Sack76].
The size and number of teeth of the milling tool are selected based on the dimen-
sions of the workpiece surface to be machined and the drive capacity of the machine.
The tooth pitch of the tool depends on the form and size of the tool, on the avail-
able machine power and on the chip formation of the material. Short-breaking chips
require a small chip space and thus a small pitch. Large cutter heads for cast iron
machining can thus be fitted with up to 200 inserts. In order to prevent chatter-
ing of the tool/workpiece/machine system with the frequency of the cutting edge
engagement, face milling heads are partly manufactured with an uneven pitch on the
periphery.
Face milling heads up to a diameter of D = 250 mm are mounted in the usual
fashion on the tool spindle. Larger face milling cutters are designed in two parts
because of their great weight for better handling during tool change. The base body
remains on the spindle during tool change, so only the ring with the clamped cutting
edges is changed.
Fig. 9.21 Face milling head with tool cartridges (Source: Kennametal, Hertel)
Another potential way to increase efficiency and universality is the use of face
milling heads with tool cartridges (Fig. 9.21). Depending on the requirements, tool
cartridges can be inserted in a base body that can receive various kinds of index-
able insert (three-corner, four-corner, round), sizes and geometries (e.g. positive,
negative, r = 90 , r = 75 , with moulded chip breakers etc.).
In general, steel-working employs positive cutting part geometries and, to
improve chip removal, helical chip geometries. In the case of welded construc-
tions or larger material inhomogeneities, a negative cutting part geometry is more
advantageous for preventing cutting edge fracture. The same is true for machin-
ing materials with high strength and toughness. Milling with cutting ceramics is
generally performed with a negative cutting part geometry.
In order to avoid re-cutting the face milling cutter due to elastic form changes in
the overall system, the milling axis can be tilted by 0.51 . However, this sets the
feed direction.
The tool cutting edge angle amounts to r = 4575 in face milling (special case:
corner milling r = 90 ). It affects to a large extent the size of the active and passive
forces and thus the stability of the milling process, especially when machining thin-
walled parts (e.g. welded gearboxes) or in milling operations on milling and boring
machines with a widely projecting spindle.
Generally, the face milling cutting conditions are selected lower than in turning
processes. Smaller cross-sections of undeformed chip are chosen in particular in
order to keep the dynamic stress on the cutting tool materials low and to prevent
tool fracture.
Face milling is used both for pre-machining and also increasingly for finishing
purposes. Finishing with geometrically defined cutting edges is becoming increas-
ingly important because of the potential of single-machine processing. Finish face
9.2 Milling 399
milling is especially used as a finishing process for large even surfaces with special
surface quality and smoothness requirements when other finishing methods (e.g.
grinding or shaving) are uneconomical or impossible. Such machining problems
usually arise in heavy machine construction, e.g. when producing joining surfaces,
machine tables and guideways on machine tools and when milling sealing faces in
engine and turbine construction.
Indexable inserts for finishing have an active minor cutting edge, i.e. in these
tools the cutting edge angle is r = 0 , so the chamfer of the minor cutting edge
lies parallel to the workpiece surface. The chamfer length of the minor cutting edge
is generally Lsa = 23 mm, in the case of special wide finish milling tools Lsa =
10 15 mm. The feed per tooth should not exceed 2/3 of the length of the active
minor cutting edge nad. There are three kinds of finishing tools (Fig. 9.22):
Conventional finishing face milling cutter which work with small depths of cut
and feeds per tooth and are fitted with a large number of teeth.
Wide finishing face milling cutters, which are equipped with a small amount of
teeth (15) and work with very small depths of cut and high feeds (Fig. 9.23). In
the case of such tools, the minor cutting edge nads are equipped with large radii
to simplify tool pre-adjustment. This helps to obtain a very good surface quality
Finish milling Wide finish milling Combined process:

Finish milling and wide
finish milling
Fig. 9.22 Processes for fine milling (Source: Siemens)
Principle of fine milling

with ceramics
Insert
ap = 0.05 mm
fz
Workpiece
Single-tooth milling cutter in use
Fig. 9.23 Wide finish milling (fine milling) with ceramics (Source: Feldmhle)
in cutting, similarly to shell turning. However, the jerk forces are larger than in
conventional finishing face milling, which can result in an axial displacement of
the tool. Ceramics are the predominate cutting tool materials in this case.
Face milling with finishing cutting edges and wide finishing cutting edges that
combine the advantages of both methods. The tool is in this case only fitted with
one or two wide finishing cutting edges that are radially set back and that protrude
axially by 0.030.05 mm to produce a high surface quality. The width of the
finishing cutting edges should correspond to about one and one half times the
feed per rotation.
For finishing, the pre-adjustment of the cutting edge has increased significance. If
no special, finely adjustable tool holding fixtures are used, all finishing face milling
tools should be ground and lapped prior to use on the machine tool and after fitting
with the cutting edges in order to obtain the necessary face and run-out accuracy
(< 5 m) corresponding to the required workpiece surface quality. Faulty insert
pre-adjustment increases kinematic roughness and shortens the tool life sometimes
considerably.
The cutting speed is selected high in finishing (e.g. up to vc = 300 m/min in
steel-working with cemented carbide) in order to obtain a high surface quality. In
the case of steel, surface finishes of Rt = 510 m are obtained, in the case of grey
cast iron Rt = 15 m.
9.2.1.2 Peripheral Milling

In the case of peripheral milling, the workpiece surface is created by the major cut-
ting edge. There is peripheral down milling and peripheral up milling. In peripheral
down milling, the cutting force acts upon the workpiece (Fig. 9.24), while in periph-
eral up milling it is directed away from the workpiece so that an unstable workpiece
(e.g. a thin steel sheet) can be lifted from the clamping surface or be induced to
chattering.
Down milling Up milling

vf vf
n n
fz fz
fz Fc
Ff Ff
ae
Fc Vorschub
fz Fa
Fa
Fig. 9.24 Peripheral up- and down milling

9.2 Milling 401
In the case of peripheral down milling, a table feed drive that is free of play is
necessary in order to prevent vibrations and impacts. While in the case of peripheral
down milling the lead takes place with an approximately full cross-section of unde-
formed chip, in up milling the cross-section of undeformed chip is slowly increased.
This can lead to material compression and thus to the formation of a poor surface.
Besides the usual HSS tools, cemented carbide peripheral milling cutters or plain
milling cutters are finding increasing use. When the cutting edges have a coaxial
adjustment, high dynamic stresses come into play because one whole cutting edge
enters into or exits from the material at a time. In the case of helically toothed tools,
the dynamic load can be reduced, but an axial force arises then which can lead to
tool or workpiece displacement. Pitch-induced axial forces can be compensated by
mutually bracing a right-inclined and a left-inclined plain milling cutter of the same
design (Fig. 9.25).
This disadvantage can be overcome with a double helical gearing with oppo-
site pitch. Such tools are very expensive both to acquire and to prepare however
(Fig. 9.25).
Should sharp-edged profiles with good dimensional and formal accuracy be pre-
pared, combined peripheral face milling cutters or plain milling cutters are used
(Fig. 9.26), which are relief-ground on the front face of all cutting edges (formation
of a tool orthogonal clearance).
Fa n Fa
Fig. 9.25 Combined plain milling cutter with opposite hand helix
Fig. 9.26 Modular shell end mill (Source: Sandvik Coromant)
9.2.1.3 End Milling

End milling is a continuous peripheral face milling process which uses an end
milling cutter. This process is advantageous when manufacturing mould surfaces
End mill with morse taper
End milling cutter with parallel shank

Right-hand direction of cut with right-hand helix
End milling cutter with morse taper
Right-hand direction of cut with left-hand helix
Die-sinking milling cutter with parallel shank
Right-hand direction of cut with right-hand helix
Conical die-sinking milling cutter

Right hand cutting with right hand helix
Fig. 9.27 End milling cutter
(e.g. in die construction) as well as forming grooves, pockets, slots and cavities of
all kinds and sizes.
End milling cutters have to be designed in many cases with a large degree of
slenderness (l/D > 510) depending on the application (e.g. milling deep engrav-
ings in dies and moulds). This causes on the one hand, depending on the contact
and engagement conditions, chatter vibrations during the process, which can lead
to increased wear via fracture, especially in the case of hard, brittle cutting tool
materials. Additionally, both chattering and bending of slender tools lead to dimen-
sional and shape inaccuracies in the components. Measures taken to avoid these
phenomena should be sought in an optimization of the tool and cutting part geome-
try, engagement conditions and milling strategy as well as of the cutting conditions
[Schr74, Kni80, Hann83, Kll86].
End mills correspond to shell end mills in their construction; for clamping, they
are equipped with a parallel shank (with side-clamping and/or fastening thread)
or with a taper shank (Morse taper or steep-angle taper; sometimes with fastening
thread).
A distinction is drawn between right-cutting and left-cutting tools as well as
between right-hand spiral, left-hand spiral and straight-toothed tools (Fig. 9.27). The
mill form can be designed cylindrically, conically or as a custom design depending
on the machining task. The front face of the tool is generally round or half-round;
in the case of tools capable of drilling the face cutting edges must reach as far as the
tool centre.
HSS end milling cutters are classified into tool applications groups in accordance
with DIN 1836 depending on the material to be machined (Fig. 9.28).
Profiling of the cutting edges in the case of roughing tools leads to a division of
the chips into smaller chips. The advantages of these chip dividers include improved
chip removal and cutting fluid access as well as reduced stress on the cutting edges
(Fig. 9.29).
The design of individual milling cutter geometries and chip divider forms differ
depending on the manufacturer.
In principle, all the cutting tool materials are potentially applicable in end
milling, depending on the selection criteria regarding workpiece materials and
9.2 Milling 403
Group of Field of application Tool

application
Machining of materials
N with normal strength
and hardness
Machining of hard,
hard tough and/ or
H short-chipping
materials
Machining of soft tough

and/ or long-chipping
W
materials
Fig. 9.28 Tool application groups
Profiled cuttting edges
Profile Group N Group H
Flat profile
(F)
Rounded
profile
(R)
Fig. 9.29 Cutting profiles of roughing-end milling cutters (Source: Fette)
stability. High speed steel is still predominately used often coated as well as
cemented carbides. Besides solid steel tools, tools with soldered cutting edges and
clamped or bolted indexable inserts are used (Fig. 9.30).
A more flexible adjustment of the cutting tool material to the machining task
is possible by using tools with indexable inserts. Especially mentionable in this
context is the use of different cutting tool materials in a single tool. This can be
advantageous, for example, in the case of ball path milling cutters, which are subject
to highly diverse stresses along the cutting edges.
9.2.1.4 Profile Milling

Profile milling is milling with forming tools to produce profiled surfaces, e.g. for
milling grooves, radii, gear wheels and gear racks as well as guideways.
Fig. 9.30 End milling cutter

with inserts (Source: Sandvik
Coromant)
Form cutter Gang cutter
Fig. 9.31 Profile milling cutter
Profile milling tools are adjusted to the form of the profile to be produced. In
most cases, a peripheral face milling process is the result. As shown in Fig. 9.31,
the tools are designed in one part (form milling cutters) or in multiple parts (gang
milling cutters).
Profile milling cutters are in many cases manufactured as solid HSS tools due to
the favourable machinability and inexpensive price. Increasingly however, cemented
carbide indexable inserts or soldered cemented carbide cutting edges are being used
(Figs. 9.32 and 9.33).
9.2.1.5 Hobbing
In almost all areas of technology, gears are employed as components of an exact
and effective transmission of motion. For high-precision gears, the gears are
9.2 Milling 405
Fig. 9.32 Gang cutter for machining of grey iron profiles (Source: Walter)
Fig. 9.33 Gang cutter for

machining of machine beds
(Source: Walter)
manufactured primarily by machining. Because of its high efficiency, hobbing

is the dominant machining process for producing externally toothed cylindrical
gears.
In hobbing, the coupling of a worm with a worm gear is simulated, whereby a
worm interrupted by gashes represents the tool and the worm gear represents the
workpiece to be manufactured.
The kinematics of the process will be explained briefly with the help of Fig. 9.34.
The rotary movements of the hob and the gear serve to remove the chips. Depending
on the hobbing method, superimposed over these are translatory motions of the tool
in the axial and tangential directions as well as in the radial direction in order to
reach the depth of cutting. This results in the hobbing methods axial, radial-axial,
fa
nw
vc
Fig. 9.34 Kinematics of
hobbing
tangential, and diagonal hobbing. In industrial production, axial hobbing is currently

the most commonly employed process.
The feed in one direction is defined as the distance travelled per workpiece
rotation. We distinguish between climb and conventional cutting by means of the
direction of the axial feed fa . In climb cutting, the cutting speed and axial feed
motion are directed opposite relative to the workpiece. For wear-related reasons,
climb cutting is generally preferred, especially in dry hobbing. The traverse path of
the hob can be subdivided into the tool inlet and outlet phases as well as that of
full cut, where only in full cut does one obtain the theoretical maximum circular cut
lengths and material removal rates (Fig. 9.35).
There are two further process variants used to machine helical gearings, hobbing
in the same direction and in the opposite direction, whereby the pitches of the tool
and working gear are aligned in the same direction or in opposite directions.
In order to distribute the tool wear arising during the process evenly along the hob
for more a efficient use of the tool, the hob can be shifted along its axis in discrete
steps. This displacement takes place as a rule after each machined workpiece and is
also called shifting.
The parameters of a hob can be seen in Fig. 9.35, which shows the tool in the
machining sequence. The hob is a cylindrical screw interrupted by chip flutes which
bring about the gash. The number of worm threads on the cylinder determines the
thread number of the hob. The hob teeth are shaped so that tool orthogonal clear-
ances and the potential of regrinding the rake face without altering the tooth profile
are created. The pivoting angle or lead angle of the hob results from the direction
and size of the helix angle and the pitch angle of the hob worm.
Hobs are classified into three different groups with reference to their construction
type (Fig. 9.36).
Solid steel hobs are manufactured from solid material, whereby the entire body
must be constructed from high-quality HSS or cemented carbide. Inserted blade hob
and cutters with indexable inserts on the other hand consist of a base body made of a
more inexpensive material. These hobs are especially suited to manufacturing gears
Section A-A
2
A vc
da2 Recess
fa
b
= 2 0
Full cut
fa
T Entry
A
Shift
da0
Fig. 9.35 Terms of the hobbing process

9.2 Milling 407
500 500 500

mm
400
Diameter da0
300 (HSS) 300
200
160
140
100 (HM) or
(HSS) 60
20
0
Full steel hob Inserted blade hob Cutter with indexable

inserts
Fig. 9.36 Hob types (Source: Fette, Saacke, Saazor)
with large diameters and large modules. Besides the potential of realizing larger
constructive tool orthogonal clearances, the inserted blade hob also has a relatively
large potential usable tooth thickness (large number of regrinds). Fastening is done
with lateral clamp rings. In the case of cutters with indexable inserts, the tool cutting
edge, which is made of cemented carbide, is used upto four times and not reground.
This hob type is only suitable for workpieces beyond a modulus of 5 mm because
of the resulting poorer cutting quality.
With respect to the selection of the substrate/coating system, a sufficient amount
of substrate toughness is of especial importance in hobbing because of the inter-
rupted cut. At the same time, the tool must have as much wear resistance as possible
against abrasive and thermal wear mechanisms in conjunction with a suitable hard
material coating. By the establishment of (Ti,Al)N coatings is it possible to perform
dry machining processes at cutting speeds up to vc = 200 m/min, even with tool
systems based on HSS [Wink05].
More and more, coated gear tools are reconditioned. The coating is removed, the
tool reground and finally recoated on the rake face after the tool operating life is
reached [Klei03]. In this way, we can work with consistently high cutting speeds
in all tool cycles, and the tools operating life can be held constant. For reasons of
accuracy, ground cutters cannot be over-coated more than 510 times because of the
coating application on the already coated rake face.
Figure 9.37 clarifies the hobbing process by looking at the creation of a tooth gap.
Due to the process kinematics and the resulting shifting between the tool and work-
piece, the material of a tooth gap is machined in the successive engagements (hob-
bing positions) of the individual teeth of a hob thread as can be seen in the sketch
in the bottom left of the illustration. The evolvents on the tooth of the workpiece
are approximated by profiling cuts. Every cutting tooth makes a cut after one tool
rotation in a further tooth gap determined by the hob thread number, but in the same
hobbing position; i.e. it is always removed one chip with the same cross-section.
Section A
Cross section of
undeformed chip Section B
Generated
cut
B
Involute
Generated cut deviation
Hob tooth
Fig. 9.37 Ratio of engagement in the hobbing process
Due to the differing penetrations between the hob and the workpiece in the partic-
ular hobbing positions, variously thick and variously formed chips result (Fig. 9.38).
During the first tooth engagements, a large amount of the gap volume is machined,
so that here, especially shortly before the middle position, exist the largest cross-
sections of undeformed chips. In the following hobbing positions, the tooth gap
is mostly profiled and the cross-sections of undeformed chip are reduced. The
penetration areas are highlighted in the image.
During hobbing, as in other gears manufacturing processes, changes to the struc-
turally given tool orthogonal clearance and tool orthogonal rake angles occur during
the cutting process [Sand72, Sulz73, Sulz74, Kni79]. Figure 9.39 illuminates the
cause of this.
At the cutting point under consideration on a certain hobbing position, the effec-
tive cutting speed vr results from the cutting speed of the hob vc and the hobbing
speed vA . On the entering tool cutting edge (Fig. 9.39), this leads to an enlargement
of the structurally given tool orthogonal clearance but simultaneously to a reduction
of the tool orthogonal rake angle. This means that, during the cutting process, the
Rake vc
face
Hob profile Hob profile Hob profile Hob profile
Upper chip side
primary motion
Direction of
3mm
Fig. 9.38 Chip formation in the hobbing process

9.2 Milling 409
cut C-C
vA vA
C vA C
vc vr vc vr
vc vr
workpiece
vc eff
eff
nw
EF AF
Tool
eff eff
kon kon
Fig. 9.39 Relative velocity and effective cutting geometry
effective tool orthogonal clearance is larger on the entering face than the structurally
given one. The effective tool orthogonal rake angle, on the other hand, is smaller.
There are different ratios on the exiting face, upon which the effective tool orthogo-
nal clearance is small and the effective tool orthogonal rake angle is larger than the
corresponding structurally determined angles.
A penetration calculation can be applied to simulate the cutting process
[Wink05]. In the penetration calculation, the workpiece is analyzed into a certain
number of parallel planes. By recreating the axis motions of the hobbing machine,
the cutting path of the hob teeth are generated so that they cut the workpiece
planes. From the intersection we can calculate a penetration range that corresponds
to the chip geometry of the respective hobbing position in the process [Weck02,
Weck03].
Figure 9.40 shows a simulated chip geometry in a certain hobbing position. The
3D chip diagram reproduces the distribution of cross-sections of undeformed chips
along the uncoiled cutting edge along the cutting arc, whereby the beginning of
the cut is in the foreground. The calculated chip geometries form the basic data
of a simulation-supported assessment of the stresses affecting the hob during the
machining process. It is clear that the chip thickness (top chip thickness) in the top
region of the hob can be much larger than in the edge region.
In addition to cemented carbides, PM-HSS cutting tool materials have also
become established as substrate materials for hobs in dry hobbing processes. Since
both cutting tool materials are in competition with one another, Fig. 9.41 shows the
advantages and disadvantages of both tool systems. The advantages are designated
with bright points, the disadvantages by dark points.
ng
handli
end
Cut-b
Length of the incoming flank Length of the outbound flank

Head
Cutting edge handling
Fig. 9.40 Tension geometry in hobbing
HSS HM
30 m
Source: Samputensili
Tool original price
Preparation charge
Wear resistance
Cutting speed
Chip thickness
Hardiness
Process reliability
Fig. 9.41 Cutting tool materials for dry hobs
One of the main disadvantages of cemented carbide hobs in comparison to

the HSS variant is the higher cost of acquiring the tools. They are generally at
least three times more expensive. Because of the higher tool costs, it is only eco-
nomical to use them if a significantly higher productivity or longer tool life is
obtainable.
Because of the much higher wear resistance of cemented carbide, cemented car-
bide tools can realize clearly higher cutting speeds. However, PM-HSS hobs can
realize larger maximum head chip thicknesses. Given the high tool price, the use
9.2 Milling 411
of cemented carbide hobs is uneconomical in this case, provided the tool life is not
significantly higher.
In large batch production, process safety is particularly important. While HSS
hobs, not least because of their high toughness, make a relatively high level process
safety when their wear behaviour is monitored [Coop99, Klk99], cutting edge frac-
tures occur occasionally in the case of cemented carbide hobs [Kloc99a, Sulz00]. If
this occurs only sporadically, such fractures cannot be detected with process mon-
itoring systems and lead to increased tool wear. This problematizes an economical
use of cemented carbide hobs given the multiple reconditioning of the tool that is
required. Although dry hobbing used to always be performed with cemented carbide
tools, PM-HSS tools have become continuously more popular in the last several
years because of their superior toughness properties and lower tool costs [Coop99].
9.2.1.6 Skive Hobbing

Skive hobbing is a continuous process using geometrically defined cutting edges for
machining pre-milled gear teeth in a hardened state. Primarily, deformation caused
by the heat treatment is removed and the surface quality improved. The process
kinematics are identical to those of hobbing.
The concept of skive hobbing is derived from the peeling cut. Hard finish-
ing with geometrically defined cutting edges requires that small cross-sections of
undeformed chip are selected. The skive hobs are designed with a negative top tool
orthogonal rake angle, which acts as a negative inclination angle on the tooth flanks.
This guarantees that the first contact between the cutting tooth and the workpiece
surface is not made directly on the cutting edge but in the stable cutting part area
behind it (see also contact conditions, Fig. 9.16).
In order to execute a skive hobbing operation, the tooth gaps of the pre-milled
gear teeth must be prepared to such an extent that the top of the skive hob does
not engage and only the flank cutting edge is cut. Otherwise, the danger of fracture
is increased [Faul86]. The tooth base can be free milled in two different ways: by
pre-milling with tools corresponding to reference profile II acc. to DIN 3972 or by
pre-milling with protuberance.
In case 1 the pre-processing of the gaps is done with hobs of reference profile
III, a sharp edge appears in the tooth base after skive hobbing, which can have a
negative effect on tooth base strength. On the other hand, the tooth gaps pre-milled
with protuberance have a rounded transition in the tooth base after skive hobbing
(Fig. 9.42).
In skive hobbing, it is very important for the sake of consistent cutter wear and
the output that the hob tooth is exactly positioned or centred in the tooth gap.
After centring, the same amount of material is removed on both workpiece flanks
(right and left flanks) in the ideal machining case. Centring is made more difficult
by the fact that the flank allowance fluctuates along the workpiece periphery and the
tooth width due to pre-gear cutting deficiencies, faulty alignment for skive hobbing
or as a result of deformation due to hardening.
Negative
head rake angle
Hobbing Hobbing
1 2
Roughen Roughen with

BP III Protuberance
Fig. 9.42 Gap profiles of different rough cutters
Although only very thin chips are removed during the process, very high resultant
forces are in play, which are inconstant especially in the entrance and exit areas
and also change their signs. For this reason, a high static and dynamic stiffness must
be required of the hobbing machine in addition to geometric and kinematic accuracy
[Faul86].
In the case of skive hobbing, the obtainable length of tool life is depends greatly
on the cutting edge, workpiece geometry, cutting parameters and the hardness of the
workpiece to be machined. Favourable wear behaviour is exhibited by the ultrafine-
grain cemented carbides of ISO application range K10 to K20 in conjunction with
a hard material coating [Kais92, Kni95].
Skive hobbing is used as a finishing process or can also serve as a preparation
process for a subsequent grinding operation. The grinding costs are thereby levelled
by lowering the amount of deformation due to hardening prior to the subsequent hob
grinding process. This production sequence is especially of interest for large-module
workpieces (larger module 10 mm).
The limits of quality in finishing are basically determined by the feed marks
and profiling cut deviations (Fig. 9.37) characteristic of hobbing. With the help of
a honing operation following the skive hobbing process, they can be removed at
least in the case of small gears. Furthermore, gears that cannot be ground because
of their geometry (large grinding wheel diameters) are also made by skive hobbing
[Koep94].
9.2 Milling 413
9.2.1.7 Turn Milling

Turn milling is a machining process in which the principles of turning and milling
are combined in such a way that (generally) rotation-symmetric workpieces are
machined with an inserted-tooth cutter on a rotating workpiece. The self-propelled
cutter works like a turning tool with a longitudinal feed parallel to the workpiece.
In principle, there are two process variants in turn milling. If the tool axis and the
rotation axis of the workpiece are arranged perpendicularly, it is called orthogonal
turn milling (Fig. 9.43, left). Alternately, in axis-parallel turn milling, both rotation
axes are parallel to each other as shown in Fig. 9.43, right. Due to the arrange-
ment of the milling tool, axis-parallel turn milling makes both internal and external
machining possible.
In the case of orthogonal turn milling, the milling cutter executes a screw-shaped
motion relative to the workpiece due to the axial feed movement and the rotation of
the shaft. In accordance with this characteristic, DIN8589c defines turn milling as a
variant of screw milling.
We also draw a distinction between centric and eccentric turn milling (Fig. 9.44).
In centric turn milling, the workpiece axis and tool axis intersect at one point, while
in the case of eccentric turn milling they are offset relative to each other by a certain
amount, eccentricity e.
High surface quality (low facet formation) can be obtained in turn milling only
with extreme milling cutter and shaft speed settings.
This can be realized with a centric cutter setting (e = 0) (Fig. 9.44):
by lowering the feed per workpiece rotation and thus the cutter engagement
to a few 1/100 mm. We work simultaneously with very rapid workpiece rotation
and slow cutter rotation. In this way, we obtain a process very similar to turning.
by very slow workpiece rotation and fast cutter rotation [Kni84a, Kni84b,
Kni85, Kni86]. The workpiece speed can be lowered so far that the quickly
rotating cutter edges successively cut towards the target radius almost continu-
ously. For the sake of high cutting performance, the feed per workpiece rotation
and thus the engagement width of the milling cutter should be maximized.
Workpiece
nw nw
ap
Tool nF
nF
vfax vfax
Fig. 9.43 Axle rotation in turn milling

f r f r
r f
e
dF
ls
e=0 e < dF /2 ls e = dF /2 ls e = dF /2
Fig. 9.44 Centric and eccentric turn milling
In order to produce cylindrical surfaces, a broad-tool finish tool geometry with

a face cutting edge lead angle of r = 0 is unavoidable, since from now on
the face cutting edges create the workpiece target radius with their full length.
The feed per workpiece rotation fax is thereby limited to the length of the face
cutting edge Ls [Kni84b]. Under these conditions, the process is comparable to
conventional face milling.
In the second case, the axial feed can be increased beyond the limit set by the
length of the face cutting edge by shifting the milling cutter by the eccentricity e
without hazarding cylindricity faults. In the case of an eccentricity of approximately
dF
e= Ls (9.6)
2
the maximum of feed of

2
D
fax = 2 e2 (9.7)
2
is reached. Further augmentation of the eccentricity again reduces the adjustable

axial feed until finally no cylindrical surfaces can be produced [Kni84a, Kni84b].
A great advantage of centric turn milling is that sharp-edged workpiece shoulders
can be created (Fig. 9.43). In eccentric turn milling, this is impossible for kine-
matic reasons. Shoulders are principally rounded in this case. In addition, the surface
quality is not as good as in the centric process variant. Centric turn milling is thus
of great interest for practical process design despite lower performance values. It
is recommended therefore to implement roughing operations with an eccentrically
and finishing operations with a centrically positioned milling cutter [Kni86].
Superimposition of the rotary motions of the workpiece and tool as well as of
the feed motion results in highly complex cutting kinematics [Kni84a, Kni84b,
Kni85]. Figure 9.45 shows an example of this process.
9.2 Milling 415
Added front side cutting tool Range cutting edges
nF
Cutter
nW
Workpiece
Chip-chambers
Fig. 9.45 The turn milling process (Source: Wohlenberg, Seco)
As opposed to conventional face milling, the face cutting edges participate

actively in the machining process and each produce one element of the workpiece
surface, as the material is moved into the front face of the milling cutter by means of
the workpiece rotation. The facet-like surface typical of turn milling can clearly be
seen (Fig. 9.45). In the case of the special tool used here, the face cutting edges are
extended with additional inserts in order to maximize the feed. To avoid cylindricity
faults, these also have a lead angle of r = 0 . An effective and economical cutting
process is also possible by using conventional milling heads. In steel machining in
a smooth longitudinal cut, TiN-coated cemented carbides have proven to be partic-
ularly effective. The cutting conditions are generally somewhat higher than those
of conventional face milling with TiN-coated cemented carbides [Wand92]. Steel
materials that are difficult to machine can on the other hand be very effectively
machined with TiCN-coated cemented carbides by means of turn milling [Stal94].
The particular advantages of turn milling are safe chip fracture when machining
long-chipping materials as well as the high cutting performance in a smooth lon-
gitudinal cut at low workpiece rotary speeds. This is especially significant in the
case of large or unbalanced parts. Turn milling can be used to create circular profile
curves (e.g. on camshafts) and cylinder forms that run eccentrically to the compo-
nent rotary axis (e.g. lifting pins on crankshafts). Lifting pins and crankshaft cheeks
can be machined with externally or internally geared tools (Fig. 9.46). A flexible
full-range processing of such components in one clamping is possible by exploit-
ing the additional rotary axis for drilling, slab milling or thread cutting [Kni84b,
Kauf92].
Beyond that, various mould parts can be created (e.g. longitudinal grooves) by
adjusting the shaft rotary motions with the three possible, mutually independent feed
motions (axial: fax , radial: ap , tangential: e) [Kni84a].
Fig. 9.46 Crankshaft machining with rotary milling (Source: Walter)
Extruder screws are almost exclusively produced by turn milling or planetary

thread milling [Sten64]. Spherical actuators for pipeline valves as well as ellipse
and eccentric forms can also be manufactured via turn milling.
9.3 Drilling
The term drilling signifies the machining method with a rotary main motion in which
the tool is allowed only one feed motion in the direction of the tool rotary axis. The
most important process variants are shown in Fig. 9.47 along with the common
respective directions of motion [DIN8589b]. The peculiarities of drilling include:
a cutting speed that falls to zero towards the drill centre,

difficult chip removal,
unfavourable heat distribution at the action point,
increased wear at the sharp-edged cutting edges and
friction of the lands against the drill hole wall.
Different objectives with respect to material removal rate, drill depth, dimen-
sional accuracy and surface quality have led to the development of a series of
different drilling processes, which will be explored in more detail in the following.
9.3.1 Profile Counterboring

Counterboring differs from drilling basically by the fact that one does not drill
into solid material but rather a prepared hole which has, for example, been drilled
or punched, is counterbored to a dimension smaller than specified or to finished
dimensions.
DIN 8589-2 distinguishes between to process variants:
planar countersinking
planar insertion
9.3 Drilling 417
Trepanning
Tapping
Profile
Drill out
center Profile center
drilling drilling
Reaming Profile reaming Non-circular Profile

drilling counterboring
Fig. 9.47 Process variants of drilling, according to DIN 8589
In the case of planar countersinking, an even surface protruding on the workpiece

lying perpendicular to the rotary axis of the cutting motion is created. Planar inser-
tion on the other hand is used to produce an even surface recessed in the workpiece
lying perpendicular to the rotary axis of the cutting motion, whereby an internal
cylindrical surface is formed simultaneously. For planar insertion of pre-cast or
predrilled drill holes, usually three-lip spiral countersinks are used. In comparison
to spiral drills, the three-blade, screw threaded design gives the spiral countersink
much higher stiffness and thus leads to much higher working precision.
For deburring, chamfering and inserting the seat of spherical screw heads, HSS
countersinks are used that are manufactured according to standard with angles of
taper of 60, 90 and 120 (Fig. 9.48).
For manufacturing drill holes of fastening screws, screw head counterbores of
HSS or cemented carbide design are employed, the shape and size of which is
adjusted to the respective standardized screw type.
Piloted counterbores are suitable not only for planar insertion but also for planar
countersinking the front faces of eyes and hubs.
Automation in manufacturing often presumes the use of tools that are adjusted
to a particular machining task. Such special tools, to which the form countersink
in Fig. 9.48 belongs, can shorten production times quite considerably, since several
working cycles can be consolidated in one spindle stroke. For example, it is custom-
ary in mass production for a screw connection to drill one through-hole with a form
tool, then to counterbore the cylinder for the head of a hexagon socket screw and
finally to chamfer the drill hole edge.
Fig. 9.48 Counterboring

tools
Point Pilot Form

countersink countersink countersink
9.3.2 Rotary Drilling

9.3.2.1 Centre Drilling
The spiral drill occupies the position of greatest importance among drilling tools, as
it is the most important tool for creating cylindrical drill holes from solid material
or for enlarging a preset drill hole diameter in drilling out. It is estimated that it
takes up 2025% of machining operations, and it is today the machining tool that is
produced in the largest numbers and is the most widespread [Hus79, Tika93].
Simply put, the spiral drill is composed of the shaft and the cutting part
(Fig. 9.49). Only a more exact consideration reveals the complex geometric for-
mation, especially of the drill bit. The about 150 grind types [Tika93] and numerous
material-specific drill profiles represent the attempt to do justice to multifarious
machining task with respect to quality and performance. For some time, analyti-
cal models have been developed to help calculate tool stresses. This requires an
Drill diameter Cutting part Neck Taper shank Straight

shank
Point length Cone length

Cutting length Neck length
Flute length
Total length
Fig. 9.49 Spiral drill with taper shank, acc. to DIN 1412
9.3 Drilling 419
Major cutting edge ff

Hauptschneide
ff
Chisel edge
Querschneide
ff
Flank face
Freiflche
Fig. 9.50 Cutting part geometry of a spiral drill
acquaintance with the cutting part geometry, the kinematics of the drilling process
and the stresses arising during that process.
Figure 9.50 shows the cutting part geometry of a spiral drill. Since according to
the definition the major cutting edges point in the feed direction, the chisel edge is
also part of the major cutting edge, although it hardly cuts due to its highly negative
tool orthogonal rake angle, but rather deforms the material plastically and forces it
to the major cutting edge.
The shape and pitch of the chip flutes determine the size of the tool orthogonal
rake angle o , which is not constant along the major cutting edge but decreases from
its highest value on the corner (f ) towards the drill centre and becomes negative in
the transition to the chisel edge (Fig. 9.51). The only differentiating factor however
that is used is the side rake angle f , which is identical to the helix angle with
sufficient accuracy. The latter is varied because of the differing chip fracture of
different materials and categorized into the main drill groups N for normal materials,
H for hard materials and S for soft materials (Fig. 9.52) [DIN 1414a].
By means of the interaction of the cutting motion (rotation) and the feed motion,
the tool cutting edge moves along a screw line. Taking the cutting conditions
(effective speed) into consideration, the tool orthogonal clearance must be selected
such that the effective rake angle is positive. An upper boundary of the clear-
ance is also given however by the weakening of the cutting part and the rattling
tendency.
To machine steel materials, usually a point angle of 118 is chosen. Point angles
of 90 are used for drilling hard, usually heavily wearing plastics in order to make
the transition from the major cutting edge to the lands less sharp than is the case with
very large point angles, thus reducing edge dulling correspondingly. Point angles of
130 result in improved free drilling in the case of resilient (clamping) materials;
moreover, the chip clogging problem can be countered with a further enlargement
to a point angle of 140 in the case of long-chipping light metals (Fig. 9.53).
In summary, it can be seen that only a careful, automatically executed drill point
grinding adjusted to the particular problem can lead to an economical machining
Fig. 9.51 Rake angle, 20 40

clearance and the cutting vc
speed against the drill Clearance
diameter angle 30
fe
10 20
Cutting
speed vc 10
fe
0 0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 mm 1 0
Drill diameter r
10
Major cutting edge
Chisel
20 edge
30
40
50
Rake angle
60
process. For the larger part of all machining cases, the conical relief point has
asserted itself as the most consistent and suitable type. The rake faces are parts of
a taper sleeve (Fig. 9.54). The advantages of these drills include easy manufacture
and preparation as well as their low sensitivity to high mechanical stress.

Typ N Normal workpiece material

(Such as ) = 18 to 30

Typ H Hard and brittle workpiece

(Such as gray cast iron) = 10 to 15

Typ S Ductile workpiece material

(Such as aluminium) = 35 to 45
= Helix angle
Fig. 9.52 Spiral drills for various materials

9.3 Drilling 421
f
e
Cutting edge
Cutting edge 2
f
e
f/2
f
ng direction

Effective Feed direction
cutting
direction
Fig. 9.53 Motion sequence of the major cutting edges by double edged drilling tool
Form A Form B
Taper sleeve grinding Picked out Picked out chisel edge with
(Polished cone-shaped section chisel edge adjusted major cutting edge
Form AD)
Form C Form D Form E
Split point Pickedout chisel edge with Drill point angle 180 with
faced edge corners centered tip
Fig. 9.54 Combination of spiral drills with special polished section from model A till E compared
to taper sleeve grinding, acc. to DIN 1412
The low self-centring and associated shape and position errors are disadvanta-
geous. In addition, the chisel edge length is increased with increasing drill and core
diameters, such that the resulting high feed forces have an unfavourable effect on
machining accuracy.
In this case and generally only when special demands are placed on the drilling
tool, the drill point is equipped with a special grinding that either complements the
taper sleeve grinding (e.g. core point thinning) or completely reshapes the drill point
(centre point, Fig. 9.54).
The following describes the most important point grindings in accordance with
Fig. 9.54:
Form A: the taper sleeve grinding with a point-thinned core improves to a great
extent the centrability of the drill and decreases the axial force corresponding to
the chisel edge shortened by about 0.1D (used in general for Type N beyond
14 mm diameter).
Form B: the taper sleeve grinding with point-thinned core and corrected rake
angle makes it possible to adjust the rake angle to the machining task. However,
it is customary to reduce the rake angle by about 10 , resulting in a very sta-
ble wedge without hindering chip transport because of a diminished helix angle.
Grinding B is used in cases of high drill stress such as encountered when machin-
ing austenitic manganese steel or when drilling thin-walled aluminium sheets to
reduce deformation.
Form C: A taper sleeve grinding with a split point in which case the chisel is
completely eliminated. This is especially suitable for deep drill holes. The com-
pressive chisel edge is converted into two small major cutting edges with much
better cutting properties. This type also guarantees good centrability and reduced
feed force.
Form D: The taper sleeve grinding with point-thinned core and bevelled corners
was specially developed for machining grey-cast iron workpieces, the hard, abra-
sive casting skin of which stresses the sensitive corner to a particularly large
extent. Here, a second taper sleeve grinding with a smaller drill-point angle pro-
vides a remedy in that it helps improve heat conduction and counters increased
wear by increasing its surface area.
Form E: drill-point angle 180 with centred tip, used when centric drilling must
be guaranteed or when round and burr-free drill holes are to be made in alu-
minium sheets. After total penetration of the centring cone, both major cutting
edges simultaneously cut to their full length, and the corners can support them-
selves immediately on the drill hole wall with the lands. The drill exits again by
the entire major cutting edge, whereby a ring-shaped disc is cut out with minimal
burr formation.
The four-face grinding, a taper sleeve grinding with a secondary face, is men-
tionable despite the fact that it is not standardized inasmuch as it is used when
drilling below 1.5 mm diameters or with cemented carbide drills, since in this case
the tapered sleeve grind causes difficulties.
9.3 Drilling 423
The special working conditions of a drilling tool place high demands on the
cutting tool material with respect to hardness, toughness, wear resistance and insen-
sitivity against thermal alternate stresses. Frequently, HSS is used as a cutting tool
material. According to DIN 1414-1, high speed steels for drilling tools, contain 6%
tungsten, 5% molybdenum, 2% vanadium (HS6-5-2) and for higher stresses 5%
cobalt (HS6-5-2-5). The tools are hardened, topically treated (nitrated) and often
equipped with wear-preventing coatings.
Solid cemented carbide drills are also used however. The advantages of cemented
carbides are their high hardness, compressive strength and high-temperature wear
resistance. Cemented carbides have the same hardness at 1000 C as high speed steel
at room temperature. As a rule of thumb, the cutting speed vc can only be increased
by a factor of three. Beyond that, the machining process can continue with a feed
f that is at least 30% higher. Besides this increase in cutting conditions, the tool
life travel path Lf can be extended by a factor of three. Due to their high Youngs
modules, cemented carbide drills are much more torsion-stiff than HSS tools.
Due to their high hardness and low toughness compared to HSS tools, their use
is technically meaningful and economical only on machine tools that fulfil the min-
imum requirements regarding accuracy, power, cooling and stiffness. One example
for precision requirements is the concentricity of the drilling process. The total
radial deviation measurable at the cutting edges of the drill is the result of the sum
of each radial deviation of the machine spindle, interface, tool holder and tool. In
current practice, the tool holder has the highest share. If the minimum requirements
cannot be fulfilled, HSS drills are still preferred, not the least because of their lower
price.
Drilling as a machining process has several peculiarities which we will exam-
ine in the following. In comparison to internal turning, drilling with spiral drills
produces a greater surface finish on the drill hole wall, which is the result of the
comparatively low cutting speed, the low torsion and bending stiffness of the tool
and chip transport [Spur60]. Moreover, spiral drills are subject not only to flank face
and crater wear but also chisel edge wear, land wear and corner wear.
In the case of the spiral drill, total tool wear is composed basically of
flank face wear,
crater wear,
land wear,
chisel edge wear and
corner wear
and leads ultimately to relative or absolute disruption of the tool.
Relative disruption is characterized by the fact that beyond a certain drilling
length the machining output no longer correspond to the requirements. In the case of
absolute disruption, the HSS tool becomes completely unusable because of thermal
induced failure of the tool cutting edge or because of tool fracture.
One essential tool life criterion in drilling is reaching pre-given limits in the case
of dimension and shape faults (relative disruption). Wear on the corner and on the
lands is frequently responsible for this. Due to the maximum cutting speed on the
outer diameter, the corner is especially stressed. This is where HSS tool often fail.
On the other hand, the low cutting speed in the chisel edge area often causes built-up
edge formation, which however does not have a dominantly negative effect on the
process sequence nor makes itself perceptible in the output.
The feed influences tool wear much less than the cutting speed, so it will no
longer be considered here. The forces acting on the spiral drill are represented in
Fig. 9.55. When drilling with HSS tools, the cutting speed for steels is in the range of
1040 m/min. A series of studies has shown that here the influence on the resultant
force is small, especially in the case of large drill diameters. In the case of extremely
low or extremely high cutting speeds on the other hand, a considerable increase in
the feed force and cutting moment has been noted, which has an especially large
effect when smaller diameter drills are used.
As in all machining processes with geometrically defined cutting edges, the
resultant force components increase degressively with the feed (Fig. 9.55).
Exhaustive investigations have shown that the surface quality of the drill hole
wall cannot be significantly affected by the drill point grinding. On the other hand,
the dimensional accuracy of the drill hole is dependent on the symmetry of the
grinding, since straying of the tool can only be prevented when there is an extensive
balancing of the radially acting passive force [Spur60].
Different passive forces Fp1 and Fp2 subject the drill to bending and lead to
enlarged drill hole diameters in the output. Such passive forces arise primarily for
tool-related reasons, such as
unequal major cutting edge lengths,

unequal drill-point angles,
unequal tool orthogonal clearances,
asymmetrical point thinning,
d
Fc : Cutting force
Ff : Feed force
Fp : Passive force
d : Tool diameter
H : Distance of force-application to
drill axis
Fc1
Fp2 Fp1
Fp2
Fp1
2*H
Fig. 9.55 Spiral drill forces, Ff2 Ff1
Fc2
according to [Spur60]
9.3 Drilling 425
Table 9.1 Force components of the major cutting edge, the chisel edge and the land of a spiral
drill
Torque (%) Feed force (%)
Major cutting edge 6575 1725

Chisel edge 1014 6575
Land 1520 78
asymmetrical spiral flutes,

inconsistent cutting edge sharpness and
radial deviations [Spur60].
The increased cutting and feed forces compared to turning (at otherwise identical
marginal conditions) are due on the one hand to friction of the chips in the bottom of
the groove and on the drill hole wall and on the other hand to the length of the chisel
edge, which should be referred to in consideration of the resultant force more than
the drill diameter. The more narrow the chip space is for chip volume specified by
the cutting conditions the larger are the required cutting moment and the necessary
feed force. Among the feed forces that arise during turning, considerable amounts
of force are also added due to friction on the land and compressive processes in the
area of the chisel edge.
The guidelines in Table 9.1 should be referred to when considering the percent-
age proportion of force of the major cutting edge, the chisel edge and the land of a
spiral drill with respect to torque and feed force:
These percentages were determined by means of step drill experiments. The
torques and feed forces can be determined sequentially only for the major cutting
edges, for the major and chisel edges as well as for the major edge, chisel edge and
land.
9.3.2.2 Cutting Parameters in Drilling

The cross-section of undeformed chip A has a major influence on the resultant force
in drilling. Table 9.2 shows the relevant relations of the cutting parameters in drilling
and the potential calculation of the cross-section of undeformed chip from the feed
component per cutting edge fz and the depth of cut ap or from the chip thickness h
and chip width b.
9.3.2.3 Calculating Forces, Torque and Power

When Drilling with Spiral Drills
Analogously to the ratios in drilling, we can approximately calculate the cutting
force, feed force and torque for centre drilling and drilling out with spiral drills
with the help of the K IENZLE equation (Table 9.3). For drilling, it is necessary to
introduce a process factor fB in order to take into consideration the altered influences
on the forces that occur in drilling as opposed to turning (e.g. cutting edge shape,
cutting speed etc).
Table 9.2 Calculation of the cross-section of undeformed chip in drilling
Centre drilling Drilling out
Cutting parameters
h A
h
fz
fz
b
b ap
ap A d
D D
f ap
f z = , r = , b = , h = fz sin(r )
z 2 sin(r )
A = fz ap = b h
df (D d) fz
Cross-section of A= A=
undeformed chip 4 2
D Drill diameter [mm] f Feed [mm]

d Pre-hole diameter [mm] fz Feed per cutting edge [mm]
ap Depth of cut [mm] r Lead angle [ ]
b Chip width [mm] Drill-point angle [ ]
h Chip thickness [mm]
z Number of cutting edges
9.3.2.4 Deephole Drilling

Deephole drilling is a machining process used to produce or process drill holes.
Deepholes are drill holes with a diameter between about 1 and 1500 mm and
a drilling depth of about three times the diameter. It is not possible to make a
general distinction between deephole drilling and other conventional drilling tech-
niques by means of a universally valid definition or the like. With all deephole
drilling methods, a very large ratio of drilling depth to diameter can be obtained.
Further advantages of deephole drilling compared with customary drilling with spi-
ral drills include above all the higher quality of the drill holes and its excellent
cost-efficiency.
Not only is deephole drilling distinguished from common drilling by its asym-
metrical cutting edge arrangement, but also by the fact that in deephole drilling a
cutting fluid is fed directly to the cutting edges under pressure and that its rinsing
effect is the sole transport mechanism for the incoming chips. The cutting part is
made of cemented carbide, so high cutting speeds can be reached, which in turn
9.3 Drilling 427
Table 9.3 Forces, torque, power required in drilling
Centre drilling Drilling out
Force application H = D/4 H = (D + d)/4

ap = D/4 ap = (D d)/4
D
D
D/2
Fcz H
Fcz
d
ap ap
Process factor fB fB = 1 f B = 0.95

(D d) D
Cutting force per cutting Fcz = f z k c fB Fcz = f z k c fB
edge F 2 2
cz
D (D d)
Feed force per cutting Ffz = fz kf fB Ffz = f z kf f B
edge Ffz 2 2
Fcz z D Fcz z (D + d)
Torque Md = Md =
4000 4000
For z = 2: For z = 2:
Fcz D Fcz z (D + d)
Md = Md =
2000 2000
9554 Pc
Md =
n
Pc Md n
Power Pa = Pc =
9554
Fcz vc Fcz vc (1 + d/D)
Pc = Pc =
60000 60000
fB Process factor drilling kf Specific feed force [N/mm2 ]
H Lever [mm] Fcz Cutting force per cutting
edge[N]
D External drill diameter [mm] Md Torque [Nm]
d Internal drill diameter [mm] Pa Drive power [kW]
z Number of cutting edges Pc Cutting power [kW]
fz Feed per cutting edge [mm] n Speed [min1 ]
kc Specific cutting force [N/mm2 ] vc Cutting speed [m/min]
Efficiency
Workpiece Tool Drill bushing Shank Cooling

lubricant
supply
Bead Cooling lubricant

chip mixture
Fig. 9.56 The ELB process for diameters 0.840 mm, according to Sandvik
makes it possible to increase the material removal rate. The following three process
variants are used for the industrial production of deep drill holes:
the single-lip drilling process (ELB process),

the BTA drilling process,
the ejector drilling process.
The single-lip drilling process is used in the diameter range of approximately

0.840 mm. Figure 9.56 shows the essential characteristics of this method.
The characteristic trait and main advantage of the single-lip drilling process is
that the cutting fluid is supplied by means of one or several drill holes within the
tool and the cutting fluid/chip mixture is safely led away by a longitudinal groove
(bead) on the outside of the tool shank.
Due to the shape of the lead and the large drilling depth/diameter ratio, the drill
is guided on the top face of the workpiece by means of a drill bushing (Fig. 9.56).
This stabilizes the start of drilling. Single-lip deephole drilling tools are used in
manufacturing as solid drills, core drills, countersinks and step drills, whereby full
drilling is the most common case of operation in practice. Basically, the single-lip
drill consists of three components: the drill head, the shank and the clamping sleeve.
In most cases, cemented carbide is used as the cutting tool material, whereby both
solid cemented carbide drill heads as well as drill heads fitted with cemented carbide
are employed.
The BTS process (Boring and Trepanning Association BTA) was invented at
the end of the 1930s in order to prevent chip scratching on the drill hole wall during
transport and the resulting damage to the surface quality. The attempt to cover the
flute of the single-lip drill outwards resulted however in a drastic reduction of avail-
able chip space, which in turn limited the material removal rate. The solution was
finally discovered by the Boring and Trepanning Association, who reversed the
process characteristics of single-lip drilling and supplied the cutting fluid from out-
side by means of a ring-shaped crack between the drill pipe and the wall (Fig. 9.57).
Reflow occurs together with the chips through the cutting jaw and the drill pipe, the
9.3 Drilling 429
Workpiece Tool Cooling lubricant supply Cooling

lubricant
chip
mixture
Drill tube
Fig. 9.57 The BTA process for diameters of 6300 mm, according to Sandvik
diameter of which should not be less than 6 mm. The upper diameter for full drilling
tools is around 300 mm and for countersink tools around 1000 mm, whereby these
limits depend to a large extent on the available machine power.
Compared to deephole drilling with single-lip drills, the BTA process has the dis-
advantage that a complicated drill oil supply apparatus is required which takes over
the sealing of the drill pipe. The process requires machines that are much different
than standard drill machines.
The ejector deephole drilling process is utilized for diameters of about
18250 mm. According to VDI guideline 3209, it is a variant of the BTA process
(Fig. 9.58). Cutting fluid supply is accomplished by means of a ring space between
the drill pipe and an internal pipe (two-pipe process). The cutting fluid enters the
drill head from the side, rinses it and flows back into the internal pipe with the
chips. Part of the cutting fluid is introduced into the internal pipe via a ring noz-
zle. Reflow is made possible by the arising low pressure at the cutting jaw (ejector
Workpiece Tool Drill tube Cooling Ejector effect

lubricat
supply
Internal Cooling
tube lubricant chip
mixture
Fig. 9.58 The ejector process for diameters of 18250 mm, according to Sandvik
effect). As opposed to the BTA process, sealing against the exit of the cutting fluid is
omitted. A further peculiarity is its cutting edge distribution for reducing the forces
acting on the guide beads as well as the double-sized cutting jaw thus required. The
cutting edge, otherwise continuous from the periphery to the centre, is subdivided
such that two cutting parts are arranged at a time alternating left and right up to the
centre. The consequence of this is that the stress on the guide beads is reduced by
about 10% to a maximum of 50% of the otherwise expected forces, and friction,
heat development and wear are reduced accordingly.
Deephole drilling tools dominate the entire field of inner contours that can be
manufactured by drilling (Fig. 9.59). Other drilling methods and tools are used only
200
ELB Deep hole

Tiefbohren
drilling
Length/ Diameter
berschneidungsbereich
Short hole drilling
zum Kurzlochbohren
BTA
Sintered
-
HM-Bohrer,carbide drill,
Kurzlochbohrer,
Short hole drill,
Wendelbohrer
Twist drill
Length/Diameter
60
Diameter (mm)
ELB - deep hole drilling

ELB-Tiefbohren
BTA - deep hole

BTA-
drilling
Bereich der konven-

Area of conventional drilling
tionellenBohrbearbeitung
Diameter (mm) 1500

1500
Fig. 9.59 Application of the deep hole tools compared to conventional drilling tools, acc.
to VDI guideline 3210
9.3 Drilling 431
in the range of smaller drilling depths (up to a length/diameter of ca. 6 and a diameter
of up to ca. 60 mm). Since these dimensions are predominant in general mechan-
ical engineering, the dominance and versatility of deephole drilling processes is
often not perceived. Increasingly, especially in the area of overlap between short-
hole drilling (conventional drill technology) and deephole drilling, tools are being
used that have the characteristics of deephole tools or are operated under conditions
that resemble a deephole drilling operation.
Especially in the field of deep drill holes and drill holes with large diameters,
deephole techniques are used now almost exclusively. Due to its high productivity
and the drill hole quality obtainable, deephole drilling is being used increasingly for
manufacturing tasks in which the ratio between the drill hole depth and the drill hole
diameter is larger than 6. Numerous examples of machining reveal the presence of
deephole technology in the area of smaller tool diameters as well, in which naturally
most application cases for drilling are to be found. Difficult-to-machine materials
can as a rule be machined effectively with deephole methods.
Deephole processes have the following typical characteristics:
the use of special cemented carbide tools with one or sometimes more cutting
edges that lie asymmetrically to the tool axis,
self-commutation of the tool by means of a three-point mounting in the drill hole
through guide beads and the minor cutting edge (cylindrical grinding chamfer),
drill start guidance of the tool in a drill bushing or a guiding bore,
continuous high-quantity cutting fluid supply under pressure resulting in constant
chip removal without chip removal strokes.
Some advantages of deephole drilling are:
very high machining performance,

ideal cooling and lubricating conditions,
short primary processing times,
high drill hole quality with respect to diameter tolerance, surface quality and
geometric contouring accuracy,
high alignment accuracy, minimal drill hole inaccuracy,
replacement of several operations e.g. pre-drilling, boring and reaming by one
single operation,
possibility of processing hard-to-machine materials,
large drilling depths in relation to the diameter (up to a maximum of 250 times
larger),
cost-efficiency, even with short drilling depths,
minimal burr-formation when drilling out and when overdrilling cross-holes.
By means of deephole drilling, metals of all kinds as well as other materials (e.g.
plastics) can be processed both in the mass production of small parts and in the
single-part production of large-scale machine parts.
The process variants (including machining methods) of deephole drilling are
characterized by the drilling task and the correspondingly adjusted drilling tools
Through boring Blind hole
Drilling in full Drilling in full

metal metal
Drill out Drill out
Core drilling Core drilling
Form drilling Form drilling
Fig. 9.60 Deephole drilling process variants
(Fig. 9.60, VDI guideline 3210). The most frequently utilized variant of drilling is
full drilling. Moreover, all deephole drilling processes can be employed for drilling
out and core drilling. Form drilling tools serve to produce a definite drill hole bot-
tom defined by the tool cutting edge geometry or contour transitions in the case of
step drilling.
Deephole drilling machines can be constructed in a way that the primary motion
can be carried out by either the tool or the workpiece or by both. In the case of a
rotating tool and a stationary tool, the machines are applicable for a broad range of
arbitrarily shaped parts. With an automatic loader and potentially as multi-spindle
machines, they are most suitable for economical large-batch production. For both
rotating and stationary tools, only rotation-symmetrical parts with small masses
can be used, since there is a danger that even a small unbalance of the rotating
9.3 Drilling 433
Fig. 9.61 Deephole drilling

machine (Source: TBT
Tiefbohrtechnik)
workpieces may lead to poor drilling results. Figure 9.61 shows a deephole drilling
machine by the company TBT Tiefbohrtechnik. Some of the technical data of this
deephole drilling machine are:
full drilling rage (min.max.) : 0.915 mm,

maximum drill depth with 1 steady rest : 700 mm,
maximum spindle speed : 24.000 1/min,
drive power : 2.4 kW.
The limits of use of deephole drilling processes are essentially determined by the
following factors:
the machinability of the material,
the stability of the tool and the machine,
the accuracy of the machine,
the composition of the cutting fluid,
the cutting tool material.
VDI guideline 3210 summarizes these limits in the form of standard values for
full drills, core drills and countersinks and distinguishes according to the process
and tool whether ISO degrees of tolerance above or below IT9 can be reached. This
approximate indication is grounded in the fact that the machinability of the material
is still clearly part of the obtainable tolerance (Fig. 9.62).
For example, non-ferrous metals permit an ISO tolerance of IT6 under optimal
conditions, which corresponds to a diameter range of 5080 mm of a maximum
deviation of 9 m. On the other hand, the best possible tolerance when machining
nitriding steels is IT8.
Since the process combination spiral drilling/reaming can be substituted with
deephole drilling, under normal conditions the surface qualities obtainable are in
Fig. 9.62 Tolerances Non-ferrous metall

obtainable in deephole
Aluminium
drilling (Source: TBT
Tiefbohrtechnik) Tool steel
Cast iron
Tempered steel
Carbon steel
Cementation steel
Nitrided steel
Hole quality
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
IT
RZ =100
RZ =25
RZ =6.3
RZ =1
N12 N11 N10 N9 N8 N7 N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1
Spiral drilling
Reaming
Broaching
Honing
Deep-hole
drilling
Average
12.5
0.05
0.02
1.6
6.3
3.2
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.1
50
25
thoughness
Under normal conditions achievable
Under the best conditions achievable
Fig. 9.63 Obtainable surface quality in comparison to other machining methods (Source: TBT
Tiefbohrtechnik)
the same order of magnitude (fine finishing). Figure 9.63 shows furthermore that
under especially favourable conditions even Ra values of 0.1 m are obtainable,
which otherwise require a superfinishing operation such as honing.
We can see from these considerations that deephole drilling is especially eco-
nomical when subsequent processes can be reduced and/or high-alloyed materials
are to be processed.
9.3 Drilling 435
The following overview summarizes the areas of application in which deephole

drilling can be used advantageously [Grb74]:
high material removal rate requirements
machining materials with high alloy components that are hard to machine
materials with a tensile strength of over 1200 N/mm2
high tolerance and surface quality requirements
large drilling depth in relation to the diameter
substitution of several single process steps (full drilling, drilling out, reaming)
with one process step.
9.3.2.5 Reaming
Reaming is a fine finishing process and serves to improve drill hole quality, whereby
position and shape errors cannot be influenced. With respect to kinematics, reaming
is equivalent to drilling out with small chip thicknesses (Fig. 9.64).
According to DIN 8589-2, a distinction is drawn between reaming with single-
blade and multi-blade tools. The single-blade reamer is guided by a guiding bead
arranged on the periphery, whereby the functions of machining and guiding are
divided among independent active elements (Fig. 9.65). The multi-blade reamer is
guided by the minor cutting edge arranged on the periphery.
Fig. 9.64 Reaming tools,

Tool
according to [DIN 8589-2]
Workpiece
Reaming Form reaming
Fig. 9.65 Drill out tools with PKD equipping and also with ISO indexable inserts, according
to Mapal
The cutting edges of multi-blade reamers can be arranged parallel to the axis or
on a helical line. Drill holes with grooves are reamed with spiral tools in order to
avoid cutting engagement impact of the cutting edge.
Usually, reamers are manufactured with an even number of teeth, whereby two
cutting edges face each other at a time, which makes it much easier to determine
the diameter. In order to prevent clattering vibrations, an odd distribution of cutting
edge distances is selected, which repeats after half of the circumference. Drill hole
qualities of IT7 or better are obtainable.
A distinction is made between manual reaming and machine reaming. In the case
of manual reamers, the cutting tool material used is usually tool steel or HSS, while
machine reamers use high speed steels or cemented carbides. Performance can be
enhanced by employing coated tools in reaming as well. Insert changeability makes
it possible to adjust the tool to different materials and machining tasks by means of
an appropriate choice of substrate, coating and geometry.
9.3.2.6 Internal Thread Production

Internal threads can be manufactured by means of primary shaping, forming or cut-
ting. Besides the available technology, essential considerations when selecting the
manufacturing method include the material to be machined, the thread type and the
number of units required as well as the required tolerances, strengths and surface
quality.
Among the process variants used, cutting manufacture via tapping takes the
leading position because of it is the most widespread.
9.3.2.7 Tapping
Tapping is drilling out for the manufacture of an internal thread that lies coaxially
to the rotation axis of the cutting motion (Fig. 9.66).
Screw taps consist of a shank and a screwed portion. In the case of the screwed
portion, a distinction should be drawn between the cutting part where machining
occurs and the guide part, which is responsible for stabilizing the tool [Zura90].
Tool
Straight flute
Workpiece Section
Twisted flute
Fig. 9.66 Screw tap

9.3 Drilling 437
Screw taps for through borings have a lead that guarantees good tool guidance. The
screwed portion is subdivided into cutting studs by grooves. The grooves serve to
receive the chips and convey them outside. Moreover, they guarantee cutting fluid
supply to the cutting location. Large groove cross-sections facilitate this and are
especially important when machining long-chipping materials. However, they lead
to a weakening of the load-bearing tool cross-section.
To process short-chipping materials, screw taps with even grooves, which are
easier to manufacture, are sufficient. In the case of long-chipping materials, spiral
chip spaces are necessary to facilitate chip removal and to reduce the danger of chip
jams. For the sake of good tool centring, at least three cutting studs are required, and
thus three chip flutes as well.
In the case of manual screw taps, a set of two or three tools (pre-cutters and finish
cutters or pre-cutters, intermediate cutters and finish cutters) are used to produce the
thread in order to minimize tool load and the risk of fracture.
The cutting tool materials employed in tapping are high speed steels and
cemented carbides. The surfaces of the screw taps can be processed to increase
their wear resistance. The most important processes used are nitriding, hard chrome
plating and coating with hard materials. The potential cutting speeds are relatively
low and depend considerably on the combination of cutting tool material, workpiece
material and cutting fluid.
9.3.2.8 Thread Milling

Under certain conditions, thread milling can be a good alternative to other thread
manufacturing processes. Thread milling is a special screw milling process. It can
be used, for example, to obtain very good surfaces on the screw flanks and to
produce large numbers of units economically. Threads with large diameters can
often only be fabricated via milling (number of units, tools costs, power input)
[Fosh94].
The structure of a screw milling cutter is basically similar to that of a screw
tap. As opposed to the screw tap, which consists as it were of a single spiral-shaped
tooth, the consecutive teeth of a screw milling cutter do not form spirals but rather
are arranged without offset (Fig. 9.67).
The tooth shape corresponds as a rule to the form of the thread to be formed.
In many cases it is necessary to correct the tooth profile. This is the case when the
thread to be milled is not at least three times larger than the milling cutters diameter.
Without a correction of the profile, the tool would cut freely, distorting the finished
thread profile. A screw milling cutter can mill threads of various diameters. It is not
Fig. 9.67 Screw tap with coil

(left) and milling cutter
without coil (right),
according to Fraisa
a b c d e f
Fig. 9.68 The thread milling cycle
possible however to vary the pitch. The screw milling cutter is thus designated by
the standard thread diameter that corresponds to this pitch.
Figure 9.68 provides a graphical depiction of a milling cycle. The rotating milling
cutter positioned in the centre of the drill hole is axially lowered to the desired thread
depth into the core drill hole (Fig. 9.68a).
The tool is then adjusted to the drill hole diameter (Fig. 9.68b). The screw milling
cutter is finally radially advanced to the required standard diameter of the thread
(Fig. 9.68c), so that there is a defined axis distance between the tool and the drill
hole axis. To form the thread, there is a movement cycle of somewhat more than
360 on a coil (Fig. 9.68d), whereby the workpiece or the tool is axially shifted
around a pitch. Finally, the screw milling cutter is backed out of the thread radially
via a circular arc (Fig. 9.68e), driven back to the cutter axis and lifted axially out of
the thread (Fig. 9.68f).
9.3.2.9 Thread Moulding

According to DIN 8583-5, thread moulding is a non-cutting (forming) process in
which the internal thread is created by impressing a tool (the thread moulder or
groover) into the workpiece [Fieb95]. The thread moulder is separated axially into
three sections. It has a conical lead part on the top which extends across several
thread turns. The largest amount of forming work takes place on this area. The next
section of largest external diameter has the function of removing the thread flanks
from the mould. The following, slightly tapered calibration section serves to smooth
the fabricated thread flanks and to guide the tool. The profile of a thread moulder
is, in contrast to the round profile of a screw tap, a polygon with three or more
flattened corner areas. The material is displaced on these forming edges, which serve
to receive the lubricant. The thread moulding process does not require chip flutes,
resulting in increased bending strength due to the larger cross-sectional area.
The starting situation in the case of thread moulding is also a pre-drilled hole with
a diameter corresponding approximately to the flank diameter of the thread. While
9.4 Sawing 439
Fig. 9.69 Thread tools and

several formations of flanks
Thread grooving Tapping
the forming edges of the tool penetrate into the workpiece material and the thread
flanks form to the required dimensions, the displaced material flows into the tooth
gaps of the thread moulder. This causes the formation of ears, typical of formed
threads, in the area of the thread crests (Fig. 9.69 left).
In comparison to tapping, thread moulding results in threads of higher strength.
The cause is to be found in the strain-hardening that occurs during forming.
9.4 Sawing
Sawing is cutting with a rotary or translatory main movement with a multi-blade
tool of low cutting width, used for separating or slitting workpieces. Sawing is clas-
sified as a process with a rotary main movement, since even in the process variants
hacksawing and bandsawing, in which there is a translatory cutting motion, the saw
blades can be seen as a tool with an infinitely large diameter (Fig. 9.70).
The following will be organized according to the type of tool used into bandsaw-
ing, hacksawing and circular sawing. These are the most commonly encountered
process variants in praxis.
9.4.1 Bandsawing
Bandsawing involves a revolving, unending saw band cutting with a continuous,
mostly linear cutting motion [DIN8589g].
The saw band is supplied on large rolls and, after the cutting to the desired length,
the ends are joined together with a butt-welding process.
This process is distinguished by low cutting losses due to the small width of the
bands. However this results as well in low tool stability against cut deviation.
Figure 9.71 shows the cutting part geometry and terminology of a saw tooth. The
number of teeth is commonly given in reference to 1 in. of band length (ZpZ). The
size of the chip space depends on the dimensioning of the tooth base radius r and
on the number of teeth. As a result, when sawing larger material cross-sections, the
tooth number has to be reduced in order to obtain a sufficient chip space for the
arising chips.
Tool
Workpiece
Workpiece
Hack saw
Bandsaw
Tool
Workpiece
Circular saw
Fig. 9.70 Different sawing methods
In order to prevent jamming of the saw band in the cutting channel, the single
teeth are bent or set to the left and to the right alternately from the cross section (see
Chap. 3). The standard offset sequence for separating metals is right/left/straight. In
the case of larger tooth numbers, shaft offset is also used (Fig. 9.72).
The cutting motion is parallel and the feed motion perpendicular to the longitu-
dinal axis of the band. In the case of unlimited teeth, the depth of cut ap corresponds
to the width of undeformed chip b and in this case to the width of the saw blade. The
engagement size ae , measured as the size of the engagement of one cutting edge in
the cross section perpendicular to the feed direction, corresponds to the workpiece
width.
Saw bands are made either of tool steel or bimetal. In the case of bimetal bands,
the blunt edge made of soft tool steel is joined by means of electron beam welding
with a hardened band made of HSS, into which finally the saw teeth are inserted.
Possible HSS cutting tool materials include HS6-5-2, HS2-10-1-8 or HS10-4-3-
10. In practice, bands with soldered cemented carbide plates have also become
established.
Tool life criteria that define the end of a sawbands usage are a certain wear
condition, tooth fracture or a maximum permissible deviation of cut due to excessive
9.4 Sawing 441

Tool r
fz
H
vc
t vf
ve
Workpiece
ae
fz Tooth feed vc Cutting speed
H Tooth height vf Feed rate
r Base radius ve Active speed
t Tooth pitch
Fig. 9.71 Title and part geometry on the cutting saw band, after RENG [Reng76]
Standard restriction (SD)
Group restriction (GS)
Right-left-restriction (RL)
Fig. 9.72 Sawband

restriction types (Source:
Wikus) Waves restriction (WS)
passive force. In contrast to other cutting methods, the tool life is not given as the
measure for the tool life parameter of a saw, but the cut surface (corresponding to
the workpiece surface cut until reaching the end of tool life) [Reng76].
9.4.2 Hacksawing
Hacksawing is a process variant with a repeated, usually linear cutting motion
(Fig. 9.70). According to DIN 8589-6, hacksawing, gangsawing, and jigsawing are
all hacksawing processes [DIN8589f]. From this definition, we can already see that
hacksawing is a process with a discontinuous cutting motion, i.e. with machine
hacksaws, material is removed only in the forward stroke. In the return stroke, the
saw blade is mechanically or hydraulically lifted. The result is that the material
removal rate is lower compared with bandsawing or circular sawing. On the other
hand, the cutting loss is relative small.
The saw blades are made either of solid HSS or of HSS segments that are riv-
eted on a blade body. Blades made of tool steel are generally only used for manual
hacksaws.
9.4.3 Circular Sawing

Circular sawing is sawing with a continuous cutting motion using a circular rotating
saw blade (Fig. 9.73). This high-performance process is employed for linear cuts on
low-cost materials, as much material is lost due to the relatively wide kerf.
Fig. 9.73 Tooth segments of

a saw blade (Source: Ohler)
9.4 Sawing 443
Both tool steel and HSS as well as cemented carbides as used as cutting tool
materials. At the same time, there are fundamental differences among construction
types of saw blades. Saw blades made of one material are made of tool steel or HSS.
In the case of larger saw blades. For cost reasons, the blade body is made of con-
struction steel upon which the individual HSS segments are riveted (Fig. 9.73). The
material removal can be improved further by means of soldered cemented carbide
cutting edges.
In order to guarantee the cutting capacity of circular saw blades, it is absolutely
necessary to break the chips in such a way that they are narrower than the kerf. If
such measures are neglected, the chips jam in the chip space and can damage the
tool. Figure 9.74 shows the two most prevalent possibilities [Schm80].
By subdividing the teeth into pre-cutting and post-cutting elements, the chips are
fractured such that the pre-cutting teeth protrude at least by the amount of chip
thickness and their major cutting edge length is smaller than the total width of
undeformed chip.
One alternative is grinding-in offset chip breaker flutes into the otherwise identi-
cally formed teeth. In this way, one narrow and one wide chip is produced per tooth
that can escape towards the centre into the chip breaker flute without jamming in
the kerf. The fact that a tooth in the section of the chip breaker flute of the previous
Chip cross section of the

after cutting tooth
Front Incisor After cutting incisor

Chip cross section of
Chip flute the front incisor
Fig. 9.74 Cutting edge geometries of circular saw blades

tooth must remove a larger chip cross-section has only an insignificant effect on the
progression of wear. The advantage is that one tooth with a chip breaker flute can
take on the same chip cross-section as the pre-cutting and post-cutting teeth of the
other lead version.
In order to increase the circular saw blades stability and running smoothness, it
is necessary to introduce characteristic stresses into the blade in a specific fashion.
This is done either by hammering or by rolling a concentric pressure zone into the
side surfaces. A laser radiation process is also possible.
For separating general construction steel with HSS saw blades, values of vc =
1830 m/min and fz = 0.220.28 mm and with cemented carbide saw blades values
of vc = 90 150 m/min und fz = 0.12 0.18 mm are common as cutting data.
Chapter 10
Processes with Translatory Primary Movement
Cutting processes using a geometrically defined cutting edge that carry out a
translatory main motion include, among others:
broaching,
shaving,
planing and
shaping as whose process variants.
10.1 Broaching
Broaching is a machining process with a multi-toothed tool whose cutting teeth
lie in a row, each being separated by the thickness of one chip. Tooth graduation
perpendicular to the direction of the cutting speed replaces the feed motion. The
cutting motion is translatory, in special cases also helical or circular [DIN8589e].
Broaching can realize a high material removal rate in one stroke, since usually
several teeth are simultaneously in engaged. Moreover, high surface qualities and
precision are obtainable and tolerances of up to IT 7 maintained. This method can
only be utilized economically in serial production due to the high costs of tool pro-
duction and preparation, as the tools can always only be used for one cross-section
of undeformed chip [Kraz77].
DIN 8589-5 draws a distinction between:
face broaching,
circular broaching,
helical broaching,
profile broaching and
form broaching.
We also distinguish between internal and external broaching, for which dif-
ferently designed machined tools and tools are required. The broaching tool is,
as shown in Fig. 10.1, pulled/pushed through a borehole (internal broaching) or
pulled/pushed along the external surface of the workpiece (external broaching). The
final contour is usually created in one stroke.

446 10 Processes with Translatory Primary Movement
Internal broaching External broaching
Workpiece
Tool Workpiece
Tool
vc
vc Undeformed chip
thickness
Workpiece holder
Fig. 10.1 Contact ratios and process variants of broaching
To process unhardened steel materials, in most cases tools made of high speed
steel are employed. In certain cases, such as in large-batch production of grey cast
iron or broaching hardened steels, cemented carbide or CBN are also used as cutting
tool materials. To increase performance and wear resistance, the tools can be coated
with hard materials (e.g. TiN, TiCN). The tools are either designed as solid units or
fitted with indexable inserts [Wege85, Merk80].
The standard cutting speeds in steel-cutting are between vc = 130 m/min.
Powerful broaching machines can reach cutting speeds of up to vc = 120 m/min so
that the surface quality is improved by avoiding built-up edge formation [Sch65,
Opfe81]. Further cutting speed increase is only possible to a limited extent because
of the process kinematics, since acceleration and deceleration must take place in one
stroke.
Cutting fluids are almost always used in broaching processes in order to guaran-
tee chip transport from the chip space in addition to the lubricative effect [Falk70].
To this end, usually oils are used due to the low cutting speeds.
When machining hardened steels, high cutting speeds of vc = 6070 m/min and
cemented carbide tools are used to reduce the high cutting forces and to increase tool
life. Cutting fluids are not used in this case [Klin93].
The following description will be restricted to the most important of process
variants. Technologically comparable methods will be treated jointly.
10.1.1 Face and Circular Broaching

Figure 10.2 shows the typical structure of a broaching tool. Broaching tools have
a roughing, a finishing and a calibrating section. The subsections differ in feed per
tooth fz .
In the roughing section, the feed per tooth fz is in the range of fz = 0.10.25 mm
depending on the workpiece to be machined, while in the finishing section is it
fz = 0.00150.04 mm and in the calibrating section equal to zero. The teeth in the
calibrating section possess the geometry required for the workpiece.
10.1 Broaching 447
Rear pilot Finishing tooth

A
Roughing tooth Sizing tooth (fz = 0)

A B bfa
f
t B

fz
Fig. 10.2 Internal broaching tool (schematic)
The calibrating section makes it possible for the expensive broaching tools to be
reground and thus be economically employed. Regrinding the tool shifts the entire
tool profile by one tooth towards the calibrating section. In this way, the previously
first calibrating tooth now becomes the last finishing tooth.
The tool rake angle and the tool orthogonal clearance of the second flank
face are adjusted to the material to be machined. The chamfer width bf is parallel
to the axis in the calibrating section and inclined by the tool orthogonal clearance of
the first flank face f in the roughing and finishing section.
The cutting pattern determined by the arrangement of the cutting edges along the
tool axis is called the offset. If the cut is perpendicular to the broaching surface, it
is called offset in depth. If the broaching surface is machined from the side on the
other hand, it is called lateral offset. Both offset types can be provided on one tool
simultaneously depending on the workpiece geometry [DIN1415].
The pitch t of the broaching tool and thus the size of the chip space as well depend
on the height of the workpiece, chip formation of the material and the maximum
potential tool length. A large workpiece height and unbroken chip forms require
large chip spaces. In the case of small machines and short tools, only a small pitch
is required, since only workpieces with a low height can be machined. Figure 10.3
provides an overview of various broaching tools for internal and external machining.
Possible tool lengths are in the area of L = 10010000 mm. Internal broaching tools
are manufactured up to a diameter of D = 500 mm (e.g. for the internal gearing of
hollow wheels). To obtain chip fracture, the individual teeth are equipped with chip
breakers in the form of tooth grooves [Weul85, Hoff76].
The total cutting force, which is comprised of the individual components of all
the cutting teeth in action, is crucial for the minimal cross-section of the broaching
tool shank, which in turn limits the maximum size of the chip space. The height
Fig. 10.3 Internal and

external broaching tools
(Source: Forst)
b Tool
Total cutting force
lS1
lS0
m=3
lS2
Broaching stroke
t
lS0 = 0 lS1 lS2
t
tan(S1) <
Total cutting force
b
lS1 t
lS0 tan(S2)
b
m = 2,5
lS2 Cutting length l
m=
Broaching stroke Pitch t
Fig. 10.4 Total cutting force during straight and diagonal toothed external broaching
and variation of the total cutting force are highly contingent on the pitch t and the
inclination s ; an example is shown in Fig. 10.4.
If the ratio m of the cutting length (i.e. of the workpiece height to be broached)
and the pitch t is an integer, we obtain a constant total tensile force. In the case of
a non-integer ratio, the tools are highly stressed dynamically by periodic variations
[Vict76].
10.1 Broaching 449
Tools with an inclination s not equal to zero show a slowly increasing cutting
force profile and, if the construction is favourable, minimal cutting force variations.
In the case of external broaching, lateral forces can arise that sometimes cause tool
misalignment. Double helical gearing is characterized by the fact that the teeth of
one level have the opposite inclination, thereby compensating the lateral forces. On
internal broaching tools, an inclination s not equal to zero can be realized by a
coil-shaped cutting edge. In practice, inclinations of up to s = 5 are used.
10.1.2 Profile Broaching

One important variant of internal profile broaching is gearwheel broaching of
involute-geared hollow wheels, which has become increasingly important because
of its high cutting performance and obtainable surface quality. Figure 10.5 shows
a few application examples, including hollow wheels for automatic transmissions,
sliding sleeves and components with internal splined hub profiles.
In the case of the gearwheel broaching processes used today, all tooth gaps are
machined simultaneously, so that a partial device can be dispensed with, and the
quality of the broached gearwheel depends above all on the precision of the tool.
For diameters up to 150 mm, solid tools are used, in the 150300 mm diameter
range primarily bushings clamped to a pin. This has the advantage that the tool can
be subdivided into several bushings to avoid excessive deflection during hardening,
so that the grinding allowance can be kept small.
The efficiency of broaching can be fully exploited by using broaching tools that
make it possible to broach involute profiles in one pass. Since, in the case of pure
offset in depth (in which the profile of the tooth flank is formed by the minor cutting
edges) the profiles dimensional accuracy is insufficient, a lateral offset is provided
in the rear of the tool so that one can calibrate to the finished dimensions with a feed
motion in the direction of the tooth flank.
Complex broaching tools can be composed of cutting discs that are bolted on a
holder as a block. The tooth thicknesses of the cutting discs are graduated so that the
Fig. 10.5 Examples for

internal broaching
(Source: Forst)
Fig. 10.6 Broaching tools for finishing internal toothed centre gears (Source: Forst)
final tooth cuts to the finished dimensions. It is possible to shift the discs, becoming
ever smaller by regrinding, forward always by one position and to append a disc
with full dimensions only on the respective end of the broaching tool. Each disc has
two cast iron plugs to keep the discs in perfect alignment. These plugs are perforated
in case of an exact seating of the discs so that two discs can always be pinned to each
other.
Pre- and finish broaching can be executed either on one machine in one clamp-
ing (finish broaching tool as an attachment on the pre-broaching tool) or in two
clampings with two separate tools (pre- and finish broaching in two clampings).
To increase output, one can also work parallel in several clampings if the machine
power is sufficient. Pre- and finish broaching can be distributed among two separate
machines in order to exclude a mutual influence of the machining processes and to
guarantee improved quality [Schw71].
Another tool concept is the one-piece, full-dimension cutting broaching bush-
ing as shown in Fig. 10.6. It also has major cutting edges running parallel to the
involute form and is used separately or as an attachment on a broaching tool in
order to work in one clamping. The great advantage of calibrating bushings is that
they can be used to produce helical gearings among other things (spiral broaching)
[Bung74].
The full-dimension cutting broaching bushing is mounted in a floating fashion
so that it can centre itself in the pre-broached profile. In the case of helical geared
broaching tools, the chip spaces can be arranged both in a ring-shaped or in a helical
manner. In the case of helical chip spaces, cutting force variations are much smaller,
but they cause considerably higher tool manufacturing and sharpening costs.
Pot or tubular broaching is used for the external profile broaching of close
surfaces. The tool consists of a hollow body in which are inserted the strip-shaped
broaching tool segments. In this broaching technique, the tool is the moving element
as in conventional broaching. In another process variant, the workpiece carries out
the cutting motion. The workpiece is pressed by the broaching tool so that all con-
tours to be produced on the periphery of the workpiece are produced in one stroke
[Schw75, Spiz71]. In gearing technology, the use of this method is limited till now
solely to the manufacture of dog gears.
10.1 Broaching 451
Another important area of application of external profile broaching is the manu-

facture of fir-tree profile grooves in turbine discs. To this end, the fir-tree profiles are
broached separately, and then the turbine disc is rotated by one pitch at a time.
The demand for a hard finishing of internal gearings after case-hardening could
only be met in a few cases, since internal gearings can only be produced eco-
nomically by broaching in large-batch production. Internal gearings with adjacent
functional surfaces are not suitable for finishing due to an insufficiently large tool
oversize by profile grinding, broaching or honing. Individual manufacture or hard
finishing of batch sized with up to 100 parts is not economically possible with the
gearing processes presently available [Peif91].
10.1.3 Form Broaching

Because they involve shaping with a correspondingly built tool and due to their
kinematics, external cylindrical broaching (Fig. 10.7) and rotation external cylindri-
cal broaching (Fig. 10.8) should be classified among manufacturing methods in the
broaching subgroup as form broaching [DIN8589e].
External cylindrical broaching is a combination of external cylindrical turning
and broaching. By substituting the turning tool with a multi-blade broaching tool, we
can combine the advantages of turning (continuous process) with those of broaching
(multi-blade tool) [Berk92]. External cylindrical turning is a process that has been
known for a long time but was first utilized industrially in 1982 by an American
automobile manufacturer for roughing of crankshaft main bearings [Whit84].
Because of the complex tools and very short manufacturing times, this process
variant is especially suitable for large-batch and mass production. The dimensional
and shape accuracy of the workpieces is high. Minimal deviations from the cylinder
shape cannot be avoided as a rule because of the kinematics [Mll86, Ansc86]. In
Crankweb
nWST
nWST
vc Pin bearing
fz b
vf Tool
Fig. 10.7 External cylindrical broaching with a reciprocating tool

Crankweb
nWST
nWZG
Pin
bearing
vc
nWST
nWZG fz
Tool
Fig. 10.8 External cylindrical broaching with a rotary tool
the case of diameters typical of crankshafts, these deviations are in the range of
510 m. Measurements at the crankpin resulted in surface characteristic values of
Rt = 68 m and Ra = 0.50.7 m [Mll86, Mll87].
The broaching tools used are built in a modular fashion and consist (as are
conventional broaching tools) of a roughing, finishing and calibrating section. The
single modules are bolted onto a base body. The tool is fitted with indexable inserts
which are arranged according to the external contour to be created and fastened with
bolt clampings in a space-saving fashion (Figs. 10.7 and 10.8). Quadratic, rhombic,
triangular and round ISO indexable inserts with modified cutting part geometries
are used. Both uncoated and coated cemented carbides as well as ceramics or CBN
cutting tool materials can be used [Ansc86, Tika86].
The discontinuous tool engagement results in chips of finite length. Problems
with chip breakage can be avoided by using indexable inserts with chip breakers.
The indexable inserts in the preparation modules are not adjustable. Since the cali-
brating section is responsible for the manufacturing tolerances to be complied with,
the inserts are fastened in adjustably cassettes. Overall, this tool structure allows
for a simple tool preparation as well as a fast and cost-efficient adjustment for
highly diverse profiles and machining tasks. If ultrahard cutting tool materials are
used, both external cylindrical turning and rotation external cylindrical broaching
are applicable, even in the case of hardened steel materials. Long tool lives can be
realized with mixed ceramics, and especially with CBN as cutting tool materials.
The active motion in external cylindrical broaching with a linear tool motion is
produced by a rotating workpiece and a translatory feed motion vf of a multi-blade
tool. The active direction of the feed runs perpendicular to the rotation axis of the
10.1 Broaching 453
Workpiece
nWST
vc
fe
Line of vf
action f
Tool fz
Schneid
e
h
0e
0

Fig. 10.9 Kinematics of external cylindrical broaching with a reciprocating tool according to
BERKTOLD [Berk92]
workpiece and tangential to the workpiece. The tool cutting edge engages with the
workpiece eccentrically and moves through the workpiece during the cutting process
with feed velocity vf on the line of action (Fig. 10.9). The cutting speed vc is created
by the rotation of the workpiece. Two effects are caused by the kinematics of the
external cylindrical broaching process. On the one hand, the angle of engagement
changes during a cut and thus the effective angle as well. For this reason, the
rake angle 0 and the first orthogonal clearance f of the tool are not identical
to the effective rake angle 0e and the effective orthogonal clearance fe . On the
other hand, the chip cross-section changes during a tooth engagement, since the
chip thickness is a function of the angle of engagement [Berk92].
External cylindrical broaching with a linear tool motion is basically suitable for
external machining of wave or ring-shaped workpieces as well as for manufacturing
profiled and out-of-line rotation-symmetric outer edges (e.g. gearshafts or sliding
sleeves). Currently, the preferred area of application is still machining the main and
pin bearings of crankshafts (Fig. 10.7). Similarly to conventional broaching, the
amount of depth of cut ap is determined by the number of cutting edges and the
pitch of the tool or by the feed per cutting edge fz .
Tools are used that have roughing, finishing and profiling elements, so it is possi-
ble to do a complete processing (excluding grinding) of individual bearing positions
including plane surfaces and recesses in one cycle is possible. As opposed to the for-
mer machining sequence spinning the bearing pin, turning the cut-ins and plane
surfaces, hardening, levelling and grinding it is possible to combine or reduce
individual manufacturing steps. Several main bearing positions can be machined
at the same time by means of a simultaneous engagement of several tool arranged
adjacently to each other. With the help of a suitably designed machine, several pin
bearings lying in a rotation axis can be broached at the same time as well by means
of a height offset of the workpiece.
External cylindrical broaching with a linear tool motion (Fig. 10.7) requires
(especially when machining crank webs with a high radial allowance) very long
tools that increase the allowances of the external cylindrical broaching machines and
their required floor space to a disproportionate extent. On the other hand, the second
process variant, external cylindrical broaching with rotary tool motion (Fig. 10.8)
fulfils the demand for a compact design.
In external cylindrical broaching, the tangential cut is obtained with a rotary
tool motion by the circular feed motion of a round tool. The individual cut-
ting edges are graduated along the periphery of the tool by the feed per tooth fz
respectively.
External cylindrical broaching tools consist of a large number of cutting edges
that are each only in action briefly during the working stroke. The tool life of the
entire tool is accordingly high. The complex tool and very short manufacturing times
allow for an economical use of external cylindrical broaching mainly in large-batch
and mass production.
10.2 Shaving
Shaving is a manufacturing process used for post-processing, in which the crossed
axes of the tool (shaving wheel) and the workpiece cause a relative cutting motion.
One example of this is the widespread practice of gear shaving (also called soft
shaving) [DIN8589i].
Gear shaving is a process using geometrically defined cutting edges that is used
to finish pre-teethed gearwheels. It serves to improve gearing quality and surface
quality [Lich64]. Customarily, gears machined by shaving are not hardened. The
result of this is that tooth flanks can be machined relatively effectively and using
relatively small forces in comparison to hard finishing.
Figure 10.10 shows the principle of gearwheel shaving. The rolling kinematics
during shaving resembles that of a helical roller gear. The tool is a gearwheel, the
flanks of which are interrupted by flutes and have a different helix angle than the
workpiece. The tool and workpiece axes are thus not parallel and form the axis
intersection angle . The latter generally has values between = 10 and 15 ,
however in exceptional cases axis intersection angles of = 3 20 are possi-
ble [Beck00]. The axis intersection angle results in a relative speed of the shaving
10.2 Shaving 455
Sectional view A-A
rw0
Shaving wheel Shaving wheel
vw,rel v uw2
A A vuw0
vuw
rw2
Workpiece
Workpiece
Fig. 10.10 Principle of gear shaving (Source: Gleason Hurth)
base vw,rel in the direction of the workpiece flank, and chips are formed due to the
penetration of the cutting edge and the workpiece flank.
The relative speed in the direction of the workpiece flank during shaving corre-
sponds to the cutting speed vc . It is calculated form the circumferential speeds at the
rolling circles vuw0 and vuw2 and the axis intersection angle as well as the helical
angles 0 and 2 :
sin sin
vw, rel = vc = vuw0 = vuw2 (10.1)
cos 2 cos 0
The chips are removed as a result of the tool and workpiece being braced with
each other radially with high force and simultaneously shifting on each other. In this
way, the tool is propelled while the workpiece, as a rule, runs freely behind.
Because the shaving wheel flanks are only grooved radially in order to form
the cutting edges but the remaining tooth flanks are not relief-ground, the result
is a constructive tool clearance of con = 0 . Upon entry of the cutting edge in
the workpiece flank, we therefore obtain a negative tool clearance, which leads to
plastic deformation of the material lying underneath. This is desirable in shaving, as
it leads to a levelling of the roughness peaks on the tooth flank and thus improves
the surface quality of the tooth flank [Busc75].
Shaving has a few other technological peculiarities compared with other machin-
ing processes with geometrically defined cutting edges, above all the small chip
thicknesses (hcu,max = 510 m), cutting lengths (lmax = 0.10.5 mm) und cutting
speed (vc = 3080 m/min) [Kloc03a]. The high efficiency of the shaving process
is the result of using a adequately large number of cutting edges.
Figure 10.11 shows the surface structure of a shaved gearwheel flank. High slid-
ing speeds, which change with tooth height, are generated as the workpiece flank
shifts on the tool flank. There is no rolling on the so-called pitch circle, and so
the high sliding speed here is equal to zero. The maxima of the high sliding speeds
Geometry of the
Workpiece tooth single cut
Machined workpiece surface
Ghost lines in direction Feed marks

Pitch circle
of cutting speed
Fig. 10.11 Cut geometry and surface structure during shaving [Schr07]
are located at the tooth tip/base, however with different signs. By superimposing the
nearly constant sliding speed in the direction of the tooth flank, which results from
the axis intersection angle, we obtain the structure on the tooth flank as shown.
As already described, very small chip thicknesses exist during shaving, a very
sharp cutting edge is necessary for a clean chip formation. Even a small amount of
wear leads to a disturbance of chip formation and thus to lower workpiece quality.
Nevertheless, very high quantities can be produced within the tool life due to the
large number of available cutting edges (100010,000 workpieces per regrind cycle)
[Busc75].
In the case of crossed helical gear transmissions with uncorrected gearings, point
contact predominates between two flanks due to the axis intersection angle. During
shifting, the point moves along a curved path on the workpiece flank. The cut geom-
etry shown in Fig. 10.11 results from the penetration between the tool cutting edge
and the workpiece flank. In order to machine the entire workpiece flank, it is there-
fore necessary to shift the point of contact between the tool flank and the workpiece
flank (the axis intersection C) during the process. There are various ways of doing
this as shown in Fig. 10.12.
In the case of parallel shaving, the shaving wheel is shifted relative to the work-
piece parallel to its axis. The tool must be moved at least along the entire width of
the workpiece. In the case of diagonal shaving, the shaving wheel is not moved
parallel to the workpiece axis but under a diagonal angle in order to reduce this
path and thus the machining time as well. In the extreme case of underpass shaving
the diagonal angle is = 90 . In this method, the axis intersection is indeed shifted
along the workpiece axis as the tool is moved, yet there is no simultaneous shifting
of the base in the direction of the workpiece flank. The workpiece would thus be
machined at the same locations at each rotation and uncut sections would remain
between them. In order to machine the entire workpiece flank evenly nonetheless,
the base are offset relative to each other on the shaving wheel flank. This offset is
usually about 0.2 mm per workpiece rotation in practice. That means that the base
10.3 Planing and Shaping 457
Parallel shaving Diagonal shaving Tangential shaving Plunge shaving

Tool at the
end of Diagonal
machining angle
C2
C2
C1 C1
C1 C2 C2 C
Tool at the
beginning of
machining
Workpiece
Feed parallel to Feed in Feed orthogonal Feed exclusively
workpiece axis diagonal angle to workpiece radial
axis
Fig. 10.12 Comparison of different shaving methods
must be arranged on the shaving wheel flank in such a way that the desired offset
exists according to the teeth number of the workpiece. The arrangement of the base
on the shaving wheel flanks thus depends on the teeth number ratio between the tool
and the workpiece. Accordingly, a shaving wheel can only be used for exactly one
workpiece geometry.
The most economical shaving method by far is plunge shaving. In this process,
the only translatory motion carried out by the shaving wheel relative to the work-
piece is a radial infeed. Since the axis intersection is not shifted in this method, line
contact must be made between the flanks by hollow grinding the shaving wheel
flank. In this way, the workpiece is, in principle, simultaneously machined along its
entire width, and the productivity of this method is significantly higher than in other
shaving methods.
Because many more cutting edges are involved in the cutting process in plunge
shaving, much higher forces act on the machine than in other shaving methods. In
the case of older shaving machines in particular, this process meets its limits when
machining larger gearwheels (beyond mn = 3 mm). Both plunge and underpass
shaving are primarily suitable for machining larger batches, because it is neces-
sary to design the shaving wheel for the specific workpiece. In the case of smaller
batched, diagonal shaving is used as a rule [Beck00].
10.3 Planing and Shaping

Planing and shaping are machining processes using a repeated, usually linear cutting
motion and an incremental feed motion perpendicular to the cutting direction. As a
rule, these processes are used to cut larger, even surfaces to size [DIN8589e].
Planar shaping Planar planing
vR
vc
vc f
ap ap vR
Fig. 10.13 Work movement during shaping and planning
The methods differ in the creation of the relative movement between the tool and
the workpiece (Fig. 10.13). In the case of shaping, the tool moves over with work-
piece with cutting speed vc . In the case of planing on the other hand, the workpiece
is guided past a stationary tool. In practice, the concepts of planing and shaping are
not strictly distinguished.
In analogy to other machining processes with geometrically defined cutting
edges, a distinction is drawn between face, round, helical, profile and form shap-
ing/planing. We will dispense with a separate treatment of the individual methods
in this context. On the basis of face shaping, relationships will be explained that
can be applied to round, helical, profile and form shaping as well [DIN8589d]. Gear
shaping and gear planing, because of their importance in gearwheel manufacture,
will be treated in more detail.
10.3.1 Face Shaping and Face Planing

Figure 10.13 shows the motion sequences in face shaping and planing. In shaping,
the tool carries out the cutting motion, the working stroke, with speed vc as well
as the return motion, the idle or return stroke with vR . The infeed motion can be
executed both by the workpiece (by lifting or lateral shifting of the table) or by
the chisel (by lifting and lowering the plunger head). The feed f is realized by
the workpiece table. In order to prevent collision between the workpiece and the
tool during the return stroke vR , the tool makes a lifting movement. Due to the
technological similarity of these methods, the following will focus on shaping.
In shaping, the tools are manufactured with tool steel, high speed steel or tough
cemented carbide (e.g. of application group K40) due to process-related abrupt
stresses as well as the low potential cutting speeds. Since in the case of this method
large cross-sections of undeformed chip are required for economic reasons, the pro-
cess mostly uses cemented carbide cutting edges with a large negative inclination.
This inclination causes not only a pulling cut but also prevents the lead impact from
affecting the chisel tip, reallocating the impact instead to the more stable cutting
edge.
vc
vc
Fig. 10.14 Different types of shaping tools
There is a diverse array of tool forms, some of which are shown in Fig. 10.14. For
roughing, generally straight and curved chisels are used, while finishing operations
make use of pointed, wide chisels (broad-tool chisel). Chisels must often protrude
extensively depending on the workpiece. To prevent clattering and potential hooking
of the chisel in such conditions, it is often offset such that its cutting edge is behind
the chisel support plate.
The cutting speeds realizable in shaping are low, since in ever stroke masses must
be accelerated and decelerated. Roughing takes place with cutting speeds between
vc = 1030 m/min and with large feeds and chip thicknesses in order to exploit the
machines power. In finishing, cutting speeds up to vc = 60 m/min are employed
with small feeds.
Due to the return stroke, which is faster than the working stroke, and the single
routes and overrun routes in which no chips are removed, the difference between
the machine run time and cutting time is considerable. For economic reasons, this
method is only used to a limited extent.
Shaping machines, of which the stroke length is normally up to about 1000 mm,
are especially suited to machining small workpieces. Vertical shaping machines are
used to machine workpieces with difficult-to-access, vertical or sloped external and
internal shapes. Especially for machining irregular shapes with a short cutting path
and small run-out, such machines are indispensable. The chip volume per time unit
is small in comparison to other machining methods. High traction planing machines
permit the use of multiple chisel mountings so that the primary and secondary
processing times can be reduced.
The advantages of this method in comparison with for example milling include
not only the simple and resultantly cheap tools but also the minimal heating of the
workpiece. Besides the abovementioned disadvantages of shaping, the frequently
required tool change (single-blade tool) and the large machine assembly space
(planing) should also be considered.
10.3.2 Gear Shaping
Gear shaping is a method for machining gearwheels and serves primarily as an inter-
nal gearing manufacturing process (Fig. 10.15). Gear shaping thus has a role of
Fig. 10.15 Examples of gear shaping (Source: Gleason-Pfauter)
special importance from the standpoint of the increasing use of planetary gears.
Moreover, this method fulfils not only high performance requirements but also
high standards with respect to production accuracy so that in internal gearing
manufacture we can often dispense with subsequent finishing.
Just as is the case in hobbing, gear shaping can be used to produce spur gears
and helical gears. Besides internal gears, gear shaping is also suitable for fabricating
herringbone or double helical gears. The special advantage of this method compared
with hobbing is the small run-out of the tool, so even gears on profiled shafts or with
large coupling collars can be processed.
In the case of gear shaping, which is classified as a continuous gearing pro-
cess, the gear (workpiece) is created by a gearwheel-shaped cutting disc (tool).
Figure 10.16 shows the kinematics of the process.
To produce the rolling motion, the gear and the tool are conjointly driven. As
the rolling feed, the distance travelled on the circular pitch per double stroke DH is
defined as the sum of the working stroke and the return stroke. In the case of helical
gears, the rolling motion is superimposed with an additional periodic rotation cor-
responding to the helical angle. This additional rotation of the tool is realized by a
inclined guide, which can be mechanically fixed or electronically controllable. The
cutting discs teeth also exhibit the corresponding helical angle. The axis offset AV
corresponds to a lateral shift of the shaping wheel axis perpendicular to the symme-
try axis of the gear shaping machine and is permanently set before the beginning of
the process. This offset helps prevent collisions between the shaping wheel and the
workpiece during the return stroke motion.
At the beginning of the machining process and between several cutting cycles,
the workpiece executes a radial infeed motion in order to obtain the required
plunge depth. In one process variant of gear shaping, the radial and rolling feed
are superimposed so that machining is done in a spiral shape. The spiral infeed
can take place both with a constant and with a degressively sinking radial feed
(CCP process).
Currently, several shaping wheel shapes are available as tools [DIN4000,
Vuce06], which are shown in Fig. 10.17. Disc gear shaping wheels and bell gear
shaping wheels are used for manufacturing large external and internal gearings.
Lengh of stoke H
Cutting speed vc
Gear shaping fw Gear shaping wheel

Workpiece
Out running flank

+
Offset
Lifting direction -
AV
Radial feed stroke fr
In running flank
Fig. 10.16 Terms of workpiece and tool during shaping
The bell design assures that the mounting nut does not collide with the workpiece
clamping or the workpiece itself. Shank gear shaping wheels are used for internal
gears with small circular pitch diameters. Such tools can also be used to pro-
duce workpiece contours of embedded internal external gearings. Alternately, often
internally toothed shaping wheels are used (hollow shaping wheels) [Baus06].
Disk gear shaping wheel Bell gear shaping wheel
Fig. 10.17 Types of shaping

wheels Shaft gear shaping wheel Hollow gear shaping wheel
C
B-B A-A
B
A d
A
K F
K F
B C
Fig. 10.18 Tooth geometry of a shaping wheel
For gear shaping, HSS with hard material coatings and a tip rake angle between
k = 10 and k = 0 is preferred.
Figure 10.18 shows the cutting part geometry on a shaping wheel tooth. As ele-
ment C shows, the tool orthogonal clearance is produced by the relief grinding of the
flanks and the tooth tip. The tool orthogonal clearance at the circular pitch (cut A-A)
is selected small, to achieve a high use of the tool height. The tool orthogonal clear-
ance at the tip K (cut B-B) can on the other hand not be freely selected but is
calculated with the help of the tool orthogonal clearance on the circular pitch and
the tool engagement angle [Bouz76]. In this way, profile deviations during shaping
wheel re-sharpening are avoided.
The rake angle at the tooth tip k and on the flanks has no essential effect on the
tools service life and can thus be freely selected from the standpoint of wear.
The machining process in the case of gear shaping has some peculiarities. As
opposed to hobbing, in which a hob tooth removes the same chip each time, all
chips are cut by one tooth in shaping, so that one shaping wheel tooth produces one
workpiece gap. The flanks of a gear shaping wheel are involute-shaped. Figure 10.19
shows the cross-sections of undeformed chip in the manufacture of a tooth gap of a
common gear. The cross-section calculated with the help of a digital computer pro-
gram is plotted over the uncoiled cutting edge every single stroke [Sulz73]. The chip
cross-sections remain in the case of spur gears practically constant across the width
of the workpiece. Figure 10.19 shows that one-flank, two-flank and even three-flank
chips are produced during the machining process. The three-flank chips have the
biggest influence on wear. The smallest cross-sections of undeformed chip arise on
the wear-endangered location.
The chip forms of the tool life-relevant u-shaped chip cross-sections, caused by
various gear geometries, are shown in Fig. 10.20. The cross-sections of undeformed
chip are shown schematically in the upper part of the illustration and the flow
es
rok
f st
roe
mb
Nu
Risky position
fw
Undeformed chip
thickness h
Out running In running

A E flank A flank E
Uncoiled cutting edge
Fig. 10.19 Cross-sections of undeformed chip during gear shaping of a tooth flank
directions of the chip parts on the top and on the flanks are indicated by the plotted
arrows. The photographs in the lower half show the associated chips. The second
cross-section of undeformed chip in Fig. 10.20 is the most often encountered in
practice. The chip on the outgoing flank is very thin in comparison to the chip of the
top and entry cutting edge. As a result, this chip is pressed onto the rake face by the
top chip and strongly impeded from flowing.
Figure 10.21 shows the typical development of wear on the tooth of an uncoated
shaping wheel. The upper part of the illustration shows the width of flank wear
land along the uncoiled cutting edge for three different tool operating lives. The
wear maximum can clearly be recognized at the transition from the top to the
outgoing flank. As opposed to that, wear on the in-running flank is much smaller
and evenly distributed. The lower part of the illustration shows the measurement
of the crater edge and photographs of the shaping wheel tooth at the end of the
tool life. The depth of the craters is basically the same at the three labelled loca-
tions of the cutting edge. On the other hand, the wear-endangered location at the
transition from the top to the outgoing flank exhibits the smallest crater centre dis-
tance and furthermore a shrinking of the crater edge, which prevents further use of
the shaping wheel because of the subsequent rapid increase of the width of flank
wear land.
Wear protection from a hard material layer reduces the stress on the cutting part
significantly, so that it is possible to increase performance compared to uncoated
1 2 3 4
E A
z x da [mm] z x da [mm] z x da [mm] z x da [mm]

1 42 1,1 138.5 1 42 0 133.5 1 42 0 133.5 1 42 0 133.5
2 68 1,3 204 2 42 0 131,7 2 42 1 137.3 2 68 1 204
1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm
Photos
E A Gear shape: m = 3 mm, = 20, = 0, b = 25 mm
Material: 16MnCr5N Rm = 600 N/mm2
Cutting tool material: HS6525, = 5
K
1: Tool; 2: Workpiece
fW da: External diameter;
x: Profile offset; z: Number of teeth
Cross-section of undeformed chip
Fig. 10.20 Influence of the cross-section of undeformed chip onto the chip flow during gear
shaping
tools in two ways: on the one hand, it is possible to increase the tool operating life
by 1.54 times while keeping the same cutting parameters. On the other hand, it is
possible to maintain the same tool operating life while selecting more productive
cutting parameters. Increasing the rolling feed reduces the tool operating life less
than increasing the cutting speed.
Eighty percent of the materials used for gearbox gear wheels are case-hardened
steels. Otherwise, heat-treated steels (especially in the case of hollow wheels) are
used, and more rarely cast iron materials. In special cases, construction steels are
used as gearwheel materials (e.g. in crane construction). Case-hardened steels are
gear shaped in a technologically sensible way with a cutting speed of vc = 40
60 m/min using a roughing process. For finishing, the cutting speed can be increased
to up to vc = 140 m/min if the rolling feeds are reduced. Heat-treated steels with
a tensile strength of Rm = 9001100 N/mm2 are ideally machined with a cutting
speed of vc = 30 40 m/min with a roughing process [Able04]. Cutting speed
selection also depends on the respective workpiece width.
The most practical cutting parameters for industrial applications do not stem from
the largest tool life or maximum setting data but rather from an optimal combination
of tool life and machining time. A possible measure for machining time in the gear
1.0
Width of flank wear land VB / mm

m = 3 mm Position of K K
b = 25 mm maximum
0.8 = 0 wear
z1 = 42 A E
0.6 z2 = 63
16MnCr5G
vc = 55 m/min 30 gaps
0.4 fW = 0,63 mm/DH
20
0.2
10
0
A risky position K E
uncoiled cutting edge
Out running flank Head In running flank
25 m
500 m
500 m
Fig. 10.21 Flank and rake wear on a cutting tooth
shaping process is the rolling speed W, which is related to the machining speed
and results from the double stroke number nDH and the rolling feed fW as follows
[Kauv87]:
W = nDH fW [m/min] (10.2)
The machining costs result from the tool price, tool life with a given cutting
speed/feed combination as well as the overall auxiliary machine and personal costs
[VDI3333].
The danger of a cutting wheel/workpiece collision in gear grinding is especially
high when the rolling feeds are high. There is a risk that the cutting wheel can col-
lide with the unmachined workpiece material during the return stroke. Due to the
continuous rolling feed, penetration between the shaping wheel tooth and the work-
piece during the return stroke would occur as shown in Fig. 10.22 if measures are
not taken to prevent the collision. The largest penetration occurs in the upper face
cross section of the workpiece. This is especially problematic when manufacturing
internal gearings.
The collision causes a cut, in which case the flank face of the shaping tooth
takes over the role of the rake face. Severe damage to the cutting edge results from
these cutting conditions as well as considerable degradation of the gear quality and
heavy loading of the machine.
TDC
Length of stroke
Interpenetration at the BDC
end of return stroke
Working stroke
1
2 BDC
3 Return stroke
Workpiece
Next working
4 stroke
Gear shaping wheel

Direction of rotation
Fig. 10.22 Cause of collision danger during gear shaping
The main influencing variables that affect collision during the return stroke are,
besides the rolling feed, the plunge depth, the geometry of the workpiece and shap-
ing wheel, the amount of lift during the return stroke of the shaping wheel and the
axis offset. The real variable to avoid collision is the amount of lift off and the axis
offset. Since the lifting movement of the shaping spindle is not always sufficient,
especially in the case of internal gears, the support of the gear shaping machine is
laterally shifted by a certain amount AV, resulting in a slanted lifting motion.
10.3.3 Gear Planing

The motion sequence in gear planing basically corresponds to the kinematics of the
shaping process. Nonetheless, the term gear planing has become established for
this process in industrial practice, and it will also be used in the following. The
principle of gear planing is shown schematically in Fig. 10.23.
The tool used in gear planing, the planing rack, consists of a gear rack segment
with a relief-ground flank (Fig. 10.24). The cutting force is received by a support
crest so that the tool can be exploited optimally, i.e. can be re-sharpened to a small
residual thickness. Since the planing rack is derived from a gear rack, the rolling
motion of the workpiece must be superimposed with a translatory motion in the
longitudinal direction of the gear rack when manufacturing involute-shaped gears.
Due to the finite length of the planing rack, it is necessary that the workpiece be
moved back to the starting position after producing several gaps with a decoupled
feed motion. This is referred to as partial rolling as opposed to continuous rolling
methods such as hobbing, gear shaping and hob peeling.
Schematic diagram Streight toothed spur gear
Primary Feed
motion motion
Helical gear
Planing rack Helical rack with

back motion limited space
beside the gears
Fig. 10.23 Principle of gear planning
Supporting rack
(New) Planing rack
Fig. 10.24 Planing rack (Source: Maag)
Since for this reason gear planing is less economical than other rolling methods, it
is only used in special cases, e.g. to produce externally toothed cylindrical gears with
large dimensions and high strength. The advantage here is that tool change is easy
and can be done without affecting quality during the manufacture of a workpiece.
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[DIN6582] DIN 6582: Begriffe der Zerspantechnik: Ergnzende Begriffe am Werkzeug,
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[DIN6583] DIN 6583: Begriffe der Zerspantechnik: Standbegriffe. Deutsches Institut fr
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[DIN770b] DIN 770-2: Schaftquerschnitte fr Dreh und Hobelmeiel, allseitig bearbeit-
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[DIN8580] DIN 8580: Fertigungsverfahren Begriffe, Einteilung. Deutsches Institut fr
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[DIN8589] DIN 8589: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen. Deutsches Institut fr Normung (ed.).
[DIN8589a] DIN 8589-1: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen. Teil 1: Drehen Einordnung,
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[DIN8589b] DIN 8589-2: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen Teil 2: Bohren, Senken, Reiben.
[DIN8589c] DIN 8589-3: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen Teil 3: Frsen Einordnung,
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[DIN8589d] DIN 8589-4: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen Teil 4: Hobeln, Stoen. Deutsches
[DIN8589e] DIN 8589-5: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen Teil 5: Rumen. Deutsches
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[DIN8589g] DIN 8589-7: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen Teil 7: Feilen, Raspeln
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[DIN8589i] DIN 8589-9: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen Teil 9: Schaben, Meieln
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Definitionen und Kenngren der Oberflchenbeschaffenheit. Deutsches
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die Metallzerspanung mit geometrisch bestimmten Schneiden. Bezeichnung
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(BTA- und hnliche Verfahren). Blatt2 : Tiefbohren; Richtwerte fr das Schlen
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Gesellschaft Produktionstechnik (ed.). Beuth, Berlin (1994)
[VDI3324] VDI 3324: Leistendrehtest - Prfverfahren zur Beurteilung des Bruchverhaltens
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Berlin (1977)
[VDI3397] VDI 3397: Blatt 13. Khlschmierstoffe fr spanende Fertigungsverfahren, VDI-
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Hartstoffbeschichtungen. VDI-Gesellschaft Werkstofftechnik (ed.). Beuth,
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[Meta06] Wrmebehandlungsarten bei Stahl. www.metallograf.de. 5 April 2011 (2006)
Subject Index
A B
Abrasion, 7172, 7476, 82, 95, 117, 120, Bainite, 250, 252, 256, 258, 260262,
127128, 152153, 155, 267268, 289
277, 292, 321, 329, 334 Band sawing, 383, 439442
Abrasive wear, 72, 75, 84, 121, 152153, B ARKHAUSEN noise, 37
155, 181, 251253, 265, 270, 285, Bearing ratio, 2425
287288, 303 Blisk, 7, 304305
Acid-proof steel, 263 Borehole methode, 35
Active energy, 6162 Boron nitride, 1, 9698, 167, 170, 173,
Active power, 6162 180184, 235, 271, 302, 319
Adhesion, 32, 7178, 95, 118, 121, 127128, Bound, diagonal cut, 4547
131, 142, 147149, 151, 153, BRAGG s condition, 36
156, 158161, 169, 226, 229, 232, Breakage hypothesis, 32, 70, 78, 138, 193, 248,
234236, 245, 248249, 251253, 263, 265267, 269270, 277279,
263264, 266267, 269270, 277, 293, 312, 324, 366, 452
282, 291292, 295, 299, 313, 321, Broaching
336337 bushing, 450
Adhesive wear, 73, 76, 223, 289, 291 circular, 445449
ADI, 211, 289290 cutting disc, 449, 460
Adiabatic shear band, 209 cutting length, 418, 448, 455
Alloying elements, 74, 113, 249250, external, 445446, 448449
254256, 263268, 274, 280, 287, external cylindrical, 451454
291, 293294, 297299, 313316 with linear tool movement, 452454
Aluminium alloys with rotary tool movement, 454
hardenable, 293 face, 445449
intermetallic phases, 291 finish, 450
non hardenable, 293 form, 445, 451454
Annealing on certain properties, 259 gearwheel, 449
Application groups, 97, 99, 118, 120121, 125, internal, 445, 447, 449
129, 266, 270271, 277, 282283, pot-, 450
286, 289, 292, 295, 302, 313, 318, pre-, 450
334, 394, 403, 458 profile, 445, 449451
Austenite, 108109, 250254, 256257, rotation external cylindrical, 451452
260262, 272, 275276, 281, 283, tool, 101, 103104, 193, 445452, 454
289290 tooth graduation, 445
Auxiliary process time, 192, 343, 346347, tooth pitch, 397, 441
349 tubular, 450
Average mechanical strain, 244 Build-up edge, 64, 77
497
498 Subject Index
C Coating, 2, 66, 68, 7374, 76, 8283, 95,

Calculation of cutting parameters, 86, 278, 109, 112113, 125161, 163,
306, 308309, 324, 329, 334, 336, 173, 175176, 179, 184, 194195,
339341, 426 221, 228, 232, 234235, 256,
Calculation of shear angle, 9192 268, 277279, 285287, 292, 306,
Case-hardened steels, 33, 168, 259, 263, 329330, 386, 395, 407, 412, 423,
266269, 395, 464 436437, 462
Cast iron Coating procedures
ADI, 289 CVD, 128141
chilled, 111, 280283, 395 evaporation, 141145
grey, 168, 171172, 182, 280, 283290, HT-CVD, 129132, 136
395, 400, 422, 446 ion platting, 147149
with lamellar graphite, 284286 magnetron sputtering, 145146
malleable, 280282 MT-CVD, 129134
with spheroidal graphite, 288290 PA-CVD, 129133, 136
with vermicular graphite, 286288 procedures with arc, 143144
white, 280283 PVD, 128, 131, 141149
Cemented carbides sputtering, 141142, 144145
classification, 117123 vacuum evaporation, 141143
coated, 111112, 115, 122 Cold work
components, 112, 114116 hardening, 312
conventional, 116, 118, 121123, 126 steels, 96, 99101
crystalline structure, 131 Comb cracks, 7880, 121, 134, 307308
fine- and submicron grain, 111112, Continuous chip, 49, 51, 70, 94, 184, 207209,
116119 248, 285, 288289, 296, 301, 313,
function gradient, 123126 341
historical development, 111112 formation, 49, 313
manufacturing, 111112, 123 Corner radius, 41, 5859, 69, 71, 88, 175, 193,
TiC/TiN-Co, Ni, 117, 120122 206, 271, 311, 321322
uncoated, 115, 118, 123, 126 Corrosion-resistant steels, 274, 276
WC-(Ti, Ta, Nb)C-Co, 117, 119120, Crater wear, 59, 70, 76, 82, 8487, 111, 137,
122 152153, 194195, 214, 223224,
Cermets, 80, 86, 9698, 110112, 114117, 254, 265, 277, 289, 302303, 339,
120123, 126, 141, 235, 240, 266, 423
268, 270, 282, 286, 302, 329, Crystalline structure, 131, 136, 146, 151, 160,
395 176, 250, 262, 267, 273, 276, 284,
Changes to the structure, 33, 74, 294, 408 286, 290, 293, 299, 314, 317
Chip forms, 159, 179, 192, 194, 212, 214215, Cutting ceramics
217, 238, 240, 248, 251, 253254, mixed, 162163, 165166, 169, 171
255, 257, 259, 269, 273, 277, 285, non-oxide, 163, 165, 171173
287, 292293, 296, 310, 314, 339, oxide, 163165, 167169, 172
341, 367, 447, 462 whisker-reinforced, 163164, 166,
Chip root, 53, 209, 211, 305 169170
formation, 305 Cutting edge
Chip space, 397, 425, 428, 437, 439, 443, chipping, 78, 335
446447, 450 inclination, 4447, 56, 59, 6971
Chromium, 274277 micro geometry, 325
Circle of THALES, 9091 rounding, 40, 125, 217, 326, 330, 340
Circular-arc lead, 305306 Cutting energy, 6162, 9192
Circular milling, 391 Cutting fluids
Circular sawing, 383, 439, 442444 non water-miscible, 219221
Clearance angle, 45, 59, 330, 337, 420 water based, 219, 221222
Coarse-grain annealing, 261, 266, 268269 water-miscible, 219, 221
Subject Index 499
Cutting force, 4, 55, 5760, 6970, 78, 9192, End milling, 7, 104, 123, 159, 178179, 194,
167, 174, 184, 189190, 193, 216, 232, 304, 306, 308309, 323326,
239, 243, 248, 265, 272, 290, 301, 395, 401404
313314, 318319, 339340, 349,
361, 396397, 400, 424425, 427, F
446450, 466 Face milling
Cutting portion, 121 corner milling, 398
Cutting power, 61, 237238, 427
finishing face milling cutter, 399
Cutting simulation, 203205, 207, 214
wide finishing face milling cutters, 399
Cutting temperatures, 50, 63, 68, 75, 78,
Feed
8485, 101, 154, 168, 224, 240,
252, 288, 369 direction angle, 391, 396
energy, 61
force, 55, 5759, 70, 91, 94, 216217, 243,
D
396, 422, 424425, 427
Deburring, 161, 417
power, 61
Deformation localization, 209
Determination of optimal-time cutting speed, Ferrite, 250256, 258259, 261267, 269270,
348350 274277, 280284, 286, 288290,
Diamond 300
application areas, 177179 Fine grain cemented carbide, 111112, 118,
classification, 173174 295, 304, 323, 334
monocrystalline, 173176, 178 Finite element method (FEM)
natural diamond, 173174 discretization, 197198, 206, 208209
polycrystalline, 173179 E ULER ian approach, 199
synthetical, 173175 explicit methods, 199200
Diamond coatings, 149, 159161, 175176, implicit methods, 199200
179, 292, 329 LAGRANGEian approach, 199, 205, 207,
Diffusion 209
annealing, 264 remeshing routine, 205, 208
wear, 80, 155 separation criterion, 207209
Dimensions of wear types of elements, 198
crater centre distance, 87 First cut strategies, 306
crater depth, 87 Flood lubrication, 309
crater ratio, 87 Formation of cutting edge, 190
displacement of the cutting edge, 87 Form milling, 391, 404
width of flank wear land, 8687 Free cutting steel, 255, 263, 265
Down milling, 296, 304306, 308309, 324, Free, diagonal cut, 4546
330, 391, 393, 400401 Free, orthogonal cut, 4546, 88
Drag grinding, 326 Fringe projection, 2930
Drilling
profile counterboring, 416417
rotary, 418439 G
Dry ice, 309 Gauges
Dry machining, 138, 154, 156, 158, 168, 173, form, 1314
184, 229230, 232233, 235236, inspection, 1314
279, 407 limit, 1314
Dry milling, 308
Duplex steel, 276277, 309 H
Hacksawing, 383, 439, 442
E Hard coatings
Edge rounding, 40, 125, 217, 326, 330, 340 aluminium chromium nitride-coatings
Effective cutting speed angle, 40, 43 (AlCrN), 151, 184
500 Subject Index
Hard coatings (cont.) classification, 102103

aluminium oxide coatings (Al2 O3 ), 8283, manufacturing, 104107
96, 126, 128131, 135, 137141, Hobbing
145146, 149, 152, 155, 163174, cutters with indexable inserts, 406407
180, 184, 212, 293, 302 dry, 406, 409, 411
amorphous carbon coatings, 155158 gash, 405406
diamond coatings, 149, 159161, 175176, inserted blade hobs, 406407
179, 292, 295, 329330, 334 running gears, 404407
self-lubricating coatings, 158 shifting, 406407
titanium aluminium nitride coatings solid steel hobs, 406
((Ti, Al)N), 109, 128, 136, 146147, thread number of hob, 406407
149, 151152, 154155, 234, 407 up- and down cut, 405406
titanium carbide coatings (TiC), 96, 98, HSS-tools, 101, 107, 109, 111, 141, 265, 323,
111, 113117, 120, 126, 128131, 401, 404, 411, 423424
137138, 149, 152154, 163165,
167, 173174, 184, 303, 320 I
titanium carbon nitride coatings (Ti(C, N)), Imputed amortizations, 350
117, 124, 126, 128129, 133137, Imputed interest, 350351
140142, 149, 152, 154, 164 Inclusions, 78, 105, 204, 254256, 264265,
titanium nitride coatings (TiN), 82, 96, 280, 284289, 292293, 317
98, 109, 111, 114, 116117, 120, sulfidic, 264
123124, 126, 128131, 133140, Inconel, 169170, 316, 318, 323, 326327, 718
142, 145, 147, 149, 150154, 163, Indexable insert
172173, 181, 184, 212, 230, 278, negative, 192
320, 329, 415, 446 positive, 192
Hardened steel, 13, 33, 99, 119, 149, 168,
171, 182183, 259, 263, 266269, K
271274, 394395, 446, 452, 464 KIENZLE Equation, 60, 349, 396, 425
Hardening, 6, 3334, 102103, 105109, 131,
161, 203, 209210, 247, 251, 257, L
259261, 263, 266268, 270, 273, Lamellar chip formation, 5052, 302303, 321
276277, 282, 291, 298300, 312, Laser interferometer, 18, 29
316318, 340, 411412, 439, 449, Lead, 256, 265, 312, 426
451, 454 Length testing devices, 1321
Hard machining, 6, 154155, 162, 184,
271273 M
Hard turning, 165, 169, 271272, 274 Machinability, 101, 103, 105, 237337, 339,
high precision, 274 404, 433
Heat Machine hour-rate, 345, 350351
balance, 62 Machining standard values, 339
sources, 4, 62 Macro- and microgeometry
-treatable steel, 233, 241242, 251, form deviations, 12
259261, 263, 267268, 297 position deviations, 1213
treatment, 100101, 106109, 248, structural deviations, 1012
250251, 255264, 266268, 270, Magnesium alloys, 293296
275277, 280282, 284, 289, 293, Magnesium machining, 295296
298, 312313, 315317, 411 Main process time, 343, 347, 349
High pressure, 19, 7376, 175176, 180181, Major cutting edge, 41, 4344, 46, 5657,
220, 223, 254, 299, 306307, 70, 8688, 217, 320322, 386,
309310, 321 394395, 400, 419422, 424425,
cooling, 306307 443, 450
High speed steels Manganese, 251, 254256, 264267, 282, 285,
areas of application, 103104 287, 291, 293294, 299, 422
Subject Index 501
Manufacturing costs, 110, 279, 342346, 349 Nitrogen, 108109, 114, 117, 124, 126, 132,
equation, 343 152154, 156, 158, 172, 180, 251,
Manufacturing disturbances, 38 264, 268, 276, 302, 309
randomly occurring, 34 Non-ferrous metal
systematic occurring, 3, 10 aluminium alloys, 178179, 235,
Martensite, 100101, 108109, 250, 252, 256, 290293
260262, 267, 269, 272, 275277, copper alloys, 224, 311315
290 magnesium alloys, 293296
Material laws, 201204 magnesium wrought alloys, 293
Material measures, 9, 13, 19 nickel alloys, 300, 314315
Measurement errors, 910, 363, 371 titanium alloys, 107, 296311, 325
Measuring, 5, 824, 2730, 3637, 64, 6667, Non-metal
355, 359363, 365, 369370 aramid fibres, 332, 337
Measuring instruments carbon fibres, 332, 334
dial comparator, 16, 21 fibre-reinforced plastics, 119, 156, 179,
dial gauges, 16, 21 327, 331337, 395
with electrical converters, 1718 graphite, 99, 155156, 158159, 166,
173, 177181, 211, 280, 282291,
electronic, 21
327331, 395
indicating, 9, 1421
polymer matrix, 331333
measuring microscopes, 17
thermosetting plastics, 332
mechanical callipers, 15
Non-metallic inclusions, 78, 256, 285
with mechanical converters, 1517 Normalizing, 253, 258, 261
micrometers, 1516, 3738, 126, 137, 149, Notch wear, 8586, 127, 170, 184, 277, 279,
174 320323
with optical converters, 1819
with pneumatic converters, 1921
O
Microcinematography, 53
One-chisel method, 6566
Milling Optimal-cost cutting speed, 344349
contact conditions, 393, 411 Optimal-cost tool life, 348
down, 296, 304306, 308309, 324, 330, Optimal value function, 342, 347348
391, 393, 400401 Optoelectronic path measurement systems, 21
resultant force, 362, 396397, 412 Oxidation, 67, 75, 8485, 95, 112, 119, 122,
secondary cutting edge, 328, 330 127128, 141, 152155, 168, 172,
up, 304305, 308, 330, 391394, 400401 180, 276, 287, 297, 299300, 316
Minimum undeformed chip thickness, 391
Minor cutting edge, 41, 46, 56, 70, 78, 8588, P
125, 175, 184, 245, 272, 279, 320, Parallel cracks, 7879, 394
322, 385386, 391, 395, 399, 431, Particle jet erosion, 329
435, 449 Passive force, 5, 5556, 5859, 6971, 175,
Mixed ceramics, 96, 98, 162167, 169, 171, 243, 272, 322, 396, 398, 424, 442
267, 271272, 283, 395, 452 PCBN, 86, 165, 169170, 182, 187188, 194,
Model representation of shear plane, 8788 226, 267, 271, 282283, 286, 288,
MOHRs slip theory, 92 302, 318, 322, 395
Molybdenum, 101, 103, 117, 120, 158, 254, tool materials, 165, 169, 267, 283, 286,
267, 276, 299, 315, 423 288, 302, 318
PCD tools, 178, 302
N Peripheral milling, 11, 391392, 400401
Nickel, 82, 86, 99, 107, 110111, 115, 162, Perlite, 250256, 258263, 266267, 269270,
169, 171172, 181182, 184, 251, 280282, 284286, 288289, 300
255, 267, 269, 274276, 293294, Perlite-ferrite structure, 289
300, 304, 307, 311, 312327, 369 Phosphor, 220223, 248, 255, 263264
Nitriding steel, 433 Plain milling, 395, 401
502 Subject Index
Planing mean roughness value, 24

face, 458459 total height of the profile, 24
gear, 467
rack, 466467 S
supporting rack, 467 Saw
Plastic deformation, 3335, 4849, 51, 73, bands, 439440
76, 78, 80, 86, 115, 168, 199202, tooth chip, 273
209210, 223, 245, 273274, Scaling, 75, 8485, 200, 223, 379380
278279, 311, 322, 328, 366, 455 Segmented chip, 49, 5152, 209212,
Plastomechanical processes, 48 289290, 310
Plunge milling, 324325 formation, 52, 210211, 290
Pneumatic measurement, 2021 Set, 1314, 198199, 352, 437
Polycrystalline diamond, 98, 159, 173, Shaving
175179, 292, 295, 313, 329, axis intersection, 456457
334 axis intersection angle, 454456
Precision hard turning, 274 diagonal angle, 456457
Profile milling diagonal, 456457
form cutters, 404 gear, 454455
gang milling cutter, 404 parallel, 456457
Pyrometer, 6567, 319, 369370 pitch circle, 455456
Pyrometry, 66 plunge, 457
soft, 454
R tangential, 457
Rake face, 3941, 45, 4749, 5658, 6264, wheel, 104, 454457
6970, 7677, 79, 8488, 9394, Shear angle, 56, 8894, 211
184185, 194195, 212, 214, 224, Shear bands, 5051, 209210
240, 245, 247248, 254, 272273, Side and face milling, 194, 395
277, 285, 287, 289, 292, 294, Skive hobbing
300303, 306307, 313, 321, 329, centring, 411
336, 340, 366, 406408, 420, 463, heat treatment distortion, 411
465 protuberance, 411
Ramping, 322323 reference profile III, 411
Recrystallization annealing, 259260 Slab milling, 391, 395, 397, 415
Reference systems Slotting
tool-in-hand system, 4244, 57, 384 chip flow, 389, 464
tool-in-use system, 4243, 57 collision, 458, 460, 465466
Residual austenite transformation, 272 danger, 466
Residual stresses, 3, 78, 31, 3337, 131, cross-section of undeformed chip, 80, 111,
133136, 141, 147, 150152, 154, 286, 292, 306, 328329, 339, 384,
157, 201, 272, 305306, 314 401, 425426, 445, 463464
Resultant force, 49, 5556, 5859, 61, 9091, development of wear, 263, 267, 463
94, 238, 243245, 249, 251, 267, face shaping, 458459
269270, 272, 279, 282, 285, gear shaping, 459466
288289, 292, 295296, 304, wheel, 460462, 466
313314, 330, 355, 362, 367, 381, idling stroke, 458
396397, 412, 424425 internal gear, 447, 451, 459461, 465466
components, 49, 55, 5859, 61, 91, 289, lifting movement, 458, 466
367, 424 planing feed stroke, 457467
Ribbon chip, 248, 273, 293, 314, 341 return stroke, 458460, 465466
Roughness parameters shaping tool, 459, 464
depth of the deepest profile valley, 24 tools, 445467
greatest height of the profile, 24 working stroke, 454, 458460, 466
height of the highest profile point, 24 Soft annealing, 251, 256259, 261, 267269
Subject Index 503
Specific cutting force, 60, 243, 248, 265, 272, Surface rim zone, 31, 3337
313, 340, 397, 427 Surface roughness, 21, 25, 30, 5455, 67, 238,
Steel 252, 265266, 274, 289, 329, 333,
acid-proof, 263 336, 341
case-hardened, 33, 168, 259, 263, 266269,
395, 464 T
cold-working, 269 Technical surfaces, 21, 3031
construction, 58, 187, 249250, 443444, Temperature change cracks, 7980
464 Temperature distribution, 66, 68
hardened, 13, 99, 119, 149, 171, 182183, Temperature fields, 62, 66, 79
210, 267, 271274, 394395, 446, Temperature measurement, 6467, 369370
452 Temperature tool life rotation test, 240
heat-resistant, 120, 274, 276 Tempering, 100, 105106, 257, 260261,
heat-treatable, 233, 259261, 263, 263264, 266, 268, 270, 281
267268 Testing
high-alloyed, 101, 105, 249 objective, 9
high-speed, 187, 269, 292, 394 subjective, 9
low-alloyed, 249
Thermal energy, 61, 136
machining, 154, 256, 259, 263266, 310
Thermocouple, 6566, 230
nitriding, 433
Thermography, 6667, 369
non-alloyed, 269270, 277
Thread milling, 235, 416, 437438
non-rusting, 251, 274279
Thread moulding, 233, 438439
tool, 80, 85, 9597, 99110, 167, 240,
Titanium
263, 269270, 273, 434, 436, 440,
alloys, 107, 210, 296311, 325
442443, 458
alumnides, 51, 299300, 310
Stick-slip, 50, 294
Tool-in-hand system, 4244, 57, 384
Stress-relief heat treatment, 298
Stylus instrument, 2729 Tool-in-use system, 4243, 57
Subjective surface inspection, 2627 Tool(s)
Submicron grain cemented carbide, 96, approach angle, 42, 44, 6869, 254
119 cutting edge
Substrate pretreatment, 161 angle, 4347, 58, 88, 384, 398
Sulfidic inclusions, 264 inclination, 4447, 59
Sulphur, 158, 220221, 223, 248, 254255, designs, 184193
263269, 287, 312314 solid tools, 185186
Surface damage, 8, 72, 74, 302, 321 holder, 174, 176, 181, 185, 188189,
Surface inspection, 2130 191192, 215216, 232, 248, 344,
Surface layer, 3133, 37, 82, 109, 136, 257, 361, 365, 367, 385, 423
268 bit, 185
Surface measurement included angle, 6970, 78, 193, 340
mechanical measuring methods, 2729 life
optical measuring methods, 27, 2930 behaviour, 237337, 339, 346, 351
Surface parameters, 2226, 54 conditions, 237240, 248
Surface quality, 910, 25, 54, 6971, 76, criterion, 195, 213, 238242, 278, 286,
149, 175, 178179, 184, 196, 216, 339, 341, 423
229, 235, 245247, 251255, 258, function, 242, 346
263264, 266267, 269271, 274, straight lines, 346
279, 282, 285, 290, 292, 304305, normal rake angle, 4445, 47
310, 313314, 317, 320, 322, orthogonal clearance angle, 45, 59, 330
329331, 333334, 336337, 339, orthogonal rake angle, 45, 5657, 59,
341, 367, 384, 386, 397, 399400, 6263, 6970, 78, 91, 192193,
411, 413414, 416, 424, 428, 431, 236, 247248, 252, 266, 283, 320,
434436, 446, 449, 454455 392, 408409, 411, 419
504 Subject Index
Tool(s) (cont.) Turn milling

preparation, 193196 axially parallel, 413
steels, 80, 85, 9597, 99110, 167, 240, facet formation, 413
263, 269270, 273, 434, 436, 440, orthogonal, 413
442443, 458 Two-chisel method, 66
Toroidal core method, 35 Two-colour pyrometer, 67
Total active energy, 61 Types of chip
Tribooxidation, 7375, 321 continuous, 49, 70, 94, 184, 207209, 289,
Trochoid milling, 324 313
Tungsten, 37, 76, 8183, 85, 9698, 101103, discontinuous, 49, 51, 248, 285, 288, 296,
111, 113117, 119120, 123124, 301, 341
129, 131, 141, 157, 175, 181, 254, lamellar, 4952, 78, 294, 296, 301303,
423 321
Turning segmented, 49, 5152, 209212, 289290,
centreless rough, 386 310
chaser, 387388
circular, 390 U
copy, 193, 389 Undisturbed manufacturing process, 341
cross-section of undeformed chip, 80, 111,
286, 292, 306, 328329, 339, 384, V
401, 425426, 445, 463464 Vanadium, 101, 103104, 255, 267268, 299,
cylindrical circular, 386 312, 423
cylindrical face, 385 Visual inspection, 26
cylindrical profile grooving, 388
depth of cut, 384, 386 W
face, 46, 169, 303, 385386 Wear
feed, 383384, 386390 abrasion, 7172, 7576
finish planing, 169 adhesion, 73
form, 193, 389390 breaking, 78
helical, 387388 built-up edges, 76
internal, 169, 390391, 423 causes of, 7485
kinematic form, 389 diffusion, 74
nominal cross-section of undeformed chip, forms, 8587
384 mechanisms, 7174
non-circular, 389390 notches, 87, 285, 320322
profile die, 387388 plastic deformation, 73, 76, 80
profile, 388389 surface damage, 74
rough, 80, 104, 122, 279, 302, 383, 386 temperature change cracks, 7980
thread, 122, 387388 thermoshock cracks, 7980
thread chasing, 387388 tool life rotation test, 240243
thread die cutting, 101, 252, 268, 286, tribooxidation, 7374
387388 Wedge angle, 39, 42, 4445, 56, 6970, 78,
tool approach angle, 42, 44, 6869, 254 101, 192
tools, 4, 85, 101102, 104, 184187, 254, Wet machining, 235, 279, 308
362, 365, 385391, 413, 451 White-light interferometer, 2930
transverse face, 385 Working plane, 4345, 56, 247, 384, 392, 396
transverse parting off, 385 of reference, 56
transverse profile, 388 Workpiece rim, 3037
transverse profile grooving, 388
undeformed chip thickness, 56, 5861, 88, X
207, 244245, 384, 391392, 394, X-ray and neutron diffraction, 3637
396, 446, 463
width of undeformed chip, 5860, 6263, Z
70, 94, 384, 440, 443 Zementite, 282

Manufacturing Processes 1

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Manufacturing Processes 1

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RWTH edition

Translated by Aaron Kuchle

ISSN 1865-0899 e-ISSN 1865-0902

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011925556

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

Cover design: deblik, Berlin, Germany

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

groups techniques with similar active principles together.

Aachen, Germany Fritz Klocke

P. Vogtel, as well as Dipl.-Ing. S. E. Cordes, who was additionally responsible for

Aachen, Germany Fritz Klocke

3.8 Cutting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6 Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

8 Process Design and Process Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

A mm2 Cross section

ECM Electro chemical machining

NE-Metalle Non-ferrous metals

VBmax mm Maximal width of flank wear land

Tool clearance angle

F. Klocke, Manufacturing Processes 1, RWTH edition, 1

Saw End scraper

Double tines Round scraper Side scraper Stemmed-base

Fig. 1.1 Flint tools, acc. to KERNDL [Kern72]

parameters relevant for productivity and workpiece quality must be considered:

2.1 Manufacturing Disturbances and Manufacturing History

F. Klocke, Manufacturing Processes 1, RWTH edition, 3

Statical disturbances Thermal disturbances

Dynamic disturbances Tool wear

Fig. 2.1 Variable disturbances in manufacturing

be corrected and compensated. Examples of systematic errors are geometric errors

Fig. 2.2 Influence of passive force on dimensional accuracy

cp = 0,71 cp = 2,50 cp = 1,67 cp = 5,00

Process capability indices

Tolerance band UTL - LTL T

Fig. 2.3 Process capability indices

Forging, Turning Hard

k1a c1a k2b c2b knx cnX

Machining Machining Grinding

Lu,l Upper and k, c Damping and

Fig. 2.4 Manufacturing history (Source: Getrag Ford)

Manufacturing process: Primary shaping, machining

Requested cpk = 1.67

Box part: Automobile-gearbox made of Mg-alloy

Fig. 2.5 Representative case study box part

Manufacturing process: Forming, 5-axis-milling

Manufacturing dispersion: Process instability, chatter marks, long

Fig. 2.6 Stability bounds when milling a BLISK

Manufacturing process: Forming, turning, drilling, broaching

Low thermal influencing

Work piece: Turbine disk

Fig. 2.7 Surface damages when drilling with a worn drill

be manufactured in a procedurally secure way with the required process capability

2.2 Measuring and Testing

Table 2.1 Survey of manufacturing qualities

2.2.1 Measurement Errors

Measuring method Preparation Environment

Aim of the Measuring forces Evaluation

Measured object Measuring device Measuring person

Fig. 2.8 Causes for measuring errors by the measuring procedure

2.2.2 Macro- and Microgeometry of Components

1st Order: form deviations

2nd Order: waviness

3rd Order: grooves (roughness)