General Definitions and Concepts

A-1
General Definitions and Concepts

Mass, Weight, and Gravity

Calculation of Moments and C.G.
Definition of M.A.C.
Shear and Bending Loads

A-2
Mass, Weight, and Gravity

A-3
 Mass

Mass A measure of the amount of matter in an object.

- Mass is a measure of a bodys inertia; its resistance to a
change in velocity.
- Mass is the property of a finite body in space which causes
it to react to an external force by accelerating at a rate
given by the equation: F = ma
- Mass is constant, that is, mass does not vary with its
location in space.
- In the metric system, mass is measured in kilograms. In
the English system, it is measured in slugs.

A-4
 Weight
Weight - The force exerted on an object by gravitational
acceleration. Weight is the product of gravitational
acceleration and mass: W = mg
- In the metric system, force is measured in Newtons. One
Newton is the force required to accelerate one kilogram of
mass at one m/s2.
- Metric weights are usually expressed in terms of kilogram
force, where one kilogram force is the weight of a one
kilogram mass at one standard g. Therefore, one
kilogram force equals 9.80665 Newtons.
- In the English system, weight is measured in pounds.
One pound is the force required to accelerate one slug of
mass at one ft/s2. One slug at one standard g has a
weight of 32.17405 pounds.
A-5
 Weight

Conversions:
kilogram (force) * 2.2046226 = pounds
pounds * .45359237 = kilogram (force)

Unlike mass, weight is not constant. Weight varies with

location because of variations in gravitational acceleration, g.

A-6
 Gravitational Force
Gravitational Force The force of mutual attraction which
results from the proximity of two bodies to each other. This
force varies directly with the mass of each body and with the
square of their distance from each other.
Mass M2

Mass M1

center center
of mass
F of mass

Force of attraction: F = G M1M2

(Newtons Universal
Law of Gravitation)
d2 A-7
 Gravitational Acceleration
Gravitational Acceleration The acceleration which
results when gravitational force is applied to a mass.
- If masses M1 and M2 are in proximity to each other, the
rate at which M1 will accelerate as it falls toward M2 depends
only upon M2 and the distance between their centers of
mass. Mass M2
Mass M1

M2
Acceleration of mass M1 toward M2: a = G 2
d
A-8
 Gravitational Acceleration

On Earth - Gravitational acceleration depends on the distance

of an object from the earths center of mass. That, in turn,
depends on the objects latitude, and its altitude above the
earth.
North Pole
Radius of earth at sea level:

b = 20,855,636 ft
z
a4 + b4 tan2()
rE =
rE a2 + b2 tan2()
= latitude
Equator
a = 20,925,780 ft

South Pole
A-9
 Gravitational Acceleration
On Earth - Gravitational acceleration, g, for a stationary
object over a rotating earth, is modeled by the following
equations:
- Variation with latitude at sea level (Lamberts Equation):
g,SL = go [ 1 - 2.6373 x 10-3 Cos (2) + 5.9 x 10-6 Cos2 (2) ]

- Variation with latitude and altitude:

g,Z = [ g,SL + E2 rE Cos2() ] [ rE / (rE + z) ]2 - E2(rE + z) Cos2()

Where: = Latitude
z = Altitude (feet)
E = Rotation rate of the earth (7.29212 x 105 rad/sec)

go = Standard Gravitational Acceleration

= 32.17405 ft/sec2 = 9.80665 m/sec2
= g,SL at 45 deg. latitude
A-10
 Gravitational Acceleration
On Earth - The gravitational acceleration, g, includes the
effect of the centrifugal acceleration from the earths
rotation opposing the force due to pure gravity.

f i o n
t o a t
Rotation rate of the e n l e r ty
earth = E o n cce avi
p l a gr
m a
Cofug sing
t ri po
(rE + z) cos n p
ce o
Centrifugal acceleration
z (due to earths rotation)
d ue y
c el vit
Ac gra
rE to

Equator

A-11
 Gross Weight Correction for Latitude/Altitude

Latitude/Altitude Correction Table

Deg/Feet 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
90 0.99736 0.99746 0.99756 0.99765 0.99775 0.99784 0.99794 0.99803
85 0.99740 0.99750 0.99760 0.99769 0.99779 0.99788 0.99798 0.99807
80 0.99752 0.99762 0.99771 0.99781 0.99791 0.99800 0.99810 0.99819
75 0.99772 0.99781 0.99791 0.99800 0.99810 0.99820 0.99829 0.99839
70 0.99798 0.99808 0.99817 0.99827 0.99836 0.99846 0.99855 0.99865
65 0.99831 0.99840 0.99850 0.99859 0.99869 0.99878 0.99888 0.99898
60 0.99868 0.99878 0.99887 0.99897 0.99906 0.99916 0.99926 0.99935
55 0.99910 0.99919 0.99929 0.99939 0.99948 0.99958 0.99967 0.99977
50 0.99954 0.99964 0.99973 0.99983 0.99993 1.00002 1.00012 1.00021
45 1.00000 1.00010 1.00019 1.00029 1.00038 1.00048 1.00058 1.00067
40 1.00046 1.00055 1.00065 1.00075 1.00084 1.00094 1.00103 1.00113
35 1.00090 1.00100 1.00109 1.00119 1.00129 1.00138 1.00148 1.00157
30 1.00132 1.00142 1.00151 1.00161 1.00170 1.00180 1.00190 1.00199
25 1.00170 1.00179 1.00189 1.00198 1.00208 1.00218 1.00227 1.00237
20 1.00202 1.00212 1.00221 1.00231 1.00241 1.00250 1.00260 1.00269
15 1.00228 1.00238 1.00248 1.00257 1.00267 1.00277 1.00286 1.00296
10 1.00248 1.00258 1.00267 1.00277 1.00286 1.00296 1.00306 1.00315
5 1.00260 1.00269 1.00279 1.00289 1.00298 1.00308 1.00318 1.00327
0 1.00264 1.00273 1.00283 1.00293 1.00302 1.00312 1.00322 1.00331

go
factor = m g,Z * factor = m go
g,Z
A-12
 Gross Weight Correction for Latitude/Altitude
Latitude/Altitude Correction Table
Deg/Feet 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
90 0.99736 0.99746 0.99756 0.99765 0.99775 0.99784 0.99794 0.99803
85 0.99740 0.99750 0.99760 0.99769 0.99779 0.99788 0.99798 0.99807
80 0.99752 0.99762 0.99771 0.99781 0.99791 0.99800 0.99810 0.99819
75 0.99772 0.99781 0.99791 0.99800 0.99810 0.99820 0.99829 0.99839
70 0.99798 0.99808 0.99817 0.99827 0.99836 0.99846 0.99855 0.99865
65 0.99831 0.99840 0.99850 0.99859 0.99869 0.99878 0.99888 0.99898
60 0.99868 0.99878 0.99887 0.99897 0.99906 0.99916 0.99926 0.99935
55 0.99910 0.99919 0.99929 0.99939 0.99948 0.99958 0.99967 0.99977
50 0.99954 0.99964 0.99973 0.99983 0.99993 1.00002 1.00012 1.00021
45 1.00000 1.00010 1.00019 1.00029 1.00038 1.00048 1.00058 1.00067
40 1.00046 1.00055 1.00065 1.00075 1.00084 1.00094 1.00103 1.00113
35 1.00090 1.00100 1.00109 1.00119 1.00129 1.00138 1.00148 1.00157
30 1.00132 1.00142 1.00151 1.00161 1.00170 1.00180 1.00190 1.00199
25 1.00170 1.00179 1.00189 1.00198 1.00208 1.00218 1.00227 1.00237
20 1.00202 1.00212 1.00221 1.00231 1.00241 1.00250 1.00260 1.00269
15 1.00228 1.00238 1.00248 1.00257 1.00267 1.00277 1.00286 1.00296
10 1.00248 1.00258 1.00267 1.00277 1.00286 1.00296 1.00306 1.00315
5 1.00260 1.00269 1.00279 1.00289 1.00298 1.00308 1.00318 1.00327
0 1.00264 1.00273 1.00283 1.00293 1.00302 1.00312 1.00322 1.00331

Example of weighing the same airplane mass in two locations:

1. Latitude = 45 deg. 2. Latitude = 0 deg.
Altitude = sea level Altitude = sea level
Airplane weight = 800,000 LB Airplane weight = 797,894 LB
Airplane mass = 24,865 slugs 2,106 LB lighter than at 45 deg.
Airplane mass is still 24,865 slugs
Need to adjust airplane weight at location two by +0.26% so that recorded
Weight std g produces the same mass as in location one. A-13
Calculation of Moments and C.G.

A-14
 Center of Mass/Gravity

Center of Mass/Gravity: The single point at which, for

practical purposes, the entire mass of an object may be
considered to be concentrated; the balancing point of the
entire object

Applies to
simple objects

Or, complex objects

A-15
 Calculation of Force

The reaction force about any given point (of a

system in equilibrium) due to an applied force is
equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to any
applied loads.

d F

Force = F
A-16
 Calculation of Force

The total force about any given point due to the

application of a number of forces can be determined
by adding together the forces produced by each
individual force.
F1
d1 d2 F2

d3
F F3

Total force = (F1) + (F2) - (F3)

A-17
 Calculation of Moment

The moment about any given point (of a system in

equilibrium) due to an applied force can be
determined by multiplying the force by the distance
between its point of application and the given point.

d F

M
Clockwise moment about the intersection point between
the board and the wall due to force F:
Moment = F * d
A-18
 Calculation of Moment

The total moment about any given point due to the

application of a number of forces can be determined
by adding together the moments produced by each
individual force.
F1
d1 d2 F2

d3
M F3

Total clockwise moment about the intersection point

between the board and the wall due to the combined forces:
Total moment = (F1 * d1) + (F2 * d2) - (F3 * d3)
A-19
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Center of gravity, C.G., is the point around which no
motion or rotation occurs if the object, or group of
objects, is theoretically supported at that point.
The sum of the forces and moments produced by
the distribution of weight of a group of objects about
their combined C.G. would be equal to zero if the
objects could be supported at exactly that location.
Balanced, uniform beam of length L

center of gravity of beam

L/2
L
A-20
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Balanced, uniform beam with unequal weights set asymmetrically
about balance point.

100 lb
50 lb
beam wt = 20 lb

??
L

Where should the support be located in order to balance this

group of objects (in other words, where is the C.G., the balance
point, of the combined objects)?
A-21
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
To determine the weight and location of the C.G. for a group
of objects we need to determine the point at which the
group of objects would be in balance if they were supported
at that location.
This location can be determined by
- Choosing a reference datum and a + and sign convention
- Sum the total weight of the system
- Determine the moment produced by each object about that datum
- Sum all of the moments of the system
- Determining the CG location by dividing the total moment by the
total weight

total weight * balance location = (F1 * d1) + (F2 * d2) + (F3 * d3) +.
total weight * balance location = total moment
balance location = total moment total weight
A-22
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
100 lb
Chosen 50 lb
Reference
Datum beam wt = 20 lb

2
5 .9
D
5.9
8
Weight is
Positive (Moment about reference datum
Down = wt x dist. from datum)
weight 1 = 50 moment 1 = 50 x 2 = 100
weight 2 = 20 moment 2 = 20 x 5 = 100
Upward force provided weight 3 = 100 moment 3 = 100 x 8 = 800
by the support Total weight = 170 Total moment = 1000 To be in balance,
moment provided by
support must be
Total weight x balance location = total moment equal, but opposite,
170 x D = 1000 to this moment
D = 1000 / 170
Balance pt for this system D = 5.9 or .9 to the right of the beam midpoint A-23
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Datum

Choice of 100 lb
50 lb Chosen
Reference
Datum beam wt = 20 lb Reference
location does Datum
not matter! 1
.9 3.1
D
The balance 4
point will be 7 Weight is
determined (Moment about reference datum Positive
to be in the = wt x dist. from datum) Down
same
weight 1 = 50 moment 1 = 50 x 7 = 350
location. weight 2 = 20 moment 2 = 20 x 4 = 80
Upward force provided weight 3 = 100 moment 3 = 100 x 1 = 100
by the support Total weight = 170 Total moment = 530 To be in balance,
moment provided by
support must be
Total weight x balance location = total moment equal, but opposite,
170 x D = 530 to this moment
D = 530 / 170
Balance pt for this system D = 3.1 or .9 to the right of the beam midpoint A-24
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Datum

Choice of 100 lb
50 lb
Reference
Datum beam wt = 20 lb
location does
not matter!
3 .9
The balance D
3.9
point will be 6
determined Weight is
Positive (Moment about reference datum
to be in the = wt x dist. from datum)
Down
same
weight 1 = 50 moment 1 = 50 x 0 = 0
location. weight 2 = 20 moment 2 = 20 x 3 = 60
Upward force provided weight 3 = 100 moment 3 = 100 x 6 = 600
And where
by the support To be in balance,
Total weight = 170 Total moment = 660
we pick the moment provided by
datum can support must be
be helpful. Total weight x balance location = total moment equal, but opposite,
170 x D = 660 to this moment
D = 660 / 170
Balance pt for this system D = 3.9 or .9 to the right of the beam midpoint A-25
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
So how can we apply this knowledge to airplanes? The
method will be the same as we have just learned:
Sum up the individual weights to get the total weight
Calculate the moments (about the datum) for each item
Sum up the individual moments to get the total moment
Divide the total moment by the total weight to get the CG
(Distance from selected
The format can be as follows: reference datum)

Item Weight CG Moment

Item #1 wt1 Xcg1 wt1 * Xcg1
Item #2 wt2 Xcg2 wt2 * Xcg2
. .

Total for 2 items Sum wts Sum Moments Sum Moments

Sum wts
A-26
 Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Now lets try an airplane example:
If a new slide is added at the forward door (+50 lbs at CG
400) and new slide is added at the aft door (+60 lbs at
CG 1400) are added to an airplane, what is the total
weight and CG for the addition of these two slides?

Item Weight CG Moment

Forward Slide 50 400.0 20000
Aft Slide 60 1400.0 .
84000 .

Total for 2 slides 110 lbs 945.5 in 104000

in - lbs

(104000 in-lbs) / (110 lbs) = 945.5 in

A-27
 Exercise 1

Calculating Moments and

Determining C.G. Location

A-28
Definition of M.A.C.

A-29
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord

The C.G. location of an airplane is often provided in

terms of the airplanes mean aerodynamic chord, M.A.C.
In the purist sense, the M.A.C. is the theoretical chord of
an untapered, unswept (rectangular) wing having the
same wing area and aerodynamic forces and
characteristics as the actual wing. In this sense it would
be like an average chord in the aerodynamic sense, not
in the geometric sense.
It is customary, and acceptably accurate, to consider the
M.A.C. to be equivalent to the mean geometric chord of
the wing. The error in doing so is negligible.
In weight and balance work, the significance of the
M.A.C. is just as a means of expressing location.
A-30
Mean Aerodynamic Chord

A-31
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord and Balance Arms
airplane
datum
In weight and balance work,
the significance of m.a.c. is
just as a means of lemac =
expressing location. xxx.x inches
balance
We express center of gravity arm
in terms of % m.a.c.
m.a.c. 0%
m.a.c. =
100% xxx.x inches

Distance from airplane datum

is called balance arm, BA.
We can convert between BA
and % m.a.c. as follows:
BA lemac * 100 = % m.a.c.
m.a.c.
A-32
 The Mean Aerodynamic Chord
and the CG index
Airplane c.g. is often expressed in terms of %m.a.c.

BA of airplane c.g.
Datum for B.A.

lemac

Where: BA is the balance arm of the airplanes c.g.

c.g. is in terms of %m.a.c.
A-33
 Values of M.A.C. and LEMAC
for Various Boeing Models

lemac m.a.c.
Airplane Model (in.) (in.)

737-200/-300/-400/-500 625.6 134.5

737600/-700/-800/900 627.1 155.8
747 all models 1258.0 327.8
757 all models 991.9 199.7
767 all models 913.2 237.5
777 all models 1174.5 278.5
787-8 1029.8 246.9

A-34
Shear Loads and Bending Loads

A-35
 Shear Loads and Bending Loads
To keep any segment of a beam in equilibrium when an
external force is applied to it, there must be forces
internal to the beam itself which are equal and opposite
to the applied load.
Load
d

Section A
These internal forces can be categorized as shear
forces and bending forces.
To visualize these different forces, let us take a sectional
cut through the beam, and lets look at the forces
involved at that section. A-36
 Shear Loads and Bending Loads

Load
Section A

X ft
Reaction
Moment

Reaction Load

The applied Load equals the Reaction Load.

The applied Load results in a Reaction Moment. The

magnitude of the Reaction Moment equals Load * (X ft).

A-37
 Shear Loads and Bending Loads
Section A

Section A
Load Load

Tension
Compression

Shearing forces act tangentially to the applied load

(similar to the force of friction acting tangentially to the
motion of an object). Each section of the beam must
support the adjacent section in response to the load.
Bending forces act perpendicularly to the applied load,
and result from the moment caused by the load. These
forces cause tension and compression within the beam,
to offset the moment caused by the applied load.
Now, lets use a few examples to illustrate how these
forces vary along the beam in response to applied loads. A-38
 90 lb
15 ft
5 ft 5 ft 5 ft
Example
Loading #1

Section A
Section C

Section B
Section A 90 lb

5 ft

Section C
90 lb 450 ft-lb
15 ft
90 lb
1350
ft-lb Section B
90 lb 90 lb
10 ft

900 ft-lb
90 lb
A-39
 90 lb

Example
Loading #1 15 ft

We can plot these two forces versus the distance from the
wall to see the complete effect along the beam.

Shear 90
Force
(lb)
0
1350

Bending
Moment
(ft-lb)
0
Distance from Wall A-40
 30 lb 30 lb 30 lb

Example 5 ft
Loading #2 10 ft
15 ft

shear force at intersection with wall = 30 + 30 + 30 = 90 lb (No Change)

bending moment about intersection = 30 (15) + 30 (10) + 30 (5)
= 900 ft-lb (33% decrease from Ex. #1)
Shear Example #1 loading
90
Force 60
(lb) 30
0
1350

Bending 900 Exa

mp l
Moment 750 e #1
load
(ft-lb) 450 ing

0
Distance from Wall A-41
 Shear Loads and Bending Loads

Now, lets relate these concepts to the loads on an

actual airplane structure.

A-42
Shear and Bending: Body Loads

A-43
 Shear and Bending: Body Loads

Tension Tension

Compression Compression

GALLEY CARGO CARGO GALLEY

PASS PASS
OEW OEW

BODY AIR
LOAD BODY AIRLOAD

TAIL LOAD

A-44
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads

A-45
 Shear and Bending: Wing Loads

Compression Compression

Tension Tension

ENGINE ENGINE

FUEL FUEL

WING WING
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE

AIRL S
OAD
I RL OAD
S A

A-46
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads

ENGINE ENGINE

FUEL FUEL

WING WING
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE

AIRL S
OAD OAD
S AIRL

BODY WEIGHT AND AIRLOADS

2.5g
AIRL L OADS
OAD
S AIR
2.5g

A-47
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads

Video of 777 Wing Ultimate Load

Destruction Test

A-48
 Exercise 2

Calculating Shear and Bending

A-49
 End of
General Definitions and Concepts

A-50