Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Week 5 Final
Eric Fonseca
Instructor Strickland-Davis
Learning takes place throughout the life of all individuals. Though learning does take
concept. Some principles can be incorporated into an instructional design that adds to the
effectiveness of the material, allowing learners to gain information and transfer the skills outside
of the educational setting. In this paper, design principles will be defined and evaluated for their
demonstrate the lack of design principles and how the material could have been created to
increase the value of the instruction to a learner. Defining and evaluating design principles
allows a designer to create materials that are most efficient and reduce cognitive load. Effective
design enhances the transfer of skill to real world application of the concepts being presented.
Many principles should be considered and utilized when designing instruction. These
principles ensure that the learners cognitive load is reduced and that information is presented in
a way that can be easily processed into memory and used in real world situations. Additionally,
principles ensure that materials are designed that lead to the learning outcomes desired and
minimize sensory overload which may lead to learners missing key components of concepts. By
providing objectives and activities result in learning outcomes and removing extraneous
information individuals will retain useful information and transfer those skills outside of the
educational environment which is the goal of instruction. Several principles are important to
design, and by defining and evaluating them, an instructional designer will be aware of how they
The first Principle that must be addressed is the alignment of the objectives and activities
to the learning outcomes of the course. Alignment is critical because it allows a reliable way of
determining if individuals are meeting the learning outcomes. Alignment between activities and
outcomes means that activities that are included in the course must be created to lead to what you
expect the learner to be able to do, once the course has been completed. For example, if a course
were designed to have the student learn to ride a bike, an activity that has learners design a
model of a bicycle would not lead to the learning outcome. Having students create a model may
teach them about different components of a bike, but it does not lend to them learning how to
ride one. Lam and Tsui (2013) state Aligning the curriculum objectives with what is
implemented and learned can enhance the effectiveness of curriculum planning and
implementation and adds meaning to the learning and teaching processes (p. 99). This quote
indicates that a lack of alignment makes the activity insignificant to the learning outcomes. Lack
Multimedia Principle
The multimedia principle states that individuals learn better when they are presented with
graphics rather than just text. Clark and Mayer (2011) identify that graphics can include items
like pictures, graphs, charts, animation, or video as examples. These items provide visual inputs
to the learner that expand on the material that is being presented. One main thing to consider
when including graphics into learning material is that not all graphics are equal, in adding
substance to learning. Designers will often add graphics to instructional documents only to
decorate their materials. Adding decorative graphics do not add to the concepts that are being
taught and should be avoided. Graphics should increase the value by illustrating an important
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object, organizing information, showing changes over time, or making concepts concrete that
could not be viewed without the visual aid (Clark and Mayer, 2011). There are many factors that
a designer should consider when deciding what type of graphics will benefit the learner most in
reaching outcomes. Some may think that items like animation are always the best when it comes
to achieving learning outcomes. In a study, Daly, Bulloch, Ma, and Aidulis (2016) found that
animation per se will not necessarily enhance learning as this is dependent on a broad range
of factors involving instructional design, cognitive loading, and learner knowledge (p. 204).
This statement shows that designers should consider these factors before deciding what graphics
to incorporate.
Contiguity Principle
The Contiguity Principle provides guidelines for designers when implementing text and
graphics to improve the learning grasp of concepts and reduce cognitive load. One way that this
may be achieved is by ensuring that text is placed near the graphic that corresponds with the
information being provided. If the text is separated for the graphic, the learner must split their
visual attention between the text and graphic which causes an overload of the visual input.
Another aspect of the contiguity principle is to ensure that narration is synchronized to visuals
such as animation and video. Clark and Mayer (2011) identify When corresponding narration
and graphics are presented at different times in e-lessons, the learner has to hold the words in
working memory until the corresponding graphics are presented, or vice versa (sec. 5.5). This
quote shows that an individuals working memory is hindered when trying to maintain attention
to both the narration and graphic. By integrating these principles, the learners sensory inputs are
more available to store the information provided and gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter. Another method that may be employed is the use of narration rather than text.
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Modality Principle
The Modality Principle identifies that there is considerable evidence that presenting
words in audio rather than on-screen text can result in significant learning gains (Clark &
Mayer, 2011, sec. 6). Overloading the visual channel in e-learning may occur when text and
graphics are shown at the same time. Utilizing the auditory and visual channels rather than only
one can reduce the cognitive load of the learner. This is confirmed by Oliveira Neto, Huang, and
Azevedo Melli, (2015) who state, If student attention is directed at the screen text, then they
might not be able to direct the same attention toward the graphics or animation, especially when
the text and graphics are rapidly and simultaneously displayed on screen (p. 559). Spoken words
rather than on screen text provide a split in sensory input and by dividing the information the
learner can better process the information for retainment into short and long-term memory.
Redundancy Principle
The simultaneous broadcast of video, narration, and text will overload the visual and
auditory channels causing the individual to potentially miss vital information that is being
This principle is especially important when there is text, audio, and video/animations as the
learner may spend their time following the text while the audio is being played rather than
maintaining attention to the important visuals provided through the graphic. One of the ways to
eliminate the redundant information is to remove all text or only to include keywords or relevant
data as text. Reducing redundancy will limit the participant from trying to follow the written
words along with the provided narrative which increases the cognitive load that the learner
experiences. Though this principle holds true in most situations, it may be helpful to give the
text for the major words or complex items that are redundant to the audio. Also, embedding
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redundant keywords into visuals may help the student identify important connections between
the text and visual display (McCrudden, Hushman, & Marley, 2014).
Coherence Principle
The Coherence Principle states that a designer should avoid including information that
does not lead to the learning outcomes or supports the goal of instruction (Clark & Mayer, 2011).
Adding text or information that is not relevant to the learning outcomes can distract the learner
from the primary purpose of taking the course. One of the ways that the Coherence Principle can
be implemented is by not including extraneous words that are not essential to the lesson. Some
designers may think that by adding information that is entertaining and engaging, it adds to the
motivation of the learner meeting the goal. Unfortunately, this information can often interfere
with the main topic of instruction and become a distraction rather than an asset. A primary
component of the Coherence Principle is avoiding the use of extraneous graphics in e-learning
modules. Pictures, while they can add a decorative property to the design, are not necessary if
they do not add to the content that is being presented. Additionally, adding sounds and music
that are not essential to instruction just adds input to the learners auditory channel that doesnt
Personalization Principle
Another way to engage learners is by making e-learning more personalized rather than
general. Conversational speech allows the learner to feel that they are not just receiving
information, but are part of the learning process. By asking questions or using personalized
pronouns, the individual will use cognition more to analyze the material. Kartal (2010) who
states Students working with a science simulation game that had an on-screen agent who spoke
in a personalized style (using the pronouns I and you) performed better on retention and transfer
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tests than students who learned with an agent that spoke in a nonpersonalized formal style (p.
616). This statement shows that the more personalized less formal dialogue can lead to better
performance by learners.
Also, incorporating human narration instead of machine voice can also make a learning
module more inviting to participants. People make a better connection and have better
knowledge transfer when a human voice is used rather than a machine voice (Clark and Mayer,
2011). Computer voice has little to no inflection and can be very cumbersome to listen to, even
with the advances in technology. Also, machine voice is also very impersonal as individuals may
feel that they are receiving information from a computer, rather than a human, which may weigh
on the feeling that the information is not being presented by an individual with relevant prior
knowledge.
The Segmenting Principle is the idea that large modules of material can be broken down
into smaller more manageable chunks to reduce the load the learner receives at one time. A good
way to implement the principle is to identify the major concepts or steps to a process and present
them separately rather than together. When creating an e-learning module, a designer can
include a continue button that allows learners to move on to additional information or steps in the
lesson. It has been identified that individuals transfer information that is presented in segments
Another item that may be included is pre-training material. Pre-training reduces the
cognitive load of the students by allowing them to have the information before the primary
instruction rather than adding to the already complex presentation. Pre-training may include
items such as definitions, graphics, user guides, etc. that the student can access before attending
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the full instructional lesson. This pre-training makes available the working memory that would
have been used during the lesson. Pre-training is especially important if the information is very
complex and the learner has little prior knowledge of the topics that are being offered.
Leveraging Examples
Examples may be used in the design of a course to provide a reference for learners to
access simultaneously with the information they are being presented. One type of example is the
worked example which is a document that provides a step by step process of how to come to a
solution to a problem. Worked examples are particularly important for complex tasks because
they require the learner to use more cognitive function, which is why worked examples decrease
this load. An effective way to use worked examples is to start with the complete example and
slowly transition to the learners completing the problems on their own. Additionally, self-
evaluation allows the students to discuss their thought process openly. While reviewing the
examples, students can receive feedback and gain a deeper understanding of the process. One
way that a designer can incorporate self-evaluation is to include questions to the learner that can
Practice Exercises
Practice is essential for the transition of skills from short-term to long-term memory.
Identification of the amount of practice is critical of the designer because practice takes time to
design, as well as implement. Practice can be done for a short period or extended over months or
years. The amount of practice that needs to be included in design may depend on the amount of
information being presented, prior knowledge of the learner, and the complexity of the skill. The
term that is often used is Practice makes perfect which is often used when describing motor
skills such as hitting a baseball with a bat. This term also is true for cognitive skills as well. If a
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person learns a skill and does not use it, especially in the short-term, it becomes tough to
transition that information to long-term memory. Practice must be relevant to the learning
Collaboration
and Rapp (2015) state When group members share and consider others ideas, these differences
can help make salient the gaps in knowledge and reasoning that members hold, creating a state of
discomfort attributable to discrepancies between current knowledge and new information. (p.
183). These gaps lead to learners formulating new ideas on the material they are receiving and
provide an opportunity for change in their prior knowledge. Individuals may enter a course with
the notion that they have a good understanding of the concepts and after collaboration find new
meaning in the matter that is offered. Collaboration is particularly useful for individuals who
may be struggling with tasks, by allowing them to work with others who are proficient. Some
items that a designer should consider when utilizing collaborative activities are the group size,
the complexity of the material, and providing individual activities along with collaboration.
Learner Control
Learner control is the idea that individuals learn better when they have control of the way
they are receiving instruction. Clark and Mayer (2011) find that There is little correspondence
between learner perceptions of lesson effectiveness and actual instructional value. In short,
liking is not the same as learning (sec. 15.2). This statement shows that often learners may feel
that they learn better having more control, but often that is not the case. One of the main items
that need to be considered when giving learners control over their instructional choices is their
prior knowledge and skill level. If a person has little knowledge of the instructional material, the
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control may add unnecessary strain on their ability to retain information. Additionally, if learners
struggle with technology, they may find it more challenging and increase cognitive load trying to
utilize the e-learning format. Designers may conclude that implementing limited control to the
student by adding choices, but ensuring that learners receive core material, will lead to better
Thinking skills are in demand in most career paths that an individual may take. Skills
like problem-solving, creativity, and metacognition are assets to companies as they provide
innovation and decision-making that are needed in most job functions. Metacognition is a
crucial thinking skill that individuals can use to be self-aware of their learning. Verbalization is
one strategy of metacognition that promotes the learner to think deeper about how the
information leads to the solution, rather than skimming the material and immediately solving
based on the concepts provided. A second strategy is designing engaging curriculum including
items like problem-solving activities, collaborative learning, and elements that allow the learners
to form their conclusion, impact them by allowing more interaction and participation in the
course.
Simulations and instructional games have been growing in their appeal in the educational
setting. Some believe that the reason for the gain in popularity is that games are more motivating
than other forms of instruction. This cause has not been shown to be true. Wouters, Van
Nimwegen, Van Oostendorp, and Van der Spek, (2013) find in their analysis the results of the
meta-analysis show that serious games are not more motivating than the instructional methods
used in the comparison group (p. 261). Though motivational factors may not be the primary
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reason, there are times when games are useful in the educational setting. Games can be helpful
for learning specific skills such as spatial visualization and memory recall. A designer must
ensure when adding games to a curriculum that it adds to the learning goals and is not just a
means of entertainment.
Universal design for learning (UDL) means that instructional materials should be
designed to be accessed and utilized by as many people as possible. This design method means
that individuals of different cultures, languages, and physical attributes, etc. should be considered
when designing instructional material. Also, included are those with disabilities such as
designer to ensure that their instruction is designed for all learners and may include items such as
voiceover, captions, and easy navigation for e-learning. Some of the challenges individuals may
face when trying to implement UDL are time frame restrictions and cost. Instructional Designers
should seek to implement as many UDL components as possible, but must also consider
Reviewing an instructional video can help to identify principles that are lacking and
provide examples of how instruction can be produced better, so learners reach learning
outcomes. In the video Verify Figures on Same Base and Between Same Parallels
(Tutorialspoint, 2017) there are many violations of the principles that have been identified in this
paper. Identifying the violations can help a designer create more efficient instruction for the
learner. Violations can sometimes occur, but a designer should do their best to eliminate all
unnecessary information and ensure that materials are leading to learning outcomes. By
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removing these violations cognitive load is reduced and they learner has a better ability to store
The contiguity principle is not followed in the video as the text that is used it placed at
the top of the images, and the text is not relevant to the visuals on the screen. This issue also
combines with the redundancy principle, as the narrator speaks the same words that are on the
screen. Additionally, the narrator speaks to terms and definitions that are not defined in the
video. This information could have been provided in a pre-training module, that way individuals
would know the terminology before taking the course. While the video does provide worked
examples, there is no practice that the learner can participate in, which would greatly assist in
meeting the learning outcome. Another feature that would have made this module much more
interactive would be the addition of learner control. Instead of a video, this information could
have been segmented out much better with an e-learning module that provided the student with
the ability to move forward when they were ready for more details. Also, self-evaluation
questions being added into the course would have allowed the learner to use thinking skills,
enabling them to talk through the problem-solving involved. Questions could also be aided by
providing a discussion board where users could ask a question and speak collaboratively.
Finally, Universal Design could have been further implemented by providing captions for the
narration and possibly multiple narrators, for those who have trouble understanding the dialect of
the narrator.
Conclusion
Following instructional design principles can assist the learner in meeting instructional
outcomes. There are principles that can be incorporated into an instructional design that add to
the effectiveness of the material, allowing learners to gain information and transfer the skills
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outside of the educational setting. In this paper, design principles were defined and evaluated for
their effectiveness in the instructional setting. Also, an instructional video was evaluated to
demonstrate lack of design principles and how the material could have been created to increase
the value of the instruction to a learner. Defining and evaluating the design principles allows an
individual to create materials that are most efficient and reduce cognitive load. Indeed, effective
design enhances the transfer of skill to real world application of the concepts being presented.
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 14
References
Andrews, J. J., & Rapp, D. N. (2015). Benefits, costs, and challenges of collaboration for
doi:10.1037/tps0000025
Clark, R. C. & Mayer, R.E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines
for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (4th. ed.). San Francisco, CA: John
Daly, C. J., Bulloch, J. M., Ma, M., & Aidulis, D. (2016). A comparison of animated versus static
Lam, B., & Tsui, K. (2013). Examining the alignment of subject learning outcomes and course
doi:10.14221/ajte.2013v38n12.8
McCrudden, M. T., Hushman, C. J., & Marley, S. C. (2014). Exploring the boundary conditions
doi:10.1080/00220973.2013.813368
Oliveira Neto, J., Huang, W., & Azevedo Melli, N. (2015). Online learning: audio or
doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9392-7
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References
Tutorialspoint (2017). Verify Figures on Same Base and Between Same Parallels. Retrieved from
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/areas_of_parallelograms_and_triangles/verify_figures_on
_same_base_and_between_same_parallels.asp
Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van der Spek, E. D. (2013). A meta-