This document is not an API Standard; it is under consideration within an API technical committee but has not

received all approvals required to become an API Standard. It shall not be reproduced or circulated or quoted, in
whole or in part, outside of API committee activities except with the approval of the Chairman of the committee
having jurisdiction and staff of the API Standards Dept. Copyright API. All rights reserved.

API RP545 2nd Edition Recommended Practice for Lightning Protection of

Aboveground Storage Tanks Containing Flammable or Combustible Liquids

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 2 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

Foreword

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This Recommended Practice (RP) is based on the accumulated knowledge and experience of purchasers and

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manufacturers of welded steel oil storage tanks of various sizes and capacities. This RP is meant to be the
basis for a purchase specification, and to support minimum requirements of other API Standards, Specifications

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and Recommended Practices which are used to facilitate the manufacture and procurement of storage tanks
for the petroleum industry. If the tanks are purchased in accordance with this RP, the purchaser is required to

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specify certain basic requirements. More stringent design rules specified by the purchaser or furnished by the
manufacturer are acceptable when mutually agreed upon by the purchaser and the manufacturer. This RP is
not to be interpreted as approving, recommending, or endorsing any specific design or as limiting the method of

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design or construction.

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Shall: As used in a RP, shall denotes a minimum requirement in order to conform to the specification.

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Should: As used in a RP, should denotes a recommendation or that which is advised but not required in order
to conform to the specification.
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This RP is not intended to cover storage tanks that are in jurisdictions where local regulations differ from areas
subject to regulations more stringent than the specifications in this RP. When this RP is specified for such
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tanks, it should be followed insofar as it does not conflict with local requirements. The purchaser is responsible
for specifying any jurisdictional requirements applicable to the design and construction of the tank. After
revisions to this RP have been issued, they may be applied to tanks that are to be completed after the date of
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issue. Each edition, revision, or addendum to this RP becomes effective six months after the date of issuance
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for equipment that is certified as being constructed, and tested per this RP. During the six-month time between
the date of issuance of the edition, revision, or addendum and the effective date, the purchaser and the
manufacturer shall specify to which edition, revision, or addendum the equipment is to be constructed and
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tested. API publications may be used by anyone desiring to do so. Every effort has been made by the Institute
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to assure the accuracy and reliability of the data contained in them; however, the Institute makes no
representation, warranty, or guarantee in connection with this publication and hereby expressly disclaims any
liability or responsibility for loss or damage resulting from its use or for the violation of any federal, state, or
municipal regulation with which this publication may conflict.
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API standards are published as an aid to procurement of standardized equipment and materials and/or as good
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practice procedures. These standards are not intended to inhibit purchasers or producers from purchasing or
producing products made to specifications other than those of API.
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This publication was produced following API standardization procedures that ensure appropriate notification
and participation in the developmental process and is designated as an API standard.
Questions concerning the interpretation of the content of this publication or comments and questions
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concerning the procedures under which this publication was developed should be directed in writing to the
Director of Standards, API, 1220 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005.
Requests for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of the material published herein should also be
addressed to the Director of Standards. Generally, API standards are reviewed and revised, reaffirmed, or
withdrawn at least every five years. A one-time extension of up to two years may be added to this review cycle.
Status of the publication can be ascertained from the API Standards Department, 1220 L Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20005.
A catalogue of API publications can be found at www.api.org/publications.
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 3

Suggested revisions are invited and should be submitted to the Standards Department, API, 1220 L Street,
NW, Washington, DC 20005, standards@api.org .

1 Scope

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1.1 General

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1.2 Applicability

1.3 Application of Requirements to New and Existing Tanks

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2 Normative References

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3 Terms and Definitions

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4 Protection of Specific Types of Tanks

4.1 Conductive (metallic) Tanks with a Fixed-roof and Fixed-roof Tanks with an Internal
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Floating Roof, including Covered External Floating-roof Tanks
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4.2 Conductive (Metallic) Tanks with an External Floating Roof
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4.2.1. Control of Combustible Gas Mixtures and Other Risk Variables.

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 4 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

4.2.2 Minimum External Floating Roof bonding requirements

4.2.3 Insulated Primary Seals

4.2.4 Conductive Primary Seals

4.2.5 Insulated Secondary Seals

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4.2.6 Shunts

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4.2.6.1 General

4.2.6.2 Number, Placement and Configuration

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4.2.6.3 Cross-sectional AreaMinimum Width and Material

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4.2.6.4 Durability

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4.2.7 Bypass Conductors

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4.2.7.1 General

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4.2.7.2 Minimum Conductor Section Requirement and Alternatives
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4.2.7.3 Number and Electrical Resistance

4.2.7.4 Durability
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4.2.8 Bonding of Gauge or Guide Poles and Floating Roof Deck Cover Plates
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5 Metal Thickness ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

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6 Inspection and Maintenance Requirements ....................................................................................................... 4

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Annex A (informative) General ........................................................................................................................................ 5

Annex B (informative) Presence of Flammable Vapors for Internal Floating Roof Tanks .................................... 11
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Annex C (informative) Different Seal Types ................................................................................................................ 12

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Annex D (informative) Lightning Risk Analysis .......................................................................................................... 13

Annex E (informative) Bibliography.............................................................................................................................. 14
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Figures
A.1 The Process of Attachment from Lightning Cloud to a Tank .......................................................................... 6
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A.2 Components of Typical Negative Cloud-to-ground Lightning Stroke ............................................................ 7

A.3 Current Routes for Flash to a) Top of Shell, b) Floating Roof, c) Ground Near a Floating-roof Tank ........ 9

Table
A.1 Lightning Parameters ............................................................................................................................................ 8
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 5

Recommended Practice for Lightning Protection of Aboveground Storage

Tanks Containing Flammable or Combustible Liquids

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1 Scope

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1.1 General

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1.1.1 API 545 is used to support provides minimum requirements of for use with API Standards, Specifications
and Recommended Practices which are used to facilitate the manufacture and procurement of storage tanks

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for the petroleum industry. This recommended practice (RP) provides guidance, recommendations, and
information to assist owners/operators with to assess requirements when specifying lightning protection for

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tanks. This RP does not provide information that will result in complete protection for all possible lightning
stroke occurrences.

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1.1.2 Sections 4 through 6 describe specific details or actions that the Purchaser or Owner is expected to adopt

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and implement, where possible.

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1.2 Applicability
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This RP is applicable to conductive (metallic) tanks only.
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1.3 Application of Requirements to New and Existing Tanks

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The requirements of This RP shall apply to new or reconstructed tanks. The requirements and may be applied
to existing tanks at the discretion of the owner/operator.
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2 Normative References

The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
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references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document
(including any amendments) applies.
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API Standard 650, Welded Tanks for Oil Storage

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API Standard 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

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ASTM D3453, Standard Specification for Flexible Cellular Materials

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3 Terms and Definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following definitions apply.

3.1
action integral
The joule or ohmic heating energy dissipated per unit resistance at the lightning attachment point. The action
integral is measured in A2s (amperes-squared seconds), which is the same as J1 (joules per ohm) (Rakov
and Uman, Lightning: Physics and Effects, p. 277).
 6 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

3.2
bonding
An electrical connection between two electrically conductive objects that is intended to significantly reduce
potential differences.

3.3
bypass conductor

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A cable that provides a direct electrical connection (bond) between the tank shell and the tank floating roof.

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3.4

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Conductive Primary Seal

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A seal device, to reduce evaporative loss at the floating roof-to-shell interface, composed of metallic
components which electrically conduct between the floating roof and the tank shell. Typically these are a
metallic shoe type, consisting of a conductive metallic shoe with springs or pusher plates used to force the

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metallic shoe into contact with the tank shell, thereby creating the bonding surface (these are equipped with a
conductor between the floating roof and shoe, or shunts, or both - see Section 4.2.4).

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3.5
covered external floating-roof tank
A tank constructed with an external floating roof (per API 650, Annex C) that is covered with a metallic fixed
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roof (per in accordance with API 650 Section 5 or Annex G Structurally Supported Aluminum Dome Roof) is
considered an internal floating-roof tank (IFRT) with venting and electrical bonding meeting requirements of API
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650 Annex H.

3.6
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external floating-roof tank

EFRT
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An aboveground tank with a floating roof in accordance with API 650 Annex C), which has no fixed roof and
has an open top.
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3.7
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flash
A complete discharge of the cell between the thundercloud and ground (as it applies to cloud-to-ground
lightning) (Uman, The Lightning Discharge, p. 10).
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3.8
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grounded (grounding)
Connected (connecting) to ground or to a conductive body that extends the ground connection (NFPA 780).
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3.9
internal floating-roof tank
IFRT
An aboveground fixed-roof tank with a floating roof in accordance with API 650 Annex H) inside the tank.
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3.10

Insulated Primary Seal

A device, to reduce evaporative loss at the floating roof-to-shell interface, composed of components which
electrically insulate the floating roof from the tank shell. Typically these are non-conductive liquid mounted
types (a liquid filled or resilient foam core which is encapsulated with a non-conductive fabric), but may be the
insulated metallic vapor mounted shoe design.
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 7

3.11

Insulated Secondary Seal

A device mounted above any primary seal, used to additionally reduce evaporative loss at the floating roof-to-
shell interface, composed of components which electrically insulate the floating roof from the tank shell. These
are a floating roof rim mounted seal, consisting of conductive metallic compression plates with a non-

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conductive elastomeric wiper tip.

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3.12

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release prevention barrier
This is a liquid-containment barrier is part of a system installed underneath an aboveground storage tank that is
sufficiently impervious to contain / detect a tank bottom leak. Most release prevention barrier (RPB) systems

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include a means of leak detection. Part of a system to control/detect escape of stored material and includes
steel bottoms, synthetic materials, clay liners, and all other barriers or combination of barriers placed in the
bottom of or under an aboveground storage tank, which have the following functions: preventing the escape of

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contaminated material, and containing or channeling released material for leak detection.

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3.13

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shunt
A short metallic conductor that is electrically connects ed to the tank floating roof and contacts to the tank shell.

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striking distance
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The distance over which the final breakdown of the initial lightning stroke occurs.

3.15
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stroke
One current component of a lightning flash. The number of strokes per flash is typically three to four, but it may
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be as low as one or as high as 30 (Uman, All About Lightning, p. 41).

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4 Protection of Specific Types of Tanks

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4.1 Conductive (Metallic) Tanks with a Fixed-roof

4.1.1 This section includes a metallic tanks with a fixed-roof (including an aluminum dome in accordance with
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API 650 Annex G), (which may be equipped with as an internal floating roof tank) and or as a covered
external floating-roof tank. s
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4.1.2. For fixed roof tanks (metallic cone or dome) and internal floating-roof tanks (IFRTs), there is a
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possibility of flammable vapors being present at atmospheric vents. If present, flammable vapors can
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be ignited by a lightning flash.

4.1.3 Shunts or bypass conductors are not needed for lightning protection of internal or covered floating
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roofs. Bonding techniques to prevent static and stray current discharge between the floating roof and
shell are addressed in API 650, Annex H.

4.1.4 Tanks handling low vapor pressure products or in-service operated with properly maintained floating
roofs with tight-fitting seals are not likely to have flammable vapors at atmospheric vents. In these
cases, no further lightning protection is needed.

NOTE: See Annex B Presence of Flammable Vapors for Internal Floating Roof Tanks regarding
various design, maintenance and operating practices which may impact presence of flammable vapors.
No increased level of lightning protection will compensate for exposure of flammable vapors.
 8 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

4.2 Conductive (Metallic) Tanks with an External Floating Roof

4.2.1. Control of Combustible Gas Mixtures and Other Risk Variables.

An external floating roof is exposed to the environment and at risk from natural events such as lightning. The
primary concern is from a lightning attachment at the top (rim) of the tank shell in combination with a presence of
combustible vapors (see API 2350 for guidance on overfill protection). It is imperative that floating roof seals and

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deck fitting gaskets are designed and maintained to minimize and control presence of combustible vapors with

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potential for ignition. Combustible vapor concentration may increase near the top of the tank when the tank is
operated at high level (NOTE 1: see API 2350 for guidance on overfill protection). Combustible vapor ignition risk

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is also of increased concern when the floating roof is landed, when the tank is being drawn down or filled from a
drain-dry condition. (NOTE 2: see ANNEX D for a list of risk variables)

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4.2.2 Minimum External Floating Roof Bonding Requirements

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4.2.2.1 All conductive parts of the external floating roof shall be electrically interconnected and bonded to the
outer tank structure. A rolling ladder (when used) shall be bonded to a bypass conductor attached to at both the

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floating roof and tank shell (see API 650 Annex C.3.7 and 4.2.2.2.).

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4.2.2.2 A minimum of one bypass conductor shall be provided at the gaugers platform as an easily inspected
and verified means of bonding the floating roof to the tank shell for discharge of static, stray current and long
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duration current of a lightning stroke. See 4.2.7 for bypass conductor(s) description.
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4.2.2.2.1. If specified authorized by the Purchaser, as an alternative or in addition to the minimum single bypass
conductor, multiple bypass conductors may be installed.
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4.2.2.2.1. If specified authorized by the Purchaser, although of higher impedance, bonding may be further
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supplemented with the use of an electrically bonded floating roof rainwater drain system. The Purchaser
decision to implement this option; however, this shall not replace the requirement for a minimum single bypass
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conductor or bond at the rolling ladder. NOTE: This option for an electrically bonded drain system cannot be
visually inspected and may lead to higher impedance.
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4.2.2.3. External Floating Roofs shall be equipped with insulated or conductive primary seal components in
compliance with 4.2.3 and 4.2.4. Insulated primary seals require the use of shunts (see 4.2.6).
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4.2.2.4. All Secondary Seal metallic components beneath the wiper tip shall be insulated from the tank shell
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(See 4.2.5)
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4.2.2.5. Shunts are permitted above the secondary seal wiper tip if specified by the Purchaser (See 4.2.6).
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4.2.2.6. All External Floating Roof vertical penetrations, which are fixed to the tank (Gauge and Anti-rotation
poles), shall be bonded to the top of the tank shell (See 4.2.8).
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4.2.2.7. All deck penetration cover plates used for deck mounted penetration seals and leg activated vents shall
be bonded to the floating roof (See 4.2.8).

4.2.3 Insulated Primary Seals

Insulated Primary Seals provide no conductive path between the floating roof and tank shell and require
additional bonding of the floating roof to shell accomplished through the use of shunts (see 4.2.6).

4.2.4 Conductive Primary Seals

 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 9

4.2.4.1. Conductive Primary Seals shall have metallic shoes in contact with the tank shell, and each shoe shall
be bonded to the floating roof with a minimum of one (1) #6 AWG stranded, flexible, stainless steel or aluminum
conductor with a maximum (not to exceed) spacing of 3.7m (12). The conductor shall be attached beneath the
primary seal fabric at a position to accommodate the full working range of the seal and without interfering with
the seal mechanisms. The conductor shall be secured with proper applied and sized NEMA compression type
lugs with stainless steel fasteners.

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4.2.4.2. Other mechanical shoe seal components (springs, pusher plates, and hanger or scissor assemblies)
with design for continuous metal-to-metal contact will facilitate conductivity beyond this minimum requirement.

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As an alternative to the conductor cable (described above), a Purchaser approved equivalent, such as a

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bonding strap or spring with equivalent minimum cross sectional area, may be used.

4.2.4.3. All metals and the connections shall be suitable for contact with each other and with the stored product.

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4.2.4.4. The conductor shall be positioned to provide the shortest possible path (allowing for seal flexibility) from
the floating roof to the shoe.

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4.2.4.5. When conductive primary seals are used, shunts are not required unless specified by the Purchaser

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(see 4.2.6).

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NOTE: In accordance with API 2003, interior tank shell surfaces are considered conductive when coated / lined
up to 0.08 thickness.

4.2.5
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Insulated Secondary Seals
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Insulated Secondary Seals include a non-conductive elastomeric wiper tip positioned between the secondary
seal compression plates and the tank shell to achieve a minimum 1 horizontal dimension between the
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conductive secondary seal components and tank shell. Full insulation of the secondary seal may not be
practical for all situations (riveted tanks), so details may be otherwise specified by the Purchaser; however,
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secondary seals which maintain the 1 insulation space and do not contain conductive metallic wiper splices,
shunts or skid plates at the wiper tip are recommended to avoid potential for sparking between the secondary
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compression plates and shell at the wiper tip.

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NOTE: The vapor space between a Primary / Secondary Seal and the area above the secondary seal can
contain vapors within the combustible range. Conductive materials positioned in a manner which can cause
sparking (between a secondary seal component and tank shell) should be avoided for use within this vapor
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space area.
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4.2.6 Shunts
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4.2.6.1. General
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Shunts (if specified for use) are primarily for conduction of fast and intermediate duration components of
lightning-stroke current and are required only when non-conductive primary seals are used. When submerged
or above secondary seal shunts are used, the need for a minimum single bypass conductor remains (in
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accordance with 4.2.7), to serve as an easily inspected and verified means of bonding the floating roof to the
tank shell for discharge of static, stray current and long duration current of a lightning stroke.

4.2.6.2 Number, Placement and Configuration

4.2.6.2.1. The shunts shall be spaced at intervals no greater than 3 m (10 ft.) around the perimeter of the
floating roof.

4.2.6.2.2. Shunts shall be of the minimum length necessary to remain in contact with the shell during the full
horizontal and vertical design movement of the floating roof.
 10 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

4.2.6.2.3. Shunts may be installed above the seal:

a) when due to operational policies the shunts might not be submerged continuously, or
b) where a risk analysis (see Annex D) supports shunts being located above the seal.

NOTE: Seal integrity is important to reduce the likelihood of combustible gas and/or vapor present when
shunts are considered to be installed above the primary seal vapor. Presence of combustible vapors can be

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a concern when shunts are located above the secondary wiper tip and / or primary seal vapor barrier;
however, there are several risk reduction variables to consider (See Annex D - Lightning Risk Analysis).

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4.2.6.2.4. When submerged shunts are used the shunt to shell contact point shall be submerged at least 0.3 m
(1 ft.) below the surface of the liquid product. The shunt shall have as short and direct a path as possible from

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the conductive floating roof to the tank shell.

4.2.6.3 Cross-sectional AreaMinimum Width and Material

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4.2.6.3.1. Above seal shunts shall consist of an austenitic stainless steel conductor of at least 51mm (2 in.)
wide x 28-gauge (0.4-mm [1/64-in.] thick), or of other Purchaser approved material conductors of equivalent

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current-carrying capacity and corrosion resistance.

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4.2.6.3.2. Submerged shunts shall have a minimum width of 102mm (4 in.). Submerged shunts shall be of a
more robust design than required for above-seal shunts in that they are inaccessible for routine inspections
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while the tank is in service.
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4.2.6.4 Durability
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The shunts and termination connections shall be of provide sufficient flexibility, cross-sectional area, and
corrosion resistance to have an anticipated minimum service life of 30 years. Material type and minimum
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thickness shall be as defined per 4.2.6.3 and per API 650, Annex C.
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 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 11

4.2.7 Bypass Conductors

4.2.7.1. General

Bypass conductors, single (minimum requirement see 4.2.2.2.) or multiple (if specified for use, see 4.2.7.2.5),
are for conduction of the long duration component of lightning-stroke current, in addition to discharge of stray
current and static. Each bypass conductor (individually) shall achieve the electrical resistance defined in

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4.2.7.3.

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4.2.7.2 Minimum Conductor Section Requirement and Alternatives

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4.2.7.2.1 The minimum requirement is for one (1) bypass conductor (single conductor). The A single bypass

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conductor of 2/0 American Wire Gauge (AWG) flexible rope stranded copper cable is sufficient to achieve the
electrical resistance defined in 4.2.7.3., and does not require manufacturer certification.

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4.2.7.2.2 The Purchaser may specify an alternate cable material and / or section, suitable to achieve the
electrical resistance defined in 4.2.7.3. When alternate cable material and / or section are used, the

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resistance requirement of 4.2.7.3 must be certified by the manufacturer.

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4.2.7.2.3 The bypass conductor cable (or alternative section) shall be continuous from the floating roof to the
tank shell.
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4.2.7.2.4 All bypass conductor cables shall be terminated with appropriate NEMA compression lugs, using
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stainless steel fasteners.

4.2.7.2.5. When specified authorized by the Purchaser, as an alternative to (or in addition to) the minimum
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single bypass conductor, multiple bypass conductors may be installed [also see 4.2.2.2.1] using 1/0 American
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Wire Gauge (AWG) or equivalent minimum cross sectional area. Multiple bypass conductors shall be installed
with approximate equal spacing at the tank shell. This alternate is not required, but may be desired for tanks
with elevated risk (based on Lightning Risk Analysis See Annex D).
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4.2.7.2.6. A bypass conductor shall should be attached beneath and bonded to the rolling ladder (if present).

4.2.7.3 Number and Electrical Resistance

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Each bypass conductor, including connectors, shall have a maximum end-to-end electrical resistance of 0.03
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as certified by the Manufacturer. All cable bends shall be installed to not exceed the minimum bending
radius be at a minimum 150mm (6) radius. When multiple bypass conductors (with reduced section) are used
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in accordance with 4.2.7.2.5, these should be evenly spaced around the tank circumference with a minimum of
two.
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4.2.7.4 Durability
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The bypass conductors and termination connections shall be positioned and of provide sufficient flexibility,
cross-sectional area, and corrosion resistance to have an anticipated minimum service life of 30 years. The
bypass conductors shall be of sufficient flexibility and the minimum length necessary to permit full movement of
the floating roof. The bypass conductors shall be positioned to avoid tangling of the conductor with other tank
or floating roof components and so that it will not freeze to adjacent surfaces in cold weather.

4.2.8 Bonding of Gauge or Guide Poles and Floating Roof Deck Cover Plates

Any gauge or guide pole components or assemblies that penetrate the tank floating roof shall be bonded from
the top of the pole or assembly to the tank shell. Metallic cover plates used for deck mounted penetration seals
 12 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

and leg activated vents shall be bonded to the floating roof with a minimum of one (1) #6 AWG stranded,
flexible, stainless steel, copper or aluminum conductor.

5 Metal Thickness

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5.1. Minimum metal thicknesses for tanks are provided in API 650 and API 653.

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5.2. Except for abnormal conditions leading to exposure of combustible vapors (see Annex B), IFRTs are

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protected from lightning by the Faraday Cage Effect.

5.3 For more information related to risks, see Annex B and Annex D of this document.

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NOTE: Additional information is presented in EI/API 545-A; however, this document is for reference only and is
not incorporated as part of this RP.

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6 Inspection and Maintenance Requirements

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Inspection shall be performed with both scope and frequency as needed to meet local requirements. All
bonding and grounding appurtenances shall be maintained and inspected in accordance with API 653. Below-
deck inspections should coincide with API 653 out-of-service inspections, or another locally used inspection
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NOTE: It is recommended that seals be periodically inspected for integrity / control of combustible vapors.
Performance verification (this is should be accomplished by following using API 653 inspection intervals and as
needed to meet local seal inspection requirements procedures). The bypass conductor bond between the
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floating roof and tank should be visually confirmed with initial installation and verified with each scheduled
visual inspection. When the tank is out of service and in a condition to avoid combustible gas exposure, a digital
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low-resistance ohm-meter is recommended to supplement the initial and subsequent inspections of the floating
roof to shell by-pass conductor bond. Periodic visual inspection may be supplemented by the use of continuous
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monitoring equipment, which confirms the floating roof to shell bond condition.
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 Annex A 1
(informative)

General

A.1 Phenomenon of Lightning and Secondary Effects on Tanks

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A.1.1 Introduction

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This section summarizes the present knowledge of the Petroleum Industry on the lightning flash process and
attachment mechanism.

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A.1.2 Lightning Principles

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Under fair weather conditions, there is normally a steady but weak vertical electric field at the earths surface
with virtually no ground currents and a small distributed charge on the ground. Horizontal flat surfaces will have
a very uniform charge distribution (i.e. a similar surface charge density everywhere). The highest surface

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charge occurs on thin pointed objects such as church spires, tops of aerials, tips of lightning rods, etc. Where

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the surface charge is highest, the local electric field is the highest. Sharp-pointed, upward-facing items will tend
to discharge a small current into the air, such as aerials and lightning air terminals. This will often be a silent,
invisible discharge in the order of a micro amp.
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The lightning process starts in the clouds, with a stepped leader descending to earth. The stepped leader often
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exhibits branching on its path to the ground as it attempts to find the best route to the ground. The path of the
stepped leader is very irregular because of random variations in the local air conditions and other factors. When
the stepped leader is within about 100 m (334 ft) or less from the tank (or ground), the electric field at ground
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level rises sharply, and the electric field on the highest items becomes great enough to launch an upward
streamer towards the down-coming leader. In fact, two or more streamers may rise almost simultaneously from
B

ground objects (tanks, vents, trees, etc.), but only one usually is successful in making the connection to the
downward leader (see Figure A.1). This is the usual mechanism by which a lightning stroke completes its path
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to the ground.
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A.1.3 Lightning Electrical Parameters

A complete lightning discharge is called a flash. Each cloud-to-ground flash is composed of one or more
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lightning strokes. Over 90 % of cloud-to-ground flashes are of negative polarity (Uman, The Lightning
Discharge, p. 8). A typical negative cloud-to-ground flash contains three to four strokes, but it may have as
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many as 30 (Uman, All About Lightning, p. 41). The currents in any one stroke can range from just a few kilo
amperes (kA) to over 200 kA.
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1
The examples in Annex A are merely examples for illustration purposes only. [Each company should develop its own
approach.] They are not to be considered exclusive or exhaustive in nature. API makes no warranties, express or
implied for reliance on or any omissions from the information contained in this document. Users of instructions should
not rely exclusively on the information contained in this document. Sound business, scientific, engineering, and safety
judgment should be used in employing the information contained herein.

13
 14 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

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Figure A.1The Process of Attachment from Lightning Cloud to a Tank

B

The current in a typical negative cloud-to-ground stroke has several components, as listed below and as
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illustrated in Figure A.2.

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Component AFirst return stroke.

Component BIntermediate current.

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Component CContinuing current.

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Component DSubsequent return stroke, if present, followed by additional B and C components, etc.,
o

until the completion of the discharge.

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These stroke components have varying current characteristics, as shown in Table A.1 (SAE ARP 5412).

Additional lightning parameters are shown in Table A.2. The upper limit parameters usually employed for typical
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lightning strokes are:

current = 200 kA,

action integral = 2.25 106 A2s,

total charge = 200 C (coulombs),

rate of change of current (di/dt) = 140 kA/s.

 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 15

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ED NOTE: correct B in Figure A.2 to 5 ms (see prior Balloted change to Table A.1 below)
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Reprinted with permission from the Cambridge University Press. Rakov and Uman, Lightning Physics and Effects, p. 363.

Figure A.2Components of Typical Negative Cloud-to-ground Lightning Stroke

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B

Table A.1Characteristics of Stroke Components

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Component A (First Return Stroke) Component C (Continuing Current)

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Peak amplitude 200 kA (+10 %) Amplitude 200 A to 800 A

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Action integral 2 106 A2s (20 %) (in 500 s) Charge transfer 200 C (20 %)
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Duration 500 s Duration 0.25 s to 1 s

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Component B (Intermediate Current) Component D (Subsequent Return Stroke)

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Max. charge transfer 10 C (20 %) Peak amplitude 100 kA (10 %)

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Average amplitude 2 kA (20 %) Action integral 0.25 106 A2s (20 %) (in 500 s)

Duration 5 ms Duration 500 s

 16 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

Table A.2Lightning Parameters CORRECT TYPO - Value

Percentage of Cases Exceeding Tabulated Valvue

Number of
Parameters Unit
Events a
95 % 50 % 5%

Peak current (minimum 2 kA)

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101 Negative first strokes kA 14 30 80

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135 Negative subsequent strokes kA 4.6 12 30

Positive first strokes

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20 kA 4.6 35 250
(no positive subsequent strokes recorded)

Charge

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93 Negative first strokes C 1.1 5.2 24

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122 Negative subsequent strokes C 0.2 1.4 11

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94 Negative flashes C 1.3 7.5 40

26 al 4 Positive flashes C 20 80 350

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Impulsive charge

90 Negative first strokes C 1.1 4.5 20

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117 Negative subsequent strokes C 0.22 0.95 4.0

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25 Positive first strokes C 2.0 16 150

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Front duration (2 kA to peak)

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89 Negative first strokes s 1.8 5.5 18

118 Negative subsequent strokes s 0.22 1.1 4.5

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19 Positive first strokes s 3.5 22 200

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Maximum di/dt
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92 Negative first strokes kA/s 5.5 12 32

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122 Negative subsequent strokes kA/s 12 40 120

kA/s
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21 Positive first strokes 0.20 2.4 32

Stroke duration (2 kA to half-value)

90 Negative first strokes s 30 75 200

115 Negative subsequent strokes s 6.5 32 140

16 Positive first strokes s 25 230 2000

 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 17

Table A.2Lightning Parameters (Continued)

Percentage of Cases Exceeding Tabulated Valve

Number of
Parameters Unit
Events a
95 % 50 % 5%
2

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Integral (i dt)

6.0 103 5.5 104 5.5 105

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91 Negative first strokes A2s

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88 Negative subsequent strokes A2s 5.5 102 6.0 103 5.2 104

26 Positive first strokes A2s 2.5 104 6.5 103 1.5 107

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Time interval

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133 Between negative strokes ms 7 33 150

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Flash duration

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94 Negative (including single-stroke flashes) ms 0.15 13 1100

39 Negative (excluding single-stroke flashes) ms 31 180 900

24
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a Number of events is actual sample size.
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(Uman, The Lightning Discharge, p. 124, Reprinted with permission from Martin A. Uman.)
B

A.1.4 Effects of Lightning

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A.1.4.1 General
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Tanks can be affected by both direct and in-direct lightning strokes.

A.1.4.2 Effects of Direct Lightning Strokes

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It is standard nomenclature to name the point at which the lightning flash connects with the ground or structure
as the attachment point. The attachment point for tanks will be at the highest vertical electric field regions,
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which would include the tank rim, vents, hand rails, gauge poles, lights, and other objects on the top of the shell
or, for large diameter tanks, the fixed or floating roof itself. Lightning will not follow a single path down to ground.
o

The stroke current will divide in proportion to the surge impedance of each available path. From the point of
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attachment, the current will flow as a sheet over all conducting paths. As the current spreads out over a large
area, the surface charge is neutralized [see Figures A.3 a) and A.3 b)]. Any discontinuities in the current paths
may result in arcing across the gaps.
Fo

A.1.4.3 Effects of Indirect Lightning Strokes

For a stroke adjacent to a tank, some current will flow over the outer skin of the shell across the fixed or floating
roof and down to the ground on the other side of the shell [see Figure A.3 c)]. There would be much less
energy in the discharge currents moving across the tank as compared to a tank directly struck. As with direct
strokes, any discontinuities in the current paths may result in arcing across the gaps.
 18 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

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Figure A.3Current Routes for Flash to

a) Top of Shell, b) Floating Roof, and c) Ground Near a Floating-roof Tank
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 19

A.1.5 Sparking

Sparking is the most likely cause of tank fires from lightning in external floating-roof tanks (EFRTs) owing to the
tendency for current from any stroke on the tank or closely nearby to drive the current across the floating roof,
via the shunts or via any other metal making intentional or unintentional contact between the floating roof and
the shell.

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Thermal and air gap sparks should be considered as follows.

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a) A thermal spark is defined as a minute piece of incandescent material that has been ejected from some

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sparking site, usually a place where tens or hundreds of amps or more are passing through a very poor
joint, such as the contact point from a shunt on to the inner shell wall of an open floating-roof tank, or from a
poorly bolted flange joint, etc. The white-hot metal sparks falling from welding operation are examples of

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thermal sparks, which are actually very small particles of metal, burning as they fly through the air. Usually,
they are less effective as incendiary sources than air gap sparks.

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b) An air gap spark occurs in a location with a small gap between conducting items where the lightning creates
a voltage large enough to cause electrical breakdown of the air or vapor/air mixture in the gap.

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c) Air gap sparks with energy above 0.2 mJ are sufficient to ignite product vapor/air mixtures if they are within
the flammable mixture range. For mixtures that are not optimum, the energy requirement is higher; however,
the energy in lightning-induced sparks is likely to be many orders of magnitude higher.
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A poorly contacting rim seal shunt on an EFRT is an example of where sparks might occur under lightning
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conditions. The small contact area and the presence of surface treatments or contaminants are conducive to
sparking. If there is a nonconducting layer on the shell or the shunt, the spark will initially be an air gap spark
to break down the insulation, followed by current flow in a poorly contacting area resulting in thermal sparks.
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A.2 Grounding
B

A.2.1 Flat-bottom tanks resting on the ground need not be grounded by the use of external grounding rods for
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the purpose of lightning protection. Grounding for other purposes is not addressed by this document.
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A.2.2 The occurrences of incendiary sparks, rim seal fires, etc., are not dependent on tank grounding
resistance or tank dimensions. This is because the tank will inevitably have ground conductivity through its
massive steel structure in contact with the ground. There will also be additional grounding through the many
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pipes and cables that connect to each tank. A tank is considered adequately grounded if the tank bottom is
resting on the ground or foundation. This applies whether or not there is an elastomeric liner in or under the
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tank bottom.
o

A.2.3 There is no known occurrence of lightning-induced fires around the base of tanks, or underneath tanks,
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which are the only places where inadequate grounding of the tank would result in sparking or other sources of
ignition. The initial attachment process of a lightning stroke would be unaffected by tank ground resistance,
since it will be sufficiently low to permit the lightning leader attachment process to occur, even if the resistance
Fo

to ground of the tank were many tens of ohms. Lightning safety for tanks is not dependent on tank grounding.

A.2.4 Tank grounding associated with the power frequency supply should conform to local electrical codes.

A.3 Effect of Release Prevention Barrier Membrane on Grounding

Tank grounding is not an important contributing factor to the prevention of incendiary sparks, rim seal fires, or
explosions in tanks. A release prevention barrier would be expected to have the effect of reducing the
conductivity between the tank floor and the ground. However, the existence or absence of a membrane is not
relevant to the prevention of lightning-induced fires or explosions.
 Annex B
(informative)

Presence of Flammable Vapors for Internal Floating Roof Tanks

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Ignition cannot occur unless flammable vapors are present together with an oxygen concentration that places
those vapors within the flammable range. The Faraday Cage Effect serves to protect an internal floating roof

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from exposure. IFRTs have a good fire safety history, with four areas of fire vulnerability being:

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a) a landed floating roof (includes initial fill) exposes flammable vapors that are normally controlled by the
floating roof;

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b) improper operating practices such as an overfill situation (includes filling to the point where floating-roofs
seals are near the overflow vents) or storing product with a vapor pressure exceeding the limit and
approaching atmospheric pressure (resulting in boiling) can expose flammable vapors normally contained

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by the seals;

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c) mechanical failure (failing seals, lack of buoyancy, and other damage to the floating deck) can expose
vapors above the deck;
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d) improper venting, which is venting other than as required by API 650, Annex H.
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20
 Annex C
(informative)

Different Seal Types

The rim seal is a flexible device that closes the annular space between the floating roof deck and the tank shell.

ly
When a floating roof has two such devices, one mounted above the other, the lower is the primary seal and the

n n
upper is the secondary seal. Primary seals may be mechanical shoe, liquid-mounted, or vapor-mounted.
Secondary seals are rim mounted above any type of primary seal.

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1) A mechanical shoe is a peripheral seal that utilizes a light-gauge metallic band as the sliding contact with

bu se
the shell and a fabric seal to close the annular space between the metallic band and the rim of the
floating-roof deck. The band is typically formed as a series of sheets (shoes) that are overlapped or joined
together to form a ring and held against the shell by a series of mechanical devices.

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2) A liquid-mounted rim seal is a resilient foam-filled or liquid-filled primary rim seal mounted in a position

is 4
resulting in the bottom of the seal being normally in contact with the stored liquid surface. This seal may
be a flexible foam (such as polyurethane foam in accordance with ASTM D3453) or liquid contained in a

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coated fabric envelope.

3) A vapor-mounted rim seal is a peripheral seal positioned such that it does not normally contact the
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surface of the stored liquid. Vapor-mounted peripheral seals may include, but are not limited to, resilient
foam-filled seals (similar in design to liquid-mounted seals) and flexible-wiper seals. Flexible-wiper seal
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means a rim seal utilizing a blade or tip of a flexible material (such as extruded rubber or synthetic rubber)
with or without a reinforcing cloth or mesh.
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The sources of these definitions and descriptions are from API 650 and API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
B

Standards.
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NOTE: Elastomeric components (such as the seal fabrics and wiper tips) may be static dissipative; however,
these materials are not considered conductive for stray current and lightning.
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21
 Annex D
(informative)

Lightning Risk Analysis

Parameters Impacting risk of Tank Fires from Lightning

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Risk, by definition, is the product of consequence and likelihood. The consequence being considered is a
tank fire as a result of lightning.

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To perform a risk analysis based on this consequence, likelihood parameters [Items a) to f) below] are

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listed below. While this list covers the most important parameters, the tank owner should consider if others
apply. These parameters do not address the consequences beyond a tank fire, such as impact to humans
and the environment, loss of contents, operational interruption, lost production, and replacement cost. Risks

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associated with lighting-induced tank fires should be considered together with site-specific conditions and
tolerance for loss from potential events.

is 4
The listed parameters are not necessarily standalone items; therefore, combinations are used as part of an

D 05
overall risk analysis to either support or reject any justification for requirements beyond minimum
recommendations. As with all environmental risks it is not expected to design for a worst-case scenario (such
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as a 1000 year occurrence). Annex B is referred to for those parameters that also impact IFRTs.
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Risk analysis does not infer assurance. A tank with a strike frequency of once every four years could
experience none for hundreds of years, and one with an expected strike frequency of hundreds of years
could be struck tomorrow.
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Risk should be evaluated with consideration of all variables for full cost/benefit analysis.
B

a) Seal ConditionIgnition cannot occur unless flammable vapors are present. Regular inspection/monitoring
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and maintaining all seals in a tight fitting condition can significantly reduce the escape and potential for
ignition of vapors [also see Annex B, Item c)].
Fo itte

b) Tank LocationVarious geographic locations will have greater or reduced risk of lightning occurrence
(density). See NFPA 780, Figure 2 for a density map. Where the lightning flash density is equal to or less
ot m

than 0.5 strikes/km2/year the tank will have decreased exposure to risk of lightning attachment.
Geographic climatic conditions are a natural variable.
N m

c) Tank Configuration and Operating LevelsLarger diameter tanks and those operated at greater than 50%
o

of capacity have increased exposure to risk of lightning attachment at the deck. Potential for a strike to the
deck surface or support is minimized if the tank is operated at or below 50% capacity.
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d) Operational PoliciesLanding the roof and refilling from a landed position (as may be required for pipeline
operations, change of service, or regular maintenance) results in floating-roof deck vents opening, which
Fo

will allow the escape and potential for ignition of vapors [also see Annex B, Item a)].

e) Operating ServiceTanks storing Class II product (in accordance with NFPA 30, Class II material has a
flash point greater than 100 F) are less likely to produce ignitable material. Storage of an off-
specification product (with elevated vapor pressure component) or a viscous product that accumulates
on the tank shell or above floating-roof surfaces may present additional risk. Due to variable components
of crude oil, it should be considered to have a low flash point for the risk analysis.

f) Strike IntensityCommonly a lightning stroke is below 20 kA, but it may exceed 200 kA with an average
being 30 kA. The minimum metal thicknesses provided in API 650, Section 5 and Annex G, along with

22
 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS FOR FLAMMABLE OR COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS 23

corroded thickness conditions allowed by API 653, are considered sufficient to achieve protection from
burn through and hot spot effects from lightning attachment. Strike intensity is a natural variable.

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 24 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 545

Annex E
(informative)

Bibliography

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The following Bibliography is not all inclusive, but list informative documents referenced within API RP545:

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All About Lightning, Martin A. Uman, 1986

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API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards

API Recommended Practice 2003, Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray

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Currents

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API Recommended Practice 2350 Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in Petroleum Facilities

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API/EI Research Report 545-A, Verification of lightning protection requirements for above ground hydrocarbon
storage tanks
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Lightning: Physics and Effects, Vladimir A. Rakov and Martin A. Uman, 2003
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NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems
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SAE ARP 5412 2, Aircraft Lightning Environment and Related Test Waveforms
B

The Lightning Discharge, Martin A. Uman, 1987

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2
Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, Pennsylvania 15096-0001, www.sae.org.
Fo
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