THE RIVER

The hydrological cycle

The hydrological cycle is also known as the water cycle.

Seas and oceans contain 97 per cent of the world's water, and ice holds 2 per cent. That
leaves just 1 per cent of the world's water as fresh water on land or in the air. This water is
recycled again and again through the process of evaporation, condensation and water
transfers such as surface run-off.

Terminology for the study of rivers

Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.

Catchment area - the area within the drainage basin.
Watershed - the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the
boundary between two drainage basins.
Source - The beginning or start of a river.
Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.
Tributary - a stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river.
Mouth - the point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering a sea.
A river changes shape as it flows from its source (where a river starts) to its mouth (where a
river flows into a sea or lake). The shape of both the long profile (a slice through the river
from source to mouth) and the cross profile (a slice across the river) changes.

Long profiles

Long profile of a river

The source of a river is often - but not always - in an upland area. Near the source, a river
flows over steep slopes with an uneven surface. It often flows over a series of waterfalls and
rapids. Highland areas are usually composed of hard igneous rocks, which are ideal for
forming such features.

As a river flows down steep slopes the water performs vertical erosion. This form of erosion
cuts down towards the river bed and carves out steep-sided V-shaped valleys.

As the river flows towards the mouth, the slopes become less steep. Eventually the river will
flow over flat land as it approaches the sea.

The discharge (amount of water flowing) will increase as the river approaches the sea.
Cross profiles

Cross profiles of a river

Near the source of a river there is more vertical erosion as the river flows downhill, using its
energy to overcome friction (A). As a result the channels are narrow and shallow and may
contain large boulders and angular fragments eroded and weathered from the steep valley
sides. The sediment in the river creates turbulence and friction.

As the river approaches the mouth, velocity and energy increase due to increased discharge.
The river performs more lateral erosion making the channel wider, and smoother (B) and
(C). As a result there is less turbulence and friction, making the flow of water more efficient.

River processes shape the land in different ways as the river moves from its source to its
mouth.

Erosion

Erosion involves the wearing away of rock and soil found along the river bed and banks.
Erosion also involves the breaking down of the rock particles being carried downstream by
the river.

The four main forms of river erosion

Hydraulic action - the force of the river against the banks can cause air to be trapped
in cracks and crevices. The pressure weakens the banks and gradually wears it away.
Abrasion - rocks carried along by the river wear down the river bed and banks.
Attrition - rocks being carried by the river smash together and break into smaller,
smoother and rounder particles.
Solution - soluble particles are dissolved into the river.
Transport

Rivers pick up and carry material as they flow downstream.

The four different river transport processes

Solution - minerals are dissolved in the water and carried along in solution.
Suspension - fine light material is carried along in the water.
Saltation - small pebbles and stones are bounced along the river bed.
Traction - large boulders and rocks are rolled along the river bed.

Transport of material in a river

Rivers need energy to transport material, and levels of energy change as the river moves from
source to mouth.

When energy levels are very high, large rocks and boulders can be transported.
Energy levels are usually higher near a river's source, when its course is steep and its
valley narrow. Energy levels rise even higher in times of flood.
When energy levels are low, only small particles can be transported (if any). Energy
levels are lowest when velocity drops as a river enters a lake or sea (at the mouth).

Deposition

When a river loses energy, it will drop or deposit some of the material it is carrying.

Deposition may take place when a river enters an area of shallow water or when the
volume of water decreases - for example, after a flood or during times of drought.
Deposition is common towards the end of a river's journey, at the mouth.
Deposition at the mouth of a river can form deltas - for example, the Mississippi
Delta.
RIVER LANDFORMS

Upper-course river features include steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs, rapids,
waterfalls and gorges.

Middle-course river features include wider, shallower valleys, meanders, and oxbow lakes.

Lower-course river features include wide flat-bottomed valleys, floodplains and deltas.

Upper course features

Upper-course river features

As the river moves through the upper course it cuts downwards. The gradient here is steep
and the river channel is narrow. Vertical erosion in this highland part of the river helps to
create steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs, rapids, waterfalls and gorges.

Interlocking spurs on a tributary of the Yangtse

As the river erodes the landscape in the upper course, it winds and bends to avoid
areas of hard rock. This creates interlocking spurs, which look a bit like the
interlocking parts of a zip.
 When a river runs over alternating layers of hard and soft rock, rapids and waterfalls
may form.

The formation of waterfalls and rapids

Middle course features

Meanders

A meander on the River Cuckmere

In the middle course the river has more energy and a high volume of water. The gradient here
is gentle and lateral (sideways) erosion has widened the river channel. The river channel has
also deepened. A larger river channel means there is less friction, so the water flows faster:

As the river erodes laterally, to the right side then the left side, it forms large bends,
and then horseshoe-like loops called meanders.
The formation of meanders is due to both deposition and erosion and meanders
gradually migrate downstream.
The force of the water erodes and undercuts the river bank on the outside of the bend
where water flow has most energy due to decreased friction.
On the inside of the bend, where the river flow is slower, material is deposited, as
there is more friction.
Over time the horseshoe become tighter, until the ends become very close together.
As the river breaks through, eg during a flood when the river has a higher discharge
 and more energy, and the ends join, the loop is cut-off from the main channel. The
cut-off loop is called an oxbow lake.

Oxbow lake

In the animation above, upstream a large bend becomes a horseshoe and is eventually cut-off
to become an oxbow lake. Downstream the river is eroding its outer bank and depositing on
its inner bank to create a new meander.

Lower course features

In the lower course, the river has a high volume and a large discharge. The river channel is
now deep and wide and the landscape around it is flat. However, as a river reaches the end of
its journey, energy levels are low and deposition takes place.

Floodplains

The river now has a wide floodplain. A floodplain is the area around a river that is covered in
times of flood. A floodplain is a very fertile area due to the rich alluvium deposited by
floodwaters. This makes floodplains a good place for agriculture. A build up of alluvium on
the banks of a river can create levees, which raise the river bank.

Deltas

Deltas are found at the mouth of large rivers - for example, the Mississippi. A delta is formed
when the river deposits its material faster than the sea can remove it. There are three main
types of delta, named after the shape they create:

Three main types of delta

Type of delta Example

Arcuate or fan-shaped - the land

around the river mouth arches out into
the sea and the river splits many times
on the way to the sea, creating a fan
effect.

The Niger Delta

 Type of delta Example

Cuspate - the land around the mouth

of the river juts out arrow-like into the
sea.

The Ebro Delta

Bird's foot - the river splits on the way

to the sea, each part of the river juts
out into the sea, rather like a bird's
foot.

The Mississippi Delta