Grammar Guide Breakdown of English Grammar Rules

1
OVERVIEW
Unit 1
Parts of Speech
Parts of a Sentence
Unit 2
Noun
Pronoun
Adjectives
Unit 3
Verb
Adverb
Tenses
Unit 4
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Articles
Unit 5
Modals
Punctuation
Interrogatives
Question Tags
Unit 6
Idioms
Phrasal Verbs
Confusing words
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Contents
PARTS OF A SENTENCE.......................................................................................................................................... 5
How does it all fit together? ............................................................................................................................. 5
PARTS OF SPEECH ................................................................................................................................................. 9
NOUNS ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Types of Noun ................................................................................................................................................ 12
PRONOUNS ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Types............................................................................................................................................................... 17
Pronoun reference ......................................................................................................................................... 19
ADJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Positioning ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
The Royal Order of Adjectives ....................................................................................................................... 22
Types of adjectives ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Degrees of Comparison .................................................................................................................................. 24
VERBS .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Transitive ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
Intransitive ..................................................................................................................................................... 25
Auxiliary .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Conjugation of verbs ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Regular Verbs ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Irregular Verbs................................................................................................................................................ 27
ADVERBS ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Form................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Types............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Position of Adverbs ........................................................................................................................................ 29
TENSES ................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Past Tense....................................................................................................................................................... 31
Present Tense ................................................................................................................................................. 32

Future Tense ................................................................................................................................................... 32
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Semester I | Verbal Ability I
Usage .............................................................................................................................................................. 33
Comparison .................................................................................................................................................... 36
CONJUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 37
Coordinating conjunction .............................................................................................................................. 37
Subordinating conjunction............................................................................................................................. 38
Correlative conjunction.................................................................................................................................. 39
Conjunctive adverbs....................................................................................................................................... 39
PREPOSITIONS..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Positio of p epositio pla e efo e i a se te e ................................................................................ 41
How to choose what to use? ......................................................................................................................... 41

Based on the transitive verb .......................................................................................................................... 41
Based on the intransitive verb ....................................................................................................................... 42
Based on the verb that take both forms ....................................................................................................... 42
Comparing At, In and On with respect to Time and Place ............................................................................ 42
Denoting time................................................................................................................................................. 42
Relative position ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Direction of Movement.................................................................................................................................. 44
About, By, With .............................................................................................................................................. 44
INTERJECTIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 45
ARTICLES ............................................................................................................................................................. 46
Choosing the right article ............................................................................................................................... 46
A, AN ............................................................................................................................................................... 46
THE .................................................................................................................................................................. 46
NO ARTICLE..................................................................................................................................................... 47
Some special points........................................................................................................................................ 47
USAGE ............................................................................................................................................................. 49
MODALS .............................................................................................................................................................. 50
What are Modal Verbs? ................................................................................................................................. 50
PUNCTUATION .................................................................................................................................................... 53
INTERROGATIVES ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Yes No Questions / Closed Ended Questions ............................................................................................. 57
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Wh- Questions / Open Ended Questions ...................................................................................................... 58
QUESTION TAGS.................................................................................................................................................. 59
Form................................................................................................................................................................ 59
IDIOMS ................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Why should we learn idioms?........................................................................................................................ 61
How can we understand new idioms when we read or hear them? ........................................................... 61
What should we do when we find a new idiom? .......................................................................................... 62
PHRASAL VERBS .................................................................................................................................................. 66
What are phrasal verbs? ................................................................................................................................ 66
Why are phrasal verbs important? ................................................................................................................ 66

What can I do to help myself master phrasal verbs?.................................................................................... 66
PHRASAL VERBS WITH AND WITHOUT OBJECTS ........................................................................................... 66
POSITION OF THE OBJECT .............................................................................................................................. 67
THREE-PART VERBS ........................................................................................................................................ 67
COMMON PHRASAL VERBS............................................................................................................................ 68
CONFUSING WORDS ........................................................................................................................................... 73
INTRODUCTION TO CONFUSING WORDS ...................................................................................................... 73
CATEGORIES OF CONFUSING WORDS ........................................................................................................... 73
IRREGULAR WORDS ....................................................................................................................................... 73
WORDS WITH MULTIPLE MEANINGS ............................................................................................................ 74
TYPES OF QUESTIONS..................................................................................................................................... 74
LIST OF COMMONLY CONFUSING WORDS .................................................................................................... 74
PRACTICE! ....................................................................................................................................................... 77

PARTS OF A SENTENCE
How does it all fit together?
Subject
Sentence
Complements Verb
Subject
The subject is Who or What is completing the action of the sentence.
It can be either a noun or a pronoun.
Often it appears at the beginning of the sentence.
Verb
The verb can show action -- either mental or physical action.
It can also show state of being .
Action Verbs
Types of Mental Action Types of Physical Action
1. To Think 1. To Sing
2. To Feel 2. To Dance
3. To Dream 3. To Play
4. To Believe 4. To Work
5. To Remember 5. To Juggle
6. To Understand 6. To Laugh

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Linking Verbs
Certain verbs are always used as linking Certain verbs can be used as either action
verbs or linking verbs
1. Forms of To Be: is, am, are, 1. Sensory verbs: to feel, to taste, to

was, were, be, being, been smell, to sound, to look
2. To seem 2. To grow
Action or Linking Verbs?

Since some verbs can be used as either type of verb, how can we decide how the verb is being used --
as an action verb or as a linking verb?
If the subject is actually performing the action described, the verb is being used as an action
verb.
Whether the verb is being used to describe the subject in some way, or it is being used as a
linking verb.
Example: Action Verb

Jennifer tasted the freshly baked bread.
(Notice that Jennifer, the subject, is performing the action of tasting of that wonderful bread!)
Example: Linking Verb
The freshly baked bread tasted terrific.
(Notice that now the verb is describing how wonderful that bread tasted; the bread is NOT doing the tasting
this time.)
Sentence Complements
Sentence Complements complete the meaning conveyed by the subject and the verb
Sentence Complements can be any one of the following: Direct Objects, Indirect Objects, Predicate
Nouns (also called Predicate Nominatives), or Predicate Adjectives.
How can we figure out which sentence complement is being used?
Sentence Complements are determined by the verb
Action verbs take certain types of sentence complements
Linking verbs take other types of sentence complements
Complements for Action Verbs

Action Verbs will have: Direct objects and Indirect objects
Example: Mrs. Verma gave the class the test.
Direct object: the test Indirect object: the class
Direct Objects follow an action verb, and they receive the action of the verb

1. Direct Objects answer who or what after an action verb

2. In the example, Mrs. Verma gave the class the test, who or what did Mrs. Verma give?? The
test. So, the test is the direct object in that sentence.
Indirect Objects follow an action verb, and tell to whom or for whom the action was done.
1. Indirect Objects come before the direct object in the sentence.
2. In order to have an Indirect Object, there must be a direct object.
3. In the example, Mrs. Verma gave the class the test, to whom or for whom did Mrs. Verma
give the test?? The class. So, the class is the indirect object in that sentence.
HINT: There is a test that can be used for indirect objects!

Since Indirect Objects answer to whom or for whom an action was done, they can be changed into
prepositional phrases and moved to the end of the sentence.
Mrs. Verma gave the class the test. OR Mrs. Verma gave the test to the class.
Complements for Linking Verbs

Linking Verbs will have:
Predicate Nouns OR Predicate Adjectives
Notice that you can only have a Predicate Noun or a Predicate. You cannot have both in the same
sentence.
Predicate Noun
Predicate Nouns rename the subject. They will most ofte follo a fo of the e to e o to e o e .
Example: Mr. Price is our principal.
HINT: There is a test that can be used for predicate nouns!
Since Predicate nouns rename the subject, they can be interchanged with the subject and the sentence will
still say the same thing.
Mr. Price is our principal. OR Our principal is Mr. Price.
Predicate Adjective
Predicate Adjectives describe the subject. They will follow any linking verb. Be careful of sensory linking
verbs. Example: Mr. Bush grew angry while driving.
IMPORTANT: One Final Reminder!

No Verb MUST HAVE a Sentence Complement! Some Verbs express complete ideas on their own!
To Conclude: Sentences have subjects, verbs, and complements
Action verbs will have: Direct objects and Indirect objects
Linking verbs will have: Predicate Nouns and Predicate Adjectives
Put all of these parts together, a d ou ill ha e .. A COMPLETE SENTENCE!

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What is a subject? What is a predicate?
What is a phrase? a noun, verb, or preposition with all its modifiers. It does not have a subject and verb
which agree.
What is a clause? a group of words that has at least one subject and one predicate, and the verb and
subject always agree. Independent clause expresses complete meaning unlike a dependent clause.

PARTS OF SPEECH
This chapter provides a very basic introduction to the concept of parts of speech in English. Actually,
the study of parts of speech can be quite complicated and involved, but the purpose of this chapter
is to give the students a working vocabulary and a way to improve their grasp of grammar.
There are nine parts of speech, which are
1) Nouns 4) Adjectives 7) Articles

2) Verbs 5) Adverbs 8) Prepositions
3) Pronouns 6) Conjunctions 9) Interjections
It is important to understand that every word in a sentence has a job to do, a role in the sentence.
Nouns(Person, Place, Thing or Quality)
Person: Ms. Grace likes to eat spinach.

Place: Mission is an old town.
Thing: To cook you need a couple of pots.
Quality: Honesty is a great value to possess.
Verb shows action or state of being

Action: He was running through the forest.
State of being: He was sad that particular morning.
Pronoun: takes the place of a noun

Stephen was studying for the mid-term exam when he ealized that it as th ee o lo k i the
morning.
(There are actually many types of pronouns: personal, interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite,
relative, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal)
Adjective: describes a noun
The beautiful woman only wanted a couple of pairs of shoes.
The rainy day made us even sadder.
Adverb: describes a verb
The little girl walked happily through the park.
The orphan hungrily ate the hot stew.

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Conjunctions: words that join words, phrases or sentences
Matt and Marie loved to cook.

You will go to school or you will fail.
I am happy because I just received my check.
It has been cloudy since the morning.
Article: There are only three articles -- the, a, an

(Actually, articles are adjectives and not a different part of speech)
The bicycle was not only red but shiny.

A yellow moon always appears in October.
An excellent student, Kerry passed all his exams.
Preposition: A word or phrase that shows the relationship between the noun that it takes as an
object and some other word in the sentence.
The cat was on the table.

The dog was under the table.
These are some common prepositions:
For on to up
at under above toward
With between in behind
From upon into off
Interjections: expressive words
Wow, you knocked that ball out of the park.

Oh, you really need to take care of yourself.
Huh, what did you say?
Ah, now I understand the problem.
Identify each word in the following sentence
The beautiful queen was walking slowly on the cool lawn, and she was reading a long book about
knights and kings which she enjoyed.

Solution
The beautiful queen was walking slowly on
article adjective noun verb verb adverb preposition

the cool lawn, and she was reading
article adjective noun conjunction pronoun verb verb

a long book about knights and kings which
article adjective noun preposition noun conjunction noun preposition

she enjoyed.
Pronoun verb
Identify parts of speech
1. The queen knew that she would be the only pretty woman at the party.
2. The king did not know if he was going to make the cake, and he was afraid to tell the queen.
3. The thin waitress told the customers that they desperately needed to go on a diet.
. I a a iles e e da , a d I ould t lose a pou d.
5. This quiz was a piece of cake.

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NOUNS
A noun is a word, which is used as the name of a person, animal, place, bird, idea, emotion or thing.
Types of Noun
Proper Nouns Plural Nouns
Countable/Uncountable Nouns Compound Nouns
Common Noun Collective Nouns
Concrete Abstract Nouns
Predicate Gerunds
Proper Noun
Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific one-of-a-kind items, and they begin with
capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence. There is no article in front of proper
nouns except The Jo es Jo e s fa il a d The Jo es ust e itte i plu al fo . The U ited tates
the o d tates is i plu al fo . Other exceptions are The Pacific Ocean, The Sahara, The Vatican, and
The White House.
Examples
People : Thompson, Joseph, John, Jane, Jason
Animals: Monkey, Cow, Buffalo, Cat
Things : IKEA office furniture, Toyota, Honda
Places : KMUTT, Bangkok, Thailand, Australia
Time : January, Saturday, Christmas
Common Noun
A common noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.These are
the common nouns for things.
People : Man, Woman, Male, Female, Boy, Girl

Animals: Ant, Elephant, Bird, Cat, Dog
Things : Table, Chair, Desk, Television, Door
Places : Building, Park, Stadium, School, Company
Emotion: Fear, Love, Hate
Time : Minute, Hour, Year

Countable Noun
Countable Noun is a noun that can be counted. It may or may not have a shape.
Shape : Dog, Chair, Table, Student, Door

No Shape: Day, Month, Year, Journey
Activity : Job, Assignment
Q: Countable Nouns, singular or plural?

A: Countable Nouns have 2 forms
Singular: Dog, Country, Day, Year

Plural : Dogs, Countries, Days, Years
Singular Countable Nouns Plural Countable Nouns
They must have a determiner or an article in The determiner or an article depends on the
front of them. situation.
I want an orange. I like to water the flowers.

Where is the book? Cats are adorable pets.
Do you want to watch this movie? I want those books on the table.
Examples of Countable Noun
There are at least twenty Italian restaurants in Little Italy.

Megan took a lot of photographs when she went to the Grand Canyon.
Your book is on the kitchen table.
How many candles are on that birthday cake?
You have several paintings to study in art appreciation class.
Theres a ig ro dog running around the neighborhood.
Uncountable Noun
Uncountable Noun is a noun that can be counted. It can be a very small thing or a very big thing.
Thing =Milk, Sugar, Salt, Furniture

Emotion =Anger, Happiness, Knowledge
Language =English, German, Spain
Subject =Mathematics, Physics
Activity =Swimming, Eating
Others = News, Money, Mail, Work, Gossip, Education, Weather, Research, Traffic, Breakfast,
Permission

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Q: Uncountable Nouns, Singular or plural?
A: Uncountable Nouns have 2 forms
Most of uncountable nouns must be written in If uncountable nouns act as the subject of the
singular form without an article. sentence, it must be followed by the singular Verb to
be.
I have bread and butter for my breakfast.
Butter is one of diary product.
We cannot live without air and water.
Butter and cheese are made from milk.
Q: How can we count the uncountable nouns?

A: i pl add the o tai e i f o t of u ou ta le ou s
A cup of coffee. Two glasses of water. A tablespoon of sugar. A set of furniture.
Examples of Uncountable Noun
There is no more water in the pond.

Please help yourself to some cheese.
I need to find information about Pulitzer Prize winners.
You seem to have a high level of intelligence.
Please take good care of your equipment.
Let s get id of the garbage.
Nouns that can both be countable and uncountable
Some of the nouns can be countable and uncountable for example:
Glass: Paper:
Please give me a glass of water. I read two papers every morning.
That container is made of glass. This flowers are made of paper.
Where are my glasses? Show me your paper.
Compound Noun
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns in English
are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives
Noun + Noun = Bed + Room = Bedroom
Verb + Noun = Swimming + Pool = Swimming Pool
Preposition + Noun = Under + Ground = Underground
Noun + Verb = Hair + Cut = Haircut

The e e 3 ways to write a compound noun.
Write 2 words together. - Toothpaste, Bedroom, Blackboard
Write 2 words separate by hyphen - Six-Pack, Mother-in-law
Write 2 word separately - Swimming pool, Full moon, Tool box.
Collective Noun
A collective noun is noun that use to name something that form in group or in collection. They are
names of collections or the word that use for define a groups of objects.
Structure: Collective noun + of + common noun
People = A crowd of people

Animals = A swarm of bees
Places = A union of countries
Things = A network of computers
Usually examples for collective nouns are given in a phase form.
A bunch of grapes A swarm of bees
The words bunch and swarm are collective nouns. The words grapes and bees are not.
The e e fo s of olle ti e ou - Singular and Plural
The average British family has 3.6 members.

The family are always fighting among themselves.
Examples of Collective Noun
an army of soldiers a gang of thieves a class of pupils a caravan of gypsies
a bevy of beauties/girls a horde of savages a party of friends a choir of singers
a band of musicians a host of angels a pack of thieves a body of men
a band of robbers a line of kings/rulers a group of singers a group of dancers
a board of directors a mob of rioters a pack of rascals a bunch of crooks
Concrete Noun
Concrete Noun is opposite to abstract noun. Actually Concrete noun is similar to Common noun.A
concrete noun refers to things with physical properties. This noun can be sensed using one of our five
senses.
Examples: paper, sun, light, chair, people

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Abstract Noun
Abstract nouns are words that name things that are not concrete. Your five physical senses cannot
detect an abstract noun ou a t see it, s ell it, taste it, hea it, o tou h it. I esse e, a a st a t
noun is a quality, a concept, an idea, or maybe even an event.
Abstract nouns and concrete nouns are usually defined in terms of one another.
Abstract Nouns from Verb Abstract Nouns from Nouns Abstract Nouns from Adjective
Decision To decide Friendship - Friend Vacancy - Vacant
Imagination To imagine Childhood - Child Wisdom - Wise
Predicate Noun
Predicate ou is ou that follo e to e . It use to defi e the su je t.
He is a mathematician. (Mathematician is predicate noun)

We are engineers. (Engineers is predicate noun)
She is a Prime Minster. (Prime Minster is a predicate noun)
Gerunds
Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. The gerund is a common part of speech
that most of us use every day, whether we know it or not.
Examples
Swimming i the o ea has ee ha o s passio si e she as fi e ea s old.
Let s go dancing at the club tonight.
Dreaming is an act at the subconscious level.
Holly decided that flying a o e the louds as the ost i edi le e pe ie e she d e e had.
Bill avoided doing his math assignment because the World Series was on.

PRONOUNS
The objectives of this chapter are
To identify types of pronouns

To use pronoun correctly in writing
Definition
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun, a group of words acting as a noun, or another
pronoun. The word or words that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. The pronoun must match
the antecedent in number and gender.
Types
Personal Intensive Relative
Possessive Demonstrative
Indefinite
Reflexive Interrogative
Personal
They refer to a specific person or thing by indicating the person speaking, the person being addressed,
or any other person or thing being discussed.
Cases:
Subject: I, you, he, she, it, we, they Object: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Possessive
They are used to indicate possession or ownership
Singular Plural
My, mine Our, ours
Your, yours Your, yours
His, her, hers, its Their, theirs
Reflexive
It refers or reflects back to a noun or pronoun already mentioned. It adds new information and cannot
be removed from the sentence.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves

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Reflexive
pronoun
I consider myself to be a great student.
Antecedent
Intensive
These pronouns add emphasis and they can be removed from the sentence.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves
Intensive pronoun
Mom drove me to school herself.
Antecedent
Demonstrative
They point out specific persons, places, things, or ideas.
That is my car. Those are his shoes.
Singular Plural
This (near) these (near)
That (far) those (far)
Interrogative
They are used to form questions.
Who Whose Which
Whom What
Whose jacket is this? Which of those girls do you like?
Relative
They are used to begin a special subject-verb word group called a subordinate clause.
Who, whoever Whom, whomever Which, whichever
Whose That What, whatever
Whoever borrowed my book needs to return it.

Pronoun reference
What does reference mean?
When you refer to something, you point to something specific.
A reference is a way of pointing out a connection or relationship between two things.
If ou efe e es a e u lea , ou eade s a d liste e s a t ake o e tio s.
A pronoun stands for, or refers to, another word or word group, called the antecedent.
Example - Saurabh wanted to visit the museum, but it had closed for the day.
Generally, the meaning of a pronoun is clear only when the reader knows to which word or
word group the pronoun refers
Shambhavi assured Vinay that she would help him in managing the co-curricular activities.
The meaning of she is clear because we know she refers to Shambhavi.
The meaning of him is clear because we know him refers to Vinay.
A pronoun reference is sometimes unclear because the pronoun and its antecedent do not
agreein number, gender, person, or case.
Unclear Simran is always thinking about holidays. It seems to be her only interest.
Clear Simran is always thinking about her holidays. They seem to be her only interest.
Clear Simran is always thinking about her leisure time. It seems to be her only interest.
Pronouns and antecedents

The noun that a pronoun stands for -
Lambert purchased an airline ticket, and now he a t fi d it.
Lambert is the a te ede t fo he. ai li e ti ket is the a te ede t fo it.
Number
A pronoun should agree in number with its antecedent. A word that refers to one thing is singular. A
word that refers to more than one thing is plural.
I me my, mine
you you your, yours Singular personal pronouns
he, she, it him, her, it his, hers, its
we us our, ours
you you your, yours Plural personal pronouns
they them their, theirs

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Examples
Lambert purchased an airline ticket, and now he a t fi d it.
Lambert is singular; the pronoun he is also singular.

Airline ticket is singular; the pronoun it is also singular.
Airline passengers must show their photo-identification cards to the ticket agent.
Airline passengers is plural; the pronoun their is also plural.
Gender
Some singular pronouns indicate gender.
Masculine pronouns refer to males.
Feminine pronouns refer to females.
Neuter pronouns refer to places, things, ideas and sometimes animals
Masculine Feminine Neuter

he she it
him her it
his her, hers its
himself herself itself
Examples-
Each passenger is responsible for getting his or her passport.
Each passenger is a singular genderless antecedent, so the singular pronoun his or her is
preferred usage.
The university has changed its recommendations for the new parking lot facility.
University is a singular neuter antecedent, so the singular neuter pronoun its is used.
Person
Person indicates whether a pronoun refers to
the one(s) speaking first person
I reminded myself to finish my chores.

the one(s) spoken to second person
Did you plant your garden by yourself?

the one(s) spoken about third person
They should be ashamed of themselves.

Examples
Incorrect: When a person turns twenty, your perspective on life changes in many ways. (The first half
of the sentence is written in third person, while the second half is in second person.)
Correct: When a person turns twenty, his or her perspective on life changes in many ways. (The entire
sentence is written in third person.)

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ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe or modify other words, making your writing and speaking much more
specific, and a whole lot more interesting. Words like small, blue, and sharp are descriptive, and they are
all examples of adjectives. Because adjectives are used to identify or quantify individual people and
unique things, they are usually positioned before the noun or pronoun that they modify. Some
sentences contain multiple adjectives.
Positioning
Before a noun - She has a beautiful handwriting
After a verb - Her handwriting is beautiful
The Royal Order of Adjectives
1. He was wearing a ________ shirt. 4. I used to drive ________ car.

A) dirty old flannel A) a blue old German
B) flannel old dirty B) an old German blue
C) old dirty flannel C) an old blue German
5. He recently married a ________
2. Pass me the ________ cups.
woman.
A) plastic big blue
A) young beautiful Greek
B) big blue plastic
B) beautiful young Greek
C) big plastic blue
C) beautiful Greek young
3. All the girls fell in love with the ________
6. This is a ________ movie.
teacher.
A) new Italian wonderful
A) handsome new American
B) wonderful Italian new
B) American new handsome
C) wonderful new Italian
C) new handsome American

7. She is a ________ supermodel. 9. He sat behind a ________ desk.

A) beautiful slim Brazilian A) big wooden brown
B) Brazilian beautiful slim B) big brown wooden
C) slim Brazilian beautiful C) wooden big brown
8. It's in the ________ container. 10. She gave him a ________ vase.
A) large blue metal A) small Egyptian black
B) blue large metal B) black Egyptian small
C) blue metal large C) small black Egyptian
Types of adjectives
Type Purpose Example
Descriptive These adjectives describe nouns that refer to Dangerous chemicals
action, state, or quality. Green vegetables
Quantity An adjective of quantity tells us the number He has eaten three apples.
(how many) or amount (how much) of a I dont have much money.
noun.
Demonstrative A demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, This red balloon is mine and
those) shows the noun it modifies is singular those three yellow; ones are
or plural and whether the position of the yours.
noun is near or far from the person who is These two fat cats have tails,
speaking or writing. A demonstrative but that thi at does t ha e
adjective also points out a fact about the a tail.
noun.
Possessive A possessive adjective expresses possession This must be your cap.
of a noun by someone or something. His arms have a few tattoos.
Possessive adjectives are the same as Its skin is dry and rough.
possessive pronouns
Adjectives as Some adjectives are used as nouns to The injured were in the
Noun describe groups of people. Each of these thousands.
groups follows the determiner the (definite Every year, millions join the
article). ranks of the unemployed
worldwide.
Compound Compound adjectives are used to modify A heart-breaking news.
adjectives nouns. They are called compound because An English-speaking country.
they are made up of two or more words,
usually with hyphens between them.
Adjectival An adjective clause (also called adjectival Students who work hard get
Clause clause) is a dependent clause which modifies good grades. (The adjective
a noun and usually begins with a relative clause who work hard
pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose) or modifies the noun students.)
a relative adverb (where, when, why). The book which you lent me
is very interesting.
(The adjective clause which
you lent me modifies the
noun the book.)

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Degrees of Comparison
The comparative form
When comparing two nouns, we use a comparative form of adjective to describe how one person or
thi g is he o pa ed to a othe pe so o thi g. Tha is used for such comparisons
Examples:
A hen's egg is bigger than a pigeon's egg. Our fingers are longer than our toes.
The superlative form
When comparing more than two nouns, we use a superlative form of adjective
He talks the loudest in his circle of friends. Bozo is the funniest clown in the circus
The absolute form

We use the absolute degree to describe a noun or to compare two equal things or persons.
My uncle is bald. My uncle is as bald as a cue ball.
His head is big. His head is as big as my head.
Activity
Describe the following the items using adjectives in the royal order

VERBS
A verb is an action or express word. It indicates the action in the present, past and future tenses. The
placement of verb in English is quite different from most of our regional languages.
Subject + Verb + Object
I + eat + my breakfast
Transitive
A Transitive Verb requires an object to complete its meaning.
Examples: --
(a) The hunter killed a bear. In a ea is the object of killed ".
(b) The scholar learned his lesson. In lesso is the object of lea ed".
Intransitive
An Intransitive Verb does not require an object to complete its meaning.
Examples: -- (a) He sleeps (b) We go.
No object can come after such verbs as sleep ", go etc.
Auxiliary
An Auxiliary Verb is used to help main verb. Auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb
(a) I shall go. (b) We have come.
Note: A verb that is helped by an auxiliary verb is called a Principal verb
In (a) shall " is an auxiliary verb used to help the verb " go " to form a future time.
In (b) "have " is an auxiliary verb used to help the verb " come " to express a time partly past and partly
present.
Generally questions with answers as Yes/No start with an auxiliary verb.

Wh- questions use auxiliary verb - What, where, why, when, which, how: Wh-word+ auxiliary verb +
subject + main verb
Ex: When will the train arrive?
In negative sentences the form taken is: Auxiliary verb + not + main verb
Ex: Does it not taste better now?
Common Errors with Auxiliary Verb

My cousin going to Dubai tomorrow. Why you came late?
He already left for work. he sa ou goi g i , is t it?

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Answers
My cousin is going to Dubai tomorrow Why did you come late?
He has already left for work She saw you going in, did t she?
Conjugation of verbs
Base Form be do have
Present is/ am/ are do/ does has
Past was/ were did had

Infinitive to be to do to have
Present Participle being doing having
Past Participle been done had
Present
Habitual Action I wake up at 6 am every morning
Universal Truth JAVA is a programming language
Facts or Generalization California is not in the United Kingdom
Scheduled events in near future Campus recruitment begins during the 7th semester.
Past
Action already completed More than 800 students got placed last year in LPU
Infinitive
To + verb forms infinitives
Past Participle
Formed by both regular and irregular verbs
Used along with helping verbs such as has, have, had
Example: The teacher had requested the students to maintain the decorum of the class
Present Participle
This is formed by adding -ing to the end of present verbs.
It is used with forms of the verb to be, such as am, is, are, was, or were.
This expresses an ongoing action
Regular Verbs
A regular verb forms we can add -d or -ed to the end of its base form. The present participle is formed
by adding -ing to the end of its base form and the past is formed by adding -ed. If the base form verb
ends with the letter -e, we can add only -d for past form verb and remove the -e then just add -ing for
the present participle.

Present Past Past Participle Present Participle
book booked booked booking

erase erased erased erasing
When a verb ends with a vowel followed by a consonant, the last consonant is doubled before adding -
ing or ed.
Present (V1) Past (V2) Past Participle (V3) Present Participle (V1-ing)
allot allotted allotted allotting
bat batted batted batting
Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs with similar present, past and past participle forms
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
beset beset beset besetting
broadcast broadcast Broadcast/ broadcasted broadcasting
burst burst burst bursting
Irregular verbs with similar past and past participle forms
behold beheld beheld beholding
beseech besought besought beseeching
Irregular verbs with similar present and past participle forms
come came come coming
overcome overcame overcome overcoming
Irregular verbs with three distinct forms
arise arose arisen arising
awake awoke awoken awakening
blow blew blown blowing
choose chose chosen choosing
do did done doing
Vo el ha ges fro i to a to u
Present Past Past Participle
begin began begun
drink drank drunk
ring rang rung
shrink shrank shrunk

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ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that describes or gives more information about a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, or even the entire sentence.
The word "adverb" comes for the Latin ad- (in addition) and verbum (word).
Adverbs usually answer the following questions

Where? Home. ("I went home.")
When? Yesterday. ("We met yesterday.")
How? Slowly. ("The turtle moves slowly.")
How often? Sometimes. ("Sometimes it stops responding.")
How long? Temporarily. ("She is staying with us temporarily."
How likely? Surely. ("Our team will surely win!")
To what degree? Very. ("She was very pleased.")
Ad e des i es
An adverb can describe a verb: She runs quickly.
An adverb can describe an adjective: She is so beautiful.
An adverb can describe another adverb: She smokes very rarely.
An adverb can describe an entire sentence: Obviously, you don't have to come.
Form
In many cases (but not always!) adverbs have the following form: Adjective + "-ly"
Examples:
Quick + ly = quickly Clever + ly = cleverly

Strange + ly = strangely Brave + ly = bravely
Dead + ly = deadly Real + ly = really
Sudden + ly = suddenly
When an adjective ends with "y" replace the "y" with an "i":
Heavy + ly = heavi + ly = heavily Happy + ly = happi + ly = happily
When the adjective ends with an "e" drop the "e":

True + ly = tru + ly = truly
However, there are many adverbs that do not end in "-ly": Very, home, too, well, never, sometimes,
and so forth.

Types
Adverbs of degree
Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost.
Adverbs of manner
Well, badly, nicely, slowly, loudly, quietly, happily, sadly, secretly, weakly.
Adverbs of place
Home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out.
Adverbs of time
Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently.
Adverbs of frequency
Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionally.
Adverbs of duration
Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly.
Adverbs of probability
Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely.
Comparative Adverbs
"Comparative" means "comparing something to something else. Comparative adverbs show us which
action or state is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth.
Examples: more, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther, and closer
Example sentences:
Maggie works out more seriously than Donna. You are better than this.
She eats less than her friends. We couldn't go slower even if we wanted to.
Superlative Adverbs
"upe lati e" ea s "of the highest deg ee. Superlative adverbs show us which action or state is the
best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples: Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest, and slowest.
Example sentences:
He knows best. He shouted the loudest so he won.
It was the most boring experience. He ran the slowest so he lost.
Position of Adverbs
Adverbs of place, manner, time, generally put after the verb
We gave immediately our reply. The worker has satisfactorily done his work.
We gave our reply immediately. The worker has done his work satisfactorily.

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The adverb enough is always placed after the word which it modifies.
Her mother was enough foolish believe it. The Indian army is enough strong to fight.
Her mother was foolish enough to believe it. The Indian army is strong enough to fight.
Adverbs of frequency which answer the question "how often?" and certain other verbs like
almost, already, hardly, nearly, just, quite are normally put between subject and verb.
They come to see me seldom. We try always to help him.
They seldom come to see me. We always try to help him.
'Very' is used before the present participles and the Adverbs and Adjectives of the Positive degree
and 'much' is used before the Adjectives and Adverbs of the Comparative degree.
I am much good now. I am very amazed to find you here.
I am much better now. I am much amazed to find you here.
He sang much sweetly. He arrived very sooner than expected.
He sang much more sweetly. He arrived much sooner than expected.
Too, Very: "Too" indicates excess. It should not be used in the above sense. It is better to use
'very'.
Geeta is too glad to meet you. Sunil is too humble.
Geeta is very glad to meet you. Sunil is very humble.
Ago and Since
He visited Allahabad since three years. He visited Allahabad three years ago.
After and since

Two years have passed after his mother expired. Two years have passed since his mother expired.
She has been confined to bed from Tuesday last. She has been confined to bed since Tuesday last.

TENSES
Past Tense
Simple Past Past Continuous
Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous

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Present Tense
Simple present and present continuous
Present prefect Present prefect continuous
Future Tense
Simple Future Future Continuous
Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous

Usage
Examples

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Overall Timeline with example

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Comparison

CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that connect 2 sentences or parts of sentences, acting as connectors.
I was going to see a movie, but I e ha ged i d.
he ould t de ide if she wanted the lemon tea or the rosehip tea.
Conjunctions connect thoughts, ideas, actions, nouns, clauses, etc.

Subject Noun being spoken about
Predicate Content being spoken about the subject
Phrase group of words that do not form a complete meaningful sentence
Example: a nice red shirt, on the roof, with care, has been snoring, to buy a car, her eyes on the clock
Clause group of words having at least one subject and one predicate. An independent clause expresses
complete meaning unlike a dependent clause.
Example: I am teaching Independent clause
While I am teaching Dependent
Coordinating conjunction
The coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join two independent clauses, or two nouns, or two verbs,
etc.
I will be late to the party, for I am working until seven.
Tom likes to read and write.
Sally does not like the mountains, nor does she like the ocean.
I wanted to ride my bike, but the tire was flat.
Fred wants peas or carrots for supper.
I love chocolate, yet I do not eat chocolate ice cream.
She was late to work, so her boss made her stay after five.
ACRONYM
F FOR A AND N NOR B BUT O OR Y YET S - SO
Rule 1
Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction when it is used to connect two independent clauses.
Tom walked the dog, so he grabbed the mail.
OR
Tom walked the dog, and he grabbed the mail.
Both parts of the sentence have a subject and verb (before and after the coordinating conjunction).
I want to go see a movie but my sister has my car. I want to go see a movie, but my sister has my car.

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Rule 2
When using a coordinating conjunction to connect two items, do not use a comma.
Example: Tom walked the dog and grabbed the mail.("Tom walked the dog" is an independent clause,
but "grabbed the mail" is not.)
She likes apples, and bananas. She likes apples and bananas.
My brother is young, but smart. My brother is young but smart.
Rule 3
When using a coordinating conjunction with a list of items (three or more in number), the comma
before the coordinating conjunction is optional.
Example with comma: She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn, and carrot.
Example without comma: She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn and carrot.
Subordinating conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions show a relationship between an independent and a dependent clause; like
cause-and-effect, and contrast.
Subordinating Conjunctions vs. Relative Pronouns
T ue elati e p o ou s a e that, ho a d hi h, a d the diffe from subordinating conjunctions

They act as the subject of a dependent clause whereas subordinating conjunctions do not. Subordinating
conjunctions are followed by the subject of their clause.
Examples: 1) John is the guy who came over for dinner last week.

He e, e ha e t o lauses. Joh is the gu is the ai lause, a d ho a e o e fo di e last

eek gi es us o e i fo atio a out Joh . The o d ho a ts as the su je t of the depe de t
clause.
2) We talked about music and movies while we ate.
We talked a out usi a d o ies is the ai lause, a d hile e ate gi es us o e i fo atio .
Ho e e , i this e a ple, oth lauses ha e the su je t e. The o d hile does ot a t as the
subject of the dependent clause.
Correlative conjunction
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together to join phrases or words that carry
equal importance within a sentence. When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree
Example: Every night, either loud music or fighting neighbors wake John from his sleep.
When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure that pronouns agree.
Example: Neither Debra nor Sally expressed her annoyance when the cat broke the antique lamp.
When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep parallel structure intact. Equal grammatical units
need to be incorporated into the entire sentence.
Example: Not only did Mary grill burgers for Michael, but she also fixed a steak for her dog, Vinny.
Examples of CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION
either . . . or We can go to either Greece or Spain for our holiday.

Its fi al offer you can either take it or leave it.
both . . . and Both rugby and football are popular in France.
Both English and Welsh are spoken in Wales.
not only . . . but also Not o l is he a professio al foot aller, ut hes also a su essful usi ess a .
not . . . but There are not two but three Baltic states: Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
In sports, what count is not the winning but the taking part.
neither . . . nor Neither Norway nor Switzerland is in the European Union.
Marriage is neither heaven nor hell, it is simply purgatory. (Abraham Lincoln)
whether . . . or Whether you love them or hate them, you have to admit that the Rolling Stones
are very popular.
I totall o fused I do t k o hether I o i g or goi g.
no sooner . . . than No sooner had I finished watering the garden than it started raining.
Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs which join two clauses. Conjunctive adverbs frequently (but not
necessarily) have a semi- olo efo e the . As the e o ju tio s i.e. o ds that joi t o thoughts
o ideas , it s est ot to use the at the egi i g of a se te e.
Please close the outer door; otherwise, the cold air comes in.
Conjunctive adverbs can also put a little break in the sentence, providing emphasis.
The new building will, furthermore, provide storage facilities as well as meeting space.
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The commas are used around the conjunctive adverb for emphasis. If the interruption in the sentence
should be weaker, just leave out the commas.
The new building will furthermore provide storage facilities as well as meeting space.
Examples
Also Meanwhile Moreover Hence
Besides Nonetheless Consequently
Accordingly Finally Instead Similarly
Subsequently Therefore However Still
Thus Indeed
Martha went to the market and bought fresh vegetables.

In this sentence, the conjunction and connects the two things Martha did.
Martha went to the market, and I went to the hardware store.

Here, and connects two sentences, preventing the choppiness which would arise if we used too many
short sentences. Conjunctions can also make lists.
I a t de ide et ee the lue shirt and the red shirt.
We barbequed hamburgers, hotdogs, and sausages.
I worked quickly yet am careful.
When using a conjunction, make sure that the parts which are being joined by the conjunction have a
parallel structure (i.e. that they use the same verb forms, etc.)Am careful is not in the same form as
quickly; this creates faulty parallelism. The verbs need to be in the same form.
I worked quickly yet carefully. I am quick yet careful.

The two adverbs modify the verb worked. The two adjectives modify the pronoun I.

PREPOSITIONS
Tell us the relationship between 2 things
Add information to a sentence
Construct Prepositional phrases Adjectival and adverbial
Denote space and time
Non exhaustive
Complex prepositions can theoretically be added to the language any time
Basically 2 types
- One word at, on, in, by, with
- Complex in front of, along with, out of
Read aloud!
The pla e fle a o e the loud, ehi d the loud, a ou d the loud, elo the loud, e eath the loud,
beside the cloud, beyond the cloud, into the cloud, near the cloud, outside the cloud, over the cloud, past
the loud, th ough the loud, to a d the loud, u de the loud, a d fi all di ed u de eath the loud.
Position of preposition pla e efore in a senten e

Before a noun or a noun phrase or ing form
In the class, At home, On the desk, On heating

Immediately after a verb
I am in the class, My mom is at home, CA4 answer papers are on my desk, Butter melts on heating
How to choose what to use?

Firstly, think about your intended meaning
Am I standing in front of the audience or am I walking along the aisle?
O e o o istake is A I sta di g before the audie e?
Based on the transitive verb

Did you enjoy the film?
I a t find her name on the list.
Suzanne took my car keys.
The book emphasizes the role of the arts in society.
Not: The book emphasizes on the role of the arts in society

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Based on the intransitive verb appear die lie sneeze

Suddenly Joss appeared in the doorway. arrive disappear live snow
I lie in bed.
The Sun rises in the East. come fall rain wait
I work at LPU. cough happen rise work

I live in Punjab.
Based on the verb that take both forms

Transitive Intransitive
I just a t eat hot food. What time do you want to eat?
He drives a van for a delivery firm. I learnt to drive when I was twenty.
My father left school when he was fourteen. We should leave now.
She won a competition and got a free trip to Copenhagen. How was the match? Did you win?
Prepositions Indicates
At, in, on, from..to, until, by, before, after, during, while Time
Since, for Point/ Duration of Time
At, on, in Place
Below, above, under, over, beneath, in front of, behind, opposite to Relative position of things
To, Across, along, down, into, off, over, under, out of, past, through Direction of movement
Comparing At, In and On with respect to Time and Place

Time Place
At Specific Relatively Specific
Meet me at 9 am Meet me at my desk
On Relatively Specific Relatively Specific
Meet me on Monday My cabin is on the first floor
In Nonspecific Specific
Meet me in the morning Meet me in my cabin
Denoting time
Since
Since denotes from a point of time in the past until now and usually comes after the present perfect
tense or present perfect continuous tense in a sentence
It has been raining since yesterday. I know him since 1980.

The schools have been closed since yesterday. We have been in this room since morning.

For
For denotes duration or time period
I am going home for 10 days. I know him for 10 years

I will go home for a week in December This session is for 60 minutes
Relative position
Solutions
1) In
2) On
3) Behind
4) Under
5) In front of
6) Next to
7) Between
8) Among

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Direction of Movement
About, By, With

About On the subject of something or somebody. You can make sentences like
I ould like to talk a out, thi k a out, speak a out, hear a out
By proximity, who or what does something, how something is done

Last night, I sat by my table to prepare the content by downloading images that were to be presented by
me.
With Company, Utility, Inclusion

I went with my friend to buy a sweatshirt with a I lost my key, I opened my lock with a wire.
hood.

INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or words that show feeling or emotion. If the interjection shows strong feeling, it
stands alone and is followed by an exclamation point.
Ex: Wow! That boat is big! Good grief! The sails are huge!
If the interjection shows mild feeling, it begins the sentence and is followed by a comma.
Ah, the breeze is nice. Well, lets go saili g!
Common Interjections
Hurray Hey Oh, no Well
Good grief Ah Oops Whew
Okay Oh Ouch Wow
Match the following appropriately
Wow! Those are some slobbery kisses. Good grief! Maggie would not go out in the
s o ithout he oat o .
Hurray! I caught another catfish.
Ah, I miss those days.

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ARTICLES
The articles are - A, An and The.
Articles modifies Nouns making them adjectives also.
The main thing to consider, when choosing an article, is whether or not the noun is countable, and
whether it is definite.
Choosing the right article
Cou ta le means that the noun can be made plural, e.g. book/books.
Defi ite means particular, specific or unique.
A, AN
If the noun is singular and countable, and this is the first time you have mentioned it, then you will
usually need the indefinite article: I bought a book we do not know which book.
There is a bird outside we do not know anything about the bird.
Measurements and rates also take the indefinite article: Three times a week
If the noun starts with a vowel sound, then the article an is used: an ear, an uncle, an hour
If the noun starts with a consonant sound, then the article a is used: a school, a university
THE
If your reader or listener understands what you are referring to, then you will usually need the
definite article: I bought a book last week. The book is about trees.
(You have just mentioned the book, so you both know which one.)
We went to a wedding yesterday. The bride wore a lovely dress.
(You have not mentioned the bride before, but you both know she is connected to the wedding.)

Some things are taken to be common knowledge in English and therefore take the definite article:
Decades He was born in the 1920s.

Currencies The dollar is getting stronger against the pound.
Superlatives and ordinals The second book in the series is the best.
Oceans, seas and many rivers The Nile flows into the Mediterranean.
Plu al o u ited ou t ies The Maldives are much smaller than the United States of America.
Adjectives used as nouns The poor will always be a challenge for the rich in any country.
Many organizations The World Health Organization has a detailed definition of health.
A scientific categorization The zebra is native to Africa.
A symbol The Merlion is a symbol of Singapore.
Unique people, places or things The prime minister said she would call a conference on changes
affecting the earths climate. 3
Unique adjectives The same people always take the only parking spaces available.
Specific nouns modified by a relative clause The paintings (which are) in the gallery
pe ifi ou s follo ed of . This is a e o o patte - The use of this procedure
Plu al ou s p e eded of e.g. Some of the paintings were interesting.
Common error:
You cannot write most of paintings or none of paintings. It is either most of the paintings (definite)
or most paintings (general).
Most of the paintings in the exhibition were landscapes.
(Definite we know which specific paintings they are in the exhibition)
Most paintings nowadays (general not specific paintings)
NO ARTICLE
We do not need an article if a noun is plural or uncountable and it is not definite.
Women generally live longer than men.

Articles are difficult to use.
Paint is hard to remove.
Some special points

Compare the pairs of sentences given below:
I have a black and white cow. (Only one cow)

I have a black and a white cow. (Two cows)
The secretary and accountant is present. (Here the nouns secretary and accountant refer to the
same person.)
The secretary and the accountant were present. (Here the repetition of the articles implies that the
secretary and the accountant are different persons.)

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EXAMPLES - NO ARTICLES
1. Before proper, material and abstract nouns used in a general sense: London, France, Tom, gold,
rice, honesty, virtue
Paris is the capital of France. NOT The Paris is

Gold is a pre ious etal. NOT The gold is a
Honesty is the best policy.
But we say, the United States, the United Arab Emirates etc.
2. Before a common noun used in its commonest sense:

Man is mortal.
Iron is a useful metal.
3. In certain phrases made up of a preposition + noun, Examples are: on foot, at school, from top to
bottom, at home, in bed, by train, by car, in debt, in hand, on earth, at noon, on board, in jest, at
best, at worst etc.
He is in debt. (NOT He is in the debt.)

He is at school. (NOT He is at the school.)
He spent the whole day in bed.
4. In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb and its object: Give ear, set sail, take heart, send
word, catch fire, take offence, leave office, leave home, leave office etc.
He took offence at my words. (BUT NOT He took the offence at my words.)
She left home in the morning. (BUT NOT She left the home in the morning.)
5. Before the names of continents, countries, capes, cities, towns, days, months, arts, languages,
sciences, some diseases etc.
January, March, physics, English, Tokyo, Beijing, Delhi, Tuesday, Friday, Asia, America etc.
December is a cold month.
English is spoken all over the world.
6. Before common nouns when they go in pairs: Both husband and wife had serious injuries.
7. Before plural nouns used to denote a class:

Apples are red.
Camels are useful animals.
Warm clothes are necessary in cold climates.
8. Before the nouns following kind of: What kind of flower is it? (NOT What kind of a flower is it?)
9. Before meal-ti e that does t de ote a spe ifi i ide t

He was at dinner. Breakfast was served at night. (BUT NOT The breakfast was served at night.)

USAGE
A single, countable noun must have an article if there is no other number, determiner or possessive
(e.g. two, our, this). If the noun is plural, an article may not be necessary.
our house you do not need an article, because you already have the possessive our.
this year you do not need an article, because you already have the determiner this.
car you need an article, because this is a singular countable noun with no determiner already.
trees you may need an article, depending on whether the noun is definite or not.
For example:
Trees are usually green no article is needed, because you are talking generally and the noun is not
definite, i.e. you are not talking about specific trees.
The trees in the park are green the article is needed because you have specified which trees you are
talking about.
I like books books is a plural noun. It is used about books generally, not specific books, so it takes no
article.
Blood is thicker than water blood and water are singular, uncountable nouns. They are used in a
general sense, therefore they do not need an article.
I bought two books you do not need an article, because you already have the word two.
I bought some books you do not need an article, because you already have the word some.
I bought a book book is a singular, countable noun; therefore it has to have an article. Your reader
does ot k o hi h ook ou a e efe i g to, the efo e it is i defi ite .
The book I bought is interesting- book is again a singular, countable noun; therefore it has to have an
article. In this case, we know which book you are referring to (the book you bought), so it takes a
definite article. (More details on the definite article are given below.)
I like the books you gave me books is a plural noun. It is used in a definite sense (we know which
books the books you gave me), so it takes a definite article.

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MODALS
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that expresses necessity or possibility. English modal verbs include must, shall, will,
should, would, can, could, may, and might. Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very irregularly in
English.
What are Modal Verbs?

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some
important differences:
1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.

Examples:
He can speak Chinese. She should be here by 9:00.
2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.
Examples:
He should not be late. They might not come to the party.
3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples:
He will can go with us. Not Correct She musted study very hard. Not Correct

Comparison

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PUNCTUATION
Correct punctuation is essential for clear and effective writing. The following list contains some of the
most critical punctuation rules.
COMMAS
Commas are used to separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words or groups
of words, and they help clarify the meanings of sentences.
1) Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
EXAMPLE: Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night.
2) Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the subject of a
sentence that do not form a complete sentence).
EXAMPLE: If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant.
3) Commas are used to set off introductory words, introductory adverbial, participial, or infinitive
phrases, and longer introductory prepositional phrases.
EXAMPLE: Incidentally, I was not late this morning. (word)
Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob spent three more hours fishing. (phrase)
4) Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so).
EXAMPLE: My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath.
5) Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses.
EXAMPLE: The man, I think, had a funny laugh.
6) Commas set off an appositive (a word or phrase that renames a noun).
EXAMPLE: Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night.
END OF SENTENCE PUNCTUATION

End of sentence punctuation is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished. A statement (or
declarative sentence) is followed by a period.
EXAMPLE: Orem is the home of Utah Valley State College.
A direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark.
EXAMPLE: When did Joe buy a red shirt?
Do not use a question mark after a declarative sentence that contains an indirect question.
EXAMPLE: Marie wants to know when Joe bought a red shirt.
An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation point.
EXAMPLE: What a good movie!
Use exclamation marks sparingly because they can unnecessarily exaggerate sentences.

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EXAMPLE: Monet was the most influential painter of his time! (Most emphasizes influential painter;
therefore, an exclamation point is not needed.)
SEMICOLONS
Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal emphasis.
Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating conjunction is used.
EXAMPLE: Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly.
Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the clauses of a compound
sentence.
EXAMPLE: The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped immediately.
Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are already commas.
EXAMPLE: We traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sofia, Bulgaria.
COLONS
Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that comes after.
Colons come after the independent clause and before the word, phrase, sentence, quotation, or list it is
introducing.
EXAMPLE: Joe has only one thing on his mind: girls. (word)
Joe has only one thing on his mind: the girl next door. (phrase)
Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to go out with Linda. (clause)
Joe has several things on his mind: his finals, his job, and Linda. (list)
Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.
INCORRECT: The things on Joes i d are: fi als, ork, a d Li da.
CORRECT: The thi gs o Joes i d are fi als, ork, a d Li da.
HYPHENS
Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units. They are used to join prefixes, suffixes,
and letters to words.
Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as
modifiers.
EXAMPLE: Forty-two applicants
Two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying majority)
Three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty)
Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because thirds is a noun being
modified by two)
Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it modifies. However, some
compound adjectives are always hyphenated, such as well-balanced. Look up compound adjectives in
the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to hyphenate them.
EXAMPLE: a well-liked author an author who is well liked
a world-renowned composer a composer who is world renowned

Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all prefixes before a
proper noun or proper adjective.
EXAMPLE: all-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect Anti-Semitic
Non-European self-control self-image
DASHES
Dashes connect groups of words to other groups of words in order to emphasize a point or show that
the information is unessential. Usually the dash separates words in the middle of a sentence from the
rest of the sentence, or it leads to material at the end of the sentence.
In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or make them stand
out from the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLE: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher employment, and
less government spending, was rejected by the president's administration.
BECOMES: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economylower interest rates, higher employment, and
less government spendingwas rejected by the president's administration.
The dash can also be used to attach material to the end of a sentence when there is a clear break in the
continuity of the sentence or when an explanation is being introduced.
EXAMPLE: The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of officeunless,
of course, he can reduce unemployment and the deficit soon.
EXAMPLE: It was a close callthe sudden gust of wind pushed the helicopter to within inches of
the power line.
APOSTROPHES
Apostrophes are used to show possession or to indicate where a letter has been omitted to form a
contraction. To show possession, add an apostrophe and an -s to singular nouns or indefinite pronouns
that end in one or body.
EXAMPLE: Susan's wrench, anyone's problem
Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in -s.
EXAMPLE: my parents' car, the musicians' instruments
Add an apostrophe and an -s for plural possessive nouns that do not end in -s.
EXAMPLE: the men's department, my children's toys
Add an apostrophe and an -s for singular possessive nouns that end in -s.
EXAMPLE: Chris's cookbook, the business's system
Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns including yours, his, hers, its, ours, their,
and whose.
Apostrophes are also used in contractions, two words which have been combined into one, to mark
where the missing letter or letters would be.
EXAMPLE: I am= I'm I have = I've
who is = who's let us = let's
cannot = can't he is, she is, it is = he's, she's, it's

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you are = you're they are = they're
Avoid confusing it's with its. It's is a contraction for it is; its is a possessive pronoun.
QUOTATION MARKS
Quotation marks are used to show the beginning and end of a quotation or a title of a short work.
Quotation marks enclose the exact words of a person (direct quotation).
EXAMPLE: Megan said, "Kurt has a red hat."
Do ot use uotatio a ks a ou d a pa aph ase usi g ou o o ds to e p ess the autho s ideas
or a summary of the author's words.
EXAMPLE: Mega said that Kurts hat as red.
Quotation marks set off the titles of magazine articles, poems, reports, and chapters within a book.
(Titles of books, magazines, plays, and other whole publications should be underlined or italicized.)
EXAMPLE: "The Talk of the Town" is a regular feature in Time magazine.
QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION
Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
EXAMPLE: Aida said, Aaro has a lue shirt.
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
EXAMPLE: He calls me his "teddy bear"; I'm not a bear.
Place question marks or exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they punctuate the quotation
only.
EXAMPLE: "Are we too late?" she asked.
Place question marks or exclamation points outside the quotation marks if they punctuate the entire
sentence.
EXAMPLE: Why did she say, "We are too late"?
PARENTHESES
Elements inside parentheses are related to the sentence but are nonessential. Parentheses set off
additions or expressions that are not necessary to the sentence. They tend to de-emphasize what they
set off.
EXAMPLE: We visited several European countries (England, France, Spain) on our trip last year.
Parentheses enclose figures within a sentence.
EXAMPLE: Grades will be based on (1) participation, (2) in-class writing, and (3) exams.
When the group inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence but is inserted inside a larger
sentence, no period is needed. However, if a question mark or exclamation point is needed, it may be
used.
EXAMPLE: The snow (she saw it as she passed the window) was now falling heavily.
When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the end punctuation belongs inside
the parentheses.
EXAMPLE: Ma d told e she sa A s e ar. I sa A s ar efore Ma d .
She said it was a nice car.

INTERROGATIVES
A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. A question mark [?] is used to close
such a sentence. Interrogation refers to a sentence of inquiry that asks for a reply.
Yes No Questions / Closed Ended Questions
With an auxiliary verb
We form yes-no questions with an auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or with a modal
verb + subject + main verb:
Be: Is she working very hard? Were they travelling together?
Do: Does that taste okay? Did you go to the concert?
Have: Have they eaten yet? Had they visited Rome before?
Modal: Could you help me lift this? Should I open the window?
Where there is no auxiliary verb be, have or modal verb already present in the statement, we use the
auxiliary do, does, did:
Statement form (no auxiliary) Question form
You usually walk to work. Do you usually walk to work?
Not: Walk ou?
You liked disco music in the 70s. Did you like disco music in the 70s?
Not: Liked ou?
We do t use a au ilia e he e use be as a main verb: Is she your sister?

Not: Does she be your sister?
When there is more than one auxiliary verb or a modal verb plus auxiliary verb(s), we only put the first
auxiliary or the modal verb before the subject and the others after the subject:
Auxiliary + subject + auxiliary + verb
Is this phone call being recorded?
Not: Is being this phone call recorded? or Is being recorded this phone call?
Auxiliary + subject + auxiliary + verb
Has the garden been looked after while you were away?
Not: Has been the garden looked after while you were away? or Has been looked after the garden while
you were away?
Modal + subject + auxiliary + auxiliary + verb
Should we have been writing this down?
Not: Should have we been writing this down?

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We usually use negative yes-no questions to check or confirm something we believe or expect to be the
case, or when we consider that something is the best thing to do:
Isnt that Pauli es ar? I p ett su e that this is o e t. I aski g fo o fi ation.)
Shouldnt we be leaving? (I think that we should leave now.)
Negative Form
We form negative yes-no questions with not. We usually use the contraction t. If we use not in its full
form, the question sounds very formal: Isnt that the oldest building on this street?
When using the full form not, the order auxiliary + subject (s) + not is more common than auxiliary + not +
subject:[AUX][s]Is that [not]not the oldest building in this street? (Formal) (Preferred to [the very formal]
Is not that the oldest building on this street?)
We can use negative yes-no questions to make invitations, offers and complaints stronger:
Wont you stay for dinner? (Invitation; stronger than Will you stay for dinner?)
Wouldnt you like another coffee? (Offer; stronger than would you like another coffee?)
Cant the manager do something about the noise? (Complaint; stronger than Can the manager do
something about the noise?)
Wh- Questions / Open Ended Questions

With an auxiliary verb
We usually form wh-questions with wh- + an auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or with
wh- + a modal verb + subject + main verb:
Be: When are you leaving? Whos been paying the bills?
Do: Where do they live? Why did t ou all e?
Have: What has she done now? What have they decided?
Modal: Who would she stay with? Where should I park?
Without an auxiliary verb
When what, who, which or whose is the subject or part of the subject, we do not use the auxiliary. We
use the word order subject + verb:
What fell off the wall? Who bought this?
Which horse won? Whose phone rang?
Who owns this bag?
Who is the subject of the sentence and this bag is the object. We use no auxiliary verb.
Who do you love most?
Who is the object of the sentence and you is the subject. We use the auxiliary verb do.
Negative Form
When we ask negative wh-questions, we use the auxiliary verb do when there is no other auxiliary or
modal verb, even when the wh-word is the subject of the clause:
Affirmative with no auxiliary Negative with auxiliary do
Who wants an ice cream? Who doesnt want an ice cream?
Which door opened? Which door didnt open?

QUESTION TAGS
Tag Questions - questions that are added to a declarative sentence, usually at the end, to engage the
listener, verify that something has been understood, or confirm that an action has taken place.
FORM: Affi ati e, e / au ilia e + [ t] ot + su je t?
Negative, verb/ auxiliary verb + subject?
You are liste i g, are t ou?
You ha e t read a thi g, ha e ou?
I a desire to e i depe de t, a t I?
Form
Auxiliary verb + subject
1. We use the same auxiliary verb in the tag as in the main sentence. If there is no auxiliary verb in
the main sentence, we use do in the tag.
You live in Spain, dont you?
If the auxiliary verb in the sentence is affirmative, the tag is negative.
Youre Spanish, arent you?
If the auxiliary verb in the sentence is negative, the tag is affirmative.
Youre not Spanish, are you?
2. We use tag questions to Confirm or check information or ask for agreement.
You want to come with me, dont you? You do t k o here the oss is, do you?
You can swim, cant you? That film was fantastic, wasnt it?
3. We use tag questions to Check whether something is true.
The eeti gs to orrow at 9am, isnt it? You o t go ithout e, will you?
4. We can use affirmative tag questions after affirmative sentences to express a reaction such as
surprise or interest.
Youre o i g to Brazil, are you?
In the present form of be: if the su je t is I , the au ilia ha ges to a o ai t / are or arent in
the tag question.
I sitti g e t to ou, arent I? I a little red, arent I?
With lets, the tag question is shall we?
Lets go to the ea h, shall we? Lets ha e a offee, shall we?
With an imperative, the tag question is will you?
Close the window, will you? Hold this, will you?
We use an affirmative tag question after a sentence containing a negative word such as never, hardly,
nobody.

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Nobody lives in this house, do they? You e e er liked e, have you?
5. When the subject is nothing, e use it i the tag uestio .
Nothing bad happened, did it? Nothing ever happens, does it?
6. If the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone or everyone, e use the i the
tag question.
Nobody asked for me, did they? Nobody lives here, do they?
7. If the main verb in the sentence is have (not an auxiliary verb), it is more common to use do in the
tag question.
You have a Ferrari, dont you? She had a great time, didnt she?
With used to, e use did t i the tag uestio .
You used to work here, didnt you? He used to have long hair, didnt he?

IDIOMS
Idioms are groups of words with a special meaning that is quite different from the meaning of the
individual words. For example, the idiom "to be on the ball" really has nothing to do with a ball or being
on top of one. It means that someone is very industrious, intelligent and organized. For this reason, we
a sa that idio s ea i gs a e opa ue athe tha t a spa e t.
Whats o g ith this se te e? I ha e a lot o plates ith s hool, a d I ha e ee o ki g

a ou d at h.
EXPLANATION:
There are many phrases in English which can be very confusing to people trying to learn the language,
especially phrases which we try to understand literally, but actually mean something very different.
These phrases are known as idiomatic phrases, or idioms.
Ex: I have a lot on my plate to orro as I ha e to fi ish a assig e t a d ork i the e e i g.
If we try to understand these words literally, it means I have a plate with many items on it, meaning I
ha e a lot of food Is this hat e ea ? Defi itel ot! This ph ase a tuall ea s busy:
Ex: I am busy tomorrow as I have to finish an assignment and ork i the e e i g.
Why should we learn idioms?
There are two main reasons to learn common idioms.
1. When used in speaking, and sometimes writing, they show a high level of vocabulary.
This is because they are natural phrases commonly used by native speakers. Remember, when we study
English, we want to sound as natural as possible, as close to a native speaker as possible. Therefore,
using idioms helps us in this.
2. We can recognize them when listening to others speaking.

It may be very difficult understand native speakers, or expert users of English, when they are speaking if
they use idioms. Often when learners of English read, watch a movie or listen to the radio, they may
misunderstand a lot if idioms are used. A good understanding of common idioms will enable learners to
understand a great deal more of natural speech.
How can we understand new idioms when we read or hear them?
As mentioned above, the nature of an idiom is that we cannot understand it if we try to look at the
literal meaning. If we try to define an idiomatic phrase, we will often completely misunderstand the
ea i g of hat so eo e is sa i g see the e a ple a lot o plate .
This means, we have to follow a simple process for understanding idioms:

1. Try to guess the meaning from context.
Look at the sentence and try to understand it without the idiom, then guess some words that could
replace the phrase and make sense.
This is a very important skill and should always be the first thing you do before asking for help or
checking in a dictionary.

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2. Google it!
Often by simply typing an unknown phrase into Google you will find many sites offering actual
definitions.
T it o . E te a lot o plate i to Google a d see hat ou a fi d. A e the e a sites hi h
tell you that this ea s us ?
What should we do when we find a new idiom?
First, we need to decide if it is useful o ot. o hat ake a ph ase useful? Well, useful ea s to ha e
a lot of uses o so ethi g hi h a e used a lot . o if ou thi k ou ould use this phrase in many
situations, then that means it is useful!
Now that we have decided if a phrase is useful, we need to record it. Everyone studying English,
whether at a high level or low level, should keep a vocabulary journal (a notebook to record new and
useful words and phrases). It is a good idea to have an area to record idioms so that you can find them
again easily.
Finally, use and review! Try to use your new phrases in speaking and writing, and go back to older
phrases and use them again.
How do we use idioms?
The most important things to know when learning to use idioms are:
. What ha ges, hat does t?

Often mistakes are made when using idioms because learners try to change too much. For example:
I have a lot on my plate today. She works around the clock at weekends.
(This means she works long hours. Probably all day, and maybe at night too.)
In these phrases there are only two parts we can change, the verb and the pronouns:
She has a lot on her plate today. (Correct) She has a lot in her bowl today. (Incorrect)
I work around the clock at weekends. (Correct) I work over the clock at the weekends. (Incorrect)
2. When can we use this phrase?

One very common mistake is using a phrase in the wrong situation, or trying to use it literally.
For example:
I am very hungry so I will have a lot on my plate. (Incorrect)
(Remember, this phrase means busy, so this is not the correct idiomatic use!)
o
I have a lot on my plates with school, and I have been working around my watch. (Incorrect)
I have a lot on my plate with school, and I have been working around the clock. (Correct)

English Idioms Commonly Used In Daily Language

Common Idioms Meaning Example
A blessing in disguise seems bad, but is actually Accidently registering for the wrong class was
good actually a blessing in disguise.
Actions speak louder than actions are more important You say you love me but actions speak louder
words than words than words.
A piece of cake easy That test was a piece of cake.
Beating around the bush not discussing what is I needed to study, but I kept beating around the
important/procrastinating bush.
Big task on your hand having something important My teacher gave me a new assignment, so I
to finish have a big task on my hands.
Break a leg wishing someone to do You will do fine on your presentation. Go break a
well/ good luck leg out there.
Ca t sta d so ethi g to dislike something I a t sta d ha i g to do ho e ork o a
Sunday.
Check out that give that a look Check out that very cool looking car.
Close but no cigar close but failed at the end You got a 79% o the test. Al ost a B lose ut
no cigar.
Don't sweat it do t o a out it You accidently scratched my car but I don't care.
Do t s eat it.
Driving me bananas making me feel crazy My very loud neighbors are driving me bananas.
Easier said than done easy to say, but hard to Changing the world is easier said than done.
actually do
Get out of town I don't believe you You got an A in your Finance class? Get out of
town!
Get over it forget about the past He broke up with his girlfriend but he needs to
get over it.
Gone off track forgot about your future My friend really got off track because he failed
goal three classes this semester.
Hands down for certain the right answer America is hands down the best place to study
abroad.
Hang on a second wait for a moment Ha g o a se o dI a aiti g for lau dr
to finish.
Hang out spend time with a friend Joe and I hang out after class every week.
Have stumbled upon to accidentally discover I stumbled upon a new restaurant while walking
something around downtown.
Hold your horses wait/calm down Hold your horses. I am still eating my lunch.
Ho s it goi g? How are you? Ho s it goi g toda Bo ?
I made a key decision make an important decision I made a key decision to finish college.
Inside scoop the details Hey give me the inside scoop on how you met
John.
In the bag will definitely happen My baseball team will win the game. It is in the
bag.
I was knocked on my I was surprised I was knocked on my heels when I realized I got
heels the job.
Ill toss it a ou d to casually suggest an idea I am tossing around the idea of having a party

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to people this weekend.
I feeli g lue to feel sad I failed my test today, I'm really feeling blue.
I out I'm leaving I have to go to a meeting, I'm out!
In the nick of time when something happens at The firefighter saved the baby from the burning
the last possible moment building in the nick of time.
Its all floodi g a k to e beginning to remember When I saw my childhood bicycle memories all
something you once forgot came flooding back to me.
Kick the bucket to die/no longer work Yesterday my phone kicked the bucket.
Kill two birds with one accomplish two things at You can kill two birds with one stone by checking
stone once email and study at the library.
Laid back relaxed Jason is not very excited, he is laid back.
Last shot Last chance The final exam is my last shot to get an A in the
class.
Leading someone on having someone believe Why do you keep telling Amy you like her, you
something that isn't true are just leading her on.
Lend a hand help someone out I see those grocery bags are very heavy, can I
lend you a hand?
Let it ride to allow something to I don't like my schedule for next semester, but
remain as it is I'm going to let it ride.
Lets oogie o out let s all lea e togethe The ar is losi g, lets oogie o out.
Lets ou e to leave The foot all ga e is o er, lets ou e.
Low down to receive the full story Hey give me the low down on what happened
last Saturday night.
Take a chill pill a way of telling someone to I don't think the test will be too hard, take a chill
calm down pill.
Hit the books to study I can't go to the party tonight, I have to hit the
books.
To touch base to contact someone I need to touch base with Jeremy about the new
office reports.
Locked in to give full concentration I'm really locked in to this new television series.
too
No big deal no need to worry If ou a 't ake it to irthda di er its o
big deal.
Get on the ball to get focused on the goal If ou ha e t started our resear h proje t et,
you need to get on the ball.
Out of nowhere unexpected That surprise quiz came out of nowhere.
Out of the blue unexpected We were walking to the store when Mike
appeared out of the blue.
Pull the plug to end something/someone After Bob quit, we may just have to pull the plug
on the whole operation.
Put a sock in it be quiet My loud neighbors really need to put a sock in it.
Rally the troops to gather friends together We're going to rally the troops then head to the
basketball game.
Since day one for a long time I've been playing basketball since day one.
o ethi gs fish so ethi g s st a ge All the lights are off in the house and door is
ope , so ethi gs fish .
Speak of the Devil when you see Speak of the devil Jenny! We were just talking
someone/something about your new car.

happens unexpectedly while
talking about them
Spill the beans to tell the secret I told Jessica my biggest secret, she then spilled
the beans to the whole class.
Spur of the moment to make a random decision I decided to drive to Colorado on the spur of the
moment.
Stay on track to stay focused on the goal I should t at h TV right o . I eed to sta o
track and study.
Stick with your goal/stick to continue doing You should really stick with soccer because you
with it something are very good at it.
Take him out of the remove him from the Mike isn't the best group partner, we should
picture situation take him out of the picture.
Take it easy calm down You only failed the first test. You will have many
more. Take it easy.
Thats tight that s a eso e This new song is tight.
The stars have aligned the moment is right The stars ha e alig ed e ause its his irthda
and he won the lottery.
Draw the line the point where you decide I draw the line at $10 for a hamburger.
not to do something
The last straw the last thing that causes My recent sprained ankle was the last straw; I
everything to fail need to get surgery now.
Throw an idea around casually suggest an idea I a t to thro a idea arou d for to orro s
event.
Tight a sporting event having a 75 to 75 with one minute left! This is a really
close score tight game.
Time flies time passes by fast I can't believe the weekend is already over, time
flies!
Up a creek without a in a bad situation Yesterday my car ran out of gas and then my
paddle phone ran out of battery, I was up a creek
without a paddle.
Fill in the blanks figure out the rest on your Did we win? We were losing by 40 points at
own halftime, fill in the blanks.
On the same page having similar thoughts I'm glad we are on the same page with our ideas
for this project.
Whats up? How are you? He Joh hats up?
You pulled a fast one to trick someone You pretended you knew his name when really
you did not, you pulled a fast one.

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PHRASAL VERBS
What are phrasal verbs?
Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of a verb and a particle (a preposition or adverb) or a verb and two
particles (an adverb and a preposition as in get on with or look forward to). They are identified by their
grammar (more about that in Unit 2), but it is probably best to think of them as individual vocabulary
items, to be learnt in phrases or chunks. They often but not always have a one-word equivalent. For
example, you can come across a new phrasal verb or you can encounter it.
You can pick up a language or you can acquire it. Come across and pick up sound less literary or formal
than encounter or acquire.
Why are phrasal verbs important?

Phrasal verbs are extremely common in English. They are found in a wide variety of contexts. You may
ha e oti ed the i so gs, fo e a ple the Beatles Ill get ith a little help from my friends or Roll
over Beethoven, Bo Ma le s Get up, stand up a d ed Hot Chili Peppe s Knock me down. You find
them in film titles such as The Empire Strikes Back, Spirited Away, Along Came Polly or Cast Away.
They are very frequent in newspaper headlines. Here are just a few examples:
Cover-up raises fears over bird flu. Cou tr s ispla ed pride holds back its
democracy.
Phrasal verbs are common in less formal English but you will also hear or see and need to use them in
more formal contexts.
What can I do to help myself master phrasal verbs?

Try to think positively about them! And, now you are at a more advanced level, try not just to
understand them, but also to use them in your own speaking and writing. Keep an eye open for them
whenever you are reading anything in English and make a note of any interesting ones you find. Write
them down in a complete phrase or a sentence to fix in your mind how they are used.
Be aware that one of the special features of phrasal verbs is that some of them have many different
meanings for example, you can pick something up from the floor, you can pick up a language or bad
habits, the weather can pick up, you can pick up a bargain, a radio can pick up a signal, the economy can
pick up, you can pick up a story where you left it, you can pick someone up in your car. Sometimes the
meanings are clearly related, some being more literal and some more metaphorical.
PHRASAL VERBS WITH AND WITHOUT OBJECTS
Some phrasal verbs take an object (transitive); others do not take an object (intransitive).
with object (transitive) no object (intransitive)
The re knocking down the old hotel. The path branched off1 to the river.
The plumber soon sorted out the shower problem. The noise of the train died away.
She tied her hair back so she could work better. In the winter the lake froze over.

1
if a road or path branches off, it goes in another direction
Some verbs can be used both with and without an object, but the meaning may change. Use the context
to decide if the verb has a different meaning from the one you are familiar with.
Tina and Jo were so clever the teacher moved them up to a higher class. (with object)
Tina and Jo moved up to a higher class. (no object = same meaning)
I can drop you off at the station. (with object = drive you somewhere and leave you there)
I was sitting in the armchair and I dropped off. (no object = fell asleep, different meaning)
Some verbs must have two objects, one after the verb and one after the particle.
I always associate that song with our holiday in Jamaica.

Playing tennis for three hours every evening after school deprived her of her youth.
POSITION OF THE OBJECT

In many cases, the particle may come before or after the object.
The teacher marked two students down / marked down two students because they answered the wrong
questions in the exam.
Very long objects usually come after the particle.

The accident cut off domestic and industrial water and electricity supplies.
When the object is a personal pronoun, the pronoun always comes before the particle.
Noun object Personal pronoun object

I picked my parents up / picked up my parents and drove I ll pick you up at . . Not: I ll pick up
them to the airport. you at 5.30.)
Some verbs (sometimes called prepositional verbs) must have the object after the particle, even if it is a
pronoun. A good dictionary will tell you if this is so.
We e had to contend with a lot of problems lately. (Not: contend a lot of problems with) [Deal with a
difficult or unpleasant situation]
You probably already know some of these verbs (look for, look after, cope with).
THREE-PART VERBS
Some phrasal verbs have three parts, the verb and two particles. The object comes last.
I will not put up with such bad behavior. [Tolerate]
Other examples include look forward to, look down on, get on with, catch up on [do something you did
not have time to do earlier], face up to [accept that a difficult or unpleasant situation exists].

PEL121
COMMON PHRASAL VERBS
Verb Meaning Example
ask around ask many people the same I asked around but nobody has seen my
question wallet.
add up to something equal Your purchases add up to $205.32.
Back someone up support My wife backed me up over my decision
to quit my job.
blow up explode The racing car blew up after it crashed
into the fence.
Blow something up add air We have to blow 50 balloons up for the
party.
break down stop functioning (vehicle, Our car broke down at the side of the
machine) highway in the snowstorm.
break down get upset The woman broke down when the police
told her that her son had died.
break in force entry to a building Somebody broke in last night and stole
our stereo.
break into something enter forcibly The firemen had to break into the room
to rescue the children.
break in interrupt The TV station broke in to report the
news of the president's death.
break up end a relationship My boyfriend and I broke up before I
moved to America.
break up start laughing (informal) The kids just broke up as soon as the
clown started talking.
Bring someone down make unhappy This sad music is bringing me down.
Bring someone up raise a child/Nourish My grandparents brought me up after my
parents died.
Bring something up start talking about a subject My mother walks out of the room when
my father brings up sports.
call around phone many different We called around but we weren't able to
places/people find the car part we needed.
Call someone back return a phone call I called the company back but the offices
were closed for the weekend.
Call something off cancel Jason called the wedding off because he
wasn't in love with his fianc.
call on someone ask for an answer or opinion The professor called on me for question 1.
Call someone up phone Give me your phone number and I will call
you up when we are in town.
calm down relax after being angry You are still mad. You need to calm down
before you drive the car.
check in arrive and register at a hotel or We will get the hotel keys when we check
airport in.
check out leave a hotel You have to check out of the hotel before
11:00 AM.
check out look at (informal) Check out the crazy hair on that guy!
someone/something

cheer up To support somebody with She cheered up when she heard the good
applause news.
Cheer someone up make happier I brought you some flowers to cheer you
up.
chip in help If everyone chips in we can get the
kitchen painted by noon.
come across something find unexpectedly I came across these old photos when I
was tidying the closet.
come forward volunteer for a task or to give The woman came forward with her
evidence husband's finger prints.
come from somewhere originate in The art of origami comes from Asia.
count on rely on I am counting on you to make dinner
someone/something while I am out.
Cut something down make something fall to the We had to cut the old tree in our yard
ground down after the storm.
Cut something off remove with something sharp The doctors cut off his leg because it was
severely injured.
Cut something out remove part of something I cut this ad out of the newspaper.
(usually with scissors and
paper)
do away with something discard It's time to do away with all of these old
tax records.
dress up wear nice clothing It's a fancy restaurant so we have to dress
up.
eat out eat at a restaurant I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat
out.
end up eventually reach/do/decide We ended up renting a movie instead of
going to the theatre.
fall apart break into pieces My new dress fell apart in the washing
machine.
Figure something out understand, find the answer I need to figure out how to fit the piano
and the bookshelf in this room.
Fill something in to write information in blanks Please fill in the form with your name,
(Br. E.) address, and phone number.
Fill something out to write information in blanks The form must be filled out in capital
(N. Amer.) letters.
find out discover We don't know where he lives. How can
we find out?
Get something across/over communicate, make I tried to get my point across/over to the
understandable judge but she wouldn't listen.
get along/on like each other I was surprised how well my new
girlfriend and my sister got along/on.
get away with something do without being noticed or Jason always gets away with cheating in
punished his maths tests.
get back return We got back from our vacation last week.
Get something back receive something you had Liz finally got her Science notes back from
before my room-mate.

PEL121
get back at someone retaliate, take revenge My sister got back at me for stealing her
shoes. She stole my favourite hat.
get over something overcome a problem The company will have to close if it can't
get over the new regulations.
get together meet (usually for social Let's get together for a BBQ this weekend.
reasons)
get up get out of bed I got up early today to study for my exam.
get up stand You should get up and give the elderly
man your seat.
give in reluctantly stop fighting or My boyfriend didn't want to go to the
arguing ballet, but he finally gave in.
Give something out give to many people (usually at They were giving out free perfume
no cost) samples at the department store.
Give something up quit a habit I am giving up smoking as of January 1st.
give up stop trying My maths homework was too difficult so I
gave up.
go after someone follow someone My brother tried to go after the thief in
his car.
go against someone compete, oppose We are going against the best soccer
team in the city tonight.
go without something suffer lack or deprivation When I was young, we went without
winter boots.
grow apart stop being friends over time My best friend and I grew apart after she
changed schools.
Hand something out to distribute to a group of We will hand out the invitations at the
people door.
Hand something over give (usually unwillingly) The police asked the man to hand over his
wallet and his weapons.
hang in stay positive (N. Amer., Hang in there. I'm sure you'll find a job
informal) very soon.
hang on wait a short time (informal) Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes!
hang out spend time relaxing (informal) Instead of going to the party we are just
going to hang out at my place.
hang up end a phone call He didn't say goodbye before he hung up.
hold on wait a short time Please hold on while I transfer you to the
Sales Department.
hold onto hold firmly using your hands or Hold onto your hat because it's very
someone/something arms windy outside.
Keep someone/something stop from entering Try to keep the wet dog out of the living
out room.
Let someone down fail to support or help, I need you to be on time. Don't let me
disappoint down this time.
Let someone in allow to enter Can you let the cat in before you go to
school?
look after take care of I have to look after my sick grandmother.
someone/something
look for someone/something try to find I'm looking for a red dress for the

wedding.
look forward to something be excited about the future I'm looking forward to the Christmas
break.
look into something investigate We are going to look into the price of
snowboards today.
look out be careful, vigilant, and take Look out! That car's going to hit you!
notice
look out for be especially vigilant for Don't forget to look out for snakes on the
someone/something hiking trail.
Make something up invent, lie about something Josie made up a story about why we were
late.
make up forgive each other We were angry last night, but we made
up at breakfast.
pass away die His uncle passed away last night after a
long illness.
pass out faint It was so hot in the church that an elderly
lady passed out.
Put something out extinguish The neighbours put the fire out before the
firemen arrived.
Put something together assemble I have to put the crib together before the
baby arrives.
run into meet unexpectedly I ran into an old school-friend at the mall.
someone/something
run over drive a vehicle over a person or I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the
someone/something thing driveway.
Set something up arrange, organize Our boss set a meeting up with the
president of the company.
Set someone up trick, trap The police set up the car thief by using a
hidden camera.
stick to something continue doing something, You will lose weight if you stick to the
limit yourself to one particular diet.
thing
Switch something off stop the energy flow, turn off The light's too bright. Could you switch it
off.
Switch something on start the energy flow, turn on We heard the news as soon as we
switched on the car radio.
take after someone resemble a family member I take after my mother. We are both
impatient.
take off start to fly My plane takes off in five minutes.
Take something off remove something (usually Take off your socks and shoes and come
clothing) in the lake!
Think something over consider I'll have to think this job offer over before
I make my final decision.
Throw something away dispose of We threw our old furniture away when
we won the lottery.
Turn something down decrease the volume or Please turn the TV down while the guests
strength (heat, light etc) are here.

PEL121
Turn something down refuse I turned the job down because I don't
want to move.
Turn something off stop the energy flow, switch off Your mother wants you to turn the TV off
and come for dinner.
turn up appear suddenly Our cat turned up after we put posters up
all over the neighbourhood.
wake up stop sleeping We have to wake up early for work on
Monday.
warm someone/something increase the temperature You can warm your feet up in front of the
up fireplace.
warm up prepare body for exercise I always warm up by doing sit-ups before I
go for a run.
wear off fade away Most of my make-up wore off before I got
to the party.
work out exercise I work out at the gym three times a week.
work out be successful Our plan worked out fine.
Work something out make a calculation We have to work out the total cost before
we buy the house.

CONFUSING WORDS
INTRODUCTION TO CONFUSING WORDS
Ma k T ai said, The diffe e e et ee the ight o d a d the al ost ight o d is the diffe e e
et ee the lighti g a d the light i g ug .
Confusing words questions have been designed to check primarily for mental alertness differentiating
between two similar words.
English has a lot of commonly confused words. They either look alike, sound alike or, worst of all, look
and sound alike but have completely different meanings. Other words look and sound different but are
si ila i ea i g, a d it s hard to determine which the correct one in a given context is.
To excel in this area, having a good vocabulary alone is not sufficient. A good vocabulary can be useful
when used to trigger a word already in your vocabulary bank. But simply plucking out a near- synonym
in trying to the guess the meaning of a word that seems similar to a word that you already know, can
result in some disastrous situation because the word may not fit the context. And thus comes the need
of understanding the usage of words and having mental alertness to identify subtle differences
between/ among them
CATEGORIES OF CONFUSING WORDS

1. CONTRACTIONS Vs POSSESSIONS
Example: its Vs its
2. WORDS WITH MULTIPLE MEANINGS
Example: ail, capital, seen, die
3. WRONG USAGE OF WORDS WITH SAME MEANING
Example: Fewer (Used with countable nouns) and Lesser (Used with uncountable nouns)
IRREGULAR WORDS
1. Spelling different Words with same letters but different spellings
Example - SALE and SEAL
2. Pronunciation different Words with same letters but different pronunciations
Example Wind (Air), Wind (Turn)
3. Mistaken to be one another Words that are often based on the usage
Example: Affect, Effect

PEL121
WORDS WITH MULTIPLE MEANINGS
TYPE SPELLING PRONOUNCIATION
HOMONYM SAME SAME
Ex. BARK BARK
(skin of tree) dogs oise
HOMOPHONE DIFFERENT SAME
Ex. AISLE ISLE
(a long narrow passage) (Island)
HOMOGRAPH SAME DIFFERENT
Ex. CONTENT CONTENT
(Satisfy) (Data)
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1. SPOT ERROR
The company has come up with a new add for their product
2. CHOOSE THE SYNONYM OR ANTONYM

Visual aids are one the best adopted teaching pedagogy
(a) Aide (b) Assist (c) Resource (d) All of the above
LIST OF COMMONLY CONFUSING WORDS
ACCEPT-to receive ex: He accepts defeat well.

EXCEPT-to take or leave out ex: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.
AFFECT-to influence ex: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
EFFECT-n., result, v., to accomplish ex: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
ex: Can the university effect such a change without disruptions?
A LOT (two words)-many.
ALOT (one word)-Not the correct form.
ALLUSION-an indirect reference ex: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
ILLUSION-a false perception of reality ex: They saw a mirage in the desert.
ALL READY-prepared ex: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
ALREADY-by this time ex: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.
ALTOGETHER-entirely ex: Altogether, the student's presentation was well planned.
ALL TOGETHER-gathered, with everything in one place ex: We were all together at the family reunion.
APART-to be separated ex: The chain-link fence kept the angry dogs apart.
My old car fell apart before we reached California.
A PART-to be joined with ex: The course was a part of a new field at the university.
A part of this plan involves getting started at dawn.
ASCENT- climb ex: The plane's ascent made my ears pop.
ASSENT-agreement ex: The Martian assented to undergo experiments.

BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled ex: You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale ex: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
CAPITAL-seat of government. Also financial resources. ex: The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
ex: The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
ex: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol today.
CITE-to quote or document ex: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT-vision ex: The sight of our flag arouses patriotism.
SITE-position or place ex: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete
ex: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise ex: The professor complimented Betty on her proper
use of a comma.
CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong ex: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the
exam.
CONSCIOUS-awake ex: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises ex: The men and women on the council voted in favor
of an outdoor concert in their town.
COUNSEL-to advise ex: The parole officer counseled the convict before his exit.
ELICIT-to draw or bring out ex: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
ILLICIT-illegal ex: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.
EMINENT-famous, respected ex: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsic ex: The meaning of the poem was immanent.
IMMINENT-ready to take place ex: The war is imminent.
ITS-of or belonging to it ex: The baby will scream as soon as it hears its mother.
IT'S-contraction for it is ex: It's a beautiful day in the neighborhood.
LEAD-noun, a type of metal ex: Is that pipe made of lead?
LED-verb, past tense of "to lead" ex: She led the campers on an over-night hike.
LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
ex: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.(also lying, lay, has/have lain--The dog has lain
in the shade all day; yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve hours).
LAY-to lay an object down.
ex: "Lay down that shotgun, Pappy!" The sheriff demanded of the crazed moonshiner.
ex: The town lay at the foot of the mountain. (also laying, laid, has/have laid--At that point, Pappy laid
the shotgun on the ground).
LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win
ex: Mom glared at Mikey. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even think of coming home!"
LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
ex: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the race with the cop chasing him.
ex: While awaiting trial, he was never set loose from jail because no one would post his bail.

PEL121
NOVEL-noun, a book that is a work of fiction. Do not use "novel" for nonfiction; use "book" or "work."
ex: Mark Twain wrote his novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn when he was already well known, but
before he published many other works of fiction and nonfiction.
PASSED-verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved
ex: The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage.
PAST-belonging to a former time or place
ex: Who was the past president of Microsquish Computers?
ex: Go past the fire station and turn right.
PRECEDE-to come before ex: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
PROCEED-to go forward ex: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.
PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority
ex: The principal ingredient in chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips.
ex: The principal of the school does the announcements each morning.
PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truth
ex: The study was based on the principle of gravity.
QUOTE-verb, to cite ex: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.
QUOTATION-noun, the act of citing ex: The book of famous quotations inspired us all.
RELUCTANT-to hesitate or feel unwilling
ex: We became reluctant to drive further and eventually turned back when the road became icy.
RETICENT-to be reluctant to speak; to be reserved in manner. Note that The American Heritage
Dictionary lists "reluctant" as a synonym for "reticent," as the third definition. For nuance and variety,
we recommend "reticent" for reluctance when speaking or showing emotion (after all, even extroverts
can become reluctant).
ex: They called him reticent, because he rarely spoke. But he listened carefully and only spoke when he
had something important to say.
STATIONARY-standing still ex: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
STATIONERY-writing paper ex: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.
SUPPOSED TO-correct form for "to be obligated to" or "presumed to" NOT "suppose to"
SUPPOSE-to guess or make a conjecture
ex: Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane supposed to arrive? We are
supposed to check our bags before we board, but I suppose we could do that at the curb and save time.
THAN-use with comparisons ex: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
THEN-at that time, or next ex: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.
THEIR-possessive form of they ex: Their house is at the end of the block.
THERE-indicates location ex: There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
THEY'RE-contraction for "they are" ex: They're in Europe for the summer--again!
THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out of ex: She had to drive through the crowd.
THREW-past tense of throw ex: She threw away his love letters.
THOROUGH-careful or complete ex: John thoroughly cleaned his room.
THOUGH-however; nevertheless ex: The bag is light though its large.
THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writing ex: We're thru for the day!

TO-toward ex: I went to the University of Delhi.

TOO-also, or excessively ex: He drank too many screwdrivers and was unable to drive home.
TWO-a number ex: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.
WHO-pronoun, referring to a person or persons
Ex: Somu wondered how Ramu, who is so smart, could be having difficulties in Calculus.
WHICH-pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s); not used to refer to persons
ex: Which section of history did you get into?
THAT-used to refer to things or a group or class of people

Ex: I lost the book that I bought last week.
WHO-used as a subject or as a subject complement ex: John is the man who can get the job done.
WHOM-used as an object ex: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?
YOUR-belonging to someone (possessive form of you)

YOURE-contraction for you are
PRACTICE!
1. The committee loves your proposal and ______________ it unanimously.

a. accepts b. excepts
2. Weather conditions______________ many people's moods.
a. affect b. effect
3. He tried in vain to______________ a different opinion in the crowd.
a. affect b. effect
4. ______________ math worksheet is ______________ tomorrow.
a. Hour/Our b. due/dew/do
5. I _______________ the necklace away because _________ broken.
a. Th ough/th e . its/it s
6. I ________ the teacher _____________ the paper I ____________.
a. heard/herd b. red/read c. rote/wrote
7. After attending one class, I am _____________ tired.
a. already b. all ready
8. My family was finally_____________.
a. already b. all ready
9. Karan said that her chocolate _____________ was delicious.
a. desert b. dessert
10. Mary was forced to_____________ some of her favorite furniture during the hurried move to New
York.
11. After dinner, Tony and Rose shared a Mediterranean sunset and a homemade Greek_____________.
12. Don't trip over the cord (beside, besides) my desk.
a. beside b. besides
13 _____________my occupation as a janitor, I work nights in a factory and weekends at McDonalds.
a. Beside b. Besides

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1

Present Tense ................................................................................................................................................. 32

2 School of Professional Enhancement

How to choose what to use? ......................................................................................................................... 41

School of Professional Enhancement 3

Why are phrasal verbs important? ................................................................................................................ 66

4 School of Professional Enhancement

School of Professional Enhancement 5

1. Forms of To Be: is, am, are, 1. Sensory verbs: to feel, to taste, to

Action or Linking Verbs?

Example: Action Verb

Complements for Action Verbs

6 School of Professional Enhancement

1. Direct Objects answer who or what after an action verb

HINT: There is a test that can be used for indirect objects!

Complements for Linking Verbs

Predicate Nouns OR Predicate Adjectives

IMPORTANT: One Final Reminder!

Put all of these parts together, a d ou ill ha e .. A COMPLETE SENTENCE!

School of Professional Enhancement 7

What is a subject? What is a predicate?

8 School of Professional Enhancement

There are nine parts of speech, which are

1) Nouns 4) Adjectives 7) Articles

Nouns(Person, Place, Thing or Quality)

Person: Ms. Grace likes to eat spinach.

Verb shows action or state of being

Pronoun: takes the place of a noun

Adjective: describes a noun

The beautiful woman only wanted a couple of pairs of shoes.

The rainy day made us even sadder.

Adverb: describes a verb

The little girl walked happily through the park.

The orphan hungrily ate the hot stew.

School of Professional Enhancement 9

Matt and Marie loved to cook.

Article: There are only three articles -- the, a, an

The bicycle was not only red but shiny.

The cat was on the table.

at under above toward

With between in behind

From upon into off

Interjections: expressive words

Wow, you knocked that ball out of the park.

Identify each word in the following sentence

10 School of Professional Enhancement

article adjective noun verb verb adverb preposition

article adjective noun conjunction pronoun verb verb

article adjective noun preposition noun conjunction noun preposition

School of Professional Enhancement 11

People : Man, Woman, Male, Female, Boy, Girl

12 School of Professional Enhancement

Shape : Dog, Chair, Table, Student, Door

Q: Countable Nouns, singular or plural?

Singular: Dog, Country, Day, Year

Singular Countable Nouns Plural Countable Nouns

I want an orange. I like to water the flowers.

Examples of Countable Noun

There are at least twenty Italian restaurants in Little Italy.

Thing =Milk, Sugar, Salt, Furniture

School of Professional Enhancement 13

Q: How can we count the uncountable nouns?

A cup of coffee. Two glasses of water. A tablespoon of sugar. A set of furniture.

1. He was wearing a shirt. 4. I used to drive car.

7. She is a supermodel. 9. He sat behind a desk.