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Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
CONTENTS:August 2017
97
Civil Engineering Editorial
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017 Linnell
EDITORIAL:August 2017
Editorial
Eva Linnell MEng, CEng, MICE
Atkins, Bristol, UK
Welcome to the August 2017 issue of Civil Engineering, the rare gatekeepers in organisations that are willing and able to
flagship journal of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil implement new approaches.
Engineers. The final paper, by Ab and Fujino (2017), discusses the
The papers in this edition all demonstrate the benefits of monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan. Having 15 bridges
using monitoring instrumentation and measurement data.As with spans over 500m in a land of earthquakes and typhoons
well as verifying design parameters, monitoring is shown to be makes for a lively test environment. Real-time monitoring of
a powerful tool for the management and operation of assets. the bridges and their environments has enabled correlation of
Informed decisions on timely intervention for effective unusual phenomena and dynamic structural properties that a
maintenance need good-quality, accurate and reliable asset- model and wind tunnel would be unable to replicate.
condition data and this holds true whether we are working The authors identify areas for further research, such as the
in the transport, energy or water sectors. spike-like waveform that has been observed in response to
The point was underlined by Institution of Civil Engineers seismic activity but is not explicitly included in design codes,
president Tim Broyd in his inaugural address, where he said and the need for continuous scour monitoring a theme
civil engineers should be, using increasingly large volumes of discussed in detail in this journal by Clubley etal. (2015).
data to measure the performance of infrastructure (Broyd, Monitoring has also been critical in the Crossrail project to
2017: p.4).As we reach the half-way point of his presidency, deliver Londons new Elizabeth line.The second of this years
it seems a good time to reflect on these words with some two special issues of Civil Engineering on this engineering
examples from around the world. project of a generation (Wolstenholme, 2017: p.2) will be
In the first paper, by Zhou etal. (2017), the focus is on the published in November, together with online videos and other
remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge in China, which is the worlds associated content at icevirtuallibrary.com/loi/jcien.
oldest open-spandrel, stone-arch bridge. Also known as the
Anjou bridge, meaning safe crossing, the structure has References
provided safe passage for 1400years and is still in use today.
By validating the structural design to a high degree Ab M and Fujino Y (2017) Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan.
of accuracy, the paper gives a ringing endorsement of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3):
135144, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00002.
computational methods used for design.It also shows that a
BIS (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills) (2013) Construction
detailed understanding of existing structures no matter how 2025.BIS, London, UK, URN BIS/13/955.
old is vital for managing them effectively. Broyd T (2017) Engineering a digital future. Proceedings of the Institution of
Next, Shanghavi etal. (2017) take us to Heathrow airport, Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(1): 38, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
where Terminal 2Bs vast 15m deep basement with a 2km jcien.2017.170.1.3.
long perimeter wall the longest in Europe was constructed Clubley S, Manes C and Richards D (2015) High-resolution sonars set to revolutionise
within a live airport setting. This paper showcases examples of bridge scour inspections. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 168(1): 3542, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.14.00033.
efficiencies made due to monitoring.
Jones C, Lamont-Black J, Huntley D, Alder D and Glendinning S (2017)
First, continuous monitoring of adjacent structures allowed
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice.
construction to proceed safely in an operational environment. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3):
Second, back-analysis of measured data from Terminal 5 was 127134, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00039.
used to refine the pile design, reducing the length of the Shanghavi H, Straw J, Patel R and Winsor D (2017) Heathrow Terminal
1218m diameter piles by 1020%.The urgent need for the 2B: delivering the biggest airside basement at Britains largest airport.
terminal necessitated a combination of bottom-up as well as Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3):
121126, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00017.
top-down construction.
Wolstenholme A (2017) Introduction. Proceedings of the Institution of
In the third paper, on electrokinetic geosynthetics, Jones Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(5): 2, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
etal. (2017) reveal a wide range of applications of this jcien.2017.170.5.2.
promising technology from slope stabilisation to sludge Zhou M, Zhang J, An L, Zhang X and Li T (2017) Spanning over 1400years:
dewatering, and from reducing the volume of nuclear waste Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
to promoting healthy grass growth on football pitches. Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3): 113119, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.16.00023.
The paper describes projects which, thanks to electrokinetic
geosynthetic technology, achieved close to the UK CALL FOR PAPERS: Civil Engineering relies entirely on material contributed by
governments Construction 2025 strategy (BIS, 2013) targets civil engineers and related professionals. Illustrated articles of 600words and
papers of 2000 to 3500 words are welcome on any relevant civil engineering
of reducing cost by 33% and carbon dioxide emissions by topic that meets the journals aims of providing a source of reference material,
50%.The paper discusses the challenges of adopting new promoting best practice and broadening civil engineers knowledge, Please
contact the editor for further information
technology in civil engineering, and highlights the role of the
98
Civil Engineering NEC4: ICEs collaborative procurement suite continues to evolve
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017 Brookfield
BRIEFING:PROCUREMENT
Shared, proactive and flexible UKs public-sector contract of choice NEC4 enhances the NEC3 contract suite
management of risk is now at the heart and has been used on most of the with new features and new forms of
of the worlds building and infrastructure UKs major projects and programmes contract.All of the changes are a direct
projects. Clients and their supply chains includingLondon 2012,Crossrail,High result of feedback from industry to
are also increasingly committed to Speed Two, Hinkley Point C, Thames support methods and provide solutions
collaboration and digital innovation, such Tideway Tunnel and the UKs nuclear which clients now need.
that the form and function of procurement decommissioning programme. For example, the new NEC4 Design
contracts will never stand still. It is now the main contract suite Build and Operate Contract allows
Over the past two decades the for public works in Hong Kong, clients to procure a more integrated
engineering and construction industry South Africa and New Zealand whole-life delivery solution.The
has made a step-change in the way and has successfully delivered ability to combine responsibility for
projects and work programmes are public- and private-sector building usually disparate functions design,
procured and delivered.The industry has and infrastructure projects in construction and operation procured
innovated and improved, and is gradually Antarctica, Australia, China, Ireland, from a single supplier has been
leaving behind its historical reliance on the Netherlands, North Africa, the developed in response to industry need.
traditional methods of procurement and Philippines and South America. Similarly, the new NEC4 Alliance
adversarial forms of contract. Through its international network of Contract fully integrates the delivery
clients and the NEC Users Group, the team for large complex projects.The
Different and better NEC team continually receives feedback industrys commitment to collaboration
and requests for further features and means more clients wish to enter
Since they were first published in 1993, contract solutions.The result, which a single collaborative contract with
the Institution of Civil Engineers NEC was launched in June 2017, is NEC4. anumber of participants to deliver a
contracts have played a major part in project or programme of work.
helping the engineering and construction New contracts added
industry do things differently and Intellectual property
better.NEC uniquely introduced effective Designed for projects and works
project management procedures into its programmes of all types and sizes, Likewise, as the UK continues to set
contracts, requiring pro-active management the international standard for digital
of risk and change and the day-to-day engineering and building information
use of an up-to-date works programme. modelling, NEC4 contracts have evolved
An unprecedented ability to choose to incorporate the increasing level of
different pricing options including intellectual property sharing.
target contracts and cost-reimbursable With project partners increasingly
contracts gave clients flexibility in the working from shared digital models,
allocation of risk, and the ability to share it is vital for procurement contracts
risk and manage it collaboratively.The to accommodate the need for either
innovative use of plain English and the party to transfer the benefit or any
present tense have also ensured clarity rights to another party without being
and global application. undermined by amendments.
NEC is fully committed to continuing
Global track record to improve the way that projects and
work programmes are delivered.As the
It is now 12years since the third The complete NEC4 suite includes 21
industry continues to tread new ground
edition of the NEC contract suite contracts and 22 user guides and innovate, so too will the NEC
was published. NEC3 is now the contract suite continue to evolve.
For further information please contact: NEC Tel: +44 20 7665 2446 Email: info@neccontract.com Web: neccontract.com/nec4
99
Civil Engineering Super sewer: an update on the Thames
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017 Tideway tunnel project in London
Alder and Appleton
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.100
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
BRIEFING:WATER
For further information please contact: Tideway Helpdesk Tel: +448000308080 Email: helpdesk@tideway.london Web: www.tideway.london
100
Civil Engineering Four decades of research means building
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017 with bamboo comes of age
Ghavami and Garca
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.101
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
BRIEFING:MATERIALS
After almost four decades of systematic pollution.The structural efficiency of (2017) describe applications and tests
research and development into bamboo, bamboo compared to other engineering aimed at improving the mechanical
there is now sufficient scientific materials such as steel and concrete characterisation and standardisation of
information to increase its use as a has already been shown, which may bamboo, all of which should help to
substitute for the industrial and polluting be attributed to the high strength of ensure its greater usage in construction.
materials widely used in the construction the uniaxial reinforcing fibres and the
industry. hollow cylindrical shape of the culm. References
Indeed, following years of research
Multiple benefits and development since the 1970s in Harihar S and Verhagen HJ (2017) Application of
bamboo in mangrove rehabilitation projects.
South America, there is now sufficient Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Bamboo grows in abundance in many scientific information to increase the use Structures and Buildings 170(4): 227235,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00039.
parts of the world, especially in tropical of bamboo as a substitute for steel and Harries KA, Bumstead J, Richard M and Trujillo
and subtropical regions. Bamboo forests concrete in many applications. D (2017) Geometric and material effects on
play an important role in controlling bamboo buckling behaviour. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
water cycles, reducing erosion and Challenges to overcome and Buildings 170(4): 236249, http://dx.doi.
sequestering carbon dioxide from the org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00018.
Khatib A and Nounu G (2017) Corrugated bamboo
atmosphere. However, while bamboo is a fast- as reinforcement in concrete. Proceedings of
Culms of just 45years of age can be growing, high-yielding and easily the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
effectively used in construction and other renewable natural resource, engineers and Buildings 170(4): 311318, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00067.
engineering products. Furthermore, ability to use it in durable construction Lorenzo R, Lee C, Oliva-Salinas JG and Ontiveros-
an increased use of bamboo does not would still benefit from further research Hernandez MJ (2017) BIM Bamboo: a digital
pose a risk for bamboo forests on and development funding.For example, design framework for bamboo culms.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
the contrary, it will create economic the geometrical irregularities of the Structures and Buildings 170(4): 295302,
incentives for farmers to develop raw material pose challenges to the http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00091.
Moran R, Ghavami K and Garca JJ (2017) A new
bamboo plantations and use the development of efficient and cost- method to measure the axial and shear moduli
bamboo shoots for their everyday lives. effective structural joints. of bamboo. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
An increase in the use of bamboo in High water absorption and Engineers Structures and Buildings 170(4): 303
310, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00045.
construction will also lead to energy susceptibility to fungal and insect Richard MJ, Gottron J, Harries KA and Ghavami K
savings, conservation of resources attack are also challenges to overcome. (2017a) Experimental evaluation of longitudinal
and reduction in environmental Bamboo contains hemi-celluloses, splitting of bamboo flexural components.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
starch, sugar, tannins, certain phenols Structures and Buildings 170(4): 265274,
and lignin, which can all be attacked by http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00072.
Richard MJ, Kassabian PE and Schulze-Ehring
soluble extractives and limit its durability. HS (2017b) Bamboo active school: structural
To help overcome these challenges, design and material testing. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
and Buildings 170(4): 275283, http://dx.doi.
has commissioned a new themed org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00070.
issue of its Structures and Buildings Sharma B, Bauer H, Schickhofer G and Ramage
journal to present the latest research MH (2017) Mechanical characterisation of
structural laminated bamboo. Proceedings of
and development on bamboo the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
from around the world. Harihar and Buildings 170(4): 250264, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00061.
and Verhagen (2017), Harries etal. Trujillo D, Jangra S and Gibson JM (2017) Flexural
(2017), Sharma etal. (2017), Richard properties as a basis for bamboo strength
Bamboo can be now be used in a wide etal. (2017a, 2017b), Trujillo etal. grading. Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers Structures and Buildings
variety of construction applications (2017), Lorenzo etal. (2017), Moran 170(4): 284294, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
etal. (2017) and Khatib and Nounu jstbu.16.00084.
For further information please contact: Jos Jaime Garca Tel: +5723392420 Email: josejgar@gmail.com Web: www.structuresandbuildings.com
101
Civil Engineering New body set to approve construction
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017 degree apprenticeships in the UK
Oloke
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.102
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
BRIEFING:TRAINING
For more information please contact: David Oloke Tel: +447789264899 Email: david@pcc-ltd.net Web: w
ww.gov.uk/government/organisations/
institute-for-apprenticeships
102
Call for Papers
Civil Engineering
Panel Chair and Honorary Editor: Emma Kent, Cundall Johnston & Partners LLP, UK
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Civil Engineering Monitor: Books
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.104
MONITOR:BOOKS
Books
REVIEWS
Doing it and is based on the Eurocodes, in particular Also covered are evaluation of the
differently: Basis of Structural Design, 1 and 2 and, structural form and a much-needed
systems for where relevant, EN product standards. systematic approach to validating
rethinking It starts with a discussion of the computer results and conducting stability
materials used in precast concrete, briefly checks.The last two chapters focus on
infrastructure
covers frame analysis and then moves construction materials and composite
(2nd ed.) on to the detailed design of structural construction.
by David Blockley elements before finishing off with a design The book is very practical, easy to read
and Patrick Godfrey, exercise for a ten-storey precast frame. and simple to understand. Though based
published by ICE The author uses detailed worked mostly on US codes, the author has
Publishing, 2017, 45, reviewed by examples throughout the book, made a concerted effort to ensure the
Philippe Bouillard, Universit Libre de together with references to the relevant principles are applicable to most other
Bruxelles, Belgium clauses in the design codes, to explain design codes.
frame stability and the design of The book will be a very relevant text
Rather than focusing on problem-
conventionally reinforced and prestressed for professionals involved in the design
solving in specific situations, the authors
precast concrete elements, composite of tall buildings and also post-graduate
of this second edition say it is all about
construction and joints and connections. studentsundertaking modules or
systems thinking fostering a culture
The book is also well illustrated with research related to high-rise buildings.
of inclusive and multi-disciplinary co-
diagrams and photographs to increase
operation.The current challenges of the
the readers level of understanding of
struggling global economy and climate
both the design and the construction of Bryan Donkin:
and social change make this approach
precast concrete multi-storey buildings. the very civil
seem more appropriate than ever. engineer 1768
The author states it is intended for,
The authors offer us three routes 1855
undergraduate, postgraduate and
through their book: identifying the
young structural engineers. However, by Maureen
need to do it differently; thinking
he has achieved far more I believe the Greenland and
differently; and making a difference.
book will be a worldwide reference for Russ Day, published
More importantly, the book helps us to
young and experienced engineers alike by Phillimore
recognise and apprehend complexity, with
as well as academics. Book Publishing,
a strong sensitivity to risks and resilience.It
2016, 25, reviewed by John Carroll,
also shows that digital technology requires
Tall building Highways England
a systems approach to be fully efficient.
Unlike the first edition published in design steel, I have to admit that until I read this
2000, which was targeted at construction concrete, and Bryan Donkin was not in my list of
professionals, this second edition would composite notable civil engineers. This book not
be useful for anyone interested in systems only chronicles the life of an incredible
infrastructure.It contains many useful engineer but also the way that he
by Bungale Taranath,
tools and mind maps that can make enhanced the lives of his contemporaries,
published by
change possible, and takes the reader on be they high society or working class.
CRC Press, 2016,
an inspirational learning journey. It chronicles his early interest in
9120, reviewed
by David Oloke, Progressive Concept the practical sciences, with which he
Precast concrete Consultancy, UK entertained his childhood friends, to his
structures (2nd interfaces with Marc and Isambard Brunel,
ed.) This is a very comprehensive account Thomas Telford and Charles Babbage.
by Kim Elliott, of the principles involved in the design of His engineering interests ranged from
published by CRC tall buildings. Organised in 13 chapters, improving paper-making machines to
Press Taylor & Francis the book presents information on key a patent for a steel nib pen, use of tin
Group, 2016, 6399, aspects of tall buildings in the context of cans to preserve food and working with
reviewed by Nick loading, analysis and design. Telford on the Caledonian Canal and
Gorst, British Precast, After five chapters on loading, chapter Menai Bridge.
UK six introduces performance-based design; For an insight into what a civil
an evolving concept that seeks to provide engineer can achieve in helping his
The second edition of this book provides designers and regulators with a more fellow humans, this book provides
comprehensive guidance for the analysis systematic way of evaluating alternative an excellent read with many good
and design of precast concrete structures design options. contemporary illustrations.
104
Civil Engineering Monitor: Books
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
MONITOR:BOOKS
NEW BOOKS
The ICE Library maintains one of the most comprehensive collections of civil engineering books in the
world, including all titles from ICE Publishing (shown in bold below).New books received in the past
3months include the following.
4D hyper-local: a cultural tool kit for the open source city L Bullivant 2499
A new dynamic 2: effective systems in a circular economy Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2400
A whole-system approach to high-performance green buildings D Strong and V Burrows 11100
Bridges of Dublin: the remarkable story of Dublins Liffey bridges A Black and M Barry 1995
Construction site safety GE 700/17 CITB 9120
Design manual for bicycle traffic Crow 12900
Design of joints in steel structures Eurocode 3: design of steel structures; Part 1-8 Design of joints ECCS / J Jaspart and K Weynaud 5500
Doing it differently: systems for rethinking infrastructure (2nd ed.) D Blockley and P Godfrey 4500
Environmental hazards methodologies for risk assessment and management N Dalezios 14500
Fundamentals of structural analysis (5th ed.) C Uang, J Lanning and A Gilbert 18999
Glass in engineering science Volume 1: optical birefringence in glass J Hemsley 9500
Glass in engineering science Volume 2: glass under load J Hemsley 9500
Health, safety and environment test for managers and professionals (6th ed.) CITB 1590
Hydrology: principles and processes M Robinson and R C Ward 5900
Increasing resilience to climate variability and change: the roles of infrastructure and governance in the C Tortajada 7450
context of adaptation
Irish stone bridges (new ed.) P OKeeffe 3500
Lean construction: practical insights for innovative construction management A Lange 4999
Mediation: an AZ guide S Walker 1999
Plate and shell structures: selected analytical and finite element solutions M Radwanska etal. 8895
Pollution and the atmosphere: designs for reduced emissions M Ragazzi 9500
Practical guide to rock tunnelling D Brox 11000
Principles of geotechnical engineering (9th ed.) K Sobhan and B Das 6999
Procurement and supply chain management (9th ed.) K Lysons and B Farrington 5999
Renewable energy engineering N Jenkins and J Ekanayake 3500
Resilience engineering: models and analysis N Attoh-Okine 5999
Rock mechanics and engineering Volume 3: analysis, modeling and design X Feng 15500
Rock mechanics and engineering Volume 5: surface and underground projects X Feng 15500
Smart civil structures Y Xu and J He 10800
Structural mechanics: modelling and analysis of frames and trusses K Olsson and O Dahlblom 4395
Taming the flood: rivers, wetlands and the centuries-old battle against flooding (2nd ed.) J Purseglove 1299
The Building Regulations explained and illustrated (14th ed.) M Billington 3995
The fabric formwork book: methods for building new architectural and structural forms in concrete M West 3999
The Mersey road tunnels: the first eighty years in pictures P Jackson-Lee 1299
The profiteers: Bechtel and the men who built the world S Denton 2500
The tunnel through time: a new route for an old London journey G Tindall 999
Total construction management: lean quality in construction project delivery J Oakland 4599
Understanding tall buildings: a theory of placemaking K Al-Kodmany 3499
Unsteady flow in open channels J Battjes and R Jan Labeur 4499
Zero waste engineering: a new era of sustainable technology development M Islam 19900
All books can be borrowed from the ICE Members Resource Hub on the second floor of 1 Great George Street, London, SW1P 3AA from
9.15 am to 5.30 pm, Monday to Friday.ICE Publishing titles can also be purchased from the ICE Members Resource Hub or ordered by
calling +441892832299, emailing orders@icepublishing.com or by visiting www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/books.
105
Monuments of
Modern Engineering
In the nearly two centuries since
the first issue of Transactions of
the Institution of Civil Engineers
was published in 1836, the ICE has
published some of the most important
work in the fields of civil engineering
and construction.
Description
The Railway Metropolis describes the fascinating story of how
planners, politicians and developers have shaped Londons
www.ICEbookshop.com
railways. Focusing on the new lines that have been added since
The Railway Metropolis
Michael Schabas
The book covers the period from the election of a Conservative Government in 1979 through to the present day and six lines
which transformed London: Docklands Light Railway, Jubilee Line Extension, High Speed One, Overground, Thameslink
The Railway Metropolis is a compulsory read for all those involved in the industry, including engineers, architects, city
MONITOR:PROCEEDINGS
ICE Proceedings
In addition to Civil Engineering, ICE Proceedings includes 18 specialist journals. Papers and articles
published in the most recent issues are listed here. Summaries of all these and other papers and articles
published can be read free in the ICE Virtual Library at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals.
Bridge Engineering Structural condition monitoring of wind Sustainable water management in the
turbine foundations Anthropocene
170, No.BE2, June 2017, 91156 X.Bai, M.He, R.Ma and D.Huang M.Muller
PAPERS Energy-efficient slum house using alternative Water resource vulnerability: simulation and
Full-scale testing to failure of a materials optimisation models
steel truss railway bridge R.V.Ralegaonkar, H.R.Gavali, V.V.Sakhare, L.Hoang and S.Dessai
J.Hggstrm, T.Blanksvrd, P.Collin A.J.Puppala and P.B.Aswath The threat of drier summers to agriculture and
and Y.Tu the environment in eastern England
Walton Bridge a new arch bridge over the D.Evans
River Thames, UK
C.R.Hendy, D.A.Smith and M.Chiarello Engineering and
Modelling and testing of a historic steel Computational Mechanics
suspension footbridge in Ireland Forensic Engineering
D.ODonnell, R.Wright, M.OByrne, A.Sadhu, 170, No.EM2, June 2017, 4788
PAPERS Climate hazards for resilience
F.Edwards Murphy, P.Cahill, D.Kelliher, B.Ghosh,
One-dimensional and two- 170, No.FE2, May 2017, 47107
F.Schoefs, A.Mathewson, E.Popovici and
dimensional GreenNaghdi PAPERS
V.Pakrashi
equations for sloshing in shallow basins Electrical system resilience: a
Steel bridge deterioration data in Japan and
M.R.Jalali and A.Borthwick forensic analysis of the blackout
modelling
Seismic performance and force transfer in Lancaster, UK
T.Tamakoshi, M.Shirato and T.Kamada
of wide beamcolumn joints in concrete R.Kemp
Heavy-cargo passage on arch bridges by
buildings Bamboo structures as a resilient erosion
matching attached loads
S.H.Luk and J.S.Kuang control measure
L.Simeng and Z.Chen
G.Tardio, S.B.Mickovski, A.Stokes and
S.Devkota
Construction Materials Climate change: are building codes keeping
Asphalts Engineering History and up? A case study on hurricanes in the
Heritage Caribbean
170, No.CM4, August 2017,
E.C.Garsaball and H.Markov
163232 170, No.EH2, May 2017, 4792 A review of approaches to assessing scour
PAPERS PAPERS current velocity around existing structures
Rutting analysis of modified Engineers approach to A.Aje and A.Khattab
asphalt concrete pavements conservation
R.Imaninasab and B.Bakhshi S.Fernandez
Disproving bottom-up fatigue cracking in well- Understanding the behaviour of wrought-
constructed asphalt pavements iron riveted assemblies: manufacture and Geotechnical Engineering
R.N.Hunter testing
Effect of cross-linkers on the performance of 170, No.GE4, August 2017,
L.Gallegos Mayorga, S.Sire, M.Ragueneau and
polyethylene-modified asphalt pavements 299392
B.Plu
F.Moghadas Nejad, R.Zarroodi and K.Naderi PAPERS
Civil engineering heritage: country profile
Impact of binder on properties of foamed Shaft resistance of bored piles
England
bituminous mixtures socketed in Malaysian granite
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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Pages 113119 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00023
Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas Paper 1600023
Received 08/06/2016 Accepted 12/09/2016
remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Published online 20/10/2016
Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li Keywords: bridges / history / shallow foundations
1 2 3 4 5
The 1400-year-old Zhaozhou Bridge in China is celebrated as the largest and oldest open-spandrel stone-
arched bridge in the world. Stone arch bridges with perforated spandrels were a major innovation in the
history of bridge engineering, reducing structural weight and horizontal loading from flood flows.In this
paper, the structural characteristics and construction technology of this remarkable bridge are introduced
through an extensive literature survey and field investigations.It also reports on an analysis of the bridges
mechanical properties to provide an explanation as to why the bridge has remained standing for more than
1400 years despite numerous wars, floods and earthquakes.An analytical computational method is employed
to analyse the influence of the shoulder arch on the permanent-loaded compression line of the bridge. Finally,
two three-dimensional finite-element models are established to simulate the dynamic characteristics of the
bridge, and the effect of the shoulder arch on its seismic performance is evaluated by modal analysis.
Notation The oldest surviving example is the 37m main span Zhaozhou
Bridge across the Xiaohe River in Zhaou County, Hebei Province,
h height of the arch axis China (Figure1). Built over 1400 years ago, it also known as the Anji
L span of the arch axis Bridge, Chiao Shui Bridge and Great Stone Bridge and is currently
N axial compression of arbitrary cross-section used as a pedestrian crossing. Designed by a craftsman named Li
Nc horizontal force in the apex of the arch Chun, the bridge was constructed in the Kaihuang period (595605).
q(x) distribution of the dead load Zhaouzhou Bridge is also the worlds oldest segmental arch
U vertical displacement stone bridge with open spandrels. In Europe, the earliest open-
x horizontal direction spandrel arch bridges are those in France and Luxemburg, but they
y vertical direction were built some 1100 years later (Huang etal., 1981).
angle between the tangent of the arch axis and the horizontal The structures innovative segmental arch repudiated the
axis conventional wisdom that a semi-circular arch was necessary
to transfer the weight of a bridge downwards to where the arch
tangentially meets the pier. In addition, the double openings at
1. Introduction each end of the arch spandrel lighten the weight of the bridge and
allow flood flows to pass through the structure rather than pressing
With the advantages of readily available materials and strong against it.
durability, stone arch bridges were widely used before steel and According to historical records (Chen, 1985; Li, 1980; Luo,
concrete bridges were introduced. Chinese stone arch bridge building 1993), the bridge has survived at least eight wars, ten major floods
predates the Sui dynasty (581618) (Mao, 1986), but is notable for and numerous earthquakes, the most recent being the 76 magnitude
the pioneering use of segmental (as opposed to semi-circular) arches. Xingtai earthquake in 1966. However, the main structure remains
113
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
Figure 1.The Zhaozhou Bridge has survived over 1400 years of wars,
floods and earthquakes (by crazlei (Flickr: ); CC BY 2.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), by way of Wikimedia Commons)
intact, with only the ornamental railings having been replaced a circular segment of less than half of a semi-circle (83), and
every few centuries. with a radius of 278m, it has a rise-to-span ratio of approximately
The Zhaozhou Bridge was designated as an international 0195 (72 to 370m), as shown in Figure 2(a). There are two
historic civil engineering landmark by the American Society of smaller symmetrical arches at each end with spans of 38m and
Civil Engineers in 1991. Many Chinese scholars have studied the 29m (Figure 2(b)). This form of construction not only requires
history and mechanical properties of the bridge (Au et al., 2003; less building material but also makes sluicing during the flood
Clemente et al., 1995; Drosopoulos et al., 2006; Heyman, 1969, season much easier.
1982; Liu and Wang, 2001; Qian, 1987). However, these studies
do not include a detailed review of the bridges construction, and 2.1. Abutment and foundation
few have paid attention to the effect of the shoulder arches on the The bridge abutment foundation is a 96m by 55m rectangle
bridges static and dynamic performance. with a thickness of only 16m.It is built with five courses of stone
This paper therefore describes the construction of the Zhaozhou (Figure 2(c)) and rests on stable clay. Such a large stone-arched
Bridge in detail, based on historical documents, and explores its bridge, built on soft ground and with such a small foundation, is
mechanical properties to provide an explanation of how the bridge rarely seen in the world. Normally, the shallow arch of the Zhaozhou
has remained standing for nearly one and a half millennia. Bridge would necessitate a larger abutment and foundation.
Many experts previously speculated that the abutment of
the bridge must have a long and deep foundation or even a pile
2. Constructiontechnology foundation. In 1933, when investigating the abutment of the
Zhaozhou Bridge, the well-known Chinese architect Liang Sicheng
The Zhaozhou Bridge is approximately 508m long with a considered the shallow foundation as a protective wall against
central span of 370m.It stands 723m tall and has a width of 9m watererosion instead of a foundation tosupportthe large load from
at the middle part and 96m near the arch spring.The arch covers the superstructure (Liang, 2001).
114
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
(a) (b)
r =1.2 m
50.82 m R =2.3 m
6.5 % 6.5 %
2.85 m 3.81 m
7.23 m
(c)
37.02 m
1.549 m
9.6 m
5m
However, engineers later found that the foundation of the The design saved approximately 180m3 of stone and reduced the
Zhaozhou Bridge was really only 16m thick, with an embedment weight of the structure by 700t (Liu and Wang, 2001). This was
depth of about 2m. The foundation sits directly on alluvial vital because of the low rise-to-span ratio and the large forces on
sediments composed of light loam and mild clay (BUCA, the abutments. In addition, the drainage area was increased by
1979).The ground is steady and firm and can withstand the load of 165%, thereby reducing the flood forces on the structure of the
the bridge.To prevent displacement of the arch foot, the abutment bridge.
and arch are connected with iron columns, and to ensure reliability The smaller arches transmit the load of the deck down to the
of the abutment, wooden stakes were driven into the ground to main arch. They allow the bridge deck to be nearly level, with
reduce verticalsettlement. Indeed, the abutments have settled only footpaths for pedestrians on both sides and a road for carriages and
approximately50mm over the years.In addition, protective walls carts in the middle.The soffit of the arch was also sufficiently high
were built beside the abutments to protect the bridge from flood to allow boats to pass through easily.
flows. From a mechanical point of view, the shoulder arch also influences
the load distribution and load paths in the bridge body, making the
2.2 Open-spandrel arch permanent-loaded compression line closer to the original arch axis
The greatest scientific contribution of the Zhaozhou Bridge is line, so that there is only a small tension stress in the main arch and
the open-spandrel design, as shown in Figure2(b).On the two sides the compressive strength of the stone is fully used.
of the central arch are four symmetrical small arches, which not
only expand the water-discharge channel and reduce construction 2.3 Central arch
material but also reduce the weight of the bridge and increase its The central arch comprises 28 vertical thin slabs arranged in
stability. the longitudinal direction. Each one is 034m wide and capable
Central arch
Slender-waisted
iron
Limestone
(e)
9.0 m
1.3 m Limestone
(b)
Iron tension
rods
0.34 28 m
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Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
of standing upright, which facilitated construction work and later can be expressed. In addition, the differential equation of the
repairs (Figure3(a)).The construction allows the arch to adjust permanent-loaded compression line and the dead load were
to shifts in its supports and prevents the bridge from collapsing established by calculation. The permanent-loaded compression
even when a segment of the arch breaks. line equation can be obtained using standard procedures. The
It is worth noting that the width of the arch around the calculation results of the permanent-loaded compression line of
springing is 06m wider than that of the top section, with the Zhaozhou Bridge are shown in the following section.
width of the arch narrowing gradually from the bottom up to
increase the whole lateral stability of the Zhaozhou Bridge. In 3.2 Calculation of the permanent-loaded compression
addition, five iron tension rods were used to improve the line
transverse rigidity of the bridge (indicated in Figures 3(b) and The dimension of the arch axis of the Zhaozhou Bridge can be
3(c)). This is similar to the transverse prestressing technique in calculated according to ancient records (Qian, 1987): half of the
modern bridge design. clear span is 185m; the radius of the arch axis is 278m; the rise of
The bonding between the arch stones is precise.In addition to the arch axis is 70m; the ratio of the rise to the span is 0195; and
mortar between the stones, iron cramps have been used to help the central angle of the arch is 834.
bind them together (indicated in Figure3(d)). Additionally, each The left part of the arch is adopted as the study subject due to
side of the arch stones is scored to increase the friction between the structural symmetry of the Zhaozhou Bridge.For simplicity,
them. the arch is divided into eight segments that are numbered 18, and
the weight of the structure is equivalent to a concentrated force
acting on each section, as shown in Figure 5(a). To investigate
3. Permanent-loaded compression line the influence of the two shoulder arches on the permanent-
loaded compression line, another analysis model that fills the
3.1 The concept of the permanent-loaded compression shoulder arches with the same stone material is established, and
line the segmental division and load distribution are as shown in
In stone arch bridges, the tensile stress in the arches can be Figure5(b).
eliminated through design. The permanent-loaded compression The calculated results using the deduced formula of the
line for arches is defined as the line of the points of the resultant permanent-loaded compression line are plotted in Figure 6. The
forces under a dead load in each cross-section. The rational arch calculation results show that the permanent-loaded compression
axis curve under dead load should be close to the thrust line to line with a shoulder arch matches well with the actual arch axial
enable full utilisation of the compressive strength of the stones. line and is within the arch profile.The relative error of the arch axis
From a structural mechanics perspective, if the clear span of and the permanent-loaded compression line with a shoulder arch is
the arch bridge L and the rise of the arch h are given, the shape less than 5%.
of the thrust line under dead load depends on the distribution However, the permanent-loaded compression line of the
of the load q(x). As shown in Figure 4, there would be only a spandrel-filled arch (where the shoulder is assumed to be filled
horizontal force Nc in the apex of the arch in the permanent- with the same stone material) deviates far from the arch axial
loaded compression line. In general, the arch bridge is right- line, especially near the arch spring. The maximum calculation
and-left symmetrical. Consequently, the left side of the arch is deviation can reach 20%. Therefore, the existence of a shoulder
chosen for analysis. arch can make the permanent-loaded compression line closer to the
According to the static equilibrium of the arch segment, the actual circular arch axis of the bridge and also greatly reduce the
relation between the inner forces of the arch and the dead load tension stress in the open-spandrel arch.
(a) (b)
y
q(x)
q(x)
N Nc
h
0
N N x x L/2
Figure 4. Geometry and statics of an arch segment: (a) thrust line tangent of the arch axis and the horizontal axis, Nc is the horizontal
under a dead load, (b) forces acting on an arch segment. Notation: force in the apex of the arch, N is the axial compression of arbitrary
q(x) is the distribution of the dead load, h is the height of the arch cross-section, x is the horizontal direction and y is the vertical
axis, L is the span of the arch axis, is the angle between the direction
116
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
(a) (b)
y: m y: m
Unit: kN . . Unit: kN . .
107.6 109 4 114 2 107.6 109 4 114 2
147.4 147.4
182.0 .
192 26
103.0 134.3
7 8 7 8
300.0 6 390.2 6
5 5
83.0 4 346.5 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
4.63 9.25 13.88 18.51 x: m 4.63 9.25 13.88 18.51 x: m
4. Modal analysis
8.0
4.1 Finite-element models
7.0
The Zhaozhou Bridge experienced many earthquakes throughout
6.0 its history, some of them reaching a magnitude of 76 (Huang and
5.0 Li, 1981). The bridge showed excellent seismic performance, so
Height: m
(a) (b)
C3D8R C3D8R
Integration Integration
point point
C3D8R C3D8R
117
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
U, magnitude U, magnitude
+1.081 +1.099
+9.905 101 +1.008
+9.005 101 +9.160 101
+8.104 101 +8.244 101
+7.204 101 +7.328 101
+6.303 101 +6.412 101
+5.403 101 +5.496 101
+4.502 101 +4.580 101
+3.602 101 +3.664 101
+2.701 101 +2.748 101
+1.801 101 +1.832 101
+9.005 102 +9.160 102
0 0
U, magnitude U, magnitude
+1.069 +1.050
+9.802 101 +9.622 101
+8.911 101 +8.748 101
+8.020 101 +7.873 101
+7.129 101 +6.998 101
+6.238 101 +6.123 101
+5.346 101 +5.249 101
+4.455 101 +4.374 101
+3.564 101 +3.499 101
+2.673 101 +2.624 101
+1.782 101 +1.750 101
+8.911 102 +8.748 102
0 0
Figure 8.The first three modes of the two finite-element models.In each
panel, the upper image is the front view and the lower image is the top view.
U denotes the vertical displacement
118
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
acquired from the classical literature (Huang and Li, 1981): the For the modal analysis of the bridge, 3D finite-element
Youngs modulus is 501010 Pa, the Poissons ratio is 017 and the models (open-spandrel model and spandrel-filled model) were
density is 2850kg/m3. established.The frequency of each vibration mode of the spandrel-
filled model was larger than the corresponding mode of the open-
4.2 Frequency analysis and discussion spandrel model specifically, the elastic stiffness of the bridge will
The first ten natural frequencies and corresponding modes of increase if the shoulder arch is filled with stone material.The first-
the two finite-element models are obtained from modal analysis in order modal shows that the overall vertical bending vibration is the
Abaqus, as shown in Figure8 and Table1. principal mode of the bridge, and its vertical vibration is subject
The vibrating forms of the bridge are analysed in Table 1. to the restraint of the abutments that prevent serious amplitude
Among them, the first three order modals reflect the main vibration vibration.
performance of this structure that is most likely to occur in an The modal analysis confirmed that this 1400-year-old structure
earthquake, as shown in Figure 8. Specifically, the first-order does indeed possess good seismic performance.
modal shows that overall vertical bending vibration is the principal
mode of the Zhaozhou Bridge, with the principal frequency at
approximately 160 Hz; the second modal is the overall lateral Acknowledgement
bending vibration of the bridge, with a corresponding frequency
at 166 Hz; and the third modal shows that the bridge presents This study was supported by the National Natural Science
an overall wave-like asymmetric vibration with a frequency of Foundation of the Peoples Republic of China (Grant 51478107).
205Hz.
The low-order vibration shapes of the spandrel-filled model are
in accordance with the open-spandrel model, but the frequency of
References
the former is larger than that of the latter, which means that the Au FTK, Wang JJ and Liu GD (2003) Construction control of reinforced
elastic stiffness of the bridge will increase if the shoulder arch is concrete arch bridges. Journal of Bridge Engineering 8(1): 3945, http://
filled with stone material. It is thus theoretically possible that a dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2003)8:1(39).
bridge with a large structural stiffness will absorb more earthquake BUCA (Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture) (1979) Report
energy. on the Abutment and Foundation of Zhaozhou Bridge. Beijing University
of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing, China, Investigation report.
Compared with the spandrel-filled archbridge, the flexible open-
spandrel arch bridge demonstrates better seismic behaviour. It is Chen S (1985) Baoke Congbian. Zhonghua Book Company, Beijing, China.
worth noting that the first mode of the bridge is the overall vertical Clemente P, Occhiuzzi A and Raithel A (1995) Limit behavior of stone arch
bridges. Journal of Structural Engineering 121(7): 10451050, http://
vibration, and its vertical vibration is subject to the restraint
dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1995)121:7(1045).
of the abutments that prevent serious amplitude vibration. The
Drosopoulos GA, Stavroulakis GE and Massalas CV (2006) Limit analysis of
authors consider that this could be the reason why the bridge has a single span masonry bridge with unilateral frictional contact interfaces.
experienced so many earthquakes but still remains intact. Engineering Structures 28(13): 18641873, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
engstruct.2006.03.016.
Heyman J (1969) The safety of masonry arches. International Journal of
5. Conclusions Mechanical Sciences 11(4): 363385, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-
7403(69)90070-8.
Reputed as the worlds oldest, longest and best preserved open- Heyman J (1982) The Masonry Arch. Ellis Horwood Limited, Halsted Press, UK.
shoulder stone segmental arch bridge, the Zhaozhou Bridge in Huang MP and Li JS (1981) Zhaozhou Bridge of China. Shanghai Publisher of
Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.
China is one of the greatest historical artefacts in the world.
The design in the open-spandrel style was an unprecedented Li YS (1980) Science and Civilization of China.The Commercial Press (Taiwan)
Limited, Taiwan, China.
technological innovation in bridge construction history that not
Liang SC (2001) A Collection of Liang Sicheng. China Construction Industry
only reduces the self-weight but also improves the flood-carrying
Press, Beijing, China
capacity. The innovative main arch of the bridge curves to form
Liu Y and Wang DJ (2001) Influence of shoulder arch upon structure
a shallow arch rather than the half-circle preferred by Roman strength of Zhaozhou Bridge. Mechanics in Engineering 23(3): 2024.
engineers at the time, and the 28 rows of the stone arch are made
Luo Y (1993) Chinese Stone Arch Bridges. China Communication Press,
of massive limestone wedges that are independently reinforced Beijing, China.
with iron.The bridge is a perfect combination of ancient Chinese Mao YS (1986) Ancient Bridge and Civilisation in China. Beijing Press, Beijing,
architectural art and superb construction techniques, reflecting the China.
wisdom of ancient craftsmen. Qian LX (1987) New insight into an ancient stone arch bridgeThe Zhao-
An analytical computational method is employed to analyse Zhou Bridge of 1400 years old. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences
the influence of the shoulder arch on the permanent-loaded 29(12): 831843, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-7403(87)90068-3.
compression line of the bridge. This study shows that the
permanent-loaded compression line with a shoulder arch matches What do you think?
well with the actual arch axial line. However, the permanent- If you would like to comment on this paper, please email up to 200 words
loaded compression line of the spandrel-filled arch (where the tothe editor at journals@ice.org.uk.
shoulder is assumed to be filled with the same stone material) If you would like to write a paper of 2000 to 3500 words about your own
deviates far from the arch axial line, especially near the arch experience in this or any related area of civil engineering, the editor will be
happy to provide any help or advice you need.
springer.
119
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1 2 3 4
Terminal 2B at Heathrow Airport in London was the largest airside construction project ever undertaken at the UKs
biggest airport. Completed in 2014, it is the first of a series of satellite piers planned for the new Terminal 2 building.
Likened to an iceberg, there is far more to the pier underground than above, with large spaces for passenger circulation,
baggage handling and a future tracked transit system. Thepaper describes the design and construction challenges of
quickly and safely creating such a large basement structure in a live airport environment. Thework involved building
a 2km diaphragm wall, the longest in Europe, and extensive use of temporary ground anchors to free up construction
space. This and other design efficiencies led to substantial savings in excavation and materials, helping to ensure the
project was delivered within programme and budget.
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Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
Volume 170 Issue CE3 airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
Figure 4. Cross-section of Terminal 2B showing the typical extent of the substructure (looking south)
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Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
Volume 170 Issue CE3 airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
Preliminary design information indicated 45 exploratory boreholes The top-down sequence was repeated in the southern section of
and seven pressuremeter tests across the Terminal 2B phase 2 site. the structure. To support the apron-level slab, 163 steel columns
In a live airport environment this would have caused significant were plunged into 1518m dia. cast in situ concrete piles installed
impact to airport operations as well as access issues. By drawing from existing ground level. The use of plunge columns allowed
on the civil and structural engineering designers historical site excavation of the basement by top-down construction while the
investigation knowledge and data from the previously designed piers structural frame was erected concurrently above.
Heathrow Terminal 5, airside road tunnels and post-Terminal 5 A bottom-up sequence was applied to the central area because
baggage tunnel, investigations on the Terminal 2B phase2 site were of the shape of the excavation and where large clear excavated
limited to six boreholes and 22 cone penetration tests. This resulted construction areas were desirable to complete multiple construction
in cost savings in the region of 1million, reduced programme time activities.
and minimal disruption to airport operations. The mixed top-down and bottom-up construction allowed
Due to the challenging programme, the designer was required rapid progress to be made and enabled the project team to meet
to develop foundation and substructure designs in advance of the the challenging deadline. A time saving of around 6 months was
results of the site investigations using ground information and achieved with building steelwork commencing at apron slab while
associated soil parameters from previous projects at Heathrow. still excavating below in the basement. The top-down method at
Thesite investigation results provided validation of the parameters the north end of the building also mitigated any significant risk to
and assumptions adopted.
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Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
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Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
existing adjacent airport facilities and buildings due to any ground in designing using total stress conditions (undrained active and
movements. passive) on both sides of the wall for large sections in temporary
Controlling the ground movements on the phase 2 site was construction conditions.
essential due to the proximity of the operational phase 1 and Further benefit of working closely with the contractors
Europier structures. Dueto the unusual structural configuration of construction team was gained in placing strict time limits for
the Europier, with pinned diagonal members supporting the roof, installation of protective blinding concrete following excavation
this was closely monitored during partial demolition of the pier and and exposure of the formation level. Early installation enabled the
excavation of the adjacent basement. formation to be protected and softening of the London Clay to be
Limits on the allowable settlements and member rotations were avoided. Using back-analysed parameters, the design team could
specified to halt the works if significant movement was detected. demonstrate that the London Clay was stiffer than conventionally
These limiting values were set to give advance warning and to assumed. This enabled the embedment depth of the diaphragm wall
allow corrective action to be agreed and implemented in sufficient to be reduced from 85m to 6m, saving 5000m3 of excavation and
time to prevent any impact on airport operations. placement of concrete.
The diaphragm walls were installed from the existing ground
level using pavement-quality concrete as a piling mat. Areinforced
6. Perimeter retaining wall concrete guide wall typically 05m wide by 12m deep was
constructed for the entire perimeter diaphragm wall construction.
The original design for the basement construction involved a Three Kelly grab diaphragm wall rigs were used on site, working
mixture of secant pile retaining walls and open-cut excavation for continuously over a 24h period. Peak panel construction rates
construction of the substructure. However, after detailed assessment reached 12m2/h and the telescopic Kelly bar rigs achieved
it was decided to construct diaphragm walls instead of secant installation verticality of better than 1 in 200.
piling, forming a continuous perimeter retaining wall and avoiding The perimeter diaphragm wall was split up into 320 individual
the requirement to form an open-cut excavation. Theperimeter wall panels 3172m long. Typically, panels over 31m in length
would form both temporary and permanent support to the retained consisted of two reinforcement cages, while smaller panels
earth around the perimeter of the substructure. consisted of one cage and a small percentage of corner and special
The 2km perimeter diaphragm wall the longest in Europe panels required three reinforcement cages.
was designed to accommodate multiple and flexible construction Smaller 31m panels were used in areas close to existing airport
sequences to construct the superstructure simultaneously with the buildings, such as the Terminal 2B phase 1 building. Thesmaller
substructure works (Figure8). Furthermore, use of diaphragm walls panels minimised the length of ground supported under bentonite
reduced the volumes of excavations significantly and provided an during panel excavation prior to reinforcement cage and concrete
additional useable area for the contractor, enabling faster and more placement, and also the time when the ground was supported by
efficient construction. bentonite. These reduced the potential for settlement in adjacent
Previous experience with the design of retaining walls at buildings and infrastructure during panel excavation.
Heathrow enabled the design team to perform back-analysis
using actual wall performance data, resulting in optimised design
parameters. Working closely with the contractor to understand 7. Temporary ground anchors
the construction programme, the analysis provided confidence
In the central future station area, large, clear excavated
construction areas were desirable to complete multiple construction
activities. Asfar as possible, the team wanted to avoid the use of
struts which obstruct the movement of construction equipment.
Itwas a decision that fitted with a strong safety ethos on the site
and the principle of safety by design.
In total, 231 ground anchors were installed 24m below the existing
ground level at declination angles of 3040, providing support
for 400m of the perimeter retaining wall. Typically, there would
be two anchors per diaphragm wall reinforcement cage installed at
approximately 175m centres. Each cage contained anchor ducts
protected by a void former box-out so that anchor installation could
be undertaken without the need for drilling or coring through concrete.
Locating the anchors above the final roof level aided removal
Key and avoided openings in the internal hull of the basement.
Diaphragm wall (2 km length)
Bearing piles with plunge columns (163 no.)
Plunge column heads (top-hats)
Bearing piles without plunge columns (542 no.) 8. Base slab
Ground anchors (231 no.)
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Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
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Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
bearing slab was selected to restrain long-term ground heave 10. Monitoring
and hydrostatic pressure, with the intention to reduce surface
ground movements and their potential impacts on the existing and Key to the foundation system design was an extensive
operational phase 1 building, which was built on pad foundations. instrumentation monitoring programme over the course of
The base slabs in the south and central areas were designed excavation and substructure construction to validate the design
as suspended slabs with a collapsible void former and under- approach. The instrumentation included 53 diaphragm wall and
slab drainage by means of pressure-relief pipes connected to ground inclinometers monitoring movement within the wall in
the internal drainage for the basement. When the clay expands response to the bulk excavation and construction activities.
in the long term due to unloading, the void former prevents the Critical airport infrastructure was monitored through use of a
development of significant heave pressures on the suspended slab. live liquid levelling system installed at the base of the phase 1
Theunder-slab drainage provides relief to the hydrostatic pressures building and 66 monitoring points (retro targets) installed on
being developed beneath the base slab. primary steel members and facades of nearby buildings. Ninety-
Incorporation of a void former allowed the slab to be reduced one ground-monitoring points were also installed within the
from 12m to 08m, resulting in a saving of 7000m3 of material footprint surrounding the substructure to monitor the response of
which did not need to be excavated and the same saving as part the ground to the extensive excavation works required.
of the concrete pour. This design approach also saved 260 tension During the excavation and construction activities, monitoring
piles that would otherwise be required for a ground-bearing slab data were continually reviewed and interpreted by a construction
solution. monitoring team. During the design phase a potential damage
assessment had been conducted to demonstrate that, provided
wall deflections and ground movements stayed within design
9. Piling and plunge columns predictions, operational infrastructure would be safeguarded.
Due to the collaborative working approach adopted across the
The designers work on back-analysis and derivation of the project, wall deflections, ground and asset movements measured on
characteristic pile resistance from the Terminal 5 pile-test programme site were kept below the tight trigger values developed from design
enabled the large 1218m dia. piles to be shortened by 1020% predictions for the project.
compared to the conventional design-by-calculation approach. Following completion of the bulk excavation works,
On the Terminal 5 project, the designer undertook detailed instrumentation and monitoring continued during permanent
analyses of pilesoil interaction employing a non-linear London Clay works construction, including the superstructure. It was removed
soil constitutive model using data from pre-construction pile tests following a period of close-out monitoring which demonstrated
deriving shaft friction, end-bearing and associated displacements as that construction-related movement had ceased.
well as pile installation effects. Thedesign rules established from the
Terminal 5 work were adopted in the design of the bored piles for
phase 2. With 705 piles in total, the saving equated to 3 linear km of 11. Innovation and technology
piling and 6000m3 of earthworks and concrete.
Rapid and accurate installation of steel plunge columns was The design team adopted four-dimensional building information
critical to the top-down construction. Plunge columns were modelling (BIM) techniques to plan the construction process
installed in 163 piles. Inthe temporary case, the plunge columns accurately and to assess interface risk. This brought significant
supported the apron slab and any superstructure erected during benefits to the communication and management of on-site activities.
excavation under the slab. In the permanent condition, the steel Techniques such as viewing alternative construction sequences
plunge columns were encased in concrete to support the mezzanine side by side allowed the construction team to optimise site
floors in the basement area and superstructure load (Figure9). operations and proactively manage site activities. This ensured
safe construction processes as the project was built twice first
virtually and finally in the ground.
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Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
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Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
to include the provision for additional layer in the employers programme through fully integrated design and construction
computer-aided design standards was developed. This initiative project set-up.
allowed the team to establish a method of recording actions taken Diaphragm walls minimised the overall volume of excavation
to mitigate or eliminate hazards and risks on the drawings through and plunge columns allowed the basement to be created below at
the various stages of the project, achieving an agreed protocol that the same time the pier superstructure was being erected above.
provides a transparent and informative audit trail. Temporary ground anchors were extensively used to provide large
Throughout the 6years of construction, no major incident or any clear excavation areas, negating the need for internal propping and
serious injuries were reported on the project. allowing multiple construction activities to be undertaken in parallel.
The successful delivery of the project was due to the continual
review of the construction techniques and the adjustment to the
13. Sustainability design, allowing sections of the project to be switched during the
construction phase as soon as access became available.
The Terminal 2B team decided not to go for an open excavation The project delivered real sustainability benefits. Using experience
method to construct the building foundation. Instead the team of working at Heathrow, the design team was able to reduce the length
decided to install a diaphragm wall. This eliminated the excavation of the piles between 1020%. This equated to a saving of 3 linear
of approximately 11000m3 of materials and the need for temporary km on piling and 6000m3 on earthworks and concrete. Using back-
works during the construction of the reinforced concrete foundation. analysed parameters allowed the embedment depth of diaphragm
The diaphragm wall acted as a cut-off wall which allowed the wall panels to be reduced by 25m, saving 5000m3 of excavations
excavation of 680000m3 of spoil within the footprint of the and concrete. Thedesign efficiencies alone saved over 11000m3 in
building. This method also reduced the volumes of groundwater excavation and concrete in the diaphragm wall and piles. Using a
generated from the excavation works. The excavated spoil was suspended base slab with collapsible void former resulted in a saving
reused within a 24km radius to cap an old waste disposal area. of 7000m3 of concrete and 760 tension piles.
Thegravel was sold to be processed as concrete aggregate. The designer worked closely with the construction team to combine
By reusing approximately 100000m3 of sand and gravel as fill knowledge and experience to deliver an exemplary structure, in a
behind the structures, 9000 lorry movements were avoided on local demanding environment, to programme, with safe working practices
roads. and complying with the financial target set by the client.
Figure 10. Aerial view looking west of completed Terminal 2B in front of Terminal 2, with central terminal area and Terminal 5 in the background
126
Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Pages 127134 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00039
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from Paper 1600039
research to hype to practice Received 04/10/2016 Accepted 13/02/2017
Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Published online 05/04/2017
Keywords: geotextiles, membranes & geogrids/slopes
Glendinning
stabilisation/waste management & disposal
Electrokinetic geosynthetics enable civil engineers to put electrical energy into the ground to stiffen it and control
groundwater flows. This paper summarises the evolution of the technology over the past 25years, from research by
way of hype and into practice. Itwas conceived in 1993 at Newcastle University in the UK, combining established
knowledge of geotextiles with historical studies of electrokinetics. A series of UK government-funded research
programmes helped to generate global interest in its possible applications, leading to a technology spin-off company
being incorporated in 2001 to attract private venture capital investment and further development funding. This
eventually narrowed down the practical applications to slope stabilisation and dewatering, which now form the
companys main revenue streams.
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Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
Table 2. Keyparameters, their effects and practical implications of the main electrokinetic functions of electrokinetic geosynthetic materials
Electrokinetic component Parameter Effect Practical implication
Electro-osmosis Water flow rate, Q = (keV)/(LA) Drainage and water content Produces water movement in fine-
grained materials
Pore water pressure, u = (ke/kh)(V/L) Consolidation or decompaction Produces consolidation in compressible
materials
Electrolysis pH (pH = (I/A)) Acid/alkali changes Permits control of pH
[O2], [H2] ( [O2], [H2] = (I/A)) Oxygenation (redox potential) Promotes root/growth and soil
microbial activity
Electrokinetic hardening pH. CEC. electrode composition Stiffening of soil and waste Slope and tailings stabilisation
Joule heating = I R and conductivity of material
2
Heat generation Increases chemical activity and
microbial activity
A = area (m2); CEC, cation exchange capacity; = function; I = current (A); ke = coefficient of electro-osmotic permeability (m2/sV); kh = coefficient
of hydraulic conductivity (m/s); [O2], [H2] = concentration of aqueous and gaseous oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2); R = resistance; V/L = potential
gradient (V/m); w = water content
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Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
Oxygen
Figure 1. Construction of a 5m tall reinforced soil wall using Figure 2. Howelectrokinetic geosynthetics could be applied to
liquid cohesive soil each 300mm lift was consolidated using sports turf to control drainage and provide oxygen and heat to
electro-osmosis (after Jones and Pugh, 2001) promote root growth and microbial activity
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Civil Engineering Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
Newcastle University set up a spin-out company Electrokinetic The material is a composite based around a porous polymeric
Limited funded by private and venture capital. pipe, which includes a geosynthetic filter and a circular braided
Transferring laboratory-based research findings to practice bi-metallic mesh conductor. The material is also used in situ to
requires the acceptance of the technology by the relevant authorities consolidate soft soils.
and the development of materials and construction protocols to Table 4 shows the potential electrokinetic methods available
meet established industry standards. As part of the basic studies using different material forms. The electrokinetic belt-press is
into electrokinetic geosynthetics, technology protocols have been a continuous method of dewatering materials, electrokinetic
developed to determine the electrokinetic properties of soils, prefabricated drains are used in situ and electrokinetic bags and
tailings and waste sludges. tubes are suitable for batch processes.
The electrical conductivity of a fine-grained material can be The result of using electrokinetic geosynthetics technology
determined according to BS 1377 (BSI, 1990). Thecoefficient of in sewage dewatering by Thames Water Company (London) is
electro-osmotic permeability may be determined using a modified shown in Figure 3. Similar results were obtained in Germany.
permeameter using the HelmholtzSmoluchowski model of The economics and cost savings of using electrokinetic
electro-osmotic flow (Smoluchowski, 1914). Electro-osmotic geosynthetic technology to dewater sewage sludge has been
consolidation can be determined in a modified (non-conductive) identified by Huntley et al. (2006), Lamont-Black et al. (2006b)
triaxial cell (Glendinning etal., 2005a). and McLoughlin (2005). Figure4(a) shows the nature of material
Assessment of the improvement in soilreinforcement bond that can be treated and Figure 4(b) shows the same material
strength during electrokinetic treatment can be determined in the following treatment at 30 V for a period of 48 h.
laboratory using an electrokinetic shear box. This is based on a The technology programme also demonstrated that electrokinetic
conventional shear box formed from non-conductive materials geosynthetic materials could provide in situ dewatering of sludge
in which, in addition to the conventional normal load to which
the specimen is subjected, a voltage gradient is also applied. (a) (b)
Thevoltage gradient is equivalent to that proposed in the field.
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Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
lagoons (Jones etal., 2002, 2011; Walker and Glendinning, 2002). The development of electrokinetic geosynthetics has been
Italso involved bench-scale tests followed by a full-scale 50m long recognised by British Standards and the revised BS 8006:1
compost windrow, which showed that electrokinetic geosynthetics (BSI, 2010) allows their use in reinforced soil structures.
can be used to improve the dewatering and aeration of sludge- The development of the technology makes it possible to meet a
conditioning operations. Details of the results of full-scale tests of major objective of the revised BS 8006 of enabling the greater use
electrokinetic composting have been provided by White etal. (2008). of previously unacceptable waste materials as fill in reinforced soil
structures. This has enabled electrokinetic soil nailing to be used
in conditions not previously possible, resulting in reductions in the
7. Product manufacture and standards cost of works and carbon dioxide emissions.
The International Geosynthetics Society has also developed
In the development of electrokinetic geosynthetics technology, graphical symbols and terminology covering electrokinetic
various material forms have been developed for use in specific geosynthetic applications (IGS, 1996).
applications. Electrokinetic drains and soil nails have been developed
to stabilise failed and failing slopes and for in situ consolidation
of soils and wastes. Electrokinetic belts have been developed for 8. Practical applications
dewatering sewage and mine tailings in belt filter presses, while
electrokinetic dewatering bags have been produced for treating and The underpinning research and development stages of
disposal of small volumes of wastes which are difficult to treat. electrokinetic geosynthetic technology have identified a range
Over 40 material suppliers have been associated with the of new applications which cannot be addressed by conventional
manufacture and installation of electrokinetic geosynthetics, geosynthetics see Table5.
including Afitex (France), Arcitex (Sweden), Belton (USA), The benefits and drivers for the use of electrokinetic geosynthetic
Clear Edge (Sweden), GKD (Germany) and Technitex Sachsen applications include reduced cost, improved productivity, reduced
(Germany). Inthe UK, Ashbrook Simon Hartley has developed an carbon dioxide emissions, reduced waste, water recovery,
electrokinetic belt press machine for dewatering waste and tailings, suppression of liquefaction in soils and tailings, improved
and self-climbing rigs have been adopted and developed to install performance and resolved construction problems.
electrokinetic geosynthetic electrodes in slopes without the need
to remove established trees. In addition, both Highways England 8.1 Slope stabilisation, UK
and Network Rail have funded the manufacture of direct current Both Highways England and Network Rail are open to innovation
voltage rectifiers used during the active treatment phase of slope and two critical case histories one associated with the stabilisation
stabilisation and dewatering of lagoons. of a railway embankment, the other a highway slope have illustrated
Table 5. Industries, markets and sectors identified as relevant electrokinetic geosynthetic applications
Industry Market Market sector Electrokinetic geosynthetic application
Water Sewage treatment Dewatering machinery Belt/plate filter press
Composting Prefabricated drain
Dewatering Dewatering bag
Water treatment Dewatering Belt filter press
Consolidation Prefabricated drain
Food Processed food waste Dewatering Belt filter press/dewatering bag
Mining Mineral sands Dewatering Belt filter press
Diamond tailings Dewatering Belt filter press
Coal and coal waste Dewatering Belt filter press
Tailings lagoon stabilisation and Stabilisation Prefabricated drain/soil nails
combating liquefaction
Civil Ground engineering Dewatering Dewatering bag/belt filter press
engineering Waterways engineering Dewatering dredgings Dewatering bag
Embankment stabilisation Prefabricated drain/soil nails
Railway and highway maintenance Slope and embankment stabilisation Prefabricated drain/soil nails
General and highway construction Reinforced soil and ground consolidation Reinforcement/prefabricated drain
Brownfield development and land Ground consolidation and waste Prefabricated drain
reclamation solidification
Highway maintenance and dewatering Waste solidification Dewatering bag
gulley waste
Nuclear waste Solidification and reduction Dewatering bag
Sport Turf and pitches Football and cricket Prefabricated drain/mat
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Civil Engineering Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
the economic and environmental benefits that electrokinetic Laboratory trials of the electrokinetic dewatering potential of
geosynthetics can provide. The case histories showed cost savings tailings from Kimberley, Orapa and Premier diamond mines in
of 2530% and reduction in carbon dioxide emissions of 46% when Botswana and South Africa established that they can be treated
compared with conventional construction techniques (Jones et al., using electrokinetic belt press technology (Lamont-Black et al.,
2014). These benefits are close to the targets identified in the UK 2007b). Full-scale trials at Kimberley have demonstrated that major
governments Construction 2025 industrial strategy (BIS,2013). savings can be obtained with regard to energy costs associated with
Compared with traditional methods, a growing number of case disposal, reduction in waste volumes requiring disposal, recovery
histories show the electrokinetic geosynthetic slope stabilisation of water and a significant reduction in the carbon dioxide emissions
technique offers improvement in construction productivity, fewer of the mining process (Fourie and Jones 2010; Lamont-Black etal.,
lorry movements, zero waste removal, minimal material import, 2008, 2010). Thedewatered tailings are suitable for transportation
reduced noise and vibration, improved air quality, preservation of to the disposal site by conveyor (Figure6).
the seed bank and soil environment, minimal vegetation clearance
with almost all trees being retained, no visual impacts, no disruption
to passing motorists and less damage to root protection areas. 9. Discussion
The construction of slope stabilisation and repair is often
intensive, difficult and hazardous and usually involves significant The idea of electrokinetic geosynthetics emerged from just one of
disturbance to the local environment. Electrokinetic geosynthetic a long string of discussions between an academic and a geosynthetics
slope stabilisation is a multifunctional approach which combines producer. This was followed by small investigations in a university
ground improvement, reinforcement and drainage into a laboratory prior to funded research programmes. These discussions
single array of multifunctional elements (Figure 6), which act began in 1993 and the first fully commercial electrokinetic
synergistically during construction and in service. In acting this geosynthetics slope stabilisation project was completed in 2012.
way the combined remediation effect is maximised while the It is now over 20years since the first investigations. Reflecting
construction intensity and environmental disturbance is minimised. on the developments during that time, electrokinetic geosynthetics
Electrokinetic geosynthetic slope stabilisation is applicable to technology has followed the trajectory of technology development
ground conditions dominated by, and failure modes controlled characterised by the Gartner hype cycle concept of emerging
by, fine-grained soils, which may include weathered mantles of
mud rocks. These include fine-grained peat deposits but exclude
fibrous peat. Itis inapplicable, however, to mud rocks and failure
mechanisms dominated by brittle failure or granular washout.
The design principles of electrokinetic geosynthetic slope
stabilisation and case histories have been presented by Alder etal.
(2015), Jackson et al. (2015), Jones (2011) and Lamont-Black
etal. (2007a, 2012, 2016).
8.2 Dewatering, UK
The dewatering of medium volumes of miscellaneous wastes
and sludges can be achieved rapidly and without the development
of major infrastructure using electrokinetic bags. Examples of the
types of materials that have been dewatered include dredgings,
water clarification slurry, anaerobically digested waste, nuclear-
contaminated waste and road gully waste.
Figure 5 shows the dewatering of nuclear-contaminated waste Figure 5. Electrokinetic geosynthetic dewatering of nuclear-
contaminated slurry resulted in a 90% reduction of waste
sludge. In this application, the volume of nuclear waste requiring
requiring long-term storage
long-term storage was reduced by 90% (Lamont-Black etal., 2015).
132
Civil Engineering Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
treatment
Slope of Acknowledgements
enlightenment
Formation of
commercial company to The UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
Trough of develop technology and
disillusionment emergence of gate
supported the initial studies and proof of concept of electrokinetic
Technology trigger
Initial electrokinetic
Reinforced soil, sports keepers in major users geosynthetics. Durham Waste Management, Kvaerner Cementation
turf, belt and plate press
geosynthetics research
dewatering of sewage Foundations Ltd, Tensar International Ltd, Capitol, Mitsui
at university
and composting in Geosynthetics, Naue Fasertechnik GmbH, Okasanlivic Co Ltd
windows all discarded
and New Associates provided materials and funding. The DTI
Maturity Technology Development Programme included support from
Asbrook Simon Hartley, C A Blackwell, Edmund Nuttall, Rio
Figure 7. Gartner hype cycle for electrokinetic geosynthetics Tinto, Yorkshire Water, Thames Water, Severn Trent Water, GKN,
De Beers, Exxaro, Highways England, Network Rail and Entex.
Support for the development of the electrokinetic geosynthetic
technologies (Figure 7) (Fenn and Raskino, 2008). Thus technology has also been provided by Amey, Balfour Beatty, TGP,
electrokinetic geosynthetics has traced a typical development Afitex, Arcitex, Clear Edge and Technitex Sachsen.
trajectory from initial concept, early development, hype and descent
into disillusionment and emergence into practical application and References
acceptance. Within electrokinetic geosynthetics technology, four
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one in South Africa. Thedevelopment is continuing. construction insights regarding the use of electrokinetic techniques for slope
It is frequently observed that it is difficult to get innovation stabilisation. InGeotechnical Engineering for Infrastructure and Development
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Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Geosynthetics (Kuwanao J Lamont-Black J, Hall JA, Glendinning S, Jones CJFP and White C (2012)
and Koseki J (eds)). Millpress, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 543546. Stabilisation of a railway embankment using electrokinetic geosynthetics.
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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Pages 135144 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00002
Monitoring of long-span Paper 1600002
Received 04/01/2016 Accepted 01/12/2016
bridges in Japan
Published online 19/01/2017
Ab and Fujino Keywords: bridges/field testing & monitoring/seismic
engineering
1 2
Japan currently has 15 suspension bridges, three cable-stayed bridges and a truss bridge with spans over 500m. Given
the countrys exposure to earthquakes and typhoons, structural behaviour during seismic and wind loading are major
concerns, so many of the bridges have been instrumented and continuously monitored since completion. This paper
provides an overview of the development of monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan, with examples of effective
utilisation of the monitored data. These include using data to verify design assumptions, update specifications for
construction, enable active vibration control and evaluate performance and damage of structures during extreme events.
Research is currently under way on how to extend the application of monitoring data for operation and maintenance.
135
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
(a)
1.0
Natural frequency : Hz
Torsional
Vertical
0.1
100 1000
Span length: m
(b)
Torsional Vertical
0.01
Figure 3. Insitu section model of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge deck for
Damping ratio
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Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
the wind resistance design method for the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge difference can be seen at higher frequencies, the results were
project, which includes the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge. The observed considered satisfactory for design purposes.
response is compared with estimation based upon wind tunnel The early trials developed to include monitoring with the
testing as shown in Figure 4 (Okauchi, 1978). Although some installation of permanent measurement equipment during the service
life of the bridge, particularly as information and sensor technologies
1.00 advance. The instrumentation installed at Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
Power spectral density: m2s
Awaji
Kobe Island
1A 2P 3L/4 point 3P 4A
Anemometer Centre of girder (panel point 138)
Global positioning system velocimeter (east: longitudinal, transverse
Velocimeter (longitudinal) and vertical; west: vertical)
Velocimeter (transverse) 3L/4 point of girder (panel point 173)
velocimeter (east: longitudinal and
vertical; west: vertical)
10
Observed mean response
8 Observed maximum response
Horizontal girder
displacement: m
0
0 10 20 30 40
10 min average wind speed: m/s Seismometer
Accelerometer
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Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
cablestayed bridge in Japan, and it was subject to strong excitation of increase of vertical girder response was also observed at other
from the 2001 Geiyo earthquake (moment magnitude 67; maximum long-span bridges for instance, the Akinada Bridge during the
ground acceleration at the bridge site was 144cm/s2). Response 2001 Geiyo earthquake (Ogiwara etal., 2001).
spectra were calculated from the observed ground motion (see Recent trials of the application of densely distributed
Figure 8), and the actual seismic load was below the design measurement instrumentation can stimulate further advancement
specification. The seismic behaviour of the bridge was also in this area. Hakucho Bridge (Figure 9(a)) was continuously
investigated by simulation analysis using the observed ground monitored with a high-density installation of acceleration sensors
motions. The simulation results and the observed responses as shown in Figure9(b). Aerodynamic coefficients were identified
were found to be in good agreement and therefore the structural from multi-mode inverse analysis using the abundant data from
modelling for seismic design was verified (Kawato etal., 2005). vibration measurement at various wind speeds (Abe and Fujino,
One of the typical engineering problems for long-span bridges 2009; Fujino etal., 2009), and comparison between the identified
is the effect of time lag of the ground motions (due to the distance aerodynamic coefficients and estimation based on wind tunnel
between the foundations) caused by seismic wave propagation. testing is provided in Figure10.
Analyses based upon the observed response of the Onaruto The examples indicate that the monitoring results for long-
Bridge during the 1995 Kobe earthquake (moment magnitude 69) span bridges have been shown to be useful for verification of
revealed that the spatial difference of ground motions increased the performance and to improve the design.
vertical response of the girder (Yoshida, 1999). Asimilar tendency
Transverse response
Vertical response
to apply limits for control of the dynamic performance. Vibration
spectra: cm/s
Estimation by wind
tunnel experiment
(a)
50
0
0 5 15
Wind velocity: m/s
(b)
(b) 100
Change in stiffness: kN/m
ASK-1
ASK-2
ASK-5
ASK-3
ASK-4
ACK-1
ACK-2
ACK-3
ACK-4
ACK-5
AK-3,4
ACK-6
ACK-7
ACK-8
ACK-9
ACK-10
AK-1,2
ACK-11
ACK-12
50
55 m 30 m
0
0 5 15
Wind velocity: m/s
Figure 9. Hakucho Bridge: (a) perspective view and (b) monitoring Figure 10. Identified changes in aerodynamic force.
system. Thered dots represent accelerometers (a)Aerodynamic damping; (b) aerodynamic stiffness
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Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
for determination of the control force, monitoring forms the basis aerodynamic response of the cables. Based on this finding, it was
of this new technology (Spencer and Nagarajaiah, 2003; Spencer identified that rain-and-wind-induced vibration can be effectively
and Sain, 1997). suppressed either by control of the cable vibration or by surface
Practically, active control is considered superior to passive treatment of cables (Hikami and Shiraishi, 1988).
control devices when: multiple vibration modes are present; natural At the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, parallel hanger ropes are employed
frequencies change, as typically observed during construction; to suspend the girder from the main cables. Excessive vibration was
and installation space is limited and compact devices are required. observed at ropes on the downwind side of the bridge, indicating
These three conditions typically apply for the installation of the occurrence of wake-induced vibration. Typhoon Vicki in 1998
monitoring systems on flexible long-span bridges, especially at the took a route close to the bridge, and the rubber dampers installed
construction stage. to suppress vortex-induced vibration of the ropes were damaged.
Hakucho Bridge is one of the bridges controlled actively during By investigating the video record and the wind monitoring data,
construction. A pendulum-type control device (see Figure 11(a)) the conditions for occurrence of wake-induced vibration were able
is installed near the top of the tower as shown in Figure 11(b) to be investigated and the hanger ropes were retrofitted with the
(Matsuda, 2002). Thecontrol system utilised is known as a hybrid attachment of helical wires to change their aerodynamic properties
system, which incorporates both a passive control effect by the (Takeguchi, 2000).
pendulum action and an active control force provided by the rack For investigating the cause of failure associated with wind,
and pinion mechanism of the electric motors. monitoring is critically important, since fluidstructure interaction
Long-span bridges at which active control is applied during may trigger rare phenomena which cannot easily be recreated in
construction are listed in Table1. a wind tunnel. For Hakucho Bridge, although the bridge was not
damaged, unexpected along-wind vibration of the bridge tower
and associated lateral vibration of the girder were observed from
4. Damage evaluation and retrofitting the monitoring data and later investigated by wind tunnel testing
following extreme events (Siringoringo and Fujino, 2012). Monitoring over a sufficiently
long time period would enhance knowledge of remaining unknown
and complex behavioural phenomena for other real structures.
As continuous data accumulate, monitoring has proven to be In the 1995 Kobe earthquake, fault movement occurred below
useful for investigation of extreme events and induced damage, and Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge. The base motion of the abutments and
eventually to evaluate structural performance. pylons due to fault movement measured by GPS monitoring system
At Meiko West Bridge, which is a cable-stayed bridge with are shown in Figure12 (Lin and Uda, 1996). Thebridge was under
a central span of 405m constructed in 1985, large amplitude construction at the time as shown in Figure13. Nosevere damage
vibration of cables was observed during construction. Bystudying was observed, but the planned design length of the central span
the bridge monitoring data, it was shown that this phenomenon is was altered from 1990m to 1991m.
only observed when strong wind and rain occur simultaneously. Higashi-Kobe Bridge, which is shown in Figure 14(a), is a
Further investigation revealed that the cause of the vibration was the cable-stayed bridge with a central span of 485m opened in 1994;
water rivulet formed at the surface of the cable during rain, which it was affected by the Kobe earthquake. The bearing link system
influences the apparent cross-sectional shape, and consequently the connecting end girders and piers failed as shown in Figure14(b),
leading to loss of vertical support to prevent uplift. Thewind shoe,
the function of which was to restrain transverse motion of the
(a) (b) 22 m girder, failed due to excessive transverse seismic displacement at
+10.3 cm
1A 2P 3P
0.0 4.7 cm 4A
33.7 cm
Figure 11. Pendulum-type control device and installation at Figure 12. Observed movement at Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge after the
Hakucho Bridge: (a) control device and (b) location of installation 1995 Kobe earthquake
139
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
the girder end, leading to failure of the link. Fortunately the bridge and damage to the bearings and links (Ganev et al., 1998).
was also supported by intermediate piers at the side spans which After this event, uplift-prevention cables were applied to similar
provided additional redundancy against uplift, which prevented structural details to provide additional redundancy against link
total collapse. failure. In addition, the structure is built on reclaimed land, and
The bridge was instrumented and monitored during the severe liquefaction was observed within the ground motion record.
earthquake. The girder response contains spike-like wave forms The ground motion record at this bridge, with modification, is
in the time history which correspond to collisions of the girders within the current design code for highway bridges for seismic
evaluation of bridges in soft ground conditions.
Yokohama Bay Bridge, opened in 1989 with a central span of 460m,
is continuously monitored with a densely distributed sensor system as
shown in Figure15, and the seismic response due to the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake was recorded (Siringoringo etal., 2014). Ground motion
lasted about 3min and the maximum horizontal response of the girder
was observed to be 600mm. Figure 16 shows the tower transverse
acceleration, where periodic spikes resembling impulses can be
seen. Periodic spikes indicate the occurrence of transverse collisions
between the tower and the girder, and the spikes also appear in the
vertical acceleration records for the girder. Thefirst transverse mode
appears to trigger the collision, since the average time interval between
two consecutive spikes is observed to be around 32s (031032Hz),
which matches the corresponding natural frequency.
Monitoring records for long-span bridges subject to strong
seismic motion frequently demonstrate spiky wave forms of the
type mentioned previously (Kanaji and Suzuki, 2007) and these
Figure 13. Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge right after the 1995 Kobe earthquake are not well-addressed in conventional seismic design. Monitoring,
and in particular densely distributed monitoring, would be required
to investigate this phenomenon further and to develop appropriate
(a) (b) modelling methods and countermeasures.
Yokohama Bay Bridge was closed for 30 h after the earthquake
due to an overturned cargo truck on the lower deck, as shown in
Figure 17. The transverse girder vibration caused the truck to
become unbalanced and overturn. Even though no major structural
damage of the bridge was observed, traffic disruption due to
excessive vibration could have caused human loss. Inthe same way
that wind monitoring data are used to regulate traffic movement in
Figure 14. Higashi-Kobe Bridge: (a) perspective view and strong wind conditions (Ab etal., 2014), earthquake monitoring
(b)damage at the end bearing after the 1995 Kobe earthquake and early warning data should also be incorporated into traffic and
service control to reduce the seismic risk.
Silt layer
P1 Hard soil layer P4
P2 P3
P2 Y+ P3
X+
Yakohama
Triaxial accelerometer Honmoku Ogura
Harbour
(SA-355CT)
Biaxial (Y,Z) accelerometer
(SA-255CT)
Biaxial (X,Y) accelerometer Pacific
(SA-255CT) Ocean P1 P4
Figure 15. Yokohama Bay Bridge and its seismic response monitoring installation: (a) perspective view and (b) monitoring system
140
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
(a)
T05Y (Tower P2 transverse direction main shock)
Acceleration: cm/s2
200
180
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Time: s
(b)
Time interval: s
5
4
3
2
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Time: s
5. Application to maintenance and management measurement data at completion of construction were also available,
the structural conditions can readily be compared with those when
Application of monitoring to the maintenance and management first built. Figure18(b) shows the displacement measurement points.
of existing structures is currently attracting wide interest owing Measured displacement values at the various rehabilitation
to the increasing age of the bridge stock. An earlier example stages by optical surveying are plotted in Figure 19. Measured
is the monitoring that took place during the Wakato Bridge
rehabilitation of 1990, to expand the roadway width (Ishii et al.,
(a)
1991). Wakato Bridge was built in 1962 and is the first modern 80
long-span suspension bridge in Japan, with a central span of 367m
60
(Figure18(a)). Displacement of critical positions and representative
Displacement: mm
20
0
(a)
d1
20
d2
40 d3
d4
60
0 1 2 3 4 5
Stage
(b)
80
60
Displacement: mm
(b) 40
Tobata + + Wakamatsu 20
d1 d1
0
20
d3 d3
+ d2 d2 +
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5
d4 d4 Stage
Figure 19. Deformation of Wakato Bridge: (a) Tobata side and (b)
Wakamatsu side. Stage 0: design value; stage 1: at completion;
stage 2: before rehabilitation; stage 3: at removal of decks at half
Figure 18. Wakato Bridge (a) and displacement monitoring of central span; stage 4: design value after rehabilitation, stage 5:
points(b) after rehabilitation
141
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
values at completion (stage 1) and right before rehabilitation at various structures with a relatively arbitrary configuration and
(stage 2) are different from the original design values due to creep location. Hence, estimation of displacement from acceleration
deformation and elongation of stranded cables. The values were measurement data was studied. Theobserved displacement values
stable at stage 2. Theobserved results after rehabilitation (stage 5) were successfully estimated using a random arithmetic method
were below design values (stage 4). In addition, both the Tobata utilising data from the accelerometer record compared to the GPS
and Wakamatsu sides moved symmetrically, which implies that displacement data as shown in Figure 21(b) (Ab and Fujino,
balance between the internal forces has been retained following 2010).
rehabilitation including at the time of removal of decks (stage3). At Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, a dry-air injection system, the concept
Figure 20 shows the transition of major vibration modes from for which is shown in Figure22, was introduced to protect the main
construction to rehabilitation. Thenatural frequencies were either cables from corrosion (Kitagawa et al., 2001). For control of the
unchanged or slightly increased. Hence, no major damage or loss air condition, monitoring of moisture within the cable is required.
of stiffness to influence aerodynamic stability was anticipated as a Figure 23 shows a comparison of the moisture level between the
result of this rehabilitation.
At Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, deformation during strong wind was
observed during the 2003 typhoon Etau, as shown in Figure21(a). (a)
100 10
0 0
0.7 0 200 400 600
0.6 Time: s
Natural frequencies: Hz
(b)
0.5 80
n
0.4 tio
70 ima
= est
0.3 ion
60 vat
Symmetric first bending mode bser
0.2
Estimation: cm
50 O
Symmetric second bending mode
0.1 Antisymmetric first bending mode
40
Symmetric first torsion mode
0 30
0 1 2
Stage 20
10
Figure 20. Natural frequencies measured at Wakato Bridge.
0
Stage0: before rehabilitation; stage 1: during rehabilitation, 0 20 40 60 80
stage2: after rehabilitation Observation with global positioning system: cm
Air injection
cover 60
40
Inside air
20
Dry-air injection Stiffening 0
system girder 2005 2006 2007
Year
142
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
outside air and the air inside the cable, indicating the advantage of
the system. Monitoring of environmental conditions is becoming Recent examples of monitoring
increasingly important for evaluation of durability.
One of the challenging problems for monitoring of long-span
using densely distributed sensor
bridges is evaluation of scour. At Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, for arrays show it to be particularly
example, ultrasonic sounding by a survey ship is employed every
2years, and so far, no severe scour has been observed (Kurino and
useful for developing an in-depth
Yumiyama, 2002). Because natural disasters which could cause understanding of structural
scour may occur during the interval between ultrasonic surveys,
development of a continuous/permanent monitoring system is behaviour. The technology is also
desired.
At Tokyo Gate Bridge, which opened in 2012 and has a central
used for active control of bridge
span of 440m, the advanced monitoring system consists of optical response during construction
fibre sensors (Yokota and Akiyama, 2013). Figure 24 indicates
the installed locations of the sensors. Examples of traffic load Strain gauge
estimations using strain monitoring data from the installed thermometer
Displacement gauge
weigh-in-motion system are shown in Figure 25. Traffic weight Displacement gauge
anemometer
accelerometer
and frequency for each lane and direction are identified, and this accelerometer
information is utilised to support regular and detailed inspection
by screening possible locations of fatigue cracks in the steel deck
plates. Displacement gauge
Conventional monitoring systems designed for measurement Seismometer
rain gauge
of the dynamic behaviour during an earthquake and/or high wind
have proven to be useful. Further development to match the needs
Figure 24. Monitoring system for Tokyo Gate Bridge
for future maintenance and management are currently being
investigated.
(a)
Sun. Mon. Tue. Wed. Thur. Fri. Sat.
6. Conclusions 1000
50 t
Number of vehicles over 20 t
900
4049 t
800 3039 t
This paper provides an overview of the development of long-span 700 2029 t
bridges in Japan in the light of data from monitoring applications. 600
Earlier applications were intended for evaluation of the design 500
conditions and structural performance, and for verification of the 400
design assumptions, such as for wind and earthquake loadings. 300
There was a focus on the dynamic structural properties, since they 200
govern the behaviours of long-span bridges. Recent examples of 100
monitoring using densely distributed sensor arrays show it to be 0
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900
of structures. Continuous monitoring provides data on structural 800
behaviours during unexpected extreme events, which can reveal the 700
600
cause and process of damage accumulation and failure. Detection
500
and identification of rain-induced vibration and wake galloping
400
of stay cables and hangers are presented as examples of wind- 300
induced vibration. Spike-like waveforms in the seismic response 200
and multiple ground excitation effect, which are not explicitly 100
treated in current design codes, are quantitatively observed during 0
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143
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino
144
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