Civil Engineering

Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017

Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge

Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest airside basement at Britains largest airport

Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice

Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan

www.civilengineering-ice.com
ISSN 0965 089 X
 proceedings

Civil Engineering
CALL FOR PAPERS

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Volume 166 Issue CE4 November 2013

Radiation level: kBq/m2

Delivering the Emirates Air Line, London Britains first urban cable car >3000
10003000
6001000
The 2011 Great East Japan earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disaster 300600 160 km
100300
Port of Newcastle, Australia: innovation at one of the worlds largest coal-export terminals
60100
3060
Sharing knowledge
Delivery of subway line 9 in for the
Seoul, greater
South Korea good
lessons is what
in publicprivate partnering
1030
<10

professional civil engineering is all about. The area where

measurement results 100 km
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Civil Engineering of benefit, please consider sharing your own

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Writing papers counts towards your continuing professional 20 km

development and, if accepted for publication, will bolster your
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Why Civil Engineering? What does it cover? How do I write a paper?

Civil Engineering is the
flagship journal of the
Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, one of the
most respected and cited
series in global scientific
publishing.
Published continuously
since 1836, ICE Proceedings
now includes 18 journals
covering every aspect of civil
engineering research and
practice worldwide.
Civil Engineering is the
overarching journal, delivering
refereed papers and articles
of the broadest relevance,
interest and impact to 80,000
ICE members and engineering
libraries in 160 countries.
The journal offers a
comprehensive insight into the
work of the international civil
engineering profession and its
vital contribution to society.
Topics cover the full spectrum
of civil engineering activity,
ranging from the smallest to
the largest projects, and from
new technologies and methods
to debates on philosophical,
ethical, environmental,
management and safety issues.
Practical and diverse in its
scope, the unique full-colour
publication is distributed in
both print and ahead of
print electronic formats, with
four regular issues and two
special issues each year.
Think about something you or your colleagues have done
recently that was particularly interesting, challenging or
innovative. Start gathering data, images and references and 0 km 50
then try writing an abstract with the following structure:
n Purpose of your paper (50 words)
n How, where and when information was gathered
(50 words)
n What new things were learned (50 words)
n Why these things are important (50 words).
When you are happy with it, show it to colleagues who
may wish to write the paper with you or email it to the
Proceedings editor (editor@ice.org.uk) for comment.
Next flesh the paper out to 20003500 words with around
6-10 good quality photographs and simple drawings, again
ask your colleagues to comment, and finally upload it for peer
review at www.editorialmanager.com/ce.

Who do I contact?
For further information on any aspect of writing or submitting a paper, please contact the editor Simon Fullalove on
+44 20 7665 2448, email editor@ice.org.uk, or the journal manager Ben Ramster on +44 20 7665 2242,
email ben.ramster@ice.org.uk.
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ISSN 0965 089 X
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017

CONTENTS:August 2017

Civil Engineering Contact Information

Editor:
Simon Fullalove
tel: +44 20 7665 2448
email: editor@ice.org.uk
Journals Manager
Ben Ramster
tel: +44 20 7665 2242
email: ben.ramster@ice.org.uk
EDITORIAL General manager, ICE Publishing:
Mike Cookson
tel: +44 20 7665 2486
BRIEFING email: mike.cookson@icepublishing.com
Advertising:
Steve Jackson, Structural Promotions Ltd.
NEC4: ICEs collaborative procurement suite continues to evolve 99 12 Lawrance Way, Bourne,
Lincolnshire PE10 0HU
Super sewer: an update on the Thames Tideway tunnel project in London 100 tel: +44 1778 420 857
Four decades of research means building with bamboo comes of age 101 fax: +44 1778 424 771
email: steve@structuralpromotions.co.uk
New body set to approve construction degree apprenticeships in the UK 102 Published by
ICE Publishing
MONITOR One Great George Street,Westminster
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tel: +44 20 7222 7722
Books 104 fax: +44 20 7538 4101
email: journals@icepublishing.com
ICE Proceedings 108 www.icevirtuallibrary.com
ICE review 112 ICE Publishing is a division of Thomas
Telford Ltd, a wholly owned subsidiary of
TECHNICAL PAPERS the Institution of Civil Engineers
Production editing by Paul Allanson
Illustrations by Barking Dog Art
Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge Origination by
Phoenix Photosetting Ltd, Chatham, Kent
M. Zhou, J. Zhang, L. An, X. Zhang and T. Li 113 Printed in the UK by
GD Web Offset Ltd, Rotherham
Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest airside basement at Using fibre sourced from responsibly
managed and sustainable forest
Britains largest airport
ISSN 0965-089X (Print)
H. Shanghavi, J. Straw, R. Patel and D. Winsor 121 17517672(Online)
The authors and the Institution of Civil
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype topractice Engineers, 2017
Available online at
C. Jones, J. Lamont-Black, D. Huntley, D. Alder and S. Glendinning 127 www.civilengineering-ice.com

Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan Subscription Information

Non-members:
M. Ab and Y. Fujino 135 Subscription enquiries and notification of
change of address should be sent to the
Customer Services department,
ICE Publishing,
One Great George Street, Westminster
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Civil Engineering, 4 issues per year
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CIVIL ENGINEERING EDITORIAL PANEL Subscription enquiries and notification
of changes of address should be sent to
Chairman Emma Kent, CEng, MICE,MIStructE, Cundall, London, UK Eva Linnell, MEng, CEng, MICE, Atkins, Bristol, UK Membership Registry,
Andy Alder, CH2M, London, UK Andrew Martin, BEng, MSt, CEng, MICE, MIStructE, COWI A/S, Institution of Civil Engineers,
David Atherton, BSc, MSc, CEng, CGeol, FICE, FIMMM, FCIWEM, MCIWM, FGS, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark PO Box 4479, London SW1P 3XB, UK
Peter Brett Associates, Reading, UK Mike Napier, BSc, ACGI, CEng, FICE, FIoD, FCIHT, Costain, Maidenhead, tel: +44 20 7665 2227
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deBruxelles, Belgium David Oloke, Progressive Concept Consultancy Ltd, Walsall,UK email: subs@ice.org.uk
Yancheng Cai, PhD, MIASS, Meinhardt (C&S) Ltd, Hong Kong, Neil Owen, BSc, CEng, MICE, Independent Consultant,
PR China Birmingham, UK The papers and articles express the
John J. Carroll, BEng, CEng, FICE, Independent Consultant, Priti Parikh, PhD, CEng, MICE, FRSA, University College London, UK opinions of the authors, and do not
Liverpool, UK John Porter, CEng, FICE, FHKIE, MASCE, MAPM, Continental necessarily reflect the views of the ICE,
John Clifton, BSc, CEng, CEnv, FICE, FCIHT, MCMI, Independent Consultant, Engineering Corporation, Taiwan TTL, or the Editorial Panel. Papers are
Santa Barbara de Nexe, Portugal Jamie T. Radford, MA, MEng, Mott MacDonald, Cambridge, UK formally refereed by the editorial panel
Veronica Flint Williams, BEng, CEng, FICE, MAPM, Environment Agency, Colin Rawlings, BSc, DIC, MSc, CEng, MICE, MASCE, CGeol, FGS, CH2M/HS2 whereas, to ensure topicality, Briefing
Leeds, UK Ltd, London, UK articles are not refereed.
Nick Gorst, BEng, PhD, CEng, MICE, PIEMA, British Precast, Leicester, UK Stuart Ross, Arup, Hong Kong, PR China Civil Engineering is indexed in the
David Hobson, HS2 Ltd, Birmingham UK P. J. Rudden, RPS Group, Killiney, Republic of Ireland Science Citation Index
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Sebastian Lewandowski, Highways England, Birmingham, UK Alessandra Villa, CEng, MICE, Dott. Ing., Arup, London, UK

97
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.98
EDITORIAL:August 2017
Editorial
Eva Linnell MEng, CEng, MICE
Atkins, Bristol, UK
Welcome to the August 2017 issue of Civil Engineering, the
flagship journal of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers.
The papers in this edition all demonstrate the benefits of
using monitoring instrumentation and measurement data.As
well as verifying design parameters, monitoring is shown to be
a powerful tool for the management and operation of assets.
Informed decisions on timely intervention for effective
maintenance need good-quality, accurate and reliable asset-
condition data and this holds true whether we are working
in the transport, energy or water sectors.
The point was underlined by Institution of Civil Engineers
president Tim Broyd in his inaugural address, where he said
civil engineers should be, using increasingly large volumes of
data to measure the performance of infrastructure (Broyd,
2017: p.4).As we reach the half-way point of his presidency,
it seems a good time to reflect on these words with some
examples from around the world.
In the first paper, by Zhou etal. (2017), the focus is on the
remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge in China, which is the worlds
oldest open-spandrel, stone-arch bridge. Also known as the
Anjou bridge, meaning safe crossing, the structure has
provided safe passage for 1400years and is still in use today.
By validating the structural design to a high degree
of accuracy, the paper gives a ringing endorsement of
computational methods used for design.It also shows that a
detailed understanding of existing structures no matter how
old is vital for managing them effectively.
Next, Shanghavi etal. (2017) take us to Heathrow airport,
where Terminal 2Bs vast 15m deep basement with a 2km
long perimeter wall the longest in Europe was constructed
within a live airport setting. This paper showcases examples of
efficiencies made due to monitoring.
First, continuous monitoring of adjacent structures allowed
construction to proceed safely in an operational environment.
Second, back-analysis of measured data from Terminal 5 was
used to refine the pile design, reducing the length of the
1218m diameter piles by 1020%.The urgent need for the
terminal necessitated a combination of bottom-up as well as
top-down construction.
In the third paper, on electrokinetic geosynthetics, Jones
etal. (2017) reveal a wide range of applications of this
promising technology from slope stabilisation to sludge
dewatering, and from reducing the volume of nuclear waste
to promoting healthy grass growth on football pitches.
The paper describes projects which, thanks to electrokinetic
geosynthetic technology, achieved close to the UK
governments Construction 2025 strategy (BIS, 2013) targets
of reducing cost by 33% and carbon dioxide emissions by
50%.The paper discusses the challenges of adopting new
technology in civil engineering, and highlights the role of the
98
Editorial
Linnell
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
rare gatekeepers in organisations that are willing and able to
implement new approaches.
The final paper, by Ab and Fujino (2017), discusses the
monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan. Having 15 bridges
with spans over 500m in a land of earthquakes and typhoons
makes for a lively test environment. Real-time monitoring of
the bridges and their environments has enabled correlation of
unusual phenomena and dynamic structural properties that a
model and wind tunnel would be unable to replicate.
The authors identify areas for further research, such as the
spike-like waveform that has been observed in response to
seismic activity but is not explicitly included in design codes,
and the need for continuous scour monitoring a theme
discussed in detail in this journal by Clubley etal. (2015).
Monitoring has also been critical in the Crossrail project to
deliver Londons new Elizabeth line.The second of this years
two special issues of Civil Engineering on this engineering
project of a generation (Wolstenholme, 2017: p.2) will be
published in November, together with online videos and other
associated content at icevirtuallibrary.com/loi/jcien.
References
Ab M and Fujino Y (2017) Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3):
135144, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00002.
BIS (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills) (2013) Construction
2025.BIS, London, UK, URN BIS/13/955.
Broyd T (2017) Engineering a digital future. Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(1): 38, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.2017.170.1.3.
Clubley S, Manes C and Richards D (2015) High-resolution sonars set to revolutionise
bridge scour inspections. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 168(1): 3542, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.14.00033.
Jones C, Lamont-Black J, Huntley D, Alder D and Glendinning S (2017)
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3):
127134, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00039.
Shanghavi H, Straw J, Patel R and Winsor D (2017) Heathrow Terminal
2B: delivering the biggest airside basement at Britains largest airport.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3):
121126, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00017.
Wolstenholme A (2017) Introduction. Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(5): 2, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.2017.170.5.2.
Zhou M, Zhang J, An L, Zhang X and Li T (2017) Spanning over 1400years:
Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 170(3): 113119, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.16.00023.
CALL FOR PAPERS: Civil Engineering relies entirely on material contributed by
civil engineers and related professionals. Illustrated articles of 600words and
papers of 2000 to 3500 words are welcome on any relevant civil engineering
topic that meets the journals aims of providing a source of reference material,
promoting best practice and broadening civil engineers knowledge, Please
contact the editor for further information
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.99
BRIEFING:PROCUREMENT
NEC4: ICEs collaborative procurement suite
continues to evolve
The fourth edition of NEC, the Institution of Civil Engineers market-leading suite of procurement
contracts, was launched in June 2017. Product development manager Elizabeth Brookfield explains
how NEC4 has evolved to meet the demands of todays built-environment sector.
Shared, proactive and flexible
management of risk is now at the heart
of the worlds building and infrastructure
projects. Clients and their supply chains
are also increasingly committed to
collaboration and digital innovation, such
that the form and function of procurement
contracts will never stand still.
Over the past two decades the
engineering and construction industry
has made a step-change in the way
projects and work programmes are
procured and delivered.The industry has
innovated and improved, and is gradually
leaving behind its historical reliance on
traditional methods of procurement and
adversarial forms of contract.
Different and better
Since they were first published in 1993,
the Institution of Civil Engineers NEC
contracts have played a major part in
helping the engineering and construction
industry do things differently and
better.NEC uniquely introduced effective
project management procedures into its
contracts, requiring pro-active management
of risk and change and the day-to-day
use of an up-to-date works programme.
An unprecedented ability to choose
different pricing options including
target contracts and cost-reimbursable
contracts gave clients flexibility in the
allocation of risk, and the ability to share
risk and manage it collaboratively.The
innovative use of plain English and the
present tense have also ensured clarity
and global application.
Global track record
It is now 12years since the third
edition of the NEC contract suite
was published. NEC3 is now the
For further information please contact: NEC Tel: +44 20 7665 2446 Email: info@neccontract.com Web: neccontract.com/nec4
NEC4: ICEs collaborative procurement suite continues to evolve
Brookfield
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
UKs public-sector contract of choice
and has been used on most of the
UKs major projects and programmes
includingLondon 2012,Crossrail,High
Speed Two, Hinkley Point C, Thames
Tideway Tunnel and the UKs nuclear
decommissioning programme.
It is now the main contract suite
for public works in Hong Kong,
South Africa and New Zealand
and has successfully delivered
public- and private-sector building
and infrastructure projects in
Antarctica, Australia, China, Ireland,
the Netherlands, North Africa, the
Philippines and South America.
Through its international network of
clients and the NEC Users Group, the
NEC team continually receives feedback
and requests for further features and
contract solutions.The result, which
was launched in June 2017, is NEC4.
New contracts added
Designed for projects and works
programmes of all types and sizes,
The complete NEC4 suite includes 21
contracts and 22 user guides
NEC4 enhances the NEC3 contract suite
with new features and new forms of
contract.All of the changes are a direct
result of feedback from industry to
support methods and provide solutions
which clients now need.
For example, the new NEC4 Design
Build and Operate Contract allows
clients to procure a more integrated
whole-life delivery solution.The
ability to combine responsibility for
usually disparate functions design,
construction and operation procured
from a single supplier has been
developed in response to industry need.
Similarly, the new NEC4 Alliance
Contract fully integrates the delivery
team for large complex projects.The
industrys commitment to collaboration
means more clients wish to enter
a single collaborative contract with
anumber of participants to deliver a
project or programme of work.
Intellectual property
Likewise, as the UK continues to set
the international standard for digital
engineering and building information
modelling, NEC4 contracts have evolved
to incorporate the increasing level of
intellectual property sharing.
With project partners increasingly
working from shared digital models,
it is vital for procurement contracts
to accommodate the need for either
party to transfer the benefit or any
rights to another party without being
undermined by amendments.
NEC is fully committed to continuing
to improve the way that projects and
work programmes are delivered.As the
industry continues to tread new ground
and innovate, so too will the NEC
contract suite continue to evolve.
99
Civil Engineering Super sewer: an update on the Thames
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017 Tideway tunnel project in London
Alder and Appleton
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.100
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

BRIEFING:WATER

Super sewer: an update on the Thames

Tideway tunnel project in London
Construction is now underway on a dozen civil engineering sites across London to deliver the
42billion Thames Tideway tunnel project. Delivery manager Andy Alder and communications
executive Mike Appleton provide a progress report on the citys new super sewer.

Tideway, an independent licensed

infrastructure provider consisting of
a consortium of investors, has been
making good progress with construction
of Londons new 25km long super
sewer, the 42billion Thames Tideway
tunnel (Stride, 2016).
Ahead of tunnelling in 2018, the main
focus of work has been at the three
main drive sites. These are for launching
the 78m dia. tunnel boring machines
(TBMs) and will serve as material-
transport hubs and head offices for each
of Tideways three main NEC3 works
contracts west, central and east.

Drive site construction

Chambers Wharf in Bermondsey was
one of the first to start, beginning with
the removal of thousands of tonnes of
contaminated spoil. This was the first
opportunity for Tideway to use the river
to transport materials, in this case from
the site to a location outside London for
safe disposal.
At Chambers Wharf, the east team
has constructed one of the largest
new areas of London in over a century,
with an infilled cofferdam of 744 piles
creating nearly 1 ha of new foreshore.It
will form the temporary construction
platform for a 25m dia., 57m deep
launch shaft for the east TBM, which is
due to start tunnelling in 2019.
At Kirtling Street near Battersea
power station, Tideways central team
is building the main 33m dia. double
drive shaft, using a hydromill to create
42 shaft wall panels 86m deep.The next
task will be a new jetty to receive the
two TBMs later in the year, as well as for
delivery and removal of materials by river.
The third drive site is at Carnwath
Road in Fulham, where the west team
has undertaken significant river-wall
Tideways central team is building a 326m dia., 86m deep launch shaft at Battersea using
diaphragm walling
strengthening ahead of secant wall
piling to create the launch shaft. Like
all Tideways drive sites, it comprises a
number of brownfield land parcels and
has required significant clearance and
demolition.
Drop shaft enabling works
At Blackfriars, the central team has
recently delivered a new 8million river-
boat pier, lift and stairs to connect river
traffic and Blackfriars railway station for
the first time. This has enabled removal
of the existing Blackfriars pier, which in
turn will allow construction of a 24m
dia., 53m deep drop shaft to intercept
the Fleet Main combined sewer outfall
(CSO) one of 34 being picked up by
the new tunnel.
At Victoria Embankment near the
Houses of Parliament, the team has also
moved the floating bar PS Tattershall
Castle 125m downstream to make
room for a 13m dia. shaft to intercept
the Regent Street CSO.
In 2017 there will be noticeable
progress on more than a dozen shaft
sites across London, including delivery
and assembly of TBMs at the west and
central drive sites.
The project remains on schedule for
completion in 2023, when it will provide
a direct 72m dia. link from storm tanks
in Acton in the west to Beckton sewage
treatment works in the east by way of the
recently completed 69km Lee tunnel.
Cutting untreated sewage flow
Together with sewage treatment
works improvements, the Tideway
and Lee tunnels will cut the untreated
sewage which flows into the river each
year from 395 Mt to just 24 Mt.
Reference
Stride P (2016) Super sewer: an introduction to
the Thames Tideway tunnel project in London.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 169(2): 51, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.51.

For further information please contact: Tideway Helpdesk Tel: +448000308080 Email: helpdesk@tideway.london Web: www.tideway.london

100
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.101
BRIEFING:MATERIALS
Four decades of research means building
with bamboo comes of age
Khosrow Ghavami and Jos Jaime Garca, editors of a themed issue of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Structures and Buildings journal on bamboo, say four decades of research and
development mean it can now be safely used instead of steel and concrete in many applications.
After almost four decades of systematic
research and development into bamboo,
there is now sufficient scientific
information to increase its use as a
substitute for the industrial and polluting
materials widely used in the construction
industry.
Multiple benefits
Bamboo grows in abundance in many
parts of the world, especially in tropical
and subtropical regions. Bamboo forests
play an important role in controlling
water cycles, reducing erosion and
sequestering carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
Culms of just 45years of age can be
effectively used in construction and other
engineering products. Furthermore,
an increased use of bamboo does not
pose a risk for bamboo forests on
the contrary, it will create economic
incentives for farmers to develop
bamboo plantations and use the
bamboo shoots for their everyday lives.
An increase in the use of bamboo in
construction will also lead to energy
savings, conservation of resources
and reduction in environmental
Bamboo can be now be used in a wide
variety of construction applications
For further information please contact: Jos Jaime Garca Tel: +5723392420 Email: josejgar@gmail.com Web: www.structuresandbuildings.com
Four decades of research means building
with bamboo comes of age
Ghavami and Garca
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
pollution.The structural efficiency of
bamboo compared to other engineering
materials such as steel and concrete
has already been shown, which may
be attributed to the high strength of
the uniaxial reinforcing fibres and the
hollow cylindrical shape of the culm.
Indeed, following years of research
and development since the 1970s in
South America, there is now sufficient
scientific information to increase the use
of bamboo as a substitute for steel and
concrete in many applications.
Challenges to overcome
However, while bamboo is a fast-
growing, high-yielding and easily
renewable natural resource, engineers
ability to use it in durable construction
would still benefit from further research
and development funding.For example,
the geometrical irregularities of the
raw material pose challenges to the
development of efficient and cost-
effective structural joints.
High water absorption and
susceptibility to fungal and insect
attack are also challenges to overcome.
Bamboo contains hemi-celluloses,
starch, sugar, tannins, certain phenols
and lignin, which can all be attacked by
soluble extractives and limit its durability.
To help overcome these challenges,
the Institution of Civil Engineers
has commissioned a new themed
issue of its Structures and Buildings
journal to present the latest research
and development on bamboo
from around the world. Harihar
and Verhagen (2017), Harries etal.
(2017), Sharma etal. (2017), Richard
etal. (2017a, 2017b), Trujillo etal.
(2017), Lorenzo etal. (2017), Moran
etal. (2017) and Khatib and Nounu
(2017) describe applications and tests
aimed at improving the mechanical
characterisation and standardisation of
bamboo, all of which should help to
ensure its greater usage in construction.
References
Harihar S and Verhagen HJ (2017) Application of
bamboo in mangrove rehabilitation projects.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Structures and Buildings 170(4): 227235,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00039.
Harries KA, Bumstead J, Richard M and Trujillo
D (2017) Geometric and material effects on
bamboo buckling behaviour. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
and Buildings 170(4): 236249, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00018.
Khatib A and Nounu G (2017) Corrugated bamboo
as reinforcement in concrete. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
and Buildings 170(4): 311318, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00067.
Lorenzo R, Lee C, Oliva-Salinas JG and Ontiveros-
Hernandez MJ (2017) BIM Bamboo: a digital
design framework for bamboo culms.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Structures and Buildings 170(4): 295302,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00091.
Moran R, Ghavami K and Garca JJ (2017) A new
method to measure the axial and shear moduli
of bamboo. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Structures and Buildings 170(4): 303
310, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00045.
Richard MJ, Gottron J, Harries KA and Ghavami K
(2017a) Experimental evaluation of longitudinal
splitting of bamboo flexural components.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Structures and Buildings 170(4): 265274,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00072.
Richard MJ, Kassabian PE and Schulze-Ehring
HS (2017b) Bamboo active school: structural
design and material testing. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
and Buildings 170(4): 275283, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00070.
Sharma B, Bauer H, Schickhofer G and Ramage
MH (2017) Mechanical characterisation of
structural laminated bamboo. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures
and Buildings 170(4): 250264, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jstbu.16.00061.
Trujillo D, Jangra S and Gibson JM (2017) Flexural
properties as a basis for bamboo strength
grading. Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers Structures and Buildings
170(4): 284294, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jstbu.16.00084.
101
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.102
BRIEFING:TRAINING
New body set to approve construction
degree apprenticeships in the UK
The UKs new independent Institute for Apprenticeships was launched in April 2017 to ensure
the quality of apprenticeships including a number of proposed degree apprenticeships for
construction professionals. David Oloke of the University of Wolverhampton provides an update.
Regulation of apprenticeships in
Britain dates back to the sixteenth
century, with the Statute of Artificers
1563 setting out the training rules
for mediaeval craft guilds.It was
replaced by the less-restrictive Health
and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802
and, a century and a half later,
apprenticeships peaked at around
350000 a year.
A dramatic decline followed, resulting
in a series of government initiatives
to address perceived shortcomings
by both employers and employees.
These included the formation of
industrial training boards, such as the
Construction Industry Training Board in
1964.
Higher apprenticeships equivalent
to foundation degrees or above
were introduced in 2010 and degree
apprenticeships followed in 2015.
Overall, the initiatives have been a
success, with apprenticeships rising to a
record of 900000 last year.
A collaborative approach
The government remains keen to
put employers at the centre of the
process of designing and delivering
apprenticeships, particularly the new
degree apprenticeships.The idea is that
these are co-designed by professional
bodies such as the Institution of
Civil Engineers (ICE), employers and
universities.
The organisations join forces to
become an employer-led trailblazer
group for specific occupational
standards, which are now regulated
by the new independent Institute for
Apprenticeships that was launched
in April 2017.The standards, once
For more information please contact: David Oloke Tel: +447789264899 Email: david@pcc-ltd.net Web: w
102
New body set to approve construction
degree apprenticeships in the UK
Oloke
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
The ICE-supported civil engineering site
management degree apprenticeship is
expected to get approval shortly
approved, will become applicable for
delivery and assessment of the specific
occupation.
For example, the civil engineering
site management degree
apprenticeship proposed by ICE and
50 other employers and institutions
in 2014 is currently awaiting final
approval. This collaborative approach
facilitates the design of apprenticeships
that meet the requirements of ICE,
employers and training providers as
well as the apprentices themselves.It
is one of a number of construction-
related degree apprenticeships in the
pipeline.
Terms and funding
Construction degree apprentices
will have a contract of employment
and will be employees of the company
which take them on. They must be
paid at least the appropriate rate of
the minimum wage for the duration of
their apprenticeship. Both the degree
apprentice and the employer also sign
an apprenticeship agreement. This
identifies the skill, trade or occupation
for which the apprentice is being
trained and confirms the particular
standard that the apprentice is
following.
Apprentices must also complete
a minimum 20% structured and
relevant off-the-job training for at
least 12months before assessment.
Offthejob training can be delivered
at the normal place of work but not as
part of normal working duties.
To enhance apprenticeship funding,
employers with a payroll of over
3million must now pay a 05%
levy, less an annual allowance and
plus a 10% government top-up, into
an online apprenticeship account.
This ring-fenced amount will be
redeemable against implementation
of each employers apprenticeship
training programmes, including degree
apprenticeships.
Degree apprenticeships are available
to existing staff within the business and
also to new employees joining directly
from school effectively offering them
a route to graduation and professional
qualification without incurring
university tuition fees.
Smaller non-levied employers can
access up to 90% funding for degree
apprenticeships.
References
Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802.42
George III. Chapter 73.His Majestys Stationery
Office, London, UK.
Statute of Artificers 1563.5 Elizabeth I. Chapter 4.
Her Majestys Stationery Office, London, UK.
 ww.gov.uk/government/organisations/
institute-for-apprenticeships
Call for Papers

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Civil Engineering
Panel Chair and Honorary Editor: Emma Kent, Cundall Johnston & Partners LLP, UK

Civil Engineering, indexed Why Publish with ICE?

in Web of Science, is the
ICEs flagship journal.
Practical and diverse in its scope,
Civil Engineering publishes overview
papers for the non-specialist on any
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today. Multi-disciplined in approach,
topics range from landmark
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Civil Engineering gives a wide-
ranging insight into the engineering
profession with full-colour papers
and articles on topics across the
spectrum of civil engineering activity,
topics range from landmark projects to debates on philosophical, ethical,
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ICE Publishing has been uniting research and
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authors will be invited to receive their prize at a ceremony at ICE in London.
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Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.104
MONITOR:BOOKS
Books
REVIEWS
Doing it
differently:
systems for
rethinking
infrastructure
(2nd ed.)
by David Blockley
and Patrick Godfrey,
published by ICE
Publishing, 2017, 45, reviewed by
Philippe Bouillard, Universit Libre de
Bruxelles, Belgium
Rather than focusing on problem-
solving in specific situations, the authors
of this second edition say it is all about
systems thinking fostering a culture
of inclusive and multi-disciplinary co-
operation.The current challenges of the
struggling global economy and climate
and social change make this approach
seem more appropriate than ever.
The authors offer us three routes
through their book: identifying the
need to do it differently; thinking
differently; and making a difference.
More importantly, the book helps us to
recognise and apprehend complexity, with
a strong sensitivity to risks and resilience.It
also shows that digital technology requires
a systems approach to be fully efficient.
Unlike the first edition published in
2000, which was targeted at construction
professionals, this second edition would
be useful for anyone interested in
infrastructure.It contains many useful
tools and mind maps that can make
change possible, and takes the reader on
an inspirational learning journey.
Precast concrete
structures (2nd
ed.)
by Kim Elliott,
published by CRC
Press Taylor & Francis
Group, 2016, 6399,
reviewed by Nick
Gorst, British Precast,
UK
The second edition of this book provides
comprehensive guidance for the analysis
and design of precast concrete structures
104
Monitor: Books
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
and is based on the Eurocodes, in particular
Basis of Structural Design, 1 and 2 and,
where relevant, EN product standards.
It starts with a discussion of the
materials used in precast concrete, briefly
covers frame analysis and then moves
on to the detailed design of structural
elements before finishing off with a design
exercise for a ten-storey precast frame.
The author uses detailed worked
examples throughout the book,
together with references to the relevant
clauses in the design codes, to explain
frame stability and the design of
conventionally reinforced and prestressed
precast concrete elements, composite
construction and joints and connections.
The book is also well illustrated with
diagrams and photographs to increase
the readers level of understanding of
both the design and the construction of
precast concrete multi-storey buildings.
The author states it is intended for,
undergraduate, postgraduate and
young structural engineers. However,
he has achieved far more I believe the
book will be a worldwide reference for
young and experienced engineers alike
as well as academics.
Tall building
design steel,
concrete, and
composite
systems
by Bungale Taranath,
published by
CRC Press, 2016,
9120, reviewed
by David Oloke, Progressive Concept
Consultancy, UK
This is a very comprehensive account
of the principles involved in the design of
tall buildings. Organised in 13 chapters,
the book presents information on key
aspects of tall buildings in the context of
loading, analysis and design.
After five chapters on loading, chapter
six introduces performance-based design;
an evolving concept that seeks to provide
designers and regulators with a more
systematic way of evaluating alternative
design options.
Also covered are evaluation of the
structural form and a much-needed
systematic approach to validating
computer results and conducting stability
checks.The last two chapters focus on
construction materials and composite
construction.
The book is very practical, easy to read
and simple to understand. Though based
mostly on US codes, the author has
made a concerted effort to ensure the
principles are applicable to most other
design codes.
The book will be a very relevant text
for professionals involved in the design
of tall buildings and also post-graduate
studentsundertaking modules or
research related to high-rise buildings.
Bryan Donkin:
the very civil
engineer 1768
1855
by Maureen
Greenland and
Russ Day, published
by Phillimore
Book Publishing,
2016, 25, reviewed by John Carroll,
Highways England
I have to admit that until I read this
Bryan Donkin was not in my list of
notable civil engineers. This book not
only chronicles the life of an incredible
engineer but also the way that he
enhanced the lives of his contemporaries,
be they high society or working class.
It chronicles his early interest in
the practical sciences, with which he
entertained his childhood friends, to his
interfaces with Marc and Isambard Brunel,
Thomas Telford and Charles Babbage.
His engineering interests ranged from
improving paper-making machines to
a patent for a steel nib pen, use of tin
cans to preserve food and working with
Telford on the Caledonian Canal and
Menai Bridge.
For an insight into what a civil
engineer can achieve in helping his
fellow humans, this book provides
an excellent read with many good
contemporary illustrations.
Civil Engineering Monitor: Books
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017

MONITOR:BOOKS

NEW BOOKS

The ICE Library maintains one of the most comprehensive collections of civil engineering books in the
world, including all titles from ICE Publishing (shown in bold below).New books received in the past
3months include the following.
4D hyper-local: a cultural tool kit for the open source city L Bullivant 2499
A new dynamic 2: effective systems in a circular economy Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2400
A whole-system approach to high-performance green buildings D Strong and V Burrows 11100
Bridges of Dublin: the remarkable story of Dublins Liffey bridges A Black and M Barry 1995
Construction site safety GE 700/17 CITB 9120
Design manual for bicycle traffic Crow 12900
Design of joints in steel structures Eurocode 3: design of steel structures; Part 1-8 Design of joints ECCS / J Jaspart and K Weynaud 5500
Doing it differently: systems for rethinking infrastructure (2nd ed.) D Blockley and P Godfrey 4500
Environmental hazards methodologies for risk assessment and management N Dalezios 14500
Fundamentals of structural analysis (5th ed.) C Uang, J Lanning and A Gilbert 18999
Glass in engineering science Volume 1: optical birefringence in glass J Hemsley 9500
Glass in engineering science Volume 2: glass under load J Hemsley 9500
Health, safety and environment test for managers and professionals (6th ed.) CITB 1590
Hydrology: principles and processes M Robinson and R C Ward 5900
Increasing resilience to climate variability and change: the roles of infrastructure and governance in the C Tortajada 7450
context of adaptation
Irish stone bridges (new ed.) P OKeeffe 3500
Lean construction: practical insights for innovative construction management A Lange 4999
Mediation: an AZ guide S Walker 1999
Plate and shell structures: selected analytical and finite element solutions M Radwanska etal. 8895
Pollution and the atmosphere: designs for reduced emissions M Ragazzi 9500
Practical guide to rock tunnelling D Brox 11000
Principles of geotechnical engineering (9th ed.) K Sobhan and B Das 6999
Procurement and supply chain management (9th ed.) K Lysons and B Farrington 5999
Renewable energy engineering N Jenkins and J Ekanayake 3500
Resilience engineering: models and analysis N Attoh-Okine 5999
Rock mechanics and engineering Volume 3: analysis, modeling and design X Feng 15500
Rock mechanics and engineering Volume 5: surface and underground projects X Feng 15500
Smart civil structures Y Xu and J He 10800
Structural mechanics: modelling and analysis of frames and trusses K Olsson and O Dahlblom 4395
Taming the flood: rivers, wetlands and the centuries-old battle against flooding (2nd ed.) J Purseglove 1299
The Building Regulations explained and illustrated (14th ed.) M Billington 3995
The fabric formwork book: methods for building new architectural and structural forms in concrete M West 3999
The Mersey road tunnels: the first eighty years in pictures P Jackson-Lee 1299
The profiteers: Bechtel and the men who built the world S Denton 2500
The tunnel through time: a new route for an old London journey G Tindall 999
Total construction management: lean quality in construction project delivery J Oakland 4599
Understanding tall buildings: a theory of placemaking K Al-Kodmany 3499
Unsteady flow in open channels J Battjes and R Jan Labeur 4499
Zero waste engineering: a new era of sustainable technology development M Islam 19900

All books can be borrowed from the ICE Members Resource Hub on the second floor of 1 Great George Street, London, SW1P 3AA from
9.15 am to 5.30 pm, Monday to Friday.ICE Publishing titles can also be purchased from the ICE Members Resource Hub or ordered by
calling +441892832299, emailing orders@icepublishing.com or by visiting www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/books.

105
 Monuments of
Modern Engineering
In the nearly two centuries since
the first issue of Transactions of
the Institution of Civil Engineers
was published in 1836, the ICE has
published some of the most important
work in the fields of civil engineering
and construction.

ICE Publishing selected ten papers, to illustrate

the richness of that scholarship, as it applies
to many of the great engineering projects of
modern times; projects designed and built,
usually by ICE members, all over the world.
The papers are now free to read in perpetuity.
n Stadium Australia
n The Statue of Liberty, USA
n Panama Canal
n Akashi-Kakyo Bridge, Japan
n Three Gorges Project, China
n Kolkatas Brick Sewers, India
n Hong Kong Airport
n Four Rivers Project, Korea
n The Suez Canal, Egypt
n The Channel Tunnel, France

Visit this page to download the free papers:

www.icevirtuallibrary.com/page/ice-about/marquee-projects
www.icebookshop.com

The Railway Metropolis:

How planners, politicians and developers
shaped modern London
Michael Schabas, First Class Partnerships (FCP)

Description
The Railway Metropolis describes the fascinating story of how
planners, politicians and developers have shaped Londons
www.ICEbookshop.com

railways. Focusing on the new lines that have been added since
The Railway Metropolis

The Railway Metropolis

How planners, politicians and developers shaped modern London
The Railway Metropolis
How planners, politicians and developers shaped modern London
1980, the author considers the reasons why they were built,
Michael Schabas

Michael Schabas

whether they have proved worthwhile and what lessons can be

The Railway Metropolis describes the fascinating story of how planners, politicians and developers have shaped Londons
railways. Focusing on the new lines that have been added since 1980 the author considers the reasons why they were built,
whether they have proved worthwhile and what lessons can be learnt. Based upon extensive research, the book explains

learnt. Based upon extensive research, the book explains the

the planning, technology choice, design and funding decisions which have shaped Londons rail network, and the changing
operating practices, fares and management which have been equally critical to the modernisation of Londons transport system.

The book covers the period from the election of a Conservative Government in 1979 through to the present day and six lines
which transformed London: Docklands Light Railway, Jubilee Line Extension, High Speed One, Overground, Thameslink

planning, technology choice, design and funding decisions that

and Crossrail. The author has drawn upon extensive industry experience as well as public and private documents, archives,
recollections and interviews with over 50 people that influenced the rebirth of Londons railways to arrive at an authoritative
analysis.

The Railway Metropolis is a compulsory read for all those involved in the industry, including engineers, architects, city

have shaped Londons rail network, and the changing operating

planners, railway operators and politicians, and will also appeal to those with a general interest in the history and development
of Londons rail network. Written in an accessible and engaging style, and fully illustrated throughout, the book presents a
valuable perspective on why it was done the way it was, the results and whether we might be able to learn how to do it better.

practices, fares and management that have been equally critical

Schabas

to the modernisation of Londons transport system.

The book covers the period from the election of a Conservative
Government in 1979 through to the present day and six lines
that transformed London: Docklands Light Railway, Jubilee
Line Extension, High Speed One, Overground, Thameslink
Price: : 45.00/$75.00
and Crossrail. The author has drawn upon extensive industry
ISBN: 9780727761804
experience as well as public and private documents, archives,
recollections and interviews with more than 50 people who Format: Hardbound
influenced the rebirth of Londons railways to arrive at an Publish Date: December 2016
authoritative analysis. Page Size: 276 x 219mm
The Railway Metropolis is an essential read for all those involved Number of Pages: 296
in the industry, including engineers, architects, city planners,
railway operators and politicians, and it will also appeal to
those with a general interest in the history and development of To order
Londons rail network. Written in an accessible and engaging Online: www.icebookshop.com
style, and fully illustrated throughout, the book presents a Email: orders@icepublishing.com
valuable perspective on why things were done the way they were, Phone: +44(0) 1892 83 72 72
the results and whether we can learn how to do them better.
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.3.108
MONITOR:PROCEEDINGS
ICE Proceedings
In addition to Civil Engineering, ICE Proceedings includes 18 specialist journals. Papers and articles
published in the most recent issues are listed here. Summaries of all these and other papers and articles
published can be read free in the ICE Virtual Library at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals.
Bridge Engineering
170, No.BE2, June 2017, 91156
PAPERS
Full-scale testing to failure of a
steel truss railway bridge
J.Hggstrm, T.Blanksvrd, P.Collin
and Y.Tu
Walton Bridge a new arch bridge over the
River Thames, UK
C.R.Hendy, D.A.Smith and M.Chiarello
Modelling and testing of a historic steel
suspension footbridge in Ireland
D.ODonnell, R.Wright, M.OByrne, A.Sadhu,
F.Edwards Murphy, P.Cahill, D.Kelliher, B.Ghosh,
F.Schoefs, A.Mathewson, E.Popovici and
V.Pakrashi
Steel bridge deterioration data in Japan and
modelling
T.Tamakoshi, M.Shirato and T.Kamada
Heavy-cargo passage on arch bridges by
matching attached loads
L.Simeng and Z.Chen
Construction Materials
Asphalts
170, No.CM4, August 2017,
163232
PAPERS
Rutting analysis of modified
asphalt concrete pavements
R.Imaninasab and B.Bakhshi
Disproving bottom-up fatigue cracking in well-
constructed asphalt pavements
R.N.Hunter
Effect of cross-linkers on the performance of
polyethylene-modified asphalt pavements
F.Moghadas Nejad, R.Zarroodi and K.Naderi
Impact of binder on properties of foamed
bituminous mixtures
S.S.Kar, A.K.Swamy, D.Tiwari and P.K.Jain
Effect of binder in recycled asphalt on cold-mix
pavements
C.Ojum and N.Thom
Inclusion of design variability in flexible
highway pavement life-cycle cost analysis
P.Dalla Valle and N.Thom
Deformation of asphalt surfacings under
stationary and slow-moving traffic
I.Artamendi, B.Allen and P.Phillips
Energy
170, No.EN3, August 2017, 91134
PAPERS
Analysis of ground-source heat
pumps in north-of-England homes
A.Ali, M.Mohamed, M.Abdel-Aal,
A.Schellart and S.Tait
108
Monitor: ICE Proceedings
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
Structural condition monitoring of wind Sustainable water management in the
turbine foundations Anthropocene
X.Bai, M.He, R.Ma and D.Huang M.Muller
Energy-efficient slum house using alternative Water resource vulnerability: simulation and
materials optimisation models
R.V.Ralegaonkar, H.R.Gavali, V.V.Sakhare, L.Hoang and S.Dessai
A.J.Puppala and P.B.Aswath The threat of drier summers to agriculture and
the environment in eastern England
D.Evans
Engineering and
Computational Mechanics
Forensic Engineering
170, No.EM2, June 2017, 4788
PAPERS Climate hazards for resilience
One-dimensional and two- 170, No.FE2, May 2017, 47107
dimensional GreenNaghdi PAPERS
equations for sloshing in shallow basins Electrical system resilience: a
M.R.Jalali and A.Borthwick forensic analysis of the blackout
Seismic performance and force transfer in Lancaster, UK
of wide beamcolumn joints in concrete R.Kemp
buildings Bamboo structures as a resilient erosion
S.H.Luk and J.S.Kuang control measure
G.Tardio, S.B.Mickovski, A.Stokes and
S.Devkota
Climate change: are building codes keeping
Engineering History and up? A case study on hurricanes in the
Heritage Caribbean
E.C.Garsaball and H.Markov
170, No.EH2, May 2017, 4792 A review of approaches to assessing scour
PAPERS current velocity around existing structures
Engineers approach to A.Aje and A.Khattab
conservation
S.Fernandez
Understanding the behaviour of wrought-
iron riveted assemblies: manufacture and Geotechnical Engineering
testing
170, No.GE4, August 2017,
L.Gallegos Mayorga, S.Sire, M.Ragueneau and
299392
B.Plu
PAPERS
Civil engineering heritage: country profile
Shaft resistance of bored piles
England
socketed in Malaysian granite
B.Addis and J.MIller
R.S.N.S.Raja Shoib, A.S.A.Rashid and
Assessing riveted connections to Eurocode 3
D.J.Armaghani
D.Gent and A.Ianakiev
Effect of organic matter in soft soils on the
effectiveness of preloading for foundations
P.J.d. Venda Oliveira, A.F.V.Vieira and
Engineering A.A.S.Correia
Monotonic and cyclic lateral tests on driven
Sustainability piles in Chalk
Sustainable adaptation part 1 F.Ciavaglia, J.Carey and A.Diambra
170, No.ES4, August 2017, Investigation into factors affecting jacking
130180 force: a case study
PAPERS W.-C.Cheng, J.C.Ni, J.S.-L.Shen and
New climate change rainfall estimates for H.W.Huang
sustainable drainage Construction dewatering in Chalk
M.Dale, B.Luck, H.J.Fowler, S.Blenkinsop, E.Gill, M.Preene and T.O.L.Roberts
J.Bennett, E.Kendon and S.Chan Strength of a stabilised soil reinforced with
Adapting railways to provide resilience and steel fibres
sustainability A.A.S.Correia, P.J.d. Venda Oliveira,
J.Armstrong, J.Preston and I.Hood J.M.N.P.C.Teles and A.M.G.Pedro
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3 August 2017
MONITOR:PROCEEDINGS
Ground Improvement
170, No.GI2, May 2017, 61122
PAPERS
Improving the geotechnical
properties of soft clay with nano-
silica particles
F.Changizi and A.Haddad
Mitigating the seismic settlement of foundations
on sand by ground improvement techniques
H.Ahmadi, A.Eslami and M.Arabani
Effect of soil type on nail pull-out resistance
A.Shahraki Ghadimi, A.Ghanbari, M.Sabermahani
and M.Yazdani
Finite-element and limit equilibrium analyses
of a stabilised natural high slope
X.Wu, H.El Naggar and A.J.Valsangkar
Durability of partial saturation to counteract
liquefaction
A.Zeybek and G.S.P.Madabhushi
Reducing the hydraulic erosion of sand using
microbial-induced carbonate precipitation
M.Amin, S.M.A.Zomorodian and B.C.OKelly
Management,
Procurement and Law
170, No.MP3, June 2017, 101143
PAPERS
Defining social value in the UK
construction industry
T.Cartigny and W.Lord
Trust in collaborative construction
procurement strategies
J.Challender
Contract structure for nuclear power projects
R.Bird and S.Wearne
The selection of expert witnesses
J.Mullen
Maritime Engineering
169, No.MA4, December 2016,
141187
PAPERS
An earthquake-event-based
method for mapping tsunami
hazards
M.A.Jaimes, E.Reinoso, M.Ordaz, R.Silva,
E.Mendoza, B.Huerta, G.Durn, X.Chvez and
J.C.Rodrguez
Improving the prediction of scour around
submarine pipelines
Z.Zhang, B.Shi, Y.Guo and D.Chen
Numerical test for single concrete armour layer
on breakwaters
E.Anastasaki, J.-P.Latham and J.Xiang
Municipal Engineer
170, No.ME2, June 2017, 63124
PAPERS
Rapid visual screening of
earthquake-susceptible buildings
P.Mukhopadhyay and S.C.Dutta
Earthquake reconstruction lessons from Iran
R.Akbari, S.A.Zareei and Y.Rafiei
In addition to substantial discounts on ICE journal subscriptions, ICE members can also subscribe to the ICE Virtual
Journal, offering access to 15 papers from any volume for 3750. Visit www.ice.org.uk/my-ice for more information
Monitor: ICE Proceedings
Parametric investigation in Malaysian separate
sewer systems
H.T.Yap, S.K.Ngien, N.B.Othman, D.J.Hughes, T.Ridler and N.Mallinson
N.A.B.A.A.Ghani and N.B.A.Rahman
Unsealed joints in urban concrete pavements
for buses
M.Pradena and M.Diaz
Barriers to building information modelling in
the Chinese construction industry
H.Li, S.T.Thomas Ng, M.Skitmore, X.Zhang and
Z.Jin
Delivering the Exe Estuary Trail cycling and
walking route, UK
A.Kanani and R.North
Smart Infrastructure and
Construction
170, No. SC1, March 2017, 116
PAPER
Smart infrastructure: an emerging
frontier for multidisciplinary
F.Hooimeijer and L.Tummers
research
R. I. Ogie, P. Perez and V. Dignum
Structures and Buildings
170, No.SB7, July 2017, 463540
PAPERS
Stressstrain model for tie-
confined self-curing self-
compacting concrete
P.Swamy Naga Ratna Giri, G.Rajesh Kumar,
M.SriRama Chand and P.Rathish Kumar
Stirrup design for critical lengths of reinforced-
concrete structural members
M.D.Kotsovos
Use of inclined studs in steel-plateconcrete
composite walls with shear and axial loading
S.G.Cho and S.-T.Yi
Behaviour of non-seismic detailed reinforced-
concrete beamcolumn connections
K.-K.Choi, N.-H.Dinh and J.-C.Kim
Seismic retrofit of slab-on-girder steel bridges
M.Jamshidi and T.A.Majid
Improving the first-order structural reliability
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M.A.Shayanfar, M.A.Barkhordari, M.Barkhori
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170, No.WM4, August 2017,
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170, No.TR4, August 2017,
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S.Jin, L.Shen, M.Liu and D.Ma
Method for management of an airport security
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A.Kierzkowski
Development of a very light rail vehicle
J.Winnett, A.Hoffrichter, A.Iraklis, A.McGordon,
Urban Design and
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143188
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Making urban design a public participatory
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H.Nadeem, N.Z.Habib, N.C.Aun, S.E.Zoorob,
Z.Mustaffa, R.Mesney and S.Suubitaa
A systematic review of food losses and food
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P.van der Werf and J.A.Gilliland
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M.Kelly and D.Dowd
Environmental benefits and recycling
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M.A.Imteaz, N.Altheeb, A.Arulrajah,
S.Horpibulsuk and A.Ahsan
Water Management
163216
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Optimisation of wastewater
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B.Mishukov and E.Smirnova
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A.Sulis
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J.Brady and N.F.Gray
Periodic and random components of water
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J.Almedeij and S.Alotaibi
Scale and flow boundary effects for air-
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K.Tatan
109
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Civil Engineering
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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Pages 113119 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00023
Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas Paper 1600023
Received 08/06/2016 Accepted 12/09/2016
remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Published online 20/10/2016
Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li Keywords: bridges / history / shallow foundations

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas

remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
1 Man Zhou PhD 3 Lin An PhD
Doctoral candidate, College of Civil Engineering, Southeast Associate Professor, Department of Civil Earth Resources
University, Nanjing, China and Department of Civil Earth Resources Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan 4 Xiaoming Zhang MS
2 Jiandong Zhang PhD Postgraduate student, College of Civil Engineering, Southeast
Design Team Leader, Senior Engineer, Professor of College of Civil University, Nanjing, China
Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Deputy Chief 5 Tao Li PhD
Engineer of Jiangsu Transportation Institute, Nanjing, China
Doctoral candidate, College of Civil Engineering, Southeast
University, Nanjing, China

1 2 3 4 5

The 1400-year-old Zhaozhou Bridge in China is celebrated as the largest and oldest open-spandrel stone-
arched bridge in the world. Stone arch bridges with perforated spandrels were a major innovation in the
history of bridge engineering, reducing structural weight and horizontal loading from flood flows.In this
paper, the structural characteristics and construction technology of this remarkable bridge are introduced
through an extensive literature survey and field investigations.It also reports on an analysis of the bridges
mechanical properties to provide an explanation as to why the bridge has remained standing for more than
1400 years despite numerous wars, floods and earthquakes.An analytical computational method is employed
to analyse the influence of the shoulder arch on the permanent-loaded compression line of the bridge. Finally,
two three-dimensional finite-element models are established to simulate the dynamic characteristics of the
bridge, and the effect of the shoulder arch on its seismic performance is evaluated by modal analysis.

Notation The oldest surviving example is the 37m main span Zhaozhou
Bridge across the Xiaohe River in Zhaou County, Hebei Province,
h height of the arch axis China (Figure1). Built over 1400 years ago, it also known as the Anji
L span of the arch axis Bridge, Chiao Shui Bridge and Great Stone Bridge and is currently
N axial compression of arbitrary cross-section used as a pedestrian crossing. Designed by a craftsman named Li
Nc horizontal force in the apex of the arch Chun, the bridge was constructed in the Kaihuang period (595605).
q(x) distribution of the dead load Zhaouzhou Bridge is also the worlds oldest segmental arch
U vertical displacement stone bridge with open spandrels. In Europe, the earliest open-
x horizontal direction spandrel arch bridges are those in France and Luxemburg, but they
y vertical direction were built some 1100 years later (Huang etal., 1981).
angle between the tangent of the arch axis and the horizontal The structures innovative segmental arch repudiated the
axis conventional wisdom that a semi-circular arch was necessary
to transfer the weight of a bridge downwards to where the arch
tangentially meets the pier. In addition, the double openings at
1. Introduction each end of the arch spandrel lighten the weight of the bridge and
allow flood flows to pass through the structure rather than pressing
With the advantages of readily available materials and strong against it.
durability, stone arch bridges were widely used before steel and According to historical records (Chen, 1985; Li, 1980; Luo,
concrete bridges were introduced. Chinese stone arch bridge building 1993), the bridge has survived at least eight wars, ten major floods
predates the Sui dynasty (581618) (Mao, 1986), but is notable for and numerous earthquakes, the most recent being the 76 magnitude
the pioneering use of segmental (as opposed to semi-circular) arches. Xingtai earthquake in 1966. However, the main structure remains

113
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Figure 1.The Zhaozhou Bridge has survived over 1400 years of wars,
floods and earthquakes (by crazlei (Flickr: ); CC BY 2.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), by way of Wikimedia Commons)
intact, with only the ornamental railings having been replaced
every few centuries.
The Zhaozhou Bridge was designated as an international
historic civil engineering landmark by the American Society of
Civil Engineers in 1991. Many Chinese scholars have studied the
history and mechanical properties of the bridge (Au et al., 2003;
Clemente et al., 1995; Drosopoulos et al., 2006; Heyman, 1969,
1982; Liu and Wang, 2001; Qian, 1987). However, these studies
do not include a detailed review of the bridges construction, and
few have paid attention to the effect of the shoulder arches on the
bridges static and dynamic performance.
This paper therefore describes the construction of the Zhaozhou
Bridge in detail, based on historical documents, and explores its
mechanical properties to provide an explanation of how the bridge
has remained standing for nearly one and a half millennia.
2. Constructiontechnology
The Zhaozhou Bridge is approximately 508m long with a
central span of 370m.It stands 723m tall and has a width of 9m watererosion instead of a foundation tosupportthe large load from
at the middle part and 96m near the arch spring.The arch covers
114
Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
a circular segment of less than half of a semi-circle (83), and
with a radius of 278m, it has a rise-to-span ratio of approximately
0195 (72 to 370m), as shown in Figure 2(a). There are two
smaller symmetrical arches at each end with spans of 38m and
29m (Figure 2(b)). This form of construction not only requires
less building material but also makes sluicing during the flood
season much easier.
2.1. Abutment and foundation
The bridge abutment foundation is a 96m by 55m rectangle
with a thickness of only 16m.It is built with five courses of stone
(Figure 2(c)) and rests on stable clay. Such a large stone-arched
bridge, built on soft ground and with such a small foundation, is
rarely seen in the world. Normally, the shallow arch of the Zhaozhou
Bridge would necessitate a larger abutment and foundation.
Many experts previously speculated that the abutment of
the bridge must have a long and deep foundation or even a pile
foundation. In 1933, when investigating the abutment of the
Zhaozhou Bridge, the well-known Chinese architect Liang Sicheng
considered the shallow foundation as a protective wall against
the superstructure (Liang, 2001).
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li

(a) (b)
r =1.2 m
50.82 m R =2.3 m
6.5 % 6.5 %

2.85 m 3.81 m
7.23 m
(c)
37.02 m

1.549 m

9.6 m
5m

Figure 2.The Zhaozhou Bridge (a) overall dimensions;

(b)openspandrel structure; (c) abutment (units in m)

However, engineers later found that the foundation of the
Zhaozhou Bridge was really only 16m thick, with an embedment
depth of about 2m. The foundation sits directly on alluvial
sediments composed of light loam and mild clay (BUCA,
1979).The ground is steady and firm and can withstand the load of
the bridge.To prevent displacement of the arch foot, the abutment
and arch are connected with iron columns, and to ensure reliability
of the abutment, wooden stakes were driven into the ground to
reduce verticalsettlement. Indeed, the abutments have settled only
approximately50mm over the years.In addition, protective walls
were built beside the abutments to protect the bridge from flood
flows.
2.2 Open-spandrel arch
The greatest scientific contribution of the Zhaozhou Bridge is
the open-spandrel design, as shown in Figure2(b).On the two sides
of the central arch are four symmetrical small arches, which not
only expand the water-discharge channel and reduce construction
material but also reduce the weight of the bridge and increase its
stability.
The design saved approximately 180m3 of stone and reduced the
weight of the structure by 700t (Liu and Wang, 2001). This was
vital because of the low rise-to-span ratio and the large forces on
the abutments. In addition, the drainage area was increased by
165%, thereby reducing the flood forces on the structure of the
bridge.
The smaller arches transmit the load of the deck down to the
main arch. They allow the bridge deck to be nearly level, with
footpaths for pedestrians on both sides and a road for carriages and
carts in the middle.The soffit of the arch was also sufficiently high
to allow boats to pass through easily.
From a mechanical point of view, the shoulder arch also influences
the load distribution and load paths in the bridge body, making the
permanent-loaded compression line closer to the original arch axis
line, so that there is only a small tension stress in the main arch and
the compressive strength of the stone is fully used.
2.3 Central arch
The central arch comprises 28 vertical thin slabs arranged in
the longitudinal direction. Each one is 034m wide and capable

(a) (c) Tension rod (d)

Central arch
Slender-waisted
iron

Limestone

(e)
9.0 m
1.3 m Limestone
(b)
Iron tension
rods
0.34 28 m

Iron tension rod

Figure 3. Central arch of the Zhaozhou Bridge (units in m)

115
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
of standing upright, which facilitated construction work and later
repairs (Figure3(a)).The construction allows the arch to adjust
to shifts in its supports and prevents the bridge from collapsing
even when a segment of the arch breaks.
It is worth noting that the width of the arch around the
springing is 06m wider than that of the top section, with the
width of the arch narrowing gradually from the bottom up to
increase the whole lateral stability of the Zhaozhou Bridge. In
addition, five iron tension rods were used to improve the
transverse rigidity of the bridge (indicated in Figures 3(b) and
3(c)). This is similar to the transverse prestressing technique in
modern bridge design.
The bonding between the arch stones is precise.In addition to
mortar between the stones, iron cramps have been used to help
bind them together (indicated in Figure3(d)). Additionally, each
side of the arch stones is scored to increase the friction between
them.
3. Permanent-loaded compression line
3.1 The concept of the permanent-loaded compression
line
In stone arch bridges, the tensile stress in the arches can be
eliminated through design. The permanent-loaded compression
line for arches is defined as the line of the points of the resultant
forces under a dead load in each cross-section. The rational arch
axis curve under dead load should be close to the thrust line to
enable full utilisation of the compressive strength of the stones.
From a structural mechanics perspective, if the clear span of
the arch bridge L and the rise of the arch h are given, the shape
of the thrust line under dead load depends on the distribution
of the load q(x). As shown in Figure 4, there would be only a
horizontal force Nc in the apex of the arch in the permanent-
loaded compression line. In general, the arch bridge is right-
and-left symmetrical. Consequently, the left side of the arch is
chosen for analysis.
According to the static equilibrium of the arch segment, the
relation between the inner forces of the arch and the dead load
(a)
y
q(x)
h
0
N N x x
Figure 4. Geometry and statics of an arch segment: (a) thrust line
under a dead load, (b) forces acting on an arch segment. Notation:
q(x) is the distribution of the dead load, h is the height of the arch
axis, L is the span of the arch axis, is the angle between the
116
Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
can be expressed. In addition, the differential equation of the
permanent-loaded compression line and the dead load were
established by calculation. The permanent-loaded compression
line equation can be obtained using standard procedures. The
calculation results of the permanent-loaded compression line of
Zhaozhou Bridge are shown in the following section.
3.2 Calculation of the permanent-loaded compression
line
The dimension of the arch axis of the Zhaozhou Bridge can be
calculated according to ancient records (Qian, 1987): half of the
clear span is 185m; the radius of the arch axis is 278m; the rise of
the arch axis is 70m; the ratio of the rise to the span is 0195; and
the central angle of the arch is 834.
The left part of the arch is adopted as the study subject due to
the structural symmetry of the Zhaozhou Bridge.For simplicity,
the arch is divided into eight segments that are numbered 18, and
the weight of the structure is equivalent to a concentrated force
acting on each section, as shown in Figure 5(a). To investigate
the influence of the two shoulder arches on the permanent-
loaded compression line, another analysis model that fills the
shoulder arches with the same stone material is established, and
the segmental division and load distribution are as shown in
Figure5(b).
The calculated results using the deduced formula of the
permanent-loaded compression line are plotted in Figure 6. The
calculation results show that the permanent-loaded compression
line with a shoulder arch matches well with the actual arch axial
line and is within the arch profile.The relative error of the arch axis
and the permanent-loaded compression line with a shoulder arch is
less than 5%.
However, the permanent-loaded compression line of the
spandrel-filled arch (where the shoulder is assumed to be filled
with the same stone material) deviates far from the arch axial
line, especially near the arch spring. The maximum calculation
deviation can reach 20%. Therefore, the existence of a shoulder
arch can make the permanent-loaded compression line closer to the
actual circular arch axis of the bridge and also greatly reduce the
tension stress in the open-spandrel arch.
(b)
q(x)
N Nc
L/2
tangent of the arch axis and the horizontal axis, Nc is the horizontal
force in the apex of the arch, N is the axial compression of arbitrary
cross-section, x is the horizontal direction and y is the vertical
direction
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li

(a) (b)
y: m y: m
Unit: kN . . Unit: kN . .
107.6 109 4 114 2 107.6 109 4 114 2
147.4 147.4
182.0 .
192 26
103.0 134.3
7 8 7 8
300.0 6 390.2 6
5 5
83.0 4 346.5 4
3 3
2 2

1 1

0 0
4.63 9.25 13.88 18.51 x: m 4.63 9.25 13.88 18.51 x: m

Figure 5. Segmental division and load distribution of the Zhaozhou

Bridge (a) with and (b) without shoulder arch

4. Modal analysis
8.0
4.1 Finite-element models
7.0
The Zhaozhou Bridge experienced many earthquakes throughout
6.0 its history, some of them reaching a magnitude of 76 (Huang and
5.0 Li, 1981). The bridge showed excellent seismic performance, so
Height: m

its dynamic characteristics were analysed in-depth using a three-

4.0
dimensional (3D) solidfinite-elementmodel.Two types of finite-
3.0 element model (open-spandrel arch and spandrel-filled arch)
Arch axis
2.0 Compression line with shoulder arch
were established using Abaqus software, in which the bridge is
Compression line without shoulder arch equivalent to a continuous, isomorphous and elastic material, as
1.0 shown in Figure7.The dimensions of the finite-element models are
0 shown in Figure2.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
The 3D models display the stone arch using eight-node
Span: m
interactional hexahedral elements; a linear stressstrain
relationship was used in the finite-element models to represent
Figure 6. Permanent-loaded compression line of the Zhaozhou the material properties of the bridge.The freedoms of the nodes
Bridge on the bottom and sides of the abutments were constrained. The
material parameters defined in the finite-element models are

(a) (b)

C3D8R C3D8R

Open spandrel Spandrel filled

Integration Integration
point point
C3D8R C3D8R

Figure 7. Finite-element model of the Zhaozhou Bridge:

(a)openspandrel, (b) spandrel filled

117
Civil Engineering Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li

Open-spandrel model Spandrel-filled model

U, magnitude U, magnitude
+1.000 +1.000
+9.167 101 +9.168 101
+8.333 101 +8.334 101
+7.500 101 +7.501 101
+6.667 101 +6.667 101
+5.833 101 +5.834 101
+5.000 101 +5.001 101
+4.167 101 +4.167 101
+3.333 101 +3.334 101
+2.500 101 +2.500 101
+1.667 101 +1.667 101
+8.833 102 +8.834 102
0 0

U, magnitude U, magnitude
+1.081 +1.099
+9.905 101 +1.008
+9.005 101 +9.160 101
+8.104 101 +8.244 101
+7.204 101 +7.328 101
+6.303 101 +6.412 101
+5.403 101 +5.496 101
+4.502 101 +4.580 101
+3.602 101 +3.664 101
+2.701 101 +2.748 101
+1.801 101 +1.832 101
+9.005 102 +9.160 102
0 0

U, magnitude U, magnitude
+1.069 +1.050
+9.802 101 +9.622 101
+8.911 101 +8.748 101
+8.020 101 +7.873 101
+7.129 101 +6.998 101
+6.238 101 +6.123 101
+5.346 101 +5.249 101
+4.455 101 +4.374 101
+3.564 101 +3.499 101
+2.673 101 +2.624 101
+1.782 101 +1.750 101
+8.911 102 +8.748 102
0 0

Figure 8.The first three modes of the two finite-element models.In each
panel, the upper image is the front view and the lower image is the top view.
U denotes the vertical displacement

Mode Open-spandrel model Spandrel-filled model

order
Frequency Vibration Frequency Vibration
1 15988 Overall vertical bending vibration 18241 Overall vertical bending vibration
2 16614 Overall lateral bending vibration 19124 Overall lateral bending vibration
3 20454 Overall wave-like asymmetric vibration 23394 Overall wave-like asymmetric vibration
4 29073 Overall torsion 33024 Overall torsion
5 29644 Local symmetric vibration up and down 35280 Overall lateral bending vibration and local torsion
6 33117 Local asymmetric torsion 38064 Local asymmetric vibration up and down
7 38345 Local asymmetric vibration up and down 47791 Local asymmetric torsion
8 40201 Local anti-symmetric torsion 53150 Local asymmetric vibration up and down
9 48814 Local asymmetric bending and torsion 54727 Local symmetric bending and torsion
10 52247 Local asymmetric wave-like vibration up and down 63104 Local asymmetric wave-like vibration up and down

Table 1. Frequencies and modes of vibration of the Zhaozhou Bridge

using modal analysis

118
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
acquired from the classical literature (Huang and Li, 1981): the
Youngs modulus is 501010 Pa, the Poissons ratio is 017 and the models (open-spandrel model and spandrel-filled model) were
density is 2850kg/m3.
4.2 Frequency analysis and discussion
The first ten natural frequencies and corresponding modes of
the two finite-element models are obtained from modal analysis in
Abaqus, as shown in Figure8 and Table1.
The vibrating forms of the bridge are analysed in Table 1.
Among them, the first three order modals reflect the main vibration
performance of this structure that is most likely to occur in an
earthquake, as shown in Figure 8. Specifically, the first-order
modal shows that overall vertical bending vibration is the principal
mode of the Zhaozhou Bridge, with the principal frequency at
approximately 160 Hz; the second modal is the overall lateral
bending vibration of the bridge, with a corresponding frequency
at 166 Hz; and the third modal shows that the bridge presents
an overall wave-like asymmetric vibration with a frequency of
205Hz.
The low-order vibration shapes of the spandrel-filled model are
in accordance with the open-spandrel model, but the frequency of
the former is larger than that of the latter, which means that the
elastic stiffness of the bridge will increase if the shoulder arch is
filled with stone material. It is thus theoretically possible that a
bridge with a large structural stiffness will absorb more earthquake
energy.
Compared with the spandrel-filled archbridge, the flexible open-
spandrel arch bridge demonstrates better seismic behaviour. It is
worth noting that the first mode of the bridge is the overall vertical
vibration, and its vertical vibration is subject to the restraint
of the abutments that prevent serious amplitude vibration. The
authors consider that this could be the reason why the bridge has
experienced so many earthquakes but still remains intact.
5. Conclusions
Reputed as the worlds oldest, longest and best preserved open-
shoulder stone segmental arch bridge, the Zhaozhou Bridge in
China is one of the greatest historical artefacts in the world.
The design in the open-spandrel style was an unprecedented
technological innovation in bridge construction history that not
only reduces the self-weight but also improves the flood-carrying
capacity. The innovative main arch of the bridge curves to form
a shallow arch rather than the half-circle preferred by Roman
engineers at the time, and the 28 rows of the stone arch are made
of massive limestone wedges that are independently reinforced
with iron.The bridge is a perfect combination of ancient Chinese
architectural art and superb construction techniques, reflecting the
wisdom of ancient craftsmen.
An analytical computational method is employed to analyse
the influence of the shoulder arch on the permanent-loaded
compression line of the bridge. This study shows that the
permanent-loaded compression line with a shoulder arch matches
well with the actual arch axial line. However, the permanent-
loaded compression line of the spandrel-filled arch (where the
shoulder is assumed to be filled with the same stone material)
deviates far from the arch axial line, especially near the arch
springer.
Spanning over 1400 years: Chinas remarkable Zhaozhou Bridge
Zhou, Zhang, An, Zhang and Li
For the modal analysis of the bridge, 3D finite-element
established.The frequency of each vibration mode of the spandrel-
filled model was larger than the corresponding mode of the open-
spandrel model specifically, the elastic stiffness of the bridge will
increase if the shoulder arch is filled with stone material.The first-
order modal shows that the overall vertical bending vibration is the
principal mode of the bridge, and its vertical vibration is subject
to the restraint of the abutments that prevent serious amplitude
vibration.
The modal analysis confirmed that this 1400-year-old structure
does indeed possess good seismic performance.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of the Peoples Republic of China (Grant 51478107).
References
Au FTK, Wang JJ and Liu GD (2003) Construction control of reinforced
concrete arch bridges. Journal of Bridge Engineering 8(1): 3945, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2003)8:1(39).
BUCA (Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture) (1979) Report
on the Abutment and Foundation of Zhaozhou Bridge. Beijing University
of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing, China, Investigation report.
Chen S (1985) Baoke Congbian. Zhonghua Book Company, Beijing, China.
Clemente P, Occhiuzzi A and Raithel A (1995) Limit behavior of stone arch
bridges. Journal of Structural Engineering 121(7): 10451050, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1995)121:7(1045).
Drosopoulos GA, Stavroulakis GE and Massalas CV (2006) Limit analysis of
a single span masonry bridge with unilateral frictional contact interfaces.
Engineering Structures 28(13): 18641873, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
engstruct.2006.03.016.
Heyman J (1969) The safety of masonry arches. International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences 11(4): 363385, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-
7403(69)90070-8.
Heyman J (1982) The Masonry Arch. Ellis Horwood Limited, Halsted Press, UK.
Huang MP and Li JS (1981) Zhaozhou Bridge of China. Shanghai Publisher of
Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.
Li YS (1980) Science and Civilization of China.The Commercial Press (Taiwan)
Limited, Taiwan, China.
Liang SC (2001) A Collection of Liang Sicheng. China Construction Industry
Press, Beijing, China
Liu Y and Wang DJ (2001) Influence of shoulder arch upon structure
strength of Zhaozhou Bridge. Mechanics in Engineering 23(3): 2024.
Luo Y (1993) Chinese Stone Arch Bridges. China Communication Press,
Beijing, China.
Mao YS (1986) Ancient Bridge and Civilisation in China. Beijing Press, Beijing,
China.
Qian LX (1987) New insight into an ancient stone arch bridgeThe Zhao-
Zhou Bridge of 1400 years old. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences
29(12): 831843, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-7403(87)90068-3.
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happy to provide any help or advice you need.
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Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Pages 121126 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00017
Paper 1600017
Received 27/03/2016 Accepted 16/12/2016
Published online 19/01/2017
Keywords: airports/diaphragm & in situ walls/foundations

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest

airside basement at Britains largest airport
1 Haresh Shanghavi MSc, CEng, FICE 3 Rohit Patel BSc, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
Project Director, Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK Formerly Engineering & Quality Director, Balfour Beatty UK, now
Senior Design Manager, DAR Group, Dubai, UAE
2 James Straw MEng, CEng, MICE
Senior Civil Engineer, Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK 4 Derek Winsor BSc, CEng, PE, FICE, FIStructE
Divisional Director, Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK

1 2 3 4

Terminal 2B at Heathrow Airport in London was the largest airside construction project ever undertaken at the UKs
biggest airport. Completed in 2014, it is the first of a series of satellite piers planned for the new Terminal 2 building.
Likened to an iceberg, there is far more to the pier underground than above, with large spaces for passenger circulation,
baggage handling and a future tracked transit system. Thepaper describes the design and construction challenges of
quickly and safely creating such a large basement structure in a live airport environment. Thework involved building
a 2km diaphragm wall, the longest in Europe, and extensive use of temporary ground anchors to free up construction
space. This and other design efficiencies led to substantial savings in excavation and materials, helping to ensure the
project was delivered within programme and budget.

1. Introduction Control tower

Existing T1
UK airport operator Heathrow Airports is investing heavily to
enhance efficiency at Londons Heathrow Airport and improve the Europier
travelling experience for the 73million customers who use it each
T2B phase 1
year. Thelatest new terminal is the 25billion Terminal 2, which T2A phase 1
welcomed its first passengers in June 2014.
The new development incorporates a wide range of civil
engineering works, including a new passenger terminal in place of
the 1955 original, a large satellite pier, a new multi-storey car park T2B phase 2
and redevelopment of landside roads.
This paper focuses on the design and construction challenges Figure 1. Computer model showing location of Heathrow Terminal2B
involved in delivering the vast substructure for the 05km long satellite pier in relation to Terminal 2 and the now-closed Terminal 1
satellite pier. Known as Terminal 2B, it was Heathrows largest
project ever delivered in an operational airside environment.
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Options design
2. Terminal 2B
Scheme design
Heathrow Airports appointed its framework contractor Balfour
Enabling works
Beatty to design and build Terminal 2B in 2008. The civil
and structural engineering design was carried out by Mott Construction
MacDonald.
The 590 million, 6 year project was delivered in two phases.
Phase 1 was completed in 2010, providing an initial four gates, Figure 2. Design and construction timeline for Terminal 2B phase 2
and was temporarily connected to the now-closed 1969 Terminal 1
building by way of the 1995 Europier building (Figure1).
Phase 2, providing a further ten gates and extensive underground
transit and baggage facilities, started in 2010 and was completed in Ferrovial Agroman joint venture. Figure 2 shows the phase 2
2013. Itopened in June 2014 at the same time as the 820million project timeline and Figure3 shows the team organisation for the
main terminal building, which was delivered by a Laing ORourke phase 2 works.

121
Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
Volume 170 Issue CE3 airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor

building and further satellites. To the west of the superstructure

Client under the Kilo taxiway is a passenger and services tunnel, split
Heathrow Airports Ltd into upper and lower levels for arriving and departing passengers.
To the east of the pier, beneath the Lima taxiway connecting
the north and south runways, is space for a transit system
CDM coordinator Contractor Cost control
maintenance depot and provision for tunnels to future satellite
ECH Balfour Beatty Turner Townsend piers. The basement also accommodates part of the baggage-
handling system for the Terminal 2 complex, initially serving
20 million passengers a year and with safeguarded capacity for
up to 30million.
Construction Consultants
Piling and diaphragm wall Civil and structural
Balfour Beatty
Ground Engineering
Mott MacDonald Ltd
3. Site description and constraints
Architecture
Substructure construction Grimshaw Terminal 2B phase 2 was an airside project, meaning it was
Byrne Bros. situated inside the tight security cordon separating airfield
Mechanical, electrical
Instrumentation and and plumbing operations from the public. This was the largest airside project
ground monitoring Balfour Beatty Heathrow has ever undertaken.
Geotechnical Observations The site was bounded to the north by the completed and
operational phase 1 building, which had no basement and was
founded on shallow pad footings. Tothe west was the operational
Figure 3. Team organisation for the Terminal 2B phase 2 works
Europier link building, to the south was a separate airside road cut-
and-cover project, and to the east was the airport taxiway, aircraft
The completed satellite pier is around 480m long by 46m wide stands and islands. Beneath ground level to the south there were
above ground. Ithas been likened to an iceberg, since most of the also critical airport power and telecommunication services and the
constructed infrastructure for the project is subsurface. Hidden London Underground Piccadilly line running tunnels.
below is a much larger basement, measuring 15m deep, 345m long Figure5 shows the site in May 2011. Thegreen and brown lines
and 6599m wide. Itstotal volume is 575000m3, equivalent to the indicate the extent of superstructure and substructure, respectively.
size of 250 Olympic swimming pools. Thestructure in the middle is the completed phase 1 and on the left
Above the airports apron level, an elegant, minimalist, steel- is a temporary link by way of the Europier to Terminal 1.
framed building clad with glass provides world-class facilities
for arriving, departing and transferring passengers (Figure 4).
Below ground, the basement extends well beyond the above- 4. Ground conditions and investigations
ground footprint and provides space for several of the airports key
infrastructure requirements. The ground conditions at the site principally comprised Made
At the centre of the basement is a passenger station for a future Ground up to 2m depth underlain by 26m of River Terrace
tracked transit system that will link to an enlarged main terminal Deposit above firm to stiff London Clay.

Figure 4. Cross-section of Terminal 2B showing the typical extent of the substructure (looking south)

122
Civil Engineering Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
Volume 170 Issue CE3 airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor

Preliminary design information indicated 45 exploratory boreholes
and seven pressuremeter tests across the Terminal 2B phase 2 site.
In a live airport environment this would have caused significant
impact to airport operations as well as access issues. By drawing
on the civil and structural engineering designers historical site
investigation knowledge and data from the previously designed
Heathrow Terminal 5, airside road tunnels and post-Terminal 5
baggage tunnel, investigations on the Terminal 2B phase2 site were
limited to six boreholes and 22 cone penetration tests. This resulted
in cost savings in the region of 1million, reduced programme time
and minimal disruption to airport operations.
Due to the challenging programme, the designer was required
to develop foundation and substructure designs in advance of the
results of the site investigations using ground information and
associated soil parameters from previous projects at Heathrow.
Thesite investigation results provided validation of the parameters
and assumptions adopted.
The top-down sequence was repeated in the southern section of
the structure. To support the apron-level slab, 163 steel columns
were plunged into 1518m dia. cast in situ concrete piles installed
from existing ground level. The use of plunge columns allowed
excavation of the basement by top-down construction while the
piers structural frame was erected concurrently above.
A bottom-up sequence was applied to the central area because
of the shape of the excavation and where large clear excavated
construction areas were desirable to complete multiple construction
activities.
The mixed top-down and bottom-up construction allowed
rapid progress to be made and enabled the project team to meet
the challenging deadline. A time saving of around 6 months was
achieved with building steelwork commencing at apron slab while
still excavating below in the basement. The top-down method at
the north end of the building also mitigated any significant risk to

North section Lima tunnels

5. Design and construction Zones 1 and 2 Zones 1417
Top-down Bottom-up/top-down
construction construction
Heathrow wanted Terminal 2B phase 2 delivered to a fast-track
36 month programme. Using a traditional bottom-up approach Centre section
to construction excavating the basement before building Zones 36
foundations, columns and floor slabs to support the superstructure Bottom-up
construction
it was estimated that, at best, construction would take 42months.
To meet the programme requirement for fit-out and early release
of the superstructure, it was necessary to build 40% of the apron
ground floor top-down, with the balance a traditional bottom-up
Passenger tunnel South section
construction (Figure 6). At either end of the phase 2 structure, the Zones 1113 Zones 710
superstructure was a more time-sensitive element and for these zones Bottom-up Top-down
a top-down method was applied, allowing the steel frame for the construction construction
building to be erected while the excavation continued underneath. Link to Terminal 2

The northern substructure section was designed to be constructed

as part of the top-down sequence, using two stiff diaphragm slabs,
one at apron level and the other a ground-bearing slab at formation
level to support a perimeter retaining wall (Figure 7). The two Figure 6. Top-down and bottom-up construction plan of
stiff diaphragms helped limit retaining wall movements, ground Terminal2B phase 2
settlements and heave movements due to basement excavation.

Figure 5. Aerial view looking north of the Terminal 2B phase 2 site,

with the green line showing the superstructure and the brown line Figure 7. View looking north of centre section bottom-up
the substructure construction in front of northern section top-down construction

123
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
existing adjacent airport facilities and buildings due to any ground
movements.
Controlling the ground movements on the phase 2 site was
essential due to the proximity of the operational phase 1 and
Europier structures. Dueto the unusual structural configuration of
the Europier, with pinned diagonal members supporting the roof,
this was closely monitored during partial demolition of the pier and
excavation of the adjacent basement.
Limits on the allowable settlements and member rotations were
specified to halt the works if significant movement was detected.
These limiting values were set to give advance warning and to
allow corrective action to be agreed and implemented in sufficient
time to prevent any impact on airport operations.
6. Perimeter retaining wall
The original design for the basement construction involved a
mixture of secant pile retaining walls and open-cut excavation for
construction of the substructure. However, after detailed assessment
it was decided to construct diaphragm walls instead of secant
piling, forming a continuous perimeter retaining wall and avoiding
the requirement to form an open-cut excavation. Theperimeter wall
would form both temporary and permanent support to the retained
earth around the perimeter of the substructure.
The 2km perimeter diaphragm wall the longest in Europe panels required three reinforcement cages.
was designed to accommodate multiple and flexible construction
sequences to construct the superstructure simultaneously with the
substructure works (Figure8). Furthermore, use of diaphragm walls
reduced the volumes of excavations significantly and provided an
additional useable area for the contractor, enabling faster and more
efficient construction.
Previous experience with the design of retaining walls at
Heathrow enabled the design team to perform back-analysis
using actual wall performance data, resulting in optimised design
parameters. Working closely with the contractor to understand
the construction programme, the analysis provided confidence
Key
Diaphragm wall (2 km length)
Bearing piles with plunge columns (163 no.)
Plunge column heads (top-hats)
Bearing piles without plunge columns (542 no.)
Ground anchors (231 no.)
Figure 8. Computer model showing the 2km long perimeter
diameter wall and piling
124
Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
in designing using total stress conditions (undrained active and
passive) on both sides of the wall for large sections in temporary
construction conditions.
Further benefit of working closely with the contractors
construction team was gained in placing strict time limits for
installation of protective blinding concrete following excavation
and exposure of the formation level. Early installation enabled the
formation to be protected and softening of the London Clay to be
avoided. Using back-analysed parameters, the design team could
demonstrate that the London Clay was stiffer than conventionally
assumed. This enabled the embedment depth of the diaphragm wall
to be reduced from 85m to 6m, saving 5000m3 of excavation and
placement of concrete.
The diaphragm walls were installed from the existing ground
level using pavement-quality concrete as a piling mat. Areinforced
concrete guide wall typically 05m wide by 12m deep was
constructed for the entire perimeter diaphragm wall construction.
Three Kelly grab diaphragm wall rigs were used on site, working
continuously over a 24h period. Peak panel construction rates
reached 12m2/h and the telescopic Kelly bar rigs achieved
installation verticality of better than 1 in 200.
The perimeter diaphragm wall was split up into 320 individual
panels 3172m long. Typically, panels over 31m in length
consisted of two reinforcement cages, while smaller panels
consisted of one cage and a small percentage of corner and special
Smaller 31m panels were used in areas close to existing airport
buildings, such as the Terminal 2B phase 1 building. Thesmaller
panels minimised the length of ground supported under bentonite
during panel excavation prior to reinforcement cage and concrete
placement, and also the time when the ground was supported by
bentonite. These reduced the potential for settlement in adjacent
buildings and infrastructure during panel excavation.
7. Temporary ground anchors
In the central future station area, large, clear excavated
construction areas were desirable to complete multiple construction
activities. Asfar as possible, the team wanted to avoid the use of
struts which obstruct the movement of construction equipment.
Itwas a decision that fitted with a strong safety ethos on the site
and the principle of safety by design.
In total, 231 ground anchors were installed 24m below the existing
ground level at declination angles of 3040, providing support
for 400m of the perimeter retaining wall. Typically, there would
be two anchors per diaphragm wall reinforcement cage installed at
approximately 175m centres. Each cage contained anchor ducts
protected by a void former box-out so that anchor installation could
be undertaken without the need for drilling or coring through concrete.
Locating the anchors above the final roof level aided removal
and avoided openings in the internal hull of the basement.
8. Base slab
Due to the proximity of existing airport infrastructure, in
particular the phase 1 building, the base slab in the northern
basement area (part of a top-down construction sequence)
was designed as a 12m thick ground-bearing slab. A ground-
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
bearing slab was selected to restrain long-term ground heave
and hydrostatic pressure, with the intention to reduce surface
ground movements and their potential impacts on the existing and
operational phase 1 building, which was built on pad foundations.
The base slabs in the south and central areas were designed
as suspended slabs with a collapsible void former and under-
slab drainage by means of pressure-relief pipes connected to
the internal drainage for the basement. When the clay expands
in the long term due to unloading, the void former prevents the
development of significant heave pressures on the suspended slab.
Theunder-slab drainage provides relief to the hydrostatic pressures
being developed beneath the base slab.
Incorporation of a void former allowed the slab to be reduced
from 12m to 08m, resulting in a saving of 7000m3 of material
which did not need to be excavated and the same saving as part
of the concrete pour. This design approach also saved 260 tension
piles that would otherwise be required for a ground-bearing slab
solution.
9. Piling and plunge columns
The designers work on back-analysis and derivation of the
characteristic pile resistance from the Terminal 5 pile-test programme
enabled the large 1218m dia. piles to be shortened by 1020%
compared to the conventional design-by-calculation approach.
On the Terminal 5 project, the designer undertook detailed
analyses of pilesoil interaction employing a non-linear London Clay
soil constitutive model using data from pre-construction pile tests
deriving shaft friction, end-bearing and associated displacements as
well as pile installation effects. Thedesign rules established from the
Terminal 5 work were adopted in the design of the bored piles for
phase 2. With 705 piles in total, the saving equated to 3 linear km of
piling and 6000m3 of earthworks and concrete.
Rapid and accurate installation of steel plunge columns was
critical to the top-down construction. Plunge columns were
installed in 163 piles. Inthe temporary case, the plunge columns
supported the apron slab and any superstructure erected during
excavation under the slab. In the permanent condition, the steel
plunge columns were encased in concrete to support the mezzanine
floors in the basement area and superstructure load (Figure9).
Figure 9. Completed baggage basement showing the diaphragm
wall on the right and the steel plunge columns encased in concrete
Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
10. Monitoring
Key to the foundation system design was an extensive
instrumentation monitoring programme over the course of
excavation and substructure construction to validate the design
approach. The instrumentation included 53 diaphragm wall and
ground inclinometers monitoring movement within the wall in
response to the bulk excavation and construction activities.
Critical airport infrastructure was monitored through use of a
live liquid levelling system installed at the base of the phase 1
building and 66 monitoring points (retro targets) installed on
primary steel members and facades of nearby buildings. Ninety-
one ground-monitoring points were also installed within the
footprint surrounding the substructure to monitor the response of
the ground to the extensive excavation works required.
During the excavation and construction activities, monitoring
data were continually reviewed and interpreted by a construction
monitoring team. During the design phase a potential damage
assessment had been conducted to demonstrate that, provided
wall deflections and ground movements stayed within design
predictions, operational infrastructure would be safeguarded.
Due to the collaborative working approach adopted across the
project, wall deflections, ground and asset movements measured on
site were kept below the tight trigger values developed from design
predictions for the project.
Following completion of the bulk excavation works,
instrumentation and monitoring continued during permanent
works construction, including the superstructure. It was removed
following a period of close-out monitoring which demonstrated
that construction-related movement had ceased.
11. Innovation and technology
The design team adopted four-dimensional building information
modelling (BIM) techniques to plan the construction process
accurately and to assess interface risk. This brought significant
benefits to the communication and management of on-site activities.
Techniques such as viewing alternative construction sequences
side by side allowed the construction team to optimise site
operations and proactively manage site activities. This ensured
safe construction processes as the project was built twice first
virtually and finally in the ground.
12. Health and safety
The integrated design and construction team had a strong focus
on safety. As part of the contractors zero harm initiative, the
project team was challenged to eliminate any major catastrophic
events and any serious injuries or fatalities.
Several task groups were established to review potential
hazards, risk and mitigation measures. The task groups consisted
of representatives from the contractor, designers, supply chain and
airport operations. Each group was tasked to identify the industry
assumptions that must be challenged and develop programmes
based upon the pillars of zero harm leading, involving, tracking,
re-thinking, sharing and learning.
The drive to reduce site accidents led to prefabrication of
reinforcement for over 80% of reinforced concrete works. Aprocess
125
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
to include the provision for additional layer in the employers
computer-aided design standards was developed. This initiative
allowed the team to establish a method of recording actions taken
to mitigate or eliminate hazards and risks on the drawings through
the various stages of the project, achieving an agreed protocol that
provides a transparent and informative audit trail.
Throughout the 6years of construction, no major incident or any
serious injuries were reported on the project.
13. Sustainability
The Terminal 2B team decided not to go for an open excavation
method to construct the building foundation. Instead the team
decided to install a diaphragm wall. This eliminated the excavation
of approximately 11000m3 of materials and the need for temporary
works during the construction of the reinforced concrete foundation.
The diaphragm wall acted as a cut-off wall which allowed the
excavation of 680000m3 of spoil within the footprint of the
building. This method also reduced the volumes of groundwater
generated from the excavation works. The excavated spoil was
reused within a 24km radius to cap an old waste disposal area.
Thegravel was sold to be processed as concrete aggregate.
By reusing approximately 100000m3 of sand and gravel as fill
behind the structures, 9000 lorry movements were avoided on local
roads.
14. Conclusions
Terminal 2B was the largest project undertaken at Heathrow
within an operational airport environment (Figure 10). Schedule,
cost, safety and preventing disruption to airport operations were
the key drivers. Theproject was delivered on a fast-track 36month
Figure 10. Aerial view looking west of completed Terminal 2B in front of Terminal 2, with central terminal area and Terminal 5 in the background
126
Heathrow Terminal 2B: delivering the biggest
airside basement at Britains largest airport
Shanghavi, Straw, Patel and Winsor
programme through fully integrated design and construction
project set-up.
Diaphragm walls minimised the overall volume of excavation
and plunge columns allowed the basement to be created below at
the same time the pier superstructure was being erected above.
Temporary ground anchors were extensively used to provide large
clear excavation areas, negating the need for internal propping and
allowing multiple construction activities to be undertaken in parallel.
The successful delivery of the project was due to the continual
review of the construction techniques and the adjustment to the
design, allowing sections of the project to be switched during the
construction phase as soon as access became available.
The project delivered real sustainability benefits. Using experience
of working at Heathrow, the design team was able to reduce the length
of the piles between 1020%. This equated to a saving of 3 linear
km on piling and 6000m3 on earthworks and concrete. Using back-
analysed parameters allowed the embedment depth of diaphragm
wall panels to be reduced by 25m, saving 5000m3 of excavations
and concrete. Thedesign efficiencies alone saved over 11000m3 in
excavation and concrete in the diaphragm wall and piles. Using a
suspended base slab with collapsible void former resulted in a saving
of 7000m3 of concrete and 760 tension piles.
The designer worked closely with the construction team to combine
knowledge and experience to deliver an exemplary structure, in a
demanding environment, to programme, with safe working practices
and complying with the financial target set by the client.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the collaborative working
of Heathrow Airport Limited, Balfour Beatty, Grimshaw, Mott
MacDonald and all those involved in the design and construction
of Heathrow Terminal 2B phase 2.
Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Pages 127134 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00039
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from Paper 1600039
research to hype to practice Received 04/10/2016 Accepted 13/02/2017
Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Published online 05/04/2017
Keywords: geotextiles, membranes & geogrids/slopes
Glendinning
stabilisation/waste management & disposal

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to

hype topractice
Colin Jones BSc, MSc, PhD, CEng, FICE David Alder MEng
Emeritus Professor, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Technical Engineer, Electrokinetic Limited, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
John Lamont-Black BSc, PhD Stephanie Glendinning BSc, PhD, FICE
Chief Executive, Electrokinetic Limited, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Professor of Civil Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon
Tyne, UK
David Huntley BA, FACMA
Director, Electrokinetic Limited, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Electrokinetic geosynthetics enable civil engineers to put electrical energy into the ground to stiffen it and control
groundwater flows. This paper summarises the evolution of the technology over the past 25years, from research by
way of hype and into practice. Itwas conceived in 1993 at Newcastle University in the UK, combining established
knowledge of geotextiles with historical studies of electrokinetics. A series of UK government-funded research
programmes helped to generate global interest in its possible applications, leading to a technology spin-off company
being incorporated in 2001 to attract private venture capital investment and further development funding. This
eventually narrowed down the practical applications to slope stabilisation and dewatering, which now form the
companys main revenue streams.

1. Introduction The application of the technology to the stabilisation of failed

and failing slopes, consolidation of weak subsoils, dewatering
Geosynthetics are widely used in the civil engineering, waste, of difficult materials and the treatment and reduction of waste is
water and mining industries. They normally play a passive or now established practice, which has been shown to provide both
reactive role. For example, geosynthetic reinforcement provides economic and environmental benefits. Other application areas are
tensile resistance but only after an initial strain has occurred, while in development.
a geosynthetic filter or drain provides a passage for water but only
after water flows towards it.
In 1994 it was postulated that an entirely new spectrum of 2. Concept development
applications for geosynthetics was possible if they could provide
an active role initiating biological, chemical or physical change The concept of electrokinetic geosynthetics was initially developed
to the matrix in which they were installed as well as providing the with EPSRC funding from 19941997 (EPSRC, 1994). The main
established functions (EPSRC, 1994). technical components, which form the base of electrokinetic
It was suggested that geosynthetic inclusions in soil could be geosynthetic technology, are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
transformed into having an active role by making the material Table 1 shows that electrokinetics and geosynthetics have 14
electrically conductive. Filtration, drainage, containment and separate functions between them. By combining these functions,
reinforcement functions could be enhanced by electrokinetic a range of electrokinetic geosynthetic materials can be produced,
techniques that stiffened the soil, improved the soilreinforcement bond each with unique properties. These may be selected and controlled
and enabled rapid transport of water and chemicals within fine-grained according to the materials and settings in which they are to be used,
low-permeability materials. Increasing soil strength is a function of the physical and chemical design, electrical control and operation,
electrokinetic drainage and ion migration. Electrokinetically enhanced and management of boundary conditions. Table 2 shows the key
water flow through normally impermeable materials also permits the electrokinetic parameters, their effects and practical functions that
introduction of conditioning fluids. can be exploited by electrokinetic geosynthetics.
The concept of electrokinetic geosynthetic materials, developed
at Newcastle University in the UK, was first introduced at the
Third International Geosynthetics Symposium in Japan in 1996 Table 1. Functions used in practical applications of electrokinetic
(Jones et al., 1997). Development of electrokinetic geosynthetic geosynthetics
technology from research to practice was made possible by three
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Electrokinetic function Geosynthetic function
grants and a Technology Strategy Board Award (Innovate UK), Electro-osmosis Drainage
supported by funding from industry in the UK, Germany, Japan, Electrophoresis Reinforcement
South Africa and Sweden.
Ion migration Filtration
This paper introduces the concept of electrokinetic geosynthetics
and describes, briefly, the fundamental research studies and Electrolysis of water Separation
findings used to establish the controlling criteria of the technology. Heating Containment
Following the research phase, development of the technology for Oxidation reactions Membrane action
practical application was undertaken by the creation of a university
Reducing reactions Sorption
spin-out company working with interested parties from industry.

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Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning

Table 2. Keyparameters, their effects and practical implications of the main electrokinetic functions of electrokinetic geosynthetic materials
Electrokinetic component Parameter Effect Practical implication
Electro-osmosis Water flow rate, Q = (keV)/(LA) Drainage and water content Produces water movement in fine-
grained materials
Pore water pressure, u = (ke/kh)(V/L) Consolidation or decompaction Produces consolidation in compressible
materials
Electrolysis pH (pH = (I/A)) Acid/alkali changes Permits control of pH
[O2], [H2] ( [O2], [H2] = (I/A)) Oxygenation (redox potential) Promotes root/growth and soil
microbial activity
Electrokinetic hardening pH. CEC. electrode composition Stiffening of soil and waste Slope and tailings stabilisation
Joule heating = I R and conductivity of material
2
Heat generation Increases chemical activity and
microbial activity
A = area (m2); CEC, cation exchange capacity; = function; I = current (A); ke = coefficient of electro-osmotic permeability (m2/sV); kh = coefficient
of hydraulic conductivity (m/s); [O2], [H2] = concentration of aqueous and gaseous oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2); R = resistance; V/L = potential
gradient (V/m); w = water content

The initial research confirmed that electrokinetic geosynthetics 3. UK government-funded studies

were viable and led to the first patent for the structure of an
electrokinetic geosynthetic material being granted (Eng and Jones, A second EPSRC award was granted in 1997 to study the use and
1998). It was found that electrokinetic geosynthetics can take the form application of electrokinetic geosynthetics in the construction industry
of a single material which is electrically conductive, or a composite (EPSRC, 1997). Theobjectives of the research were to undertake field
material, in which at least one element is electrically conductive. trials covering electro-osmotic consolidation, the strengthening of
They can be of the same basic form as present-day filter, drainage, cohesive soil, volumetric control of clay embankments and to identify
separator and reinforcement materials, but offer sufficient electrical design methodologies. The research was undertaken with industrial
conduction to allow the application of electrokinetic techniques. collaborators from UK, Germany, Japan and Sweden.
A series of laboratory studies was undertaken to evaluate the The study identified acceptability criteria for the assessment
use of conductive geotextiles as electrodes in electro-osmotic of the suitability of a soil for treatment by electrokinetics based
consolidation and reinforced soil. Thetypes of geosynthetics used upon standard soil-mechanics laboratory tests enhanced by
included conductive needle-punched geotextiles, carbon-fibre electro-osmosis (Table3). Characterisation of the effectiveness of
material and modified-polyester reinforcing tape. The latter was dissimilar electrode installation arrays was also developed based
made electrically conductive by the addition of conductive stringers on finite-difference and resistance-path techniques.
aligned parallel to the polyester reinforcing elements.
In reinforced-soil tests, an electrokinetic geosynthetic
reinforcing element was used as an anode with the cathode formed Table 3. Utility of soil tests for assessing acceptability for
from a needle-punched electrokinetic geosynthetic. Theresults of electrokinetic treatment
pull-out tests showed an increase in reinforcement bond of 211% Test Usefulnessa Acceptability range
and increases in undrained soil shear strength of 123% compared
Atterberg limits 530% P.I.
to the values obtained when the geosynthetic inclusions were not
electrically conductive. Water content 0610 L.I.
In consolidation trials of fine-grained soils, the electrokinetic Particle size distribution Within clay silt range
geosynthetic electrodes were found to function as well as copper sieve and sedimentation
electrodes but with better durability in both normal and reverse Particle density Not applicable
polarity configurations (Hamir et al., 2001; Jones, 2000; Jones
Organic content Up to organic
et al., 1997, 2002). Nettleton continued the work presented by
Jones et al. (1997). He suggested that an electrode similar in One-dimensional mv = 0315 MN/m2
form to a band drain would be the most suitable configuration to consolidation parameters
fulfil the electrode requirements associated with consolidation, Disk electrode 0050005 S/m
bioremediation of contaminated ground and moisture control in Hydraulic permeability <10-8m/s
embankments (Nettleton etal., 1998).
Undrained shear strength <55 kPa
The first practical electrokinetic geosynthetic for use in full-
scale structures was produced by Netlon Limited in 1998 (Netlon Drained shear strength <30
Ltd, 1998). This material was used in all the initial field trials Electro-osmosis cell Comparison with control
undertaken to demonstrate the applicability of the electrokinetic Electrokinetic shear box Comparison with control
geosynthetics concept. Itis still used as electrokinetic geosynthetic
electrodes in laboratory-based research studies in a number of
a
= excellent, = good, = useful
countries but has been superseded by more durable materials for P.I., plasticity index; L.I., liquidity index; mv, coefficient of volume
practical use. compressibility; , effective angle of internal friction

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A field study of electro-osmotic consolidation of a soft soil was
undertaken at Newburn in Newcastle, UK (Pugh etal., 2000). From
the trial, a method for predicting the quantity of consolidation
that can be achieved using electrokinetic geosynthetic technology
was developed. The method is based upon a linearly equivalent
surcharge varying from 0 kPa at the cathode to a maximum of
100kPa at the anode. The method was confirmed by laboratory
testing on horizontal electrodes located in a block of London Clay
together with the back-analysis of published case studies.
The study also included the first ever field application of electro-
osmosis to cohesive reinforced soil (Glendinning etal., 2005a; Jones
and Pugh, 2001). Thetrial was unique in that a vertical 5m reinforced
soil wall was constructed using liquid fill (Figure 1). The fill was
strengthened between lifts 300mm high by electro-osmosis provided
by the top two layers of reinforcement at each lift acting as electrodes.
The lower electrode acted as an anode and the upper as a cathode;
hence drainage was upwards towards the surface of the fill.
Once strengthening of the lift had been achieved, the lower
electrode (anode) was deactivated and assumed a reinforcement role,
while the upper electrode (cathode) was changed to an anode ready
for the next lift by reversing the polarity. Adesign methodology for
electrokinetic reinforced cohesive soil was then developed based
upon long- and short-term design and electro-osmotic criteria.
The typical cost was shown to be approximately 300 per square
metre, indicating it could be achieved economically.
The third element of the 1997 research funding related to
controlling volume change in susceptible soils. Itwas established
that the negative pore-water pressure generated by electro-osmosis
results in over-consolidation of the soil, such that subsequent
wetting and drying cycles result in reduced swelling and shrinkage.
Theelectrokinetic process also causes electrochemical cementing,
making soils less prone to volume change.
A third EPSRC research award in 2005 was aimed at studying
the ability of electrokinetic geosynthetic drains to remove liquids
from wastes for waste minimisation and resource recovery
(EPSRC, 2005). The research demonstrated that electrokinetic
geosynthetic technology could be used to revolutionise how wastes,
sewage and slurries are disposed of. By removing water, the dry
solids content is increased together with a significant reduction
in volume. In some cases, the increase in dry solids causes the
waste to become auto-thermic, thus enabling it to be used as fuel
(Glendinning etal., 2006, 2008; Hall etal., 2008).
Figure 1. Construction of a 5m tall reinforced soil wall using
liquid cohesive soil each 300mm lift was consolidated using
electro-osmosis (after Jones and Pugh, 2001)
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
4. University-funded studies
In addition to EPSRC-funded research, a number of MSc and
PhD studies into the concept of electrokinetic geosynthetic
materials and their uses have been conducted. These include
co-operative research and development studies at Birmingham
University, University of Western Australia, Wuhan University
China, Irstea-Unite HBAN France, Sachsicestextil Forschungs
Institute Germany and Witwatersrand University South Africa.
They made notable progress in enhancing the understanding
of the concept of electrokinetic geosynthetic technology as well
as identifying new application areas (Jones et al., 2008). They
included the use of electrokinetic geosynthetics in enhancing
sports turf technology, strengthening of soft soils, stabilisation of
slopes, treatment of contaminated soils and treatment of sewage
sludge (Glendinning etal., 2005b, 2006; Lamont-Black and Jones,
2006; Lamont-Black etal., 2006a).
The electrokinetic treatment of mine tailings demonstrated
that dewatering of mine tailings using electrokinetic geosynthetic
methods could be economic as well as effective (Fourie and Jones,
2010; Fourie etal., 2002, 2004, 2007; Pavlakis etal., 2001, 2002).
The use of electrokinetic geosynthetic reinforcement to
stabilise slopes has also been studied in China together with the
consolidation of deep marine deposits to provide building land
(Zhuang and Wang, 2005).
Recent studies in France have considered the development of
electrokinetic geosynthetic composite materials to dewater tar
sands (Bourges-Gastaud etal., 2015).
5. Practical development
In 2001 EPSRC declared electrokinetic geosynthetics a
platform technology and a year later it was exhibited in the
Science Museum, London during the 2002 FIFA World Cup. This
comprised a working model of how to create the perfect football
pitch, in which electrokinetic geosynthetic materials were used to
control drainage as well as provide oxygen and heat to promote
root growth and microbial activity (Figure2) (Lamont-Black and
Jones, 2006).
The fundamental research studies demonstrated that electrokinetic
geosynthetics represented a new technology that could have a
significant effect on industry practice and environmental impact
reduction. Torealise the potential and commercialise the technology,
Oxygen
Water is drawn off
Figure 2. Howelectrokinetic geosynthetics could be applied to
sports turf to control drainage and provide oxygen and heat to
promote root growth and microbial activity
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Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Newcastle University set up a spin-out company Electrokinetic
Limited funded by private and venture capital.
Transferring laboratory-based research findings to practice
requires the acceptance of the technology by the relevant authorities
and the development of materials and construction protocols to
meet established industry standards. As part of the basic studies
into electrokinetic geosynthetics, technology protocols have been
developed to determine the electrokinetic properties of soils,
tailings and waste sludges.
The electrical conductivity of a fine-grained material can be
determined according to BS 1377 (BSI, 1990). Thecoefficient of
electro-osmotic permeability may be determined using a modified
permeameter using the HelmholtzSmoluchowski model of
electro-osmotic flow (Smoluchowski, 1914). Electro-osmotic
consolidation can be determined in a modified (non-conductive)
triaxial cell (Glendinning etal., 2005a).
Assessment of the improvement in soilreinforcement bond
strength during electrokinetic treatment can be determined in the
laboratory using an electrokinetic shear box. This is based on a
conventional shear box formed from non-conductive materials
in which, in addition to the conventional normal load to which
the specimen is subjected, a voltage gradient is also applied.
Thevoltage gradient is equivalent to that proposed in the field.
6. UK government technology programme
A major boost to commercialising electrokinetic geosynthetics
technology was provided by a UK government campaign to support
business in taking new ideas and technologies from the laboratory
to the market (TSB, 2005). In2005, the governments Department
for Trade and Industry co-funded a 15 million project to apply
the electrokinetic geosynthetic concept to strengthening soils and
treatment and minimisation of waste slurries, sludge and sewage.
The partners in the project included Electrokinetic Limited,
Newcastle University, C A Blackwell, Edmund Nuttall, GKD
(Germany), Rio Tinto Mining Company, Severn Trent Water and
Yorkshire Water. Theproject covered four areas of development
prefabricated drain material, treatment of waste, consolidation of in
situ sludge lagoons and tailings, and conditioning and composting.
The original Netlon electrokinetic geosynthetic material for
prefabricated drains was found not to provide long-term (60
120year) durability, so a more robust electrokinetic geosynthetic
drain was developed. This conforms to the specifications
demanded in permanent works associated with slope stabilisation.
Table 4. Electrokinetic geosynthetic treatment of wastes
Materials Treatment
method Constant
Large volume
Existing Belt presses, plate Small belt, transport
presses and centrifuges
Homogeneous
Electrokinetic Electrokinetic belt presses Electrokinetic belt
geosynthetic
Existing Screen plus thicken and Screen thicken and
dewater transport
Mixed
Electrokinetic Screen plus electrokinetic Electrokinetic bags
geosynthetic belt or tube
130
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
The material is a composite based around a porous polymeric
pipe, which includes a geosynthetic filter and a circular braided
bi-metallic mesh conductor. The material is also used in situ to
consolidate soft soils.
Table 4 shows the potential electrokinetic methods available
using different material forms. The electrokinetic belt-press is
a continuous method of dewatering materials, electrokinetic
prefabricated drains are used in situ and electrokinetic bags and
tubes are suitable for batch processes.
The result of using electrokinetic geosynthetics technology
in sewage dewatering by Thames Water Company (London) is
shown in Figure 3. Similar results were obtained in Germany.
The economics and cost savings of using electrokinetic
geosynthetic technology to dewater sewage sludge has been
identified by Huntley et al. (2006), Lamont-Black et al. (2006b)
and McLoughlin (2005). Figure4(a) shows the nature of material
that can be treated and Figure 4(b) shows the same material
following treatment at 30 V for a period of 48 h.
The technology programme also demonstrated that electrokinetic
geosynthetic materials could provide in situ dewatering of sludge
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Conventionally dewatered waste (a) and electrokinetically
dewatered waste with a 39% volume reduction (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Filling an electrokinetic dewatering bag (a) and solidified
material following treatment with 30 V for 48 h (b)
Supply
Intermittent
Small volume Large volume Small volume
Temporary lagoon Transport, mobile
dewatering
Electrokinetic tubes Electrokinetic bags
Temporary lagoon Screen thicken and
spread
Electrokinetic tubes Electrokinetic bags
Civil Engineering Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning

lagoons (Jones etal., 2002, 2011; Walker and Glendinning, 2002).
Italso involved bench-scale tests followed by a full-scale 50m long
compost windrow, which showed that electrokinetic geosynthetics
can be used to improve the dewatering and aeration of sludge-
conditioning operations. Details of the results of full-scale tests of
electrokinetic composting have been provided by White etal. (2008).
7. Product manufacture and standards
In the development of electrokinetic geosynthetics technology,
various material forms have been developed for use in specific
applications. Electrokinetic drains and soil nails have been developed
to stabilise failed and failing slopes and for in situ consolidation
of soils and wastes. Electrokinetic belts have been developed for
dewatering sewage and mine tailings in belt filter presses, while
electrokinetic dewatering bags have been produced for treating and
disposal of small volumes of wastes which are difficult to treat.
Over 40 material suppliers have been associated with the
manufacture and installation of electrokinetic geosynthetics,
including Afitex (France), Arcitex (Sweden), Belton (USA),
Clear Edge (Sweden), GKD (Germany) and Technitex Sachsen
(Germany). Inthe UK, Ashbrook Simon Hartley has developed an
electrokinetic belt press machine for dewatering waste and tailings,
and self-climbing rigs have been adopted and developed to install
electrokinetic geosynthetic electrodes in slopes without the need
to remove established trees. In addition, both Highways England
and Network Rail have funded the manufacture of direct current
voltage rectifiers used during the active treatment phase of slope
stabilisation and dewatering of lagoons.
The development of electrokinetic geosynthetics has been
recognised by British Standards and the revised BS 8006:1
(BSI, 2010) allows their use in reinforced soil structures.
The development of the technology makes it possible to meet a
major objective of the revised BS 8006 of enabling the greater use
of previously unacceptable waste materials as fill in reinforced soil
structures. This has enabled electrokinetic soil nailing to be used
in conditions not previously possible, resulting in reductions in the
cost of works and carbon dioxide emissions.
The International Geosynthetics Society has also developed
graphical symbols and terminology covering electrokinetic
geosynthetic applications (IGS, 1996).
8. Practical applications
The underpinning research and development stages of
electrokinetic geosynthetic technology have identified a range
of new applications which cannot be addressed by conventional
geosynthetics see Table5.
The benefits and drivers for the use of electrokinetic geosynthetic
applications include reduced cost, improved productivity, reduced
carbon dioxide emissions, reduced waste, water recovery,
suppression of liquefaction in soils and tailings, improved
performance and resolved construction problems.
8.1 Slope stabilisation, UK
Both Highways England and Network Rail are open to innovation
and two critical case histories one associated with the stabilisation
of a railway embankment, the other a highway slope have illustrated

Table 5. Industries, markets and sectors identified as relevant electrokinetic geosynthetic applications
Industry Market Market sector Electrokinetic geosynthetic application
Water Sewage treatment Dewatering machinery Belt/plate filter press
Composting Prefabricated drain
Dewatering Dewatering bag
Water treatment Dewatering Belt filter press
Consolidation Prefabricated drain
Food Processed food waste Dewatering Belt filter press/dewatering bag
Mining Mineral sands Dewatering Belt filter press
Diamond tailings Dewatering Belt filter press
Coal and coal waste Dewatering Belt filter press
Tailings lagoon stabilisation and Stabilisation Prefabricated drain/soil nails
combating liquefaction
Civil Ground engineering Dewatering Dewatering bag/belt filter press
engineering Waterways engineering Dewatering dredgings Dewatering bag
Embankment stabilisation Prefabricated drain/soil nails
Railway and highway maintenance Slope and embankment stabilisation Prefabricated drain/soil nails
General and highway construction Reinforced soil and ground consolidation Reinforcement/prefabricated drain
Brownfield development and land Ground consolidation and waste Prefabricated drain
reclamation solidification
Highway maintenance and dewatering Waste solidification Dewatering bag
gulley waste
Nuclear waste Solidification and reduction Dewatering bag
Sport Turf and pitches Football and cricket Prefabricated drain/mat

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Volume 170 Issue CE3 Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning

the economic and environmental benefits that electrokinetic
geosynthetics can provide. The case histories showed cost savings
of 2530% and reduction in carbon dioxide emissions of 46% when
compared with conventional construction techniques (Jones et al.,
2014). These benefits are close to the targets identified in the UK
governments Construction 2025 industrial strategy (BIS,2013).
Compared with traditional methods, a growing number of case
histories show the electrokinetic geosynthetic slope stabilisation
technique offers improvement in construction productivity, fewer
lorry movements, zero waste removal, minimal material import,
reduced noise and vibration, improved air quality, preservation of
the seed bank and soil environment, minimal vegetation clearance
with almost all trees being retained, no visual impacts, no disruption
to passing motorists and less damage to root protection areas.
The construction of slope stabilisation and repair is often
intensive, difficult and hazardous and usually involves significant
disturbance to the local environment. Electrokinetic geosynthetic
slope stabilisation is a multifunctional approach which combines
ground improvement, reinforcement and drainage into a
single array of multifunctional elements (Figure 6), which act
synergistically during construction and in service. In acting this
way the combined remediation effect is maximised while the
construction intensity and environmental disturbance is minimised.
Electrokinetic geosynthetic slope stabilisation is applicable to
ground conditions dominated by, and failure modes controlled
by, fine-grained soils, which may include weathered mantles of
mud rocks. These include fine-grained peat deposits but exclude
fibrous peat. Itis inapplicable, however, to mud rocks and failure
mechanisms dominated by brittle failure or granular washout.
The design principles of electrokinetic geosynthetic slope
stabilisation and case histories have been presented by Alder etal.
(2015), Jackson et al. (2015), Jones (2011) and Lamont-Black
etal. (2007a, 2012, 2016).
Laboratory trials of the electrokinetic dewatering potential of
tailings from Kimberley, Orapa and Premier diamond mines in
Botswana and South Africa established that they can be treated
using electrokinetic belt press technology (Lamont-Black et al.,
2007b). Full-scale trials at Kimberley have demonstrated that major
savings can be obtained with regard to energy costs associated with
disposal, reduction in waste volumes requiring disposal, recovery
of water and a significant reduction in the carbon dioxide emissions
of the mining process (Fourie and Jones 2010; Lamont-Black etal.,
2008, 2010). Thedewatered tailings are suitable for transportation
to the disposal site by conveyor (Figure6).
9. Discussion
The idea of electrokinetic geosynthetics emerged from just one of
a long string of discussions between an academic and a geosynthetics
producer. This was followed by small investigations in a university
laboratory prior to funded research programmes. These discussions
began in 1993 and the first fully commercial electrokinetic
geosynthetics slope stabilisation project was completed in 2012.
It is now over 20years since the first investigations. Reflecting
on the developments during that time, electrokinetic geosynthetics
technology has followed the trajectory of technology development
characterised by the Gartner hype cycle concept of emerging

8.2 Dewatering, UK
The dewatering of medium volumes of miscellaneous wastes
and sludges can be achieved rapidly and without the development
of major infrastructure using electrokinetic bags. Examples of the
types of materials that have been dewatered include dredgings,
water clarification slurry, anaerobically digested waste, nuclear-
contaminated waste and road gully waste.
Figure 5 shows the dewatering of nuclear-contaminated waste Figure 5. Electrokinetic geosynthetic dewatering of nuclear-
contaminated slurry resulted in a 90% reduction of waste
sludge. In this application, the volume of nuclear waste requiring
requiring long-term storage
long-term storage was reduced by 90% (Lamont-Black etal., 2015).

8.3 Consolidation of hydraulically placed fill, China

In China, the large-scale application of electro-osmotic
consolidation of very soft deposits to permit the construction of
light industry and housing is being pursued using electrokinetic
vertical drains. Treatment of deep deposits by electrokinetic
geosynthetics has been shown to be more economic and effective
than vacuum preloading (Zhuang, 2015; Zhuang et al., 2014).
Recent developments are applying this technique to consolidation
of soft highly saline marine margin soils.

8.4 Dewatering of mine tailings, South Africa

Mineral mining has a major environmental impact with regard to Figure 6. Schematic diagram of an installed electrokinetic geosynthetic
the carbon dioxide emissions of the operations, very high demand slope stabilisation array with anodes and cathodes arranged in columns
for water and excessive energy costs associated with the disposal to provide ground improvement, reinforcement and drainage
of tailings.

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Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Peak of inflated
expectations
Government-funded research
and development programmes
lead to identification of
numerous electrokinetic
geosynthetic applications
Exposure
Trough of
disillusionment
Technology trigger
Initial electrokinetic
Reinforced soil, sports
turf, belt and plate press
geosynthetics research
dewatering of sewage
at university
and composting in
windows all discarded
Maturity
Figure 7. Gartner hype cycle for electrokinetic geosynthetics
technologies (Figure 7) (Fenn and Raskino, 2008). Thus
electrokinetic geosynthetics has traced a typical development
trajectory from initial concept, early development, hype and descent
into disillusionment and emergence into practical application and
acceptance. Within electrokinetic geosynthetics technology, four
application areas have emerged: two in the UK, one in China and
one in South Africa. Thedevelopment is continuing.
It is frequently observed that it is difficult to get innovation
accepted into civil engineering practice, for example in reports such
as Construction 2025 (BIS, 2013) and Innovation: Stepping up the
Industry (ICE, 2015). Reports variously identify different factors
and components that are considered important in developing and
implementing innovation within civil engineering. In the case of
electrokinetic geosynthetic technology, it is possible to identify
six key elements which were critical in taking the technology from
initial concept, through research and into practice.
First, resources in this instance, university laboratories and staff
to carry out unfunded research explorations as initial qualifying
of the concept and to develop ideas for a research programme.
Second, government research funding by way of the EPSRC and
co-operation from the geosynthetics industry were fundamental in
undertaking the basic research and providing proof of concept.
The third element was the creation of a technology company with
private and venture capital to champion the technology. Thefourth
key factor was the award of government funding to develop the
technology to meet the requirements of industry. This could not
have been achieved without co-operation and funding from industry.
Demonstration of the financial and environmental benefits provided
by the technology is critical to the acceptance of innovation.
Although all major sections of the construction industry are tacitly
receptive to innovation there is no established mechanism to overcome
the inherent conservatism of UK civil engineering practice. Thefifth
element was the emergence and identification of gatekeepers
representing the potential users of the technology. Gatekeepers to
innovative technology are rare they can emerge at any position
in an organisation but are usually associated with operations and
delivery as opposed to very senior management. Theapplication of
Electrokinetic geosynthetics: from research to hype to practice
Jones, Lamont-Black, Huntley, Alder and Glendinning
electrokinetic geosynthetic technology to practice has benefited from
gatekeepers appearing in Highways England, local government and a
number of consulting engineers and contractors.
The sixth key factor was the development of design and
Plateau of construction protocols and methods, which are compatible with
productivity
Slope stabilisation and established standards. Thus the revision of BS 8006 on reinforced
bag dewatering, plus soil in 2010, which included the recognition of electrokinetic
development of
consolidation and geosynthetic technology, was timely.
electro-osmotic
treatment
Slope of Acknowledgements
enlightenment
Formation of
commercial company to The UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
develop technology and
emergence of gate
supported the initial studies and proof of concept of electrokinetic
keepers in major users geosynthetics. Durham Waste Management, Kvaerner Cementation
Foundations Ltd, Tensar International Ltd, Capitol, Mitsui
Geosynthetics, Naue Fasertechnik GmbH, Okasanlivic Co Ltd
and New Associates provided materials and funding. The DTI
Technology Development Programme included support from
Asbrook Simon Hartley, C A Blackwell, Edmund Nuttall, Rio
Tinto, Yorkshire Water, Thames Water, Severn Trent Water, GKN,
De Beers, Exxaro, Highways England, Network Rail and Entex.
Support for the development of the electrokinetic geosynthetic
technology has also been provided by Amey, Balfour Beatty, TGP,
Afitex, Arcitex, Clear Edge and Technitex Sachsen.
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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 August 2017 Issue CE3
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Pages 135144 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00002
Monitoring of long-span Paper 1600002
Received 04/01/2016 Accepted 01/12/2016
bridges in Japan
Published online 19/01/2017
Ab and Fujino Keywords: bridges/field testing & monitoring/seismic
engineering

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan

Masato Ab PhD Yozo Fujino PhD
Director, Department of Research and Development, BMC Corporation, Distinguished Professor, Institute of Advanced Sciences, Yokohama
Chiba, Japan and Visiting Researcher, Earthquake Research Institute, National University, Yokohama, Japan and Professor Emeritus, University
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

1 2

Japan currently has 15 suspension bridges, three cable-stayed bridges and a truss bridge with spans over 500m. Given
the countrys exposure to earthquakes and typhoons, structural behaviour during seismic and wind loading are major
concerns, so many of the bridges have been instrumented and continuously monitored since completion. This paper
provides an overview of the development of monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan, with examples of effective
utilisation of the monitored data. These include using data to verify design assumptions, update specifications for
construction, enable active vibration control and evaluate performance and damage of structures during extreme events.
Research is currently under way on how to extend the application of monitoring data for operation and maintenance.

1. Introduction seismic activity and high winds. Structural behaviours during

Long-span bridges constitute vital links which connect the
islands of Japan, spanning over bays and ports to enhance capacity
for transport links. Modern bridge construction in Japan started
with the rapid introduction of western technology around the Meiji
restoration of 1868, after lifting of the rigorous trade restrictions
enforced by the Tokugawa Shogunate for more than two centuries.
The first modern iron bridge was Kurogane Bridge in Nagasaki,
with a span of 27m, built in 1868. Thelongest span has increased
exponentially since that time, as shown in Figure 1, culminating
in the worlds longest span of 1991m with the completion of the
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in 1998. Existing bridges with central spans
over 500m are listed in Table1: there are 15 suspension bridges,
three cable-stayed bridges and a truss bridge.
Bridges with the longest span have always represented the
cutting-edge technology of the day and measurement systems
are often installed on these structures due to the uncertainties
associated with new technical challenges. This is particularly
important for bridges in Japan, which are located in areas of
extreme events are of great concern and many long-span bridges
have been monitored since completion.
The measured data from monitoring have been used in various
ways. Inthe early stages of the development of monitoring systems,
the measurement data were used to verify the design assumptions,
which contributed to the development of design and construction of
long-span bridges. With the increase in bridge spans in the 1980s
and 1990s, instrumentation was augmented into the construction
process, and active control of vibration became standard for long-
span bridge construction. Asthe age of these structures increases,
more data from extreme events will accumulate. These data are
used for damage evaluation and to support decision making for
repair and retrofitting. Utilisation of measured data to support the
maintenance and management of the long-span bridge stock has
become more important in recent years.
The paper provides an overview of the development of
monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan, with emphasis on
examples of effective utilisation of the monitored data, following
the development stages mentioned.

10 000 2. Verification of design and performance

evaluation
.
y = 7 1023e0 0291x
1000
Longest span: m

Because of their flexibility, structural dynamics is of primary

100
concern for long-span bridges to evaluate their aerodynamic
stability and seismic performance. Hence, dynamic testing on
10 completion was common in the early stages of development
of long-span bridges. Figure 2 shows the measured natural
1 frequencies and damping ratios obtained from dynamic excitation
1850 1900 1950 2000 testing to verify performance of suspension bridges on completion
Year
(Kawashima etal., 1993). These tests provide valuable information
Figure 1. Bridge spans in Japan over 500m for evaluation of the performance at the point of completion of a
particular bridge, and also to improve the design and specification

135
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino

Table 1. Bridges over 500m in Japan

Bridge name Year Span: m Bridge type Remark
Akashi-Kaikyo 1998 1991 Suspension Active control during construction/wake galloping of hangers/ dry air
injection for cable
Minami Bisan Seto 1988 1100 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Third Kurushima Kaikyo 1999 1030 Suspension Active control during construction/dry air injection for cable
Second Kurushima Kaikyo 1999 1020 Suspension Active control during construction/dry air injection for cable
Kita Bisan Seto 1988 990 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Shimotsui Seto 1988 940 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Tatara 1999 890 Cable-stayed
Onaruto 1985 876 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Innoshima 1983 770 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Akinada 2000 750 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Hakucho 1998 720 Suspension Active control during construction/ dry air injection for cable
Kanmon 1973 712 Suspension During rehabilitation
First Kurushima Kaikyo 1999 600 Suspension Active control during construction/dry air injection for cable/seismic
damage at Geiyo earthquake
Meiko Central 1998 590 Cable-stayed Active control during construction
Rainbow (Tokyo Port) 1993 570 Suspension Active control during construction/dry air injection for cable
Oshima 1988 560 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Toyoshima 2008 540 Suspension Dry air injection for cable
Minato 1974 510 Truss Seismic retrofit
Tsurumi Tsubasa 1994 510 Cable-stayed Active control during construction

(a)

1.0
Natural frequency : Hz

Torsional

Vertical

0.1
100 1000
Span length: m

(b)
Torsional Vertical

0.01
Figure 3. Insitu section model of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge deck for
Damping ratio

evaluation of wind loading

for future long-span bridge projects. The measurement systems

employed were temporary, rather than permanent. Nevertheless,
0.001 they can be considered as the pioneering examples of monitoring
100 1000
Span length: m systems for long-span bridges.
Unknowns associated with external forces, especially wind
Figure 2. Measured natural frequencies and damping ratios for loading, are also of great concern for long-span bridge design.
suspension bridges in Japan up to the early 1990s Figure3 shows a large-scale (1:10) model of the cross-section of a
bridge girder constructed and operated from 1973 to 1975 to verify

136
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
the wind resistance design method for the Honshu-Shikoku Bridge
project, which includes the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge. The observed
response is compared with estimation based upon wind tunnel
testing as shown in Figure 4 (Okauchi, 1978). Although some
1.00
Power spectral density: m2s
1102
1104
1106
1108
11010.
0 01 0.1
Frequency: Hz
Figure 4. Comparison between observed in situ model response
and estimation based on wind tunnel testing (average wind speed
126m/s, elevation 0) for Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge deck
East tower
West tower
Kobe
1A
Anemometer
Global positioning system
Velocimeter (longitudinal)
Velocimeter (transverse)
Figure 5. Monitoring system for Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
10
Observed mean response
8 Observed maximum response
Horizontal girder
displacement: m
Observed dynamic response
6 Design mean response
Design maximum response
4 Design dynamic response
0
0 10
10 min average wind speed: m/s
Figure 6. Relationship between wind speed and horizontal
displacement at Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Ab and Fujino
difference can be seen at higher frequencies, the results were
considered satisfactory for design purposes.
The early trials developed to include monitoring with the
installation of permanent measurement equipment during the service
life of the bridge, particularly as information and sensor technologies
advance. The instrumentation installed at Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
at the time of completion is shown in Figure 5 (Ab and Fujino,
2010). Figure 6 demonstrates use of monitoring results to confirm
the relationship between the average wind speed over a 10 min
period and the horizontal displacement measured by the US global
positioning system (GPS). Design average values are close to the
Observation
observed ones, and the design maximum values are conservative with
Estimation a reasonable margin (Toyama et al., 2006). In addition, measured
data for turbulence intensity, power spectrum and spatial correlation
1 10
of natural wind at various long-span bridges in the Honshu-Shikoku
Bridge project were studied and design assumptions were verified.
Theestimated dynamic responses were observed to be conservative
with margins of approximately 20100% (Katsuchi etal., 1996).
Observation of the seismic response was also useful to verify
the seismic design. Tatara Bridge (see Figure 7) is the longest
East tower East tower
(65% height)
West tower
113.6 m 57.6 m 24.4 m 14.2 m
CL
Awaji
Island
2P 3L/4 point 3P 4A
Centre of girder (panel point 138)
velocimeter (east: longitudinal, transverse
and vertical; west: vertical)
3L/4 point of girder (panel point 173)
velocimeter (east: longitudinal and
vertical; west: vertical)
270 m 890 m 320 m
20 30 40
Seismometer
Accelerometer
Figure 7. Seismic monitoring of Tatara Bridge
137
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino

cablestayed bridge in Japan, and it was subject to strong excitation
from the 2001 Geiyo earthquake (moment magnitude 67; maximum
ground acceleration at the bridge site was 144cm/s2). Response
spectra were calculated from the observed ground motion (see
Figure 8), and the actual seismic load was below the design
specification. The seismic behaviour of the bridge was also
investigated by simulation analysis using the observed ground
motions. The simulation results and the observed responses
were found to be in good agreement and therefore the structural
modelling for seismic design was verified (Kawato etal., 2005).
One of the typical engineering problems for long-span bridges
is the effect of time lag of the ground motions (due to the distance
between the foundations) caused by seismic wave propagation.
Analyses based upon the observed response of the Onaruto
Bridge during the 1995 Kobe earthquake (moment magnitude 69)
revealed that the spatial difference of ground motions increased the
vertical response of the girder (Yoshida, 1999). Asimilar tendency
of increase of vertical girder response was also observed at other
long-span bridges for instance, the Akinada Bridge during the
2001 Geiyo earthquake (Ogiwara etal., 2001).
Recent trials of the application of densely distributed
measurement instrumentation can stimulate further advancement
in this area. Hakucho Bridge (Figure 9(a)) was continuously
monitored with a high-density installation of acceleration sensors
as shown in Figure9(b). Aerodynamic coefficients were identified
from multi-mode inverse analysis using the abundant data from
vibration measurement at various wind speeds (Abe and Fujino,
2009; Fujino etal., 2009), and comparison between the identified
aerodynamic coefficients and estimation based on wind tunnel
testing is provided in Figure10.
The examples indicate that the monitoring results for long-
span bridges have been shown to be useful for verification of
performance and to improve the design.

3. Application of control to bridges

Design spectra
1000 Longitudinal response A natural extension of the application of monitoring would be
Response acceleration

Transverse response
Vertical response
to apply limits for control of the dynamic performance. Vibration
spectra: cm/s

100 control is commonly applied to long-span bridges to suppress

wind-induced vibration. Conventionally, passive vibration control
methods, such as oil dampers for girder motion or tuned mass
10
dampers for tower oscillation, are employed. Asstructures become
larger and more flexible, larger force capacity is required for the
1 vibration control device. Active control, which introduces an
0.1 1 10 artificial external force to suppress vibration, becomes an attractive
Natural period: s option. Because active control naturally requires measurement data

Figure 8. Comparison between design spectra and observed

response spectra at Tatara Bridge in the 2001 Geiyo earthquake (a)
100
Identified value
Change in damping: kNs/m

Estimation by wind
tunnel experiment
(a)

50

0
0 5 15
Wind velocity: m/s
(b)
(b) 100
Change in stiffness: kN/m
ASK-1

ASK-2

ASK-5

ASK-3

ASK-4

ACK-1
ACK-2
ACK-3
ACK-4
ACK-5
AK-3,4
ACK-6
ACK-7
ACK-8
ACK-9
ACK-10
AK-1,2
ACK-11
ACK-12

50

55 m 30 m

0
0 5 15
Wind velocity: m/s

Figure 9. Hakucho Bridge: (a) perspective view and (b) monitoring Figure 10. Identified changes in aerodynamic force.
system. Thered dots represent accelerometers (a)Aerodynamic damping; (b) aerodynamic stiffness

138
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
for determination of the control force, monitoring forms the basis
of this new technology (Spencer and Nagarajaiah, 2003; Spencer
and Sain, 1997).
Practically, active control is considered superior to passive
control devices when: multiple vibration modes are present; natural
frequencies change, as typically observed during construction;
and installation space is limited and compact devices are required.
These three conditions typically apply for the installation of
monitoring systems on flexible long-span bridges, especially at the
construction stage.
Hakucho Bridge is one of the bridges controlled actively during
construction. A pendulum-type control device (see Figure 11(a))
is installed near the top of the tower as shown in Figure 11(b)
(Matsuda, 2002). Thecontrol system utilised is known as a hybrid
system, which incorporates both a passive control effect by the
pendulum action and an active control force provided by the rack
and pinion mechanism of the electric motors.
Long-span bridges at which active control is applied during
construction are listed in Table1.
4. Damage evaluation and retrofitting
following extreme events
As continuous data accumulate, monitoring has proven to be
useful for investigation of extreme events and induced damage, and
eventually to evaluate structural performance.
At Meiko West Bridge, which is a cable-stayed bridge with
a central span of 405m constructed in 1985, large amplitude
vibration of cables was observed during construction. Bystudying
the bridge monitoring data, it was shown that this phenomenon is
only observed when strong wind and rain occur simultaneously.
Further investigation revealed that the cause of the vibration was the
water rivulet formed at the surface of the cable during rain, which
influences the apparent cross-sectional shape, and consequently the
(a) (b) 22 m
Actively controlled
mass damper
127.9 m
20.9 m
Figure 11. Pendulum-type control device and installation at
Hakucho Bridge: (a) control device and (b) location of installation
Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Ab and Fujino
aerodynamic response of the cables. Based on this finding, it was
identified that rain-and-wind-induced vibration can be effectively
suppressed either by control of the cable vibration or by surface
treatment of cables (Hikami and Shiraishi, 1988).
At the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, parallel hanger ropes are employed
to suspend the girder from the main cables. Excessive vibration was
observed at ropes on the downwind side of the bridge, indicating
the occurrence of wake-induced vibration. Typhoon Vicki in 1998
took a route close to the bridge, and the rubber dampers installed
to suppress vortex-induced vibration of the ropes were damaged.
By investigating the video record and the wind monitoring data,
the conditions for occurrence of wake-induced vibration were able
to be investigated and the hanger ropes were retrofitted with the
attachment of helical wires to change their aerodynamic properties
(Takeguchi, 2000).
For investigating the cause of failure associated with wind,
monitoring is critically important, since fluidstructure interaction
may trigger rare phenomena which cannot easily be recreated in
a wind tunnel. For Hakucho Bridge, although the bridge was not
damaged, unexpected along-wind vibration of the bridge tower
and associated lateral vibration of the girder were observed from
the monitoring data and later investigated by wind tunnel testing
(Siringoringo and Fujino, 2012). Monitoring over a sufficiently
long time period would enhance knowledge of remaining unknown
and complex behavioural phenomena for other real structures.
In the 1995 Kobe earthquake, fault movement occurred below
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge. The base motion of the abutments and
pylons due to fault movement measured by GPS monitoring system
are shown in Figure12 (Lin and Uda, 1996). Thebridge was under
construction at the time as shown in Figure13. Nosevere damage
was observed, but the planned design length of the central span
was altered from 1990m to 1991m.
Higashi-Kobe Bridge, which is shown in Figure 14(a), is a
cable-stayed bridge with a central span of 485m opened in 1994;
it was affected by the Kobe earthquake. The bearing link system
connecting end girders and piers failed as shown in Figure14(b),
leading to loss of vertical support to prevent uplift. Thewind shoe,
the function of which was to restrain transverse motion of the
girder, failed due to excessive transverse seismic displacement at
Horizontal displacement by global positioning system
1A 2P 3P 4A
1990.3 m 1.3 m 1.4 m
960.3 m
Vertical displacement by levelling
+10.3 cm
1A 2P 3P
0.0 4.7 cm 4A
33.7 cm
Design span length
960 m 1990 m 960 m
Kobe 3910 m Awaji
Figure 12. Observed movement at Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge after the
1995 Kobe earthquake
139
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino

the girder end, leading to failure of the link. Fortunately the bridge
was also supported by intermediate piers at the side spans which
provided additional redundancy against uplift, which prevented
total collapse.
The bridge was instrumented and monitored during the
earthquake. The girder response contains spike-like wave forms
in the time history which correspond to collisions of the girders
Figure 13. Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge right after the 1995 Kobe earthquake
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Higashi-Kobe Bridge: (a) perspective view and
(b)damage at the end bearing after the 1995 Kobe earthquake
and damage to the bearings and links (Ganev et al., 1998).
After this event, uplift-prevention cables were applied to similar
structural details to provide additional redundancy against link
failure. In addition, the structure is built on reclaimed land, and
severe liquefaction was observed within the ground motion record.
The ground motion record at this bridge, with modification, is
within the current design code for highway bridges for seismic
evaluation of bridges in soft ground conditions.
Yokohama Bay Bridge, opened in 1989 with a central span of 460m,
is continuously monitored with a densely distributed sensor system as
shown in Figure15, and the seismic response due to the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake was recorded (Siringoringo etal., 2014). Ground motion
lasted about 3min and the maximum horizontal response of the girder
was observed to be 600mm. Figure 16 shows the tower transverse
acceleration, where periodic spikes resembling impulses can be
seen. Periodic spikes indicate the occurrence of transverse collisions
between the tower and the girder, and the spikes also appear in the
vertical acceleration records for the girder. Thefirst transverse mode
appears to trigger the collision, since the average time interval between
two consecutive spikes is observed to be around 32s (031032Hz),
which matches the corresponding natural frequency.
Monitoring records for long-span bridges subject to strong
seismic motion frequently demonstrate spiky wave forms of the
type mentioned previously (Kanaji and Suzuki, 2007) and these
are not well-addressed in conventional seismic design. Monitoring,
and in particular densely distributed monitoring, would be required
to investigate this phenomenon further and to develop appropriate
modelling methods and countermeasures.
Yokohama Bay Bridge was closed for 30 h after the earthquake
due to an overturned cargo truck on the lower deck, as shown in
Figure 17. The transverse girder vibration caused the truck to
become unbalanced and overturn. Even though no major structural
damage of the bridge was observed, traffic disruption due to
excessive vibration could have caused human loss. Inthe same way
that wind monitoring data are used to regulate traffic movement in
strong wind conditions (Ab etal., 2014), earthquake monitoring
and early warning data should also be incorporated into traffic and
service control to reduce the seismic risk.

(a) (b) 200 m 450 m 200 m Yakohama Pacific

Harbour Ocean
Y+
Honmoku Ogura
X+

Silt layer
P1 Hard soil layer P4
P2 P3
P2 Y+ P3
X+
Yakohama
Triaxial accelerometer Honmoku Ogura
Harbour
(SA-355CT)
Biaxial (Y,Z) accelerometer
(SA-255CT)
Biaxial (X,Y) accelerometer Pacific
(SA-255CT) Ocean P1 P4

Figure 15. Yokohama Bay Bridge and its seismic response monitoring installation: (a) perspective view and (b) monitoring system

140
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino

(a)
T05Y (Tower P2 transverse direction main shock)
Acceleration: cm/s2

200

180
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Time: s
(b)
Time interval: s

5
4
3
2
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Time: s

Figure 16. Yokohama Bay Bridge monitoring during the 2011

Tohoku earthquake: (a) accelerations of tower at deck level
during the main shock showing spike indicating impulses; (b) time Figure 17. Overturned truck on Yokohama Bay Bridge during the
intervals between successive lateral shocks 2011 Tohoku earthquake

5. Application to maintenance and management
Application of monitoring to the maintenance and management
of existing structures is currently attracting wide interest owing
to the increasing age of the bridge stock. An earlier example
is the monitoring that took place during the Wakato Bridge
rehabilitation of 1990, to expand the roadway width (Ishii et al.,
1991). Wakato Bridge was built in 1962 and is the first modern
long-span suspension bridge in Japan, with a central span of 367m
(Figure18(a)). Displacement of critical positions and representative
measurement data at completion of construction were also available,
the structural conditions can readily be compared with those when
first built. Figure18(b) shows the displacement measurement points.
Measured displacement values at the various rehabilitation
stages by optical surveying are plotted in Figure 19. Measured
(a)
80
60
Displacement: mm

vibration modes were monitored during rehabilitation. Because 40

20

0
(a)
d1
20
d2
40 d3
d4
60
0 1 2 3 4 5
Stage
(b)
80

60
Displacement: mm

(b) 40

Tobata + + Wakamatsu 20
d1 d1
0

20
d3 d3
+ d2 d2 +
40

60
0 1 2 3 4 5
d4 d4 Stage

Figure 19. Deformation of Wakato Bridge: (a) Tobata side and (b)
Wakamatsu side. Stage 0: design value; stage 1: at completion;
stage 2: before rehabilitation; stage 3: at removal of decks at half
Figure 18. Wakato Bridge (a) and displacement monitoring of central span; stage 4: design value after rehabilitation, stage 5:
points(b) after rehabilitation

141
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino

values at completion (stage 1) and right before rehabilitation
(stage 2) are different from the original design values due to creep
deformation and elongation of stranded cables. The values were
stable at stage 2. Theobserved results after rehabilitation (stage 5)
were below design values (stage 4). In addition, both the Tobata
and Wakamatsu sides moved symmetrically, which implies that
balance between the internal forces has been retained following
rehabilitation including at the time of removal of decks (stage3).
Figure 20 shows the transition of major vibration modes from
construction to rehabilitation. Thenatural frequencies were either
unchanged or slightly increased. Hence, no major damage or loss
of stiffness to influence aerodynamic stability was anticipated as a
result of this rehabilitation.
At Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, deformation during strong wind was
observed during the 2003 typhoon Etau, as shown in Figure21(a).
at various structures with a relatively arbitrary configuration and
location. Hence, estimation of displacement from acceleration
measurement data was studied. Theobserved displacement values
were successfully estimated using a random arithmetic method
utilising data from the accelerometer record compared to the GPS
displacement data as shown in Figure 21(b) (Ab and Fujino,
2010).
At Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, a dry-air injection system, the concept
for which is shown in Figure22, was introduced to protect the main
cables from corrosion (Kitagawa et al., 2001). For control of the
air condition, monitoring of moisture within the cable is required.
Figure 23 shows a comparison of the moisture level between the
(a)

Transverse displacement was measured by GPS, together with 700 70

acceleration and simultaneous measurement of the wind speed 600 60
at the centre of the girder. Although displacement is a major Displacement

Wind velocity: m/s

500 50
Displacement: cm

performance index for maintenance and management, conventional

400 40
displacement measurement requires a fixed point for reference.
Theapplication of GPS is limited to the locations that radio waves 300 30
Wind velocity
can reach. However, acceleration measurement can be implemented 200 20

100 10

0 0
0.7 0 200 400 600
0.6 Time: s
Natural frequencies: Hz

(b)
0.5 80
n
0.4 tio
70 ima
= est
0.3 ion
60 vat
Symmetric first bending mode bser
0.2
Estimation: cm

50 O
Symmetric second bending mode
0.1 Antisymmetric first bending mode
40
Symmetric first torsion mode
0 30
0 1 2
Stage 20

10
Figure 20. Natural frequencies measured at Wakato Bridge.
0
Stage0: before rehabilitation; stage 1: during rehabilitation, 0 20 40 60 80
stage2: after rehabilitation Observation with global positioning system: cm

Figure 21. Performance of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge during typhoon

Air injection pipe
Etau: (a) displacement and wind velocity; (b) displacement
estimation by accelerometer

Main cable Air exhaust

cover 100
Outside air
80
Tower
Moisture: %

Air injection
cover 60

40
Inside air
20
Dry-air injection Stiffening 0
system girder 2005 2006 2007
Year

Figure 23. Moisture monitoring of main cable of Akashi-Kaikyo

Figure 22. Dryair injection system for Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge Bridge

142
Civil Engineering Monitoring of long-span bridges in Japan
Volume 170 Issue CE3 Ab and Fujino

outside air and the air inside the cable, indicating the advantage of
the system. Monitoring of environmental conditions is becoming Recent examples of monitoring
increasingly important for evaluation of durability.
One of the challenging problems for monitoring of long-span
using densely distributed sensor
bridges is evaluation of scour. At Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, for arrays show it to be particularly
example, ultrasonic sounding by a survey ship is employed every
2years, and so far, no severe scour has been observed (Kurino and
useful for developing an in-depth
Yumiyama, 2002). Because natural disasters which could cause understanding of structural
scour may occur during the interval between ultrasonic surveys,
development of a continuous/permanent monitoring system is behaviour. The technology is also
desired.
At Tokyo Gate Bridge, which opened in 2012 and has a central
used for active control of bridge
span of 440m, the advanced monitoring system consists of optical response during construction
fibre sensors (Yokota and Akiyama, 2013). Figure 24 indicates
the installed locations of the sensors. Examples of traffic load Strain gauge
estimations using strain monitoring data from the installed thermometer
Displacement gauge
weigh-in-motion system are shown in Figure 25. Traffic weight Displacement gauge
anemometer
accelerometer
and frequency for each lane and direction are identified, and this accelerometer
information is utilised to support regular and detailed inspection
by screening possible locations of fatigue cracks in the steel deck
plates. Displacement gauge
Conventional monitoring systems designed for measurement Seismometer
rain gauge
of the dynamic behaviour during an earthquake and/or high wind
have proven to be useful. Further development to match the needs
Figure 24. Monitoring system for Tokyo Gate Bridge
for future maintenance and management are currently being
investigated.
(a)
Sun. Mon. Tue. Wed. Thur. Fri. Sat.
6. Conclusions 1000
50 t
Number of vehicles over 20 t

900
4049 t
800 3039 t
This paper provides an overview of the development of long-span 700 2029 t
bridges in Japan in the light of data from monitoring applications. 600
Earlier applications were intended for evaluation of the design 500
conditions and structural performance, and for verification of the 400
design assumptions, such as for wind and earthquake loadings. 300
There was a focus on the dynamic structural properties, since they 200
govern the behaviours of long-span bridges. Recent examples of 100
monitoring using densely distributed sensor arrays show it to be 0
Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

particularly useful for developing an in-depth understanding of

structural behaviour. This technology was also utilised for active
control of the bridge response during the construction stage of
long-span bridges. (b)
Sun. Mon. Tue. Wed. Thur. Fri. Sat.
Monitoring has evolved toward continuous provision and the 1000
permanent installation of instrumentation throughout the lifetime
Number of vehicles over 20 t

900
of structures. Continuous monitoring provides data on structural 800
behaviours during unexpected extreme events, which can reveal the 700
600
cause and process of damage accumulation and failure. Detection
500
and identification of rain-induced vibration and wake galloping
400
of stay cables and hangers are presented as examples of wind- 300
induced vibration. Spike-like waveforms in the seismic response 200
and multiple ground excitation effect, which are not explicitly 100
treated in current design codes, are quantitatively observed during 0
Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

Passing lane

Cruising lane

monitoring of long-span bridges.

As the age of long-span bridges increases, more effort has
been put into the application of monitoring for maintenance and
management. Detection of changes in the structural response
during rehabilitation is an early example of the benefits that can Figure 25. Identified traffic loading at Tokyo Gate Bridge:
be achieved from monitoring of bridges. Continuous evaluation (a)inbound direction and (b) outbound direction
of performance indices such as displacement and traffic loading

143
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE3
Figure 26. Developed painting robot at Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
is currently being developed. Monitoring of the environmental
condition is also becoming increasingly important for the
evaluation of durability.
Recent evolution of information technology could facilitate the
development of novel applications for monitoring. For example,
Figure26 shows the application of a painting robot for maintenance
of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge (Hirahara et al., 2005), which would
naturally require monitoring of not only the structural condition but
also the environment. Future rationalisation of bridge management
would rely on the availability of accurate and reliable monitoring
data.
References
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Ab M, Fujino Y and Shimamura M (2014) Risk management and
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