Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials Report of a Concrete Society CommitteeStructural Strengthening Using Fibre Composite Materials Balvac - Your Partners for Best Value Balvac continue to be at the forefont of developing new technologies for innovative strengthening systems, We can offer design and instalation services in a range of carbon and Kevlar® based composite systems, with an impressive portfolio of completad projects. n 1990 Balvac eh Wit Mae were the first company ever to camry out strengthening of aaa 8 cast ion bridge using bonded plates and subsequently in ‘oon 1999 were the first in the world to use pre-stressed carbon ae fioe plate bonding techniques to strengthen the deck of a ora se00 cast iron bridge, This project won the British Construction eee Matinee couk LRSM industry Award for Small Project ofthe Year. evita onuk you can‘t beat know-how and practical experience! Concrete Repairs Ltd began installing CFRP systems in 1994 and tus since completed ‘over 100 commercial contraets both in the UK, Europe and the Middle East ‘The Company, also specialists in wet lay wrap systems, has installed more than 30 kilometres ‘of unstressed and prestressed plates to strengthen all types and sizes of conerete, steel ‘and cast iron structures including buildings, bridges and power stations. Concrete Repairs Ld is an Approved Contractor for a variety of fibre composites and in addition to installation provides a comprehensive design service, often incorporating custom-made fibre composites to meet unique strengthening requirements. Ais explained nour ‘Concept Realty brche. Request our copy ne (ax) CONCRETE L REPAIRS LIMITED Email: mail@conerete-repatrs.co.wk Website: wicw.concrete-repatrs.co.dkexehem externally bonded reinforcement systems TIX a _Carhofibe ‘Superior Strength Compared to Composite Fibre “Traditional Repair Methods + Cost Effective _* Quick Installation and Return to Service _ © Uni-Directional Fabrics “© Available as Pultruded Plates & Wrapping Systems * Advanced Epoxy Resin Technology For Free Technical Advice or _* Corrosion Resistant & Durable Information Pack, Call i = Steve Richards on: Typical Applications Bridges © Industrial Properties * CarParks A Consituction ~ d division of exchem plc. PO Box 7, Venture Crescent, Alfreton, Derbyshire DES TRE 773 607638. e-mail sleve.rchards@exchem.com: ‘website: wnrw.exchem.com the healthy option — eres le ee cctee) rir ees sue seu) Carbon, Glass and Aramid Fibre Technology Peru Mehra oot Seer) Oe cet ecncuc site uci CearaConcrete reinforcement with composite strengthening systems from MBT MBI Feb is the sole supplier of DuPont's Kevlar® Aramtd Fibre Structural Reinforcement Systems in the UK and Ireland. Based on the Kevlar® aramid fibre used in the ballistics and motor sports industries, these bigh strength, bigh modulus, unidirectional sheet reinforcements are impact resistant and non-conductive, making them suitable for strengthening concrete and steel motorway columns and bridges (as recently used by the Highways Agency at Coopersale Lane Bridge, M11). Other properties include damage tolerance, chemical resistance, ease of handling and good drapability around the structure. swell athe confinement ea and BA serene ge es a ‘Eb koa om He uc Reinforcement system canbe used on ‘columns, water towers, ios and other ‘concrete or stel structures, Kevar® also ‘offers structural and bast strengthen for ‘masonry walls in industrial and. secure CCoolag towers are pasticualy swscepubie to damage caused. by deformation through wind loading, and Texas Uiliies asked engineers Allot! & Lomax to ‘monitor the condition of ts cooling towers at of West furton Power Sttion, near Retford. Tower Cl had been previously reinforced ia the mid1970s Dy strengthening its foundations with a ring of prestressing cables and then Consirucing. 430mm thick reinforced concrete guaive mantle on Is outer fice, However the shape and crack surveys Initiated by Allow & Lomax revealed that, the tower Was coatinuing to enick and Allo and Lomax’s solution involved two ‘Stage strengthening works which will extend the operating le of the tower by at least another 30 years, Firstly, reinforced conctece ving beams Hed to the boulside of the tower are designed t0 change the structunl behaviour of the tower, with the shell now spanning ventcally between sings that provide circuanferentialstifsess, minimising. the extra dead weight applied to the tower oundations. secondly, asthe reinforced conerete rings are tied into the existing shel and gunite 8 on the inside face of the eles a shell can develop high tensile stresses when the tower 4s under Wind fondling ‘To prevent cracking of the shell in these locations, Kevlar™ Aramid Thre was applied. Chosen for its high strength stifiness ight weight and robustness, the Kevlar™ Aramid Fibre was applied fom cradles, critically 4H durable enough (0 rise possible mechanical damage from Tutu cradle acess, The we of Kevin? at West Burin i ts frst application to 4 cooking tower in the world and sis fire major use on ssructure in Burope. MBraco® Carbon Fibre Composite Strengthening Systems MBI Feb ako offers Mace? Carbon Fibre Composite Strengthening systems, lesigned t0 provide low weight, high tensile strength, noneorrosive sructura reinforcement while adding minimal thikness. Unlike rig ystems, Mace can ‘be cut with a pair of scksors, making i fasy to bemdle’ on site Misace® Carbon [ibe System has tensilestengtn 10 times that of steel and can be used to treat excessive defection caused by change in we, construction o¢ design defects, code changes oF seismic ectrotit. For further information, contact: MET Feb, Aliany House, ‘Sinton Nall Road, Swinton, Manchester M27 ADT, Technical Sales Hotline 0161 7947411, ‘wwwanbbfeb.co.uk:_ Internationally renowned designers of CFRP Strengthening. Developing solutions for concrete structures worldwide. 4 inspection and Assessment © Feasibilities "i ‘you have a project to a coma , io Farmer _ composite section ———NaFames © Site supervision & MonitoringOTHER CONCRETE SOCIETY PUBLICATIONS ON REPAIR AND UPGRADING THE USE OF FIBRE COMPOSITES IN CONCRETE BRIDGES ‘Traditionally, concrete structures have been reinforced with stool bars or prestressed with steel wires or tendons. Interest {is growing in replacing stel with advanced composites rade of high modulus fibres embedded ina suitable resin generally known as FRPs (Fibre-Reinforced Plastics or Fibre-Reinforeed Polymers), They are also being used increasingly for repairing and strengthening concrete bridges. This new Technical Guide, writen by Dr John L Clarke, Principal Engineer, The Concrete Society, reviews the use ofthe materials inthe various applications, identifies suitable design approaches where these have been M, . (page 36) Pooling failure. (page 37) Characteristic bond failure foree vs anchorage length. (page 38) Beam and column shear reinforcement configurations. (page 40) Effective width of FRP. (page 41) dealised stress-strain curve for FRP-confined concrete. (page 43) ‘Comparison of stress-strain curves. (page 45) ‘Comparison of stress-strain curves. (page 45) Laps in columns. (page 46) Proposed confined concrete stress block for f, ~ 30 N/mm? based on BS 8110: Part I model. (page 47) Use of pull-out test to determine concrete strength. (page 49) Surface grinding. (page 50) Filling imperfections with quick-setting repair mortar. (page 50) Checking surface witha straightedge. (page 50) Pull-off specimen after removal from concrete surface. (page 51) Mixing adhesive. (page 51) Application of adhesive to concrete surface. (page 52) Application of adhesive layer onto fibre composite plate. (page 52) Ctting fabric. (page 52) Applying resin using roller. (page 52) Impregnation of fabric, (page 52) Installing FRP plates, using a roller to apply pressure. (page 53) ‘Wrapping fabric round an arched member. (page 53) Wrapping fabric round column. (page 53) Rolling fabri to consolidate layers. (page 53) Double lap shear test. (page 54) ‘Spray application of mortar over-coating. (page 55) 10 Concrete Society Technical Report $5EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Fibre composites (or fibre-reinforced polymers, generally known as FRPs) have been used successfully for many years in the aerospace and automotive industries. ‘They are used in construction, for example as structural elements and for cladding. This Report does not consider such applications but deals only with a recent development, strengthening conerete structures by bonding fibre composites to the surface, Suitable fibres are made from carbon, aramids or glass. These may be used in the form of: + composite plates, made from fibres and epoxy resins which are fixed with epoxies to the soffits of beams and slabs + sheet materials, which are wrapped round columns and similar members + preformed shells, bonded round columns. Advantages The principal advantages of using composites over steel plates are their high strength and light weight; typical properties are given for commercially available materials. This makes installation simple and quick and eliminates the need for temporary support. The materials can be easily cut to length on site. The avai ability of long lengths and the flexibility of the materials also simplify installation because: + Laps and joints are not required, + ‘The material can take up irregularities in the shape of the concrete surface and can follow a curved profile. + The material can be readily installed behind existing services. * Overlapping, required when strengthening in two directions, is not a problem because the material is thin ‘These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using other methods. This is particularly important for bridges because of the high costs of ane closures and possession times on major highways and railway lines. An additional advantage of FRPs over some other types of strengthening is that the weight of the structure and the dimensions of the member are not significantly increased. The latter may be particularly important for bridges, tunnels and other structures with limited clearance. Disadvantages One disadvantage of FRP strengthening is the risk of fire, vandalism or accidental damage. For bridges over roads the risk of soffit reinforcement being hit by over- height vehicles should be considered. In general, some form of protection will be required. Examples of FRP strengthening ‘There are many concrete structures around the world which have been externally strengthened with FRP. The Report concentrates on applications in the UK. The floors of various buildings have been strengthened to carry additional loads and Strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials uFRP has been used in structural alterations. Columns have been strengthened in several multi-storey car-parks by wrapping with carbon fibre sheet. Several major highway bridges and a large number of small bridges have been strengthened using FRPS to increase their load capacity. Most applications have been n soffits but some bridges have had FRP bonded to the upper surface or around the columns. Other strengthening applications in the UK include lighthouses and cooling, towers; elsewhere in the world almost every type of conerete structure, from chimneys, to tunnels, has been strengthened. Design approach Fibre composites have a straight-line stress-strain response to ultimate with no yielding, Thus elastic methods of analysis with no redistribution are appropriate. For members in bending, the traditional design assumptions are still valid. However, further checks are required fo avoid peeling failure at the ends of the laminate and debonding from the concrete. If failure occurs, it will be in the outer layer of the concrete; the proposed, conservative, approach is to limit the longitudinal shear stress in the concrete at ultimate to 0.8 Nimm?. To minimise the tisk of debonding, the strain in the FRP should not exceed 0.8% when the applied load is uniformly distributed and 0.6% if combined high shear forces and bending ‘moments are present. A minimum anchorage length of 500 mm is recommended. FRP strips may be used to strengthen members in shear. The material may be treated as an external stirrup, again using traditional design assumptions but the strain in the FRP should be limited to 0.4%. Wrapping circular columns with FRP increases the axial load capacity as well as the bending and shear capacities. (Only limited increases are possible with square and rectangular columns.) Approachesare given which relate the enhanced ultimate stress and strain in the concrete to the degree of confinement, Workmanship and installation The installation of FRP materials must carried out correetly, to ensure good long- term performance. Detailed guidance is given, including the selection of the appropriate material and adhesive, adequate preparation of the concrete surface, application of the composite and correct curing of the adhesive. It is important that, the work is carried out by a suitably qualified contractor with suitably trained staff. Inspection and maintenance As strengthening with FRP is a relatively new technique, regular inspection and maintenance regimes should be set up. This is particularly important for buildings which, unlike bridges, are not generally subject to any form of routine inspection. Where practical, additional material should be installed, which can be removed at a later stage for testing. Information on the materials used, along with information on the actions to be taken in the event of damage to the FRP, should be included in the Health and Safety File. 2 Concrete Society Technical Report 551 INTRODUCTION Fibre composites have been successfully used for many years in the aerospace and automotive industries. They are also used in construction, for example, for structural elements, particularly in aggressive environments such as chemical plants, and for cladding, This Report does not consider such applications but deals only with a recent development, the strengthening of concrete structures with fibre composite materials bonded to the surface There are a number of situations where the load-carrying ‘capacity of a structure in service may need to be increased, such as change of loading or use, or where the structure has been damaged. In the past, strength would be increased cast- additional reinforced concrete or dowelling in additional inforcement. More recently, concrete structures have been strengthened by bonding steel plates to the surface of the tension zone with adhesives and bolts. Even more recently, the use of fibre reinforced polymer plates, generally contain- ing carbon fibres, has been developed using the same basi techniques as for ste! plate bonding. Fibre reinforced polymer plates have many advantages over steel plates in this application and they can be used in situations where it would be impossible or impractical to use steel: for instance, they can be formed in place into compli- cated shapes. Fibre reinforced polymers are lighter in weight ‘han steel plates of equivalent strength. This makes installa- tion much simpler and quicker and eliminates the need for ‘temporary support for the plates while the adhesive gains strength. Fibre reinforced polymers can also be easily cut fo length on site. ‘Some types of fibre are also available in the form of fabrics, which can be bonded to the concrete surface. The chief advantage of fabrics over plates is that they can be wrapped round curved surfaces, for example around columns or completely surrounding the sides and soffits of beams. ‘A sketch showing a wide range of strengthening applications toa hypothetical structure is shown in Figure 1 ‘An appreciable number of structures in the UK and elsewhere have been strengthened using fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) ‘materials and the rate at which the technique is being used is increasing rapidly, However, there is little independent ‘guidance on how the design of strengthening works should be carried out and no national standard or code of practice. The Figure 1: Difeent types of structural strengthening, applied to beams, slabs, walls and columns. lack of independent guidance is leading to a reluctance to adoptthe technique by some designers, specifiers and owners. This Concrete Society Technical Report sets out to address this problem. The guidance in this Report is not specific to any particular type of fibre reinforced polymer material or any particular strengthening technique. It covers the use both of manufae- tured composite materials bonded to the concrete surface and ‘composites formed in situ on the surface. The Report deals mainly with the design of strengthened members, i.e. beams, slabs and columns. Other aspects, such as currently available materials, appropriate application tech- niques and current uses, are described. Iti intended to cover the principles involved, not the detailed approaches that are applicable to individual materials and techniques. Further details of material properties and techniques can be obtained from materials suppliers and from specialist designers and contractors. The Report is specifically concemed with strengthening ‘concrete structures. Fibre composites have been successfully used fo strengthen metallic and other structures. The basic principles of this Report will still be applicable but the detailed design recommendations will not apply. To help readers unfamiliar with composites, a glossary of terms is given in Appendix A. ‘Swrengthening concrete structures using fbre composite materials B2 BACKGROUND 2.1 PRINCIPLES OF STRENGTHENING A concrete structure may need strengthening for many reasons. Examples are: + To increase live-load capacity, e.g. ofa bridge subject to inereased vehicle loads or a building the use of which is to change from residential to commercial. + To add reinforcement to a member that has been under- designed or wrongly constructed. + To improve seismic resistance, either by providing more confinement to increase the strain capacity of the con- crete, of by improving continuity between members. + Toreplace or supplement reinforcement, e.g. damaged by impactor lost ue to corrosion. (This will only be practi- cal if the eause of the damage is identified and treated.) ‘+ To improve continuity, e.g. across joints between precast members, + To provide replacement reinforcement following struc- tural alterations, e.g. around holes cut through floor slabs for lift or star installation or through walls to accommo- date new services, In most cases it is only practical to increase the live-load capacity ofa structure, However, in some situations it may be possible to relieve dead load, by jacking and propping, prior to the application of the additional reinforcement. In these cases, the additional reinforcement will play its partin carey ing the structure’s dead load. Prestressing techniques using composite materials are being developed that will also help to carry part of the dead load. This approach is not covered in detail inthe design sections of this Report. ‘Three basic principles underlie the strengthening of concrete structures using fibre composite materials, which are the same imespective of the type of structure: ‘+ Increase the bending moment capacity of beams and slabs by adding fibre composite materials to the tensile face. + Increase the shear capacity of beams by adding fibre ‘composite materials to the sides in the shear tensile zone. + Increase the axial and shear capacity of columns by ‘wrapping fibre composite materials around the perimeter. 2.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES TO BE STRENGTHENED ‘The decision to strengthen a structure will come at the end of | what may be a prolonged assessment process. The process is. independent of structure type and should be based on rigorous criteria and sound engineering judgement. The assessment process will usually involve some investigation of the condition ‘of the structure or some re-analysis and study of the background issues. Guidance may be obtained from documents such as ‘Concrete Society Technical Report 54 Diagnosis of deterioration in conerete structures and the Institution of Structural Engineers’ Appraisal of existing structures. In all cases an experienced engineer should be part ofthe assessment team. ‘The process will usually be aimed at providing answers to some or al of the following questions: ‘+ Has the condition or load-carrying capacity of the struc- ture decreased significantly? ‘+ Has the loading changed significantly? ‘+ What are the risks to the public, to commerce and to the structure of taking no action? ‘+ Whatare the cost implications ofstrengthening, including direct costs, future costs and the cost of disruption while the work is carried out? ‘+ What are the cost implications of demolition and rebuild- ing, including direct costs, future costs, costs associated with loss of use of the structure and disruption while the work is carried out? ‘+ What is the anticipated future life of the structure in its present form? ‘+ Will inspection and maintenance be possible? + How would strengthening works affect local infrastrue- ture, commerce, safety and the environment? ‘+ Are any political issues involved? ‘+ What is the age of the structure and is it of historical importance? © What parties and auth approve the works? s would be required to ‘+ Are there any programming or funding constraints? By addressing these issues, decisions about the appropriate action fora particular structure can be made. In some cases strengthening will not be a sensible option, unless remedial work is carried out first. Examples are structures with significant materials problems, such as high chloride content leading to severe reinforcement corrosion ora week, honey- combed surface. ‘Once it has been decided that strengthening is a realistic ‘option and that the structure is suitable for strengthening, the next step isto identify an appropriate strengthening scheme. ‘The feasibility study should include consideration of the “4 Concrete Society Technical Report $5points listed above in relation to possible schemes, such issues as whole-life costs ofthe various options and careful assessment of the residual life and strength ofthe structure. The risks associated with each option should be assessed during the feasibility study. This assessment should compare ‘the possible higher risks associated with new techniques with little history of long-term performance to those of older, tried and tested, methods. However, the benefits of newer tech- niques can outweigh this perceived disadvantage: the risks associated with premature failure ae low if strengthening is to be provided only for the live-load case. 2.3 STRENGTHENING SOLUTIONS ‘Strengthening solutions considered in a feasibility study can range from repair of a damaged structure in order to restore its original strength to adding elements to increase its capacity. Allsolutions are, toa greater or lesser extent, project-specific but some general approaches are commonly used. Repair typically involves crack injection and/or breaking out dam- aged areas and reinstating with cementitious repair mortars or flowing concrete. As stated above, this approach is used ‘where the aim isto restore the original strength of a structure, ‘A task group of the Conerete Bridge Development Group is reviewing various forms of strengthening which might be applied o conerete bridges. The most common techniques are as follows + Increase the reinforced concrete cross-section. This solution is usually readily accepted by approval authori- ties and owners of structures as it has a proven track record. However, loading restrictions are required while the concrete cures to an acceptable strength. This restric- tion may be critical in some instances ~ for example where a bridge closure would lead to unacceptable disruption. + Add prestressing to relieve dead load. Like increasing the cross-section, this technique has a proven track record and gains ready acceptance. Loading restrictions may be required daring installation, which may not be acceptable, This technique requires the existing structure to be capable of withstanding high local prestressing forces. + Use plate bonding to enhance tensile reinforcement of elements. Steel plate bonding has been widely used and can be considered to have a proven track record, Design guidance is given in the Highways Ageney Advice Note BA 30/94. Disadvantages of the technique are the weight and difficulty of handling the plates, difficulty in cutting to shape, the need to apply and maintain corrosion protection and to anchor the plates to the concrete section while avoiding damage to embedded reinforcement. As discussed above, access and installation times may be critical issues in some locations. Fibre composite plate bonding is being used more widely as a viable alternative to steel plate bonding because of the speed and ease of installation and the ease with which the material can be cut to shape and bent to fit curved surfaces. As the technique is relatively new, a proven long- term track record does not exist and this is seen as its main disadvantage. However, the basic technique and theadhesives are similar to those used for steel plates, which have been ‘widely and successfully applied. + Add material 1 provide confinement ofthe concretein compression members. This can be achieved by install- ing in situ reinforced concrete or prefabricated steel collars or wrapping the element with resin-bonded fibre composite material. The use of collars is the most com- ‘mon technique where space permits. The technique tends tobe readily accepted asthe increase inthe cross-section ean be clearly seen. With in situ reinforced concrete collars, loading restrictions on the structure are required while the conerete gains strength. In locations where space does not allow a significant increase in cross- section or where the installation time iscritical, wrapping with fibre composite material and resin isa viable option. ‘The advantages of fibre composites tend to outweigh the peroeived disadvantage of a lack of track record and the reluctance of some approval authorities and owners of structures to adopt new materials. 2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE COMPOSITE ‘STRENGTHENING 2.4.1 Advantages Fibre composite strengthening materials have higher ultimate strength and lower density than steel. When taken together these two properties lead to fibre composites having a strengthvweight ratio higher than steel plate in some cases, (hough itis often not possible to use this fully). The lower weight makes handling and installation signifi- cantly easier than steel. This is particularly important when. installing material in cramped locations. Figure 2 shows carbon fibre plates being installed in a culvert with limited headroom. Figure 2: Installing fibre composite plates in a culver. ‘Strengthening concrete soructures using fibre composite materials asWork on soffits of bridges and building floor slabs can often be carried out from man-access platforms rather than full scaffolding, Stee! plate requires heavy lifting gear and must ‘beheld in place while the adhesive gains strength. Bolts must be fitted through the steel plate into the parent concrete to support the plate while the adhesive cures and to reduce the effects of peeling at the ends. On the other hand, the applica- tion of FRP plate or sheet material has been likened to applying wallpaper; once it has been rolled on carefully to remove entrapped air and excess adhesive it may be left unsupported. In general, no bolts are required; infact, the use of bolts would seriously weaken the material unless additional cover plates are bonded on, Furthermore, because there is no need to drill into the structure to fix bolts or other mechanical anchors there is no risk of damaging the existing reinforce- ment. Fibre composite materials are available in very long lengths while steel plate is generally limited to 6m. The avail- ability of long lengths and the flexibility of the material (see Figure 3) also simplify installation: ‘+ Laps and joints are not required + The material can take up irregularities in the shape ofthe conerete surface + The material can follow a curved profile; steel plate would have to be pre-bent to the required radius ‘+The material can be readily installed behind existing services (see Figure 4) + Overlapping, required when strengthening in two direc tions, isnot a problem because the material is thin (see Figure 5), Figure 3: Installing FRP plate, showing the flexibilty of the materia, ‘The materials ~ fibres and resins ~ are durable if correctly specified, and require litte maintenance. If they are damaged in service, itis relatively simple to repair them, by adding an additional layer. ‘The use of fibre composites does not significantly increase the weight ofthe structure or the dimensions of the member. ‘The later may be particularly important for bridges and other structures with limited headroom and for tunnels. In terms of environmental impact and sustainability, studies have shown that the energy required to produce FRP materials. is less than that for conventional materials. Because of their light weight, the transport of FRP materials has minimal environmental impact. Figure 5: Ovetlapped carbon FRP plates on Dudley Port Bridge, West Midlands. ‘These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using steel plate. This is particularly important for bridges because of the high costs of lane closures and possession times on, ‘major highways and railway lines. Ithas been estimated that about 90% of the market for plate strengthening in Switzer land has been taken by carbon plate systems as a result of these factors. 242 Disadvantages ‘The main disadvantage of externally strengthening structures with fibre composite materials isthe risk of fie, vandalism or accidental damage, unless the strengthening is protected. A particular concer for bridges over roads isthe risk of soffit reinforcement being hit by over-height vehicles (‘bridge bashing’). However, strengthening using plates is generally provided to carry additional live load and the ability of the unstrengthened structure to carry its own self-weight is un- impaired (see also Section 2.7). Damage tothe plate strength- ening material only reduces the overall factor of safety and is unlikely to lead to collapse, Experience of the long-term durability of fibre composites is not yet available. This may be a disadvantage for struc- tures for which a very long design life is required (see 16 Concrete Society Technical Report 53‘Section 2.5) but can be overcome by appropriate monitoring (see Chapter 10). A perceived disadvantage of using FRP for strengthening is the relatively high cost of the materials, However, comparisons should be made on the basis of the complete strengthening exercise (see Section 2.6); in certain cases the costs can be less than that of steel plate bonding. A disadvantage in the eyes of many clients will be the lack of experience of the techniques and suitably qualified staff to ‘carry out the work. Finally, a significant disadvantage is the lack of accepted design standards; this Report aims to tackle this aspect. 2.5 DESIGN LIFE A draft Highways Agency Interim Advice Note on Sirength- ening concrete bridge supports using fibre reinforced plastic‘ uses 30 years for the design life ofa fibre composite strengthening system. This figure is considered reasonable, based on current experience of the adhesives used in steel plate bonding. There is considerable experience of the use of adhesives in other applications, such as marine structures, which would suggest a design life of at least 40 years. Ideally, the design life for the strengthening system should be related to the remaining life of the structure and should take into account the future plans for the structure, In many cases, iffa mature structure is to be strengthened, a 30 year life for a strengthening system may well be appropriate. However, this ‘may not be the case for structures with long design lives, such as bridges and nuclear structures. Here, it may be necessary to accept a strengthening system with a design life less than the anticipated remaining life of the structure, on the under- standing that the life of the strengthening system will be reassessed at a future date. Because of the relative lack of long-term experience of the performance of fibre composite strengthening systems, regu- lar inspection and maintenance regimes should be instigated. This is particularly important for buildings which, unlike bridges, are not generally subjected to any form of routine inspection, Where practical, additional material should be installed, which can be removed at a later stage for testing, This approach has been adopted on a number of structures including the Bames Bridge in Manchester and the John Hart Bridge in British Columbia, see Section 4.3. It may be possible to incorporate some form of monitoring system inthe fibre composite. 2.6 2.6.1 ECONOMICS Installation The relative economies of the use of fibre composites and other strengthening systems depend on the circumstances. Many factors are involved, and itis necessary to compare costs both in the short and long term. The latter may be difficult to quantify as the life-time behaviour can only be estimated fairly crudely Factors such as the cost of access and possession time should be taken into account as they can have a significant influence. High closure costs are often incurred by highway works. For example, up-grading of a major highway in New York Ci had to be carried out at night as there was a requirement for the road to be fully open during the day. The penalty for failure to reopen the carriageway inthe morning was $30,000 per hour, with a penalty of $20,000 per day for over-run of the complete project. Studies carried out for Railtrack have indicated that strength- ning with FRP materials wll be approximately 30% cheaper than the equivalent strengthening using steel plate. ‘Some economic considerations for particular applications are reported in later chapters. Unfortunately, the information is largely qualitative, but can be used for guidance when investigating the economies of a situation, Examples of economics In Florida, the beam-column connections in a parking ‘garage were strengttiened by bonding carbon fibre sheet ‘material to the sides ofthe beams. It was estimated that the adhesively bonded repair was 35% cheaper than the conventional method, which would have involved dowelling in additional steel reinforcement and encasing the joint with additional concrete. In Edmonton, Canada, carbon fibre reinforced polymer composite sheet material was applied to the soffits and sides of a bridge, to improve its shear resistance. The ‘cost was reported as $70,500 for strengthening the com- plete bridge. A conventional extemal stirrup system was estimated to cost some $100,000. Thus the bonded sotu- tion showed approximately 30% saving in costs, duie chiefly to the fact that the work was carried out from below the bridge and avoided the traffic closures that ‘would have been required for the conventional system. Beams of the Maryland Street Bridge in Winnipeg, Canada, were strengthened with vertical and horizontal sheets of carbon fibre to increase the shear capacity. Itwas ‘estimated that the cost was about 70% ofthe conventional approach, which would have involved removing parts of the bridge deck, installing post-tensioned external shear stirrups and casting additional conerete round the beams. ‘This comparison was on the basis of direct costs and did not consider factors such as traffic delays. ‘A.100 m-high chimney in Japan was wrapped with carbon fibre, The work was carried out in one month, while the traditional approach using stee! bands would have taken six months, 2.6.2 Whole-life costing ‘The technique of whole-tife costing can play an important part in making decisions on when and how to repair or strengthen concrete structures. This is recognised in ENV 1504 Part 9 which lists among the factors to be considered wheri choosing between repair options: + The number and cost of repair cycles acceptable during the design life of the concrete structure Strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials ”+ The cost and funding of the altemative protection or repair options, including future maintenance and access costs. The whole-life cost ofa repair or strengthening solution isthe sum of the initial (installation) cost and the future (main- tenance) costs over the remaining life of the structure. To permit meaningful comparisons to be made, future costs are discounted to present day value. To carry outa life-cycle cost analysis requires an understanding of: + Deterioration processes as they relate to the particular structure or different parts of the structure + Repair and strengthening methods and their durability + Costs of repair or strengthening and maintenance activi- ties + Indirect costs due to loss of service + The owner's requirements for the serviceability and service life ofthe structure. In many cases, the basic data to permit reasonable assess- rents ofthe various elements which make up the whole-lfe cost are not available. Nonetheless, it can be appreciated that strengthening using fibre composites can be competitive in ‘whole-life cost comparisons because both installation and maintenance costs are usually lower than those of competing techniques and possession times are shorter, Prolonging the useful life of structures which will still be required for a long time into the future (e.g. road or rail bridges) becomes an attractive proposition in whole-tife cost terms, This is because, if replacement can be delayed for ‘many years, the cost at present day value is considerably reduced. For example, ifa discount rate of 8% is assumed, a cost of 1,000,000 at year 20 has a present day value of only £200,000. Itcan be more economic, in whole-life cos terms, to strengthen now and replace in 20 years, than to replace (One factor which is dfficultto take into account in whole-fe costings is the time until the structure becomes obsolete. This ‘may happen for physical, economic, functional, technological, orlegalreasons. This uncertainty can lead tothe lowest initial cost option being favoured on the basis that there is, little 19 be gained from additional spending now, if the structure is unlikely tobe required in its present form inten years. 2.7 LEVEL OF STRENGTHENING ‘A key factor inthe choice of strengthening system will be the level of strengthening (ie. the maximum increase in load capacity) that can be achieved. Strengthening against one mode of failure (e.g. bending) may increase the probability of. ‘occurrenee of another mode (eg. shear). This must be ‘considered in the design process. In addition, account must be taken of the risks associated with any possible partial or complete failure of the strengthening. Because of the lack of long-term experience of fibre composite strengthening, some clients are recommending that the approach is only used to increase the factor of safety against collapse, ie. in the event of failure of the composite, the structure would not collapse. 18 Concrete Society Technical Report 553 MATERIAL TYPES AND PROPERTIES 3.1 INTRODUCTION Fibre composites are formed from high performance fibres combined with an appropriate resin. For strengthening applications, the composite may be preformed into plates or panels and bonded to the concrete, The most common «example is composite plates bonded tothe soffits of beams or slabs, Alternatively, the fibres may be combined with the resin in situ as part ofthe application process, such as in the wrapping of columns. The mechanical properties of fibre composites ate chiefly controlled by the type, amount, orientation and distribution of fibres in the cross-section. The role ofthe resin isto transfer stresses to and from the fibres and also to provide some protection from the environment. This Chapter provides a general introduction tothe fibres and resins used for strengthening. For further information on the properties and behaviour of composites, the reader should consult standard textbooks, such as An introduction to composite materials" and Composite materials: engineering and science. 3.2 B21 FIBRES ‘Types of fibre ‘The most suitable fibres for strengthening applications are ‘glass, carbon or aramid. (Aramids are better known by the ‘trade names Kevlar® and Twaron.) Each is a family of fibre types and not a particular one, Typical values for the proper- ties of fibres are given in Table 3.1. It should be noted that these values are forthe fibres alone, not for fibre composites. ‘The strength and modulus for manufactured composites will, bbe lower, see Sections 3.4 and 3.5. The values in Table 3.1 should only be taken as indicative; where necessary, actual values should be obtained from the manufacturer. The fibres all have a linear elastic response up to ultimate load, with no ‘Table 3.1: Typical fibre properties. significant yielding. Details of some available materials are given in Appendix B. 32.2 Performance of different types of fibre The selection of the type of fibre to use in a particular application will depend on many factors — the type of strue- ture, the expected loading, the environmental conditions, and so on, Some information is given in this section; further advice can be obtained from the suppliers of strengthening ‘materials, Throughout, the comments referto the performance of the fibre itself in most situations this will be modified by the resin or adhesive. Chemical resistance Carbon and aramid fibres are resistant to most forms of chemical attack. Many types of glass fibre are attacked by alkalies (pH greater than about 11) but not by acids. Aramids, absorb much more water than either of the other two fibres, which can cause problems with the resin/fibre interface ‘There is some evidence to suggest that, in the presence of salts, fracture of all types of fibre can occur due to the formation of angular crystals. Resistance to ultraviolet light Glass and carbon fibres are not affected by ultraviolet light. Aramid fibres change colour under ultraviolet light and the strength is reduced. However, when embedded in aresin matrix this degradation only occurs near the outer surface and there is litle effect on the overall mechanical properties. (Direct expo- ssure to sunlight can embrittleall resins and a protective paint is normally recommended if direct exposure is likely.) Electrical conductivity Aramid and glass fibres are non-conducting and hence are suitable for use close to power lines, railway lines and com- ‘munications facilities, 7 “Tense strength Bib (ram) arbon high stength* 4300-4900 Carbon: high modulat | 240-s:90 Carbon: ultra high modulust esocatol “Aramid: high srength and high modutust | 3200-3600 | Gas 2100-2500 | Modulus ofetastity | Elongation | sin gong avin) | 0 me 230-240 1921 | 18 pres one L181 540-640 0408 Loran 124-130 1 24 144 70-85 3547 26 ‘© Based on polyacryontile precursor + Based on pitch precursor Aramids with the same strength but a lower modulus are available but are not used in structural strengthening applications. ‘Strengthening concrete structures using bre composite materials »‘Carbon fibres conduct electricity, but standards have been issued in Japan for the use of carbon FRP strengthening materials in railway applications close to power lines. They ‘must be electrically isolated from any steel reinforcement; in general the resin will be sufficient for this. Care is needed when handling or cutting carbon FRP close to electrical ‘equipment due to the risk of short-circuit by airborne par- ticles. (See Health and safety below.) In addition, when used close to powerlines ete, steps must be taken to ensure tht, in the unlikely event of adhesive failure, the composite does not come into contact with the electrical source. Compressive strength The compressive strengths of carbon and glass fibres are close to their tensile strengths; that of aramid is significantly lower. Stiffness ‘The elastic modulus of carbon fibre is similar to, or signifi- cantly greater than, that of steel. The stiffness of aramid is lower and that of glass significantly lower. Impact resistance Performance of fibres during impact is highly dependent on the elastic strain energy generated and absorbed. Fibres combining high strength with high elongation (tensile strength greaterthan 3,500N/mm: and elongation greater than 2%) are most suitable for applications where impact resistance is, important, Selected grades of carbon, aramid and glass fibre ccan meet these requirements. Fire Glass fibres retain strength up to their melting point (over 1000°C) while carbon fibres oxidise in air above 650°C. ‘Aramid fibres are not normally used above 200°C. None of the fibres will support combustion. In composites, the resi behaviour will dominate performance; most generate toxi ‘smoke. Health and safety All fibres present negligible risk to human health in normal use. However, care must be taken when cutting and machin- ing all composites, because fine fibre particles may iritate skin, eyes and mucous membranes. In addition, care must be taken when handling resins. Reference should be made to the COSHH Regulations “and to manufacturer’s data sheets. Suitable protective clothing worn should be wor. See also Section 9.1 It has been suggested that the release of fibres following impact on carbon fibre composite may represent a health hazard‘"?, However, carbon is not listed as carcinogenic by bodies such as the World Health Organisation, Limited tests fon animals have suggested that the effects, if any, are less than those of asbestos. Environmental aspects ‘Aramid, glass and carbon fibres are all non-toxic and inert, and are not considered to be hazardous as waste. For landfill, disposal, they do not contain any substance that could leach ‘out to contaminate the groundwater or the air. For incinera- tion, the matrix in composites may present a problem. In addition, incineration of carbon materials may release fine electically-conductve particles into the ar Various approaches are being developed for reeyeling composites, mainly involving grinding the material to form a filler in new composites. 3.3 FABRICS Fabrics are available in two basic forms: + Sheet material, either fibrés (generally unidirectional, ‘though bi-axial and tri-axial arrangements are available) ‘on a removable backing sheet or woven rovings. ‘+ Fibres pre-impregnated with resin (‘prepreg’ material), which is cured once in place, by the application of heat or by other means. ‘The selection of the appropriate fabric depends on the application. ‘The properties of the sheet materials depend on the amount ‘and type of fibre used. An additional consideration is the arrangement of the fibres; parallel lay gives unidirectional properties while a woven fabric has two-dimensional proper- ties. In woven fabrics, perhaps 70% of the fibres are in the ‘strong’ direction and 30% in the transverse direction. It should be noted thatthe kinking of the fibres in the woven material significantly reduces the strength. The thickness of the material may be as low as 0.1 mm (withthe fibres fixed to 1a removable backing sheet) and is available in widths of ‘500 mm or more. 3.4 PLATES Unidirectional plates are usually formed by the pultrusion process. Fibres, in the form of continuous rovings, are drawn off in a carefully controlled pattern through a resin bath, ‘which impregnates the fibre bundle. They are then pulled through a die which consolidates the fibre-resin combination and forms the required shape. The die is heated which sets and cures the resin, allowing the completed composite to be drawn off by reciprocating clamps or a tension device. The process enables a high proportion of fibres (generally about {65%) to be incorporated in the cross-section. Hence, in the longitudinal direction, relatively high strength and stiffness, are achieved, approximately 65% of the relevant figures in Table 3.1. Because most, if not all, of the fibres are in the Tongitudinal direction, the transverse strength will be very Tow. Plates formed by pultrusion are 1-2 mm thick and are supplied in a variety of widths, typically between 50 and 100 mm, As pultrusion is @ continuous process, very long lengths of material are available, Thinner material is provided in the form of a coil, with a diameter of about | m, as shown in Figure 6, It can be easily cut to length on site using a simple guillotine, see Figure 7. Plates can also be produced using the prepreg process, which js widely used to produce components for the aerospace and automotive industries. Typically plates have a fibre volume 20 Concrete Society Technical Report $5Figure 6: Coil of carbon FRP plate fraction of 55% and can incorporate 10% fibres (usually glass aligned at an angle of 45° to the longitudinal axis) to improve the handling strength. Lengths up to 12 m can be produced, with the width and thickness being tailored to the particular application. Widths up to 1.25 m have been produced and thicknesses up to 30 mm, 3.5 PREFORMED SHELLS FOR COLUMN CONFINEMENT Preformed shells have been used to strengthen columns on a number of structures in North America. For a circular column, the most appropriate manufacturing process is probably filament winding. Resin-impregnated fibres are wound round a mandrel, in the pattern required to give the required hoop and longitudinal properties. Once fully cured, the cylindrical shell is removed from the mandrel and cut longitudinally so that it ean be bonded round the column, Alternatively, shells ean be formed, by hand lay-up or other processes, on the inside or outside of a suitable mould, Shells for strengthening columns on the New Jersey Turnpike were manufactured using a vacuum infusion process ?. A resin- rich outer skin was provided to improve the resistance to sunlight and salt water. In general, the internal diameter ofthe shell should be close to that of the extemal diameter of the column, to keep the increase in the overall diameter to a minimum. However, on the New Jersey Turpike, shells were installed with a clear- ance of between 50 and 150 mm from the concrete surface, which was late filled with grout. Because of the cost of fabricating mandrels or moulds, this approach is only likely tobe cost-effective when a large number of identical columns arebeing strengthened, such asin multi-span bridges or mult storey buildings. t Figure 7: Cutting carbon FRP plate on site, ‘The strength and stiffness of the shel inthe hoop and vertical M, , the concrete will crush before the FRP reaches its design tensile strain (see Section 6.2.4). Provided that the steel strain at failure is sufficiently large, however, this should not result in brittle failure of the strengthened member. Design ultimate moments should normally be determined by linear elastic methods. If there is evidence of local yielding taking place, the results of an elastic analysis need to be applied with care. Since members undergoing strengthening ‘will usually be stel reinforced, some redistribution of elastic. ‘moments may occur near ultimate loads. However, this area thas not been studied experimentally and itis therefore diffi- cult to quantify the degree of redistribution that may oceur. 62.2 Balanced moment of resistance To determine the balanced moment of resistance, M, ., of flexural members the following assumptions should be made: 1 Sections that are plane before bending remain plane after bending. 2. There is no slip between the FRP and the concrete. 3. ‘The stress-strain responses for concrete and steel rein- forcement follow the idealised curves presented in current ‘codes and standards. 4. FRP has a linear elastic response to failure. 5S. The tensile strength of the conerete is ignored. ‘Singly reinforced beams For a singly reinforced beam with a layer of FRP bonded to, the tension face, the strain and stress distribution will vary as shown in Figure 16, The stress distributions shown are based ‘on the BS 8110 models for concrete and steel. Material ‘models based on other codes and standards such as BS 5400: Part 4 and the CEB-FIP Model Code ™ will be slightly different but are equally acceptable. Taking moments about the bottom face, the moment of resistance for balanced failure, M,., is given by: Me = (0.6 1f! Yog) 609 x [2+ (4-2) Gl Ym) ACA=d) co) wherex = hileylen +1) (62) inwhich h= overall depth of beam, assuming thickness of FRP plate + adhesive << h Gq. ~ design ultimate failure strain of FRP = cy. Yas 4 Concrete Society Technical Report 55ea +0.0035 a 45h Tae a, = ultimate strain of concrete = 0.0035 2 = d-09x2 63) Doubly reinforced beans IF the section to be strengthened contains both tension and compression stel, an extra term to account fr the comres- sion steel will need to be included in the expression for M,,,, giving: Mcy~ (O6Tfa/Yme) B09 x[2+ (4A =a) ACB d+ (Lae) Ay(h-d') (64) where/} = compressive stress in steel A, area of compression steel = offective depth of compression steel 62.3 Moment less than balanced moment When the design ultimate moment, M, is less than the bal- anced moment of resistance of the strengthened beam, M, ., the approximate area of FRP required, 4,, can be obtained by M, both the stress in the FRP and the tensile force induced in the FRP need to be evalu- ated, The stress in the FRP is a function of the compressive strain in the concrete and the depth of the neutral axis. The force in the FRP isa function of the design moment acting ‘on the member. Since the design moment causes compressive failure of the concrete, the strain in the conerete will be 0.0035. The depth of the neutral axis is calculated using the design moment and section properties. For example, Figure 18 shows the stress. and strain distributions in a singly reinforced beam strength- ‘ened with bonded FRP. Taking moments about the bottom 6.3, the flexural strength of the beam is given by: M, = (89)f,,b(d—2)[2+(h-d)] — Cyan) ACh a) (6.12) By putting 1M, = M, the depth of the lever arm, z, ean be determined. The depth ofthe neutral axis is then obtained by back-substituting into Equation 6.3 and the stress in the FRP using Equation 6.7. In conventional reinforced concrete design, ductile behaviour of flexural members is assured by arranging that.the steel reinforcement yields prior to crushing of the concrete. In BS 8110, for example, limiting the depth of the neutral axis toa maximum of 0.5 for steel with, = 460 Nimm®, where dist effective depth ofthe member, satisfies this condition. Clearly, it would be prudent to adopta similar criterion in the My 36 Concrete Society Technical Report $56.3 FRP SEPARATION FAILURE 631 Introduction Members strengthened externally with FRP can fail prema- turely asa result of local FRP separation, This can be caused by two different mechanisms: peeling and debonding, Peeling failure often occurs at the ends of the FRP where there is.a discontinuity asa result ofthe abrupt termination of the plate. It is normally associated with concentrated shear and normal stresses in the adhesive layer due to the FRP deformation that takes place under load, The magnitude of these stresses is influenced by various factors ineluding the dimensions of the FRP plate, the mismatch in the modulus of elasticity of the FRP and the adhesive, and the shape of the bending moment diagram. Peeling failure usually results in ripping off the concrete cover along the level of the internal steel reinforcement, towards the centre of the member, see Figwe 19, YY ‘ + Figure 19: Peeling failure. Unlike peeling, debonding normally occurs away from the plate end. It can arise if the bonding adhesive is weak or has not been properly applied. Debonding failure may also be indicative of inadequate preparation ofthe concrete substrate. More commonly, however, itis associated with the formation ‘of wide flexural and shear cracks that occur as a result of the yielding ofthe embedded steel bars. The wide cracks generate high stresses in the FRP across the erack, which can only dissipate by debonding. This debonding can then propagate towards the plate end, leading to FRP separation failure. Plate separation is a controversial topic and the preceding 1.0 (621) 6, = plate width (mm) by beam width or plate spacing for solid slab (mm) t= plate thickness (mm) Ey elastic modulus of the plate fom = tensile strength of concrete 0.18 (4) (6.22) It is recommended that, where the FRP is curtailed in the span, a minimum anchorage length of 500 mm should be provided. In situations where itis not possible to provide the ‘maximum allowable anchorage length, the bond force will be less than the ultimate value and may be calculated using the following expression: Ty Fore be!) [2 = Aye ae] (6.23) Additionally, consideration may be given to using an anchor- age device, provided its capacity has been proved by testing. 63.3 Debonding As noted above, the risk of debonding failure is exacerbated by the formation of wide flexural and shear cracks. A direct way of avoiding this potential failure mode is simply to limit, the strain in the FRP. Neubauer and Rostasy suggest an ultimate limit of Se, (critical for mild steel) or half the ulti- ‘mate plate strain, which for the materials tested was 0.75%. Other workers have suggested somewhat lower limits, in the order of 0.6% for sagging moments and 0.4% for hogging moments. UK experience suggests that the higher strain limits are more reasonable. On this basis itis recommended that to avoid debonding failure, the strain in the FRP should not exceed 0.8% when the applied loading is uniformly distributed, and 0,6% if combined high shear forcesand bend- ing moments are present, such as where the load is concen- trated at a point and at hogging regions close to supports. It should be noted that the above limits are largely based on laboratory and field data obtained from strengthening schemes using carbon FRP and therefore these values may not, be applicable to other composite materials. Indeed there is, some evidence that aramid FRP will fail at a lower ultimate strain than carbon FRP. For this reason it is essential that designers verify the suitability of these strain limits for particular FRP strengthening systems. 6.4 SHEAR Bonding of FRP to the tension face will undoubtedly increase flexural capacity but will leave the shear capacity of the member largely unaltered. The member may therefore fail in shear rather than flexure. Shear failures are brittle in nature and should be avoided. Where a pos of shear failure exists, a shear strengthening system based on FRP as di ‘cussed in Section 7 should be considered. 38 Concrete Society Technical Report 556.5. SERVICEABILITY 65.1 Crack widths In all normal cases, erack widths will not be excessive providing the FRP strengthening system has been properly installed. Where uncertainty exists, however, it should be verified that crack widths at service loads do not exceed the limits recommended in BS 8110 or BS 5400: Part 4, as appropriate. Guidance on calculating crack widths in steel reinforced concrete structures is given in Section Three of BS 8110: Part 2. This method can be adapted for FRP strength- ‘ened structures simply by taking into account the transformed area of the FRP laminate in calculating the stress in the tension steel. The second moment of area of the secti should be determined assuming that the long-term modular ratios of steel to concrete, @,, and FRP to concrete, a, are siven by: a, = EAE) & = EqihE) Itis worth noting that in realty calculating crack widths is not as straightforward as suggested here. This is because, as the FRP strengthening system is placed on the surface, the spacing of the cracks and hence the crack width are signifi- cantly reduced forthe same strain. However, no detailed work defining the extent of this reduction in crack width has been carried out. In the interim, therefore, the procedure outlined above is recommended, which will provide a conservative estimate. 652 (624) (625) Deflections and material stresses Forbuildings, deflections due tothe projected increased load should not exceed the limits recommended in BS 8110. To avoid excessive deformations in bridges, the stresses in the steel reinforcement and concrete at working loads should not normally exceed 0.8% and 0.6f,, (oF 0.6 times the worst credible strength), respectively. See also Sections 5.6.5 and 5.6.6. Such deflections and material stresses can be estimated using elastic principles. The equivalent transformed section forlong-term loading should be obtained by assuming that the ‘modular ratios of steel to concrete, ,, and FRP to conerete, 4, are given by Equations 6.24 and 6.25 respectively, and for short-term loading are half these values. 653 Fatigue For bridges the designer should consider the effect of re- peated live loading on the fatigue strength of the steel reinforcement and the FRP., Checks for fatigue failure should be carried out in accordance with the recommendations in Clause 4.7 of BS 5400: Part 4. The stress range in the FRP should be limited to the appropriate value given in Table 6.1 Highways Agency Advice Note BA 30° controls the fatigue ‘behaviour of plate bonding applications (for steel plates) by limiting the cyclic stresses that may be applied to the steel plate, ‘Table 6.1: Maximum stress ranges as a proportion ofthe design ultimate strength (%) Material Stress range (%) Carbon FRP. 80 Aramid FRP 70 Gass FRP I 30 6.5.4 Stress rupture Rupture of the FRP may occur at service loads due-to the sustained stresses that exist in the material. Therefore it is recommended that the maximum stress in the FRP at service loads, as a proportion of the design strength, should not, exceed the values given in Table 6.2. Table 6.2: Maximum stress under service loads to avoid stress ‘rupture as a proportion of design strength (%). Material ‘Maximum stress (2) (Carbon FRP 65 Aramid FRP 40 Glass FRP 55 Strengthening concrete siructures using fibre composite materials 397 SHEAR STRENGTHENING 7.1 INTRODUCTION Externally bonded FRP laminates and fabries can be used to increase the shear strength of reinforced conerete beams and columns. Figure 21 shows examples of possible FRP shear strengthening configurations. It can be seen that the shear strength of columns can be easily improved by wrapping with continuous sheet of FRP to form a complete ring around the ‘member. Shear strengthening of beams, however, is likely to 'be more problematic when they are cast monolithically with slabs. This inereases the difficulty of anchoring the FRP at the beam/slab junction and exacerbates the risk of debonding Ujacket Bonded to sides only Continuous sheet Figure 21: Beam and column shear reinforcement configurations. failure. Nevertheless, bonding FRP on either the side Faces, or the side faces and soffit, will provide some shear strength- ening for such members. In both cases, itis recommended that the FRP is placed such thatthe principal fibre orientation, 6, is either 45° or 90° to the longitudinal axis of the member. ‘There is some evidence thatthe shear resistance of beams can be further improved by bonding additional sheets with their fibres orientated at right angles tothe principal fibre direction, although this effect has yet to be quantified. 7.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE 7.2.1 Background ‘A review of current research on shear strengthening with bonded FRP suggests that, as with conventional reinforced concrete, shear failure will occur due to two basic mecha- rnisms, diagonal tension and diagonal compression, Diagonal compression failure is normally avoided by limiting ‘the maximum shear stress in the concrete. According to Clause 3.4.5.2 of BS 8110, the maximum permissible shear St€S5, Vag, should be taken as the lesser of 0.8Vf, of 5 Nimm’, whatever shear reinforcement is provided. It is, recommended therefore, that the same criterion be used in the design of FRP shear-strengthened members. The maximum allowable design shear force due to ultimate loads, Vx. au. at any cross-section, is then obtained from: Vron= Van bd oy where b= width of section d= effective depth of section Diagonal tension failure is possible if the design shear force, Vis greater than the shear resistance of the existing section, Va.» The latter can be evaluated if the shear resistance of the conerete and the shear resistance provided by any steel links. ‘present in the member are known, ie. Veo = Vac * Vou (72) ‘The shear resistance of the steel links, Vay, and of the con- crete, Ve, should be determined in accordance with standard procedures such as those described in Clauses 3.4.5.3 and 3.4.54 of BS 8110: Part 1: 1997. For structures designed to the 1985 edition of BS 8110, it would be more appropriate to assume a steel stress of 0.87f,, rather than 0.95f,, as in the 1997 edition ‘Where the design shear force exceeds the combined shear resistances of the concrete and steel links, FRP shear rein- forcement will be needed. The amount of FRP required can be calculated using the same principles as in conventional reinforced concrete design, that is, assuming a crack pattern 40 Concrete Society Technical Report 55and multiplying the area of the FRP reinforcement intersect- ing the potential erack, A, (d/s,), by the failure stress, Eq ey. Thus, assuming that shear cracks are inclined at 45° to the idinal axis of the member, the shear resistance of the ERP is given by: (95) An (Ew 63) sin B (1 + cot B) (his) (7.3) area of FRP shear reinforcement 2tews, assuming that the FRP is placed on both sides of the member effective width of FRP, which is a function of shear crack angle and FRP strengthening config- uration, equal to d,~ £, where FRP is in the form of a Usjacket and d.—22, where FRP is bonded to side faces (see Figure 22) effective bond length = 461.3/(; Eq.) design strain in the FRP (see Section 7.2.1) angle between FRP and the longitudinal axis of the member = 45° or 90° effective depth of FRP shear reinforcement, usually equal to d for rectangular sections and (d—slab thickness) for T-sections spacing between the centre line of FRP plates (ee Section 7.3). Note that for continuous sheet reinforcement s;~ Wi, = partial safety factor for FRP To calculate the shear resistance of the FRP, the design strain inthe FRP must be evaluated. Its value depends on the failure ‘mode of the FRP-strengthened member. Basically, failure can arise from three possible mechanisms: 1. loss of aggregate interlock 2. FRP rupture 3. delamination of the FRP from the concrete surface, key dL ‘The following section briefly discusses each of these mecha- nisms and gives guidance on calculating the design strain in the FRP. 722 Design FRP strain It is well established that the shear capacity of a reinforced conerete beam without links is a function of the aggregate interlock across flexural cracks. This is estimated to account for between 35% and 50% of the total shear resistance of the member. Cleatly, ifthe shear crack width becomes too large, aggregate interlock will be lost, which will significantly reduce the shear capacity of the member. The strain in the FRP must therefore be limited, A strain limit of 0.0023 is, implied in BS 8110, which specifies that the characteristic strength of steel shear reinforcement should not be taken as, sgreater than 460 Nimm?. However, laboratory tests. on ‘wrapped beams and columns show that this strain limit is conservative and that a value of 0.004 is more realistic. On this basis it is recommended that the maximum strain in the ERP should not exceed 0.004. Because of stress concentrations at comers, debonded areas, etc, FRP rupture can occur at strains far below the ultimate value. Triantafillou'®® has shown that the failure strain is a function ofthe axial rigidity of the FRP sheet. This approach hhas been used by Khalifa et al. ™ to derive the following relationship (assuming p Z; < 1.1 Nimm?) to estimate the failure stain, cq, in the FRP due to this mechanism: Ee = x {0.5622 (p, Ey) — 1.2188 (p; Ea) +0.778) 97 Nimm’ and the specimens are confined by a nominal 90° fibre orientation, the stress-strain response of FRP-confined concrete can be predicted using the expression: Sc = 06.) (EE) Gal + el E-E,)/ 431 + Bee (83) where €, = axial confined concrete strain E, = initial tangent modulus of concrete, given by: BE, = 21500 [(f,, + 8)/10]"" (8.4) E,, = post-crushing tangent modulus = 1.282 (24,/D) Ey (8.5) jin which D = diameter of column ‘fy ~ intercept of post-crushing tangent modulus with the stress axis, given by: f= LAE EEE) 66) in which £, =secant modulus of plain conerete nat 8) 6 j= ultimate strain of plain unconfined concrete = 0.0035 ‘Thisis somewhat similar tothe constitutive equation for FRP- confined concrete recently proposed by Arduini et al, The ‘equation is based on the experimental work of Miyauchi etal. , fe ~ O15 Yaz) (Eo~E,) Ca! [+ fecc(Fo~ By) Sac P+ Eye: (8.8) where £,= secant modulus of conerete, given by: Ey = 9.5(foe* 8)” (Eq in kNémm; fin Nimm’) (8.9) fas = eylinder strength of plain concrete = 085f, (8.10) €q = axial confined concrete strain n= empirical factor» & E, = postcrushing tangent modulus Uo fa)! Cx 1) in which ,~characteristi confined conerete strength = fat 41 085 futlR 6.12) ax = imate axial strain of confined concrete = el ¥e(l + MLR fate)) Je = ultimate design tensile strength of FRP ;, = design ultimate tensile strain of FRP. (8.13) R= radius of column ye = Poisson's ratio for concrete 02 Materials data appropriate to carbon FRP was fed into the models described by Equations 83 and 8.8. The results| ‘obtained are shown in Figure 24. It ean be seen that the two 4" Concrete Society Technical Report $5Pe. 1008), Tn wy 200 (Onan gee rr TT) ran poy Figure 24: Comparison of stress-strain curves. (ie 02, f= 30 N/mm, R= 250 mm, f= 1 mm, f= 3450 N/mm ey = 15%) models show good agreement. Comparisons of the predicted results with the results of other studies on carbon FRP confined concrete, including Howie and Karbhari, Samaan et al. , Picher etal.” and Saati et al., are also reported to show quite good agreement. It should be noted that Equations 8.3 and 8.8 are both based on test results obtained by subjecting cylindrical specimensto substantially uniaxial compression. Columns in bridge struc- tures can also be loaded horizontally as a result of vehicle impact. In this case, the column must sustain a combination of axial load and bending moment. Cuninghame et al. °° have undertaken flexural tests on conerete columns of cireular cross-section hoop-wrapped with two layers of aramid unidirectional fabric of ultimate tensile strength 2360 Nimm? and Young’s modulus 104 kN/mm?. ‘Aramid was chosen because its mechanical properties are intermediate between glass and carbon, and because itis used in other impact/energy absorbing applications. They suggest that, providing the effective hoop stiffness is greater than 320 Nimm?, whatever types of fibres and resin systems are used, an enhanced effective cube strength for confined concrete may be taken and assumed to vary linearly with strain from f, ata strain of 0.0035 to | Sf, ata strain of 0.01 ‘The materials data forthe concrete and aramid fibres used in this work were fed into the models for confined conerete defined by Equation 8.3 and the results are presented in Figure 25. It can be seen that there is good agreement between the predicted and experimental data. om 4 6 80 100 120 140 STRAIN (x10) Figure 25: Compatison of stress-strain curves. (f= 40 N/mm, R= 200 ram, t;= 0.614 mm, Eq= 104 x 10* N/mm?) In view of the above, itis recommended that the short-term design stress-strain curve for concrete confined by a nominal ‘90° fibre orientation be modelled on Equation 8.3. It should be noted that the design curve is based on the characteris unconfined cube strength of concrete, f, , and that partial safety factor for concrete, Yqq. of 1.5 is assumed. 83 831 As previously mentioned, providing hoop FRP around the perimeter of the column can increase the compressivestrength of circular columns. All members strengthened in compres- sion should meet the following conditions: 1. Tensile rupture of the FRP should be considered. 2. Failure of the FRP jacket at lap joints should be exam- ined. 3. ‘The shear capacity of the column should be checked. 4. Compliance with relevant serviceability limit states, such as axial shortening, lateral deformation, loss of strength- ening effectiveness, fatigue and creep rupture, should be investigated. 8.3.2 Tensile rupture of FRP Generally it has been assumed that compression members strengthened by hoop wrapping will fail if the circumferential stress in the composite exceeds its design tensile stress capacity. Various equations have been proposed for predict- ing the strength of FRP-confined columns, on this basis. A ‘number of these equations are actually based on the failure stress criterion for hydrostatic pressure proposed by Richart et al. * given above. For example, Fardis and Khalili suggest that the failure strength of FRP-confined conerete is given by: Sa lfo= \+41S, Ifo (8.14) Also, based on the experimental work of Howie and Karbhari , the following failure criterion has been postu- lated by Hoppel et al. : Sa tfa™ V*3.1 et 1D) Bog! E+ Sf where Foy" hoop modulus of FRP. Comparison of the failure criteria with published experimen- tal results shows, however, that correlation is poor in both cases, Whilst other equations, such as those of Samaan et al. and Safi etal, are reported to give good correlation with experimental results, they do not satisfy lateral strain ‘compatiblity requirements and are therefore deemed unsuit- able. According to Lillistone and Jolly this problem would be overcome if the failure criterion was based on the confin- ing stiffness rather than the confinement pressure. Such an approach would offer the following advantages: *+ The failure criterion does not require prior knowledge of the lateral expansion of the concrete core. + Unlike tensile strength, the elastic modulus of fibres is not reduced by mechanical abrasion during manufactu- ring processes. ‘COMPRESSION Introduction (8.15) Strengthening concrete structures using bre composite materials 6(On this basis, they recommended that the design strength of | cconcrete-filled filament-wound glass FRP circular tubes, fs, should be estimated using: Fas = O6Tfy!tag + 0.05(2KID) Erg 8.16) ‘Comparative studies by Lillistone ” show good agreement ‘with the results presented by Samaan eta. for concrete-filled E-glassfibre filament-wound tubes, Howie and Karbhari® and Picher et l.°” for carbon-fbre-wrapped concrete cylinders, and. Saafi et al ° for concrete-filled E-glass and carbon-fibre filamient-wound tubes. In view of the above, itis recommended that Equation 8.16 be used to calculate the axial failure stress of FRP-confined ‘concrete Itis worth noting that this equation is also based on the characteristic unconfined cube strength of concrete and that a partial safety factor for concrete of 1.5 is assumed. 8.3.3 Lap joint failure Failure of the FRP jacket can oceur at lap joints due to de- bonding, ifthe lap length is inadequate. This type of failure is brittle and can be avoided simply by providing an adequate lap length. The actual length of overlap required is likely to vary between strengthening systems and so itis recommended that individual manufacturers are consulted. Where necessary, independent testing should be carried out. ‘When two or more plies of FRP are applied to a column, the Jap joints should be arranged so they occur on opposite sides, as shown in Figure 26. The minimum overlap for fabric materials, in the direction of the fibres, should be in accor- dance with the manufacturer's recommendations, but not less than 200 mm, FRP wrapping Figure 26: Laps in columns. 83.4 Shear The presence of hoop FRP can increase the shear strength of concrete columns. The total shear resistance of an FRP- strengthened column, Va, , is equal to the sum of the shear resistances of the concrete F,,stel links, Vj, and FRP, Vy; Vas = Vout Vou Vor eID [As noted in Section 7.2, the maximum shear stress in the conerete should not exceed the lesser of 0.84, or 5 Némm?, ‘whatever shear reinforcement is provided. ‘The shear resistance ofthe concrete and the steel links should be determined in accordance with the recommendations in Section 72 ofthis Report, The shear resistance of a continu- ‘ous hoop FRP wrapped circular column, Vs given by Veg = (HID) ted Exe, (8.18) whered = effective depth (distance from the extreme com= pression fibre tothe centroid of the tension rein- forcement) q_°= design strain in the FRP, not exceeding 0.004 ‘The proposed transverse strain limit of 0.004 is intended to ensure that aggregate interlock is maintained and hence the expressions for ealeulating the concrete shear resistance referred to in Section 7.2 of this Report remain valid. As discussed in Section 7.4, additional axial reinforcement may be required when strengthening for shear. The Section also ‘outlines the method used to determine this area of reinforce- ment, 83:5 Serviceability Axial shortening/lateral deformation and loss of strengthening effectiveness ‘Axial shortening due to projected load increases will give rise to lateral deformation of compression members. This defor- ‘mation, if excessive, may cause problems of appearance, damage to brittle finishes and/or loss of structural efficiency. ‘Also, a service loads the maximum compressive strain in the concrete should not be excessive otherwise loss of confining pressure due to accidental damage, fire, vandalism, etc., may result in brittle collapse, because the concrete is fissured. To prevent the possibility of either problem arising, it is recom- mended that the axial compressive strain of the concrete should not exceed 0.0035 under working loads. Fatigue For bridges the designer should consider the effect of re- peated live loading onthe fatigue strength ofthe FRP. Checks for fatigue should be carried out in accordance with the recommendations in BS 5400: Part 4, The stress range in the FRP should be limited to the appropriate values given in Table 6.1 ofthis Report. ‘Stress rupture Rupture of the FRP may occur at service loads due to the sustained stresses that exist in the material. This type of failure can be avoided simply by limiting the stress level in the FRP. It is therefore recommended that the stress in the RP should not exceed the values given in Table 6.2 of this Report. 8.4 FLEXURE 84.1 Introduction Bonding axial FRP over-wrapped with hoop FRP to column surfaces can enhance the flexural strength of columns. The ‘main benefit of the axial FRP is to increase the flexural strength of the member, and the problem in design is to determine the thickness of axial FRP fibre required to resist the combined design axial load and moment. ‘The hoop wrapping confines the concrete, increasing its compressive strength and strain to failure. This can significantly improve the efficiency of the strengthening design by increasing the strain that can develop in the FRP. Hoop wrapping also ‘enhances the shear capacity of columns and prevents buckling, of the axial fibres, enabling them to contribute in compres- sion. Aspreviously noted this contribution will be small since FRP materials are weaker in compression than tension. 6 Concrete Soctety Technical Report 55To calculate the required thickness of axial FRP, the effect of hoop wrapping on compressive strength and strain to failure of the concrete must be known. As discussed in Section 8.2, tests by Cuninghame etal. °® ‘on wrapped circular columns have shown that, provid- ing the effective hoop stiffness of the FRP is greater than 320 Nimm,irespective ofthe type of fibre and resin system used, an enhanced effective cube strength of concrete may be assumed and taken to vary linearly with strain from fat a strain of 0.0035 to 1.5f, at a strain of 0.01 (Figure 25). This relationship enables the confined concrete stress block to be modelled (Figure 27), which is fundamental to flexural design of wrapped columns. Itshould be noted that this relationship is only applicable to columns of circular cross-section. The effect of confinement on conerete in columns of non- circular cross-section has notreceived much attention in the literature and so it is not possible to predict the enhancement of compressive strength and strain to failure that may be achieved in practice. Generally, the design of compression members strength- ened in flexure should consider the following: 1. At critical points the combination of maximum. ‘moment and co-existent axial load. 2. The risk of debonding. 3. The risk of anchorage failure. 4, Theshear capacity ofthecolumn, see Section 8.3.4, 947(15%) 557 2.82 = a Aor to) gg 35 1 00002 600s 0008 008 a0 UcrMaTE STRAN Figure 27: Proposed confined concrete stress block for £30 N/mm? based on 8S 8110: Part | model 8.4.2 Moment capacity with axial load Tocaleulatethe maximum moment and co-existent axial load capacity ofan FRP-strengthened column of circu- lar cross-section, the following assumptions can be made: 1. Sections thatare plane before bending remain plane after bending, 2. Slip does not take place between the FRP and the ‘concrete. 3. Axial fibres are placed in a layer of even thickness all round the column, 4, The stress-strain response for concrete follows the idealised curve for concrete presented in current codes and standards, with ¥,~1.5. The maximum compressive strength of confined concrete is 1.5fay but not more than 80 Nim’ ‘The maximum compressive strain in the concrete is 1%. 6. Thestress-strain response for steel reinforcement follows the idealised curves presented in current codes and standards, with 7. 1-15. (As indicated in Section 6.2.3, ‘many of the structures that require strengthening will have been built before the 1997 edition of BS 8110, ‘Hence it would seem appropriate to use the earlier partial safety factor of 1.15 rather than the value of 1.05 now recommended.) 7. FRP has a linear elastic response to failure. 8. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored. ‘A procedure for calculating the required thickness of axial FRP is given in the Highways Agency Interim Advice Note Strengthening concrete bridge supports using fibre reinforced plasties The overall approach is, in principle, the same as ‘that used in conventional reinforced concrete column design. However, because at the outset itis not clear whether itis the compressive strain in the concrete or the tensile strain in the FRP that is critical, the design procedure is slightly more complex. It is assumed that the conerete strain lies between (0.0035 and 0.01 and that the FRP strain does not exceed its design ultimate limit in the final design. The actual steps involved are given below. 1. Select a thickness of axial FRP. 2. Assume thatthe stra of the concrete is 0.01. in the outermost compression fibre 3. Determine by trial and error the depth of the neutral axis ‘when the axial load equals the applied ultimate load. The force in the conerete in compression can be calculated using the rectangular parabolic stress block in Figure 2.1 of BS 8110: Part 1. The maximum concrete stress is 0.67(1 Sf)/Yme at 0.01. Note that the models for conerete given in other code and standards are slightly different but equally acceptable. 4. Caleulate the corresponding ultimate moment capacity, If the ultimate moment capacity is less than the design ‘moment, M, inerease the thickness of axial FRP and repeat from Step 3 until the bending moment capacity ‘equals or exceeds M. 6. Evaluate the tensile strain in the FRP.Ifitis less than the ultimate design strain then the axial FRP thickness is adequate. However, if the strain in the FRP exceeds the ultimate strain capacity, the FRP will fail before M is reached. This implies that it is the strain in the FRP and not the conerete, as assumed in Step 2, that is critical ‘Therefore, repeat Steps 3 to 5 butthis time limit the strain in the FRP to its ultimate design value. Obviously, the strain in the concrete will be less than 0.01 and the corresponding enhanced effective cube strength of concrete can be estimated assuming a linear var with strain from f,, at a strain of 0.0035 to 1.Sj, at a strain of 0.01 7. Check that the strain in the concrete. Provided itis not less than 0.0035, the axial FRP thickness is adequate. ise, increase the strain in the outermost com- fibre of the concrete to 0.0035 and proceed to Strengthening concrete structures using fbre composite materials8. Increase the axial fibre thickness and determine by trial and error the depth ofthe neutral axis when the axial load equals the applied ultimate load. Deter- ‘mine the corresponding ultimate moment capacity. 9, Evaluate the tensile strain in the FRP, If it exceeds the ultimate capacity, repeat step 8 until the tensile strain in the axial FRP is equal to or less than its ultimate strain limit This design procedure has been set up so that the strain in the conerete does not fall below 0.0035. However, lower concrete strains may be acceptable where flexural strengthening s required forreasons other than dynamic loading. Use ofthis procedureto determine the thickness of axial FRP required to strengthen columns in flexure is very tedious. For convenience, therefore, design charts have been developed by Denton et al. The design charts ‘ill form part of the Highway Agency Interim Advice Note, in which their application is explained and examples are presented, They are based on the BS $400: Part 4 models for conerete and steel reinforcement. ‘Also, any contribution to the flexural strength of the column by the FRP in compression has been neglected 84.3 Debonding ‘The work by Cuninghame etal. appears to show that, providing the number of axial layers is not excessive, the provision of hoop wrapping over the axial fibres can prevent debonding failure, However, debonding faire ‘may occur in wrapped columns (below the load capacity expected on the basis of the area of FRP) and it is important therefore that a degree of caution is exercised until there is more reliable information on this aspect of design. 8.4.4 Anchorage ‘Theaxial FRP can fail atthe base and/or top of columns ‘and at cut-off points. Anchoring the FRP by extending beyond the point at which itis theoretically no longer required can prevent this. The Highways Agency In- terim Advice Note on bridge column strengthening recommends that adequate anchorage can be achieved by extending the axial fibres 250 mm beyond this point, and providing a band of two layers of hoop wrapping. Alternatively, the axial wrapping may be enclosed within a collar constructed of steel or concrete. 8.5 DUCTILITY Lack of ductility is largely an issue for compression ‘members that are located in seismic regions. Upgrading normally involves confining the concrete at column ends (where bending moments are greatest) with hoop FRP. To ensure that column bar buckling does not control the flexural failure mode, additional checks on the transverse reinforcement ratio need to be performed, particularly for slender columns where M/VD> 4, in which M and V are the maximum column moment and shear respectively (see Priestley et al."), Duetility enhancement may inerease the risk of shear failure both at column ends and column centres, and the risk of flexural failure due to lap splice debonding st the junction between the footing and cotumn base. As noted in Section 5.8, seismic loading is not a major loading case for most UK structures and will therefore not be discussed further. 8.6 STRENGTHENING COLUMNS WITH NON-CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTION Confining square columns is generally acknowledged to be less efficient than confining circular columns. This is largely attributableto the factthat, with square columns, confinement is concentrated at the corners rather than over the entire perimeter. Current estimates suggest that the confinement efficiency of square columns may be only 30-70% of circular columns. This efficiency is believed to decrease still further with columns of rectangular cross-section and/or large side mensions. Confinement efficiency can be improved by rounding the comers of the column or by casting eircular or oval concrete rings around the column perimeter. Rectangular carbon fibre jackets are also reported to provide sufficient confinement and bar buckling restraint to achieve high flexural displace ‘ment ductility levels, Perhaps an alternative approach may bbe to use preformed circular FRP shells and fill the interven- ing space with grout. The design of strengthening schemes which use any of these systems should be verified by inde- pendent testing. From the information currently available: + A significant increase in the axial load capacity of square or rectangular columns by wrapping with FRP may be difficult to achieve in practice. + Amincrease in the flexural strength of square columns by ‘wrapping with axial and hoop FRP should be feasible, ‘but any proposed design should be verified by independ- ent testing. + Ductitity enhancement of square columns may prove difficult + FRP can be used to increase the shear capacity of square and rectangular columns. Concrete Society Technical Report 559 WORKMANSHIP AND INSTALLATION 9.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The design guidance in Sections 5 to 8 is only valid if the installation of fibre composite materials is carried out cor- rectly. This Section isnot intended to be a specification for strengthening with composites but gives background informa- tion om the standards of workmanship and the installation procedures required. All installations should comply with the requirements ofthe Health and Safety at Work etc Act the Control of Sub- stances Hazardous to Health Regulations" and the Construc- tion (Design and Management) Regulations. In addition, all materials must be used in accordance with the manufac- turer's requirements. It is crucial to the success of the installation that an experi- enced contractor is appointed. The contractor should have ualty assurance procedures in place, accredited and audited in accordance with ISO 9002". In the UK, the contractor should be a member of the Conerete Repair Association or have a proven track record inthe installation of composites. ‘The contractor must be able to demonstrate competency and be approved for the application of the system, This approval may be obtained by providing evidence of the training of op- cratives or by documentary evidence of experience on similar projects. Itis strongly recommended that the following issues are taken into account when selecting a contractor: + ‘The contractor should provide a full method statement and risk assessment for the works. ‘+ Personnel should be supplied with the correct personal protection equipment for use when handling the materials, ‘+ Operatives should be trained and qualified in application techniques by the manufacturer of the system. ‘+ The contractor should provide a safe means of access to the work location and maintain an environment suitable for the successful use of structural adhesives. ‘+ Procedures should be in place to minimise the risks to the workforce and to any other persons (especially children) ‘who may be affected by the work. The following Sections give general guidance on the instal- lation of plate and fabric materials. Quality assurance procedures should ensure that each stages approved before starting the next stage. Itis vitally important thatthe manu- facturer’s recommendations are followed throughout, The sequence of the sub-seetions in this chapter follow the step-by-step procedures which would be followed on site by 1 competent contractor. 9.2 EVALUATION OF CONCRETE CONDITION An investigation of the condition of the structure should be carried out prior to the decision to undertake strengthening. This will identify any deterioration processes (eg. reinforce- ‘ment corrosion due to the presence of chlorides) likely to affect the performance of the structure within its residual design life. The investigation should include a thorough inspection ofthe concrete surfaces on which the bonding isto be carried out, a visual inspection, an assessment of the concrete strength (see Figure 28), chemical analysis and a sounding survey to identify defects If defects are identified, repairs should be carried out using an appropriate concrete repair system in accordance with the manufacturet’s recommendations. Cementitious repairs should be cured for at least 28 days before undertaking bond- ing work. Figure 28: Use of pull-out test to determine concrete strength. 9.3 SURFACE PREPARATION 9.3.1 Conerete surface Good preparation of the concrete surface is of paramount importance to the long-term success of the bonding and strengthening operation. Before adhesive is applied the concrete surface must be cleaned so that i is free of laitance, loose material, fungal or mould growth, oil or grease, corro- sion products, previous coatings and, in the case of new ‘concrete, mould release agents and curing membranes. Strengthening concrete structures using bre composite materials oIt i important that the preparation process selected is such ‘that it removes the surface layer to expose small particles of aggregate without causing micro-eracks or other damage in the substrate. The surface should not be polished or rough- ened excessively, Sharp edges, shutter marks or other irregu- larities should be removed to achieve a flat surface. 9.32 Preparation techniques Effective preparation techniques include: + Wet, dry- and vacuum-abrasive blasting + High-pressure washing, with or without emulsifying detergents, and using biocides (where necessary) Steam cleaning alone or in conjunction with detergent. For smaller areas, mechanical wire brushing or surface ‘grinding (see Figure 29), Figure 29: Surface grinding. Mechanical impact methods such as needle gunning and bush hammering are very effective but are often too aggressive and produce a deeper texture in originally smooth concrete and may shatter aggregate particles causing micro-eracks. Mechanical methods may be effective in removing deeply penetrated greases oils and paints but may remove an unaccept- able depth of concrete. Washing techniques may be ineffective and can simply spread the contaminant further. In such instances the use of solvent-based and sodium hydroxide-based products inthe form ofa gel or pouitice can be effective in drawing out the contaminants. Such products must beused with great cae; ifthey are not thoroughly removed, debonding of the strengthening system may occur. Wet grit-blasting or vacuum dry-blasting are commonly used ‘because they reduce the dust ereated by ‘open’ dry-blasting ‘which is unacceptable for health, safety and environmental reasons. However, wet techniques may create a water disposal problem and the concrete surface needs to be allowed to dry out to a degree which is suited to the intended adhesive, Whichever method is adopted it is always advisable to carry ‘ut trials to select and optimise the technique in conjunction with the material supplier. ‘The preparation of the surface should be to a standard such that the adhesive layer is of uniform thickness when the strengthening material is in place. Any steps in the surface should be removed and hollows filled with a suitable quick- setting repair mortar, see Figure 30, Generally the flatness of | the surface should be such that the gap under a I m straight- edge (see Figure 31) does not exceed 5 mm. The thickness of the adhesive layer is commonly between | and 5 mm depend- ing on the material. When fabric is to be wrapped round comers, e.g. round a square column or round the bottom of a beam, the comers should be rounded to a minimum radius of 15 mm, or as, recommended by the supplier, to avoid local damage to the fibres. Minor imperfections in the concrete surface can be treated at, this stage with epoxy materials which can be applied in thin layers and whose rapid strength gain permits over-bonding to be carried out after a short time. Some bonding systems, require the use of a primer on completion of the surface preparation. This primer, which seals the surface, should be applied in strict accordance with the manufacturer's instruc tions. Figute 31: Checking surface with a straightedge ‘The final assessment for surface quality can take the form of a series of pull-off tests. (IF.a surface primer is used, the tests should be carried out on the primed surface.) Figure 32 shows ‘a ‘dolly’ after being pulled off, with the concrete still adher- ing to it. A minimum of three tests are carried out, as de- scribed in BS 1881: Part 207°”, to give an indication of the tensile strength ofthe substrate and the quality ofthe surface 50 Concrete Society Technical Report $5en u ie 2s Figure 32: Pull-off specimen after removal from concrete surface. preparation, The concrete surface should be dry for normal applications. Where this is not possible, because ofthe nature of the structure, special consideration should be given to the adhesive to be employed. 9.4 STORAGE OF MATERIALS ‘Thick fibre composite plates are usually delivered to site in the lengths required for installation. Thinner plates and fabrics are delivered in the form of a long roll which can be cut easily to the required lengths at site. Materials should be stored at site in such @ way that damage or contamination is avoided. ‘Adhesives should be stored in dry conditions in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, paying particular attention to the specified maximum and minimum storage temperatures. Adhesive and material delivery dates should be recorded and these items should be used in rotation, 9.5 SITE CONDITIONS Temperature, relative humidity and surface moisture atthe time of installation can affect the performance of the FRP system. Itis therefore necessary to maintain the appropriate environment in the work area during surface preparation, application of the adhesive and the subsequent curing period. Environmental control during surface preparation generally consists ofa system to extract dust from the work area and the exclusion of any material that might contaminate the prepared surface. A clear access path should be maintained from the ‘area where the adhesive is applied on the plates to the location of the concrete surface to which the plates are to be applied. This isto minimise the risk of contamination of the adhesive surface whilst the plate is being handled. During the curing period it is necessary to maintain the temperature in the adhesive at an appropriate value and within specified limits. Exceeding the maximum specified tempera- ture may result in a joint with poor long-term properties Curing temperatures below the specified minimum may result in an adhesive with a low strength. Of equal importance is keeping the work dry. 9.6 MIXING AND APPLICATION OF ADHESIVE 9.6.1 General All equipment used for the mixing and application of the adhesive and materials should be kept clean and maintained in good operating condition. All operatives should be suitably trained in the use of such equipment. ‘The mixing and application of the adhesive should be strictly inaccordance with the manufacturer's instructions. (Figure33 shows adhesive being mixed using a power tool with a suitable attachment.) In particular, the amounts of materials mixed at any one time should not exceed the specified amounts, as larger volumes will lead to higher temperatures being generated, which will reduce the pot life. Resin and hhardener have to be mixed together in defined proportions or the properties ofthe cured adhesive will be impaired. Hence pre-baiched quantities of resins and hardeners should be used Figure 35: Mixing adhesive. ‘The components should be thoroughly mixed together. Some adhesives are supplied with resin and hardener of different colours. This makes it easier to check that thorough mixing hhas been achieved. The volume of adhesive mixed at one time must be such that itmay be applied and the surfaces brought together within the potlife ofthe adhesive. Any adhesive remaining at the end of the specified pot life must be discarded. 9.6.2 Application tosubstrate prior to plate installation ‘Where the concrete surface is to be strengthened using FRP plates, the mixed adhesive is applied to the bonding area by hand, using plastering techniques, see Figure 34. The thick- ness of the adhesive should be maintained at 1-2 rom, 9.63 Application to FRP plates If fibre composite plates are being used, their surface should be prepared immediately before application of the adhesive, Strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materialsFigure 34: Application of adhesive to concrete surface inaccordance withthe manufacturer's recommendations. This /olve light abrasion and cleaning with a solvent. Some ‘materials are manufactured with an additional peel ply which, ‘on removal, exposes a clean surface with the appropriate roughness. This isthe preferred approach since no additional treatment at sit is required. ‘The adhesive layer should be applied to the plates to form a slightly convex profile across the plate. The extra thickness along the centre-line helps to reduce the risk of void forma- tion. A method of application is shown in Figure 35. Figure 35: Application of adhesive layer ont fibre composite plate. 9.6.4 Application to substrate prior to fabric installation ‘Where the concrete surface is to be strengthened using FRP fabric, the bonding adhesive is applied using a hand-held foamroller or brush, This should be evenly applied to saturate the concrete surface and promote adhesion. of the fabrie material 9.65 Application to FRP fabrics Fabric can be readily eut to size using simple tools, sce Figure 36. Dry fabric ean be directly applied to the resin-saturated ‘concrete surface without adhesive being applied tothe fabric. For wet fabric, the resin is applied to the fabric before it is installed. This resin can be applied to the fabric using hand- held foam rollers (see Figure 37), brushes or impregnation machines (see Figure 38) Figure 38: impregnation of fabric. 32 Concrete Society Technical Report 559.7. ASSEMBLY AND VISUAL INSPECTION” 9.7.1 Installation of FRP plates Immediately after application of the adhesive the fibre composite plate should be brought into contact with the concrete substrate, There is sufficient ‘grab’ in the adhesive to hold the fibre composite material in position, and no other temporary support is needed. Even pressure is applied by roller (as shown in Figure 39) starting at one end along the longitudinal centre-line and working outwards to expel excess adhesive atthe edges and to produce an even glue line, A final adhesive thickness of 1.5-2 mm is ideal in most cases. Excess adhesive is removed using scrapers, cloths and solvents. Figure 39: Instaling FRP plates, using a collerto apply pressure. Where plates are lapped, the minimum overlap, in the direction of the fibres, should be in accordance with the ‘manufacture’s recommendations, but nt less than 200 mm. The spacing of FRP plates on the soflit or top surface of slab should not exceed 0.2 = span or 5% slab thickness. Immediately after assembly, the joint should be inspected. The aim is to check that a continuous and uniform layer of adhesive is visible. In some situations the soundness of the installed adhesive layer can be checked by tapping the composite with a small object such as the edge of a coin orgaps give a characteristic sound. If defects are found es such as resin injection or plate overlapping could be used as repair. 9.7.2. Installation of FRP fabries The dry fabric is wrapped tightly over the conerete substrate, avoiding any wrinkles. Figure40 shows fabric being wrapped round an arched member and Figure 41 shows the wrap of acolumn. After application, the fabric is rolled to force the adhesive through the fibres and to expel any air, se Figure 42 If required, second and further layers of fabric ean be applied ina similar fashion, Finally, layer of epoxy adhesive ‘may be applied to encapsulate and protect the composite material, Altematively, the fabric can be impregnated with resin, i, wet fabric, and then wrapped around the member. As before, the surface should be rolled to remove wrinkles and to expel sir. Figure 42: Rolling fabric to consolidate layers. Strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials 33‘The minimum overlap for fabric materials, in the direction of the fibres, should be in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations, but should not be less than 200 mm. An fb ‘Task Group ® has provisionally suggested a maximum of five layers in a given direction. However, some suppliers suggest that more layers may be used. For one system, up to 10 layers have been used with no reported change in the effectiveness. Advice should be sought from the supplier. 9.8 CONTROL SAMPLES ‘Tests should be carried out on samples obtained from each batch of adhesive and on the composite materials. These tests should be in accordance with agreed national or international standards, such as BS 5350" to confirm the properties of the materials used. Figure 43 shows a double lap shear test, which is closely related tothe actual site use of fibre composite plates. As the ‘embedded studs may cause premature failure of the concrete blocks, alternative methods are being developed for loading, the specimens, for example by the University of Glam- ‘organ'"™, The test can be carried out using a standard univer- sal testing machine and can, relatively easily, be carried out at,

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