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Well Logging PE-307

Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

The ribs are developed by laboratory experiments on lab samples. The above
graph is used for correction as discussed in earlier lecture. The spine is line of
corrected values, with the rib leading us there from intersection point.
Now, observe that there is a part in the graphs right, called mudcake without
barite and another part in the left, called mudcake with barite. Recall from last
lecture that when mudcake density will be less than formation density, then the
LS-SS intersection will automatically fall in the right region of the spine.
Similarly, if mudcake density is greater than formation density, then intersection
points will fall in the left region of the spine. The right part of spine is where
mudcake density is lower than formation density. Also recall that with
increasing mudcake density, you move away from the spine.
The concept of mudcake with or without barite is itself a function of mudcake
density. The drilling muds high density is present by virtue of barite in the mud.
If barite is present then when mudcake will form, it will be composed of barite,
as barite particles are largely undissolved in mud. As barite has higher density
than formation mineral, the mudcake density will be greater than formation
density. As said above, in such case the point of intersection falls in the left of
the spine. Thus, the left region is also called mudcake with barite region. Vice
versa, the right region involves a case when mudcake density will be less than
formation density. This will be a case only when there is no barite in mud. Thus,
we call this right region mudcake without barite region.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

In paper a question came, in a plot of SS count vs. LS count, the point of


intersection falls on the left of the spine, this would indicate?
This means that mudcake is with barite. Similarly, if point was on right, then
mudcake would be without barite.
(note: print page 127 of Paul glover, for calibration topic)
Recall that the density logging tool measures electron density of the formation,
which is simply the number of electrons in the formation. The electrons will
slow down the induced gamma rays. Now, e=true when 2Z/A=1.

Z is the atomic number, and A is the atomic mass. Take Quartz, when 2Z/A 1,
electron density measured by the tool is equal to the actual or true density of
quartz. The density log actually responds to electron density, whereas the
desired measurement is the bulk density. Although for most rocks 2Z/A is close
to 1, it is not practical to adjust 2Z/A for each formation. Instead the electron
density is scaled to give the correct bulk density in limestone filled with fresh
water (using the graph discussed before). So, in table, electron density column
is the tools actual response, measured density from tool column is the density
(b) which we deduce from correlation or graph. The last column represents
what the mineral density actually is.
Now atomic number is for atoms, not molecules, so how come we are using Z
for Quartz (SiO2). The concept is that we use Z=average atomic number of
formation, and A= average atomic mass of formation. Formation minerals are

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

usually covalent compounds sharing electrons, these shared valence electrons


attenuate gamma rays. Since the attenuating electron revolves around all the
nuclei of the atoms forming the molecule, hence we use average Z and A for the
molecule. The average is weighted average; if Si comprises 60% and oxygen
comprises 40% of the molecule, lets assume, then you use weighted average to
give a pseudo-atomic number.
But in some cases, like salt, 2Z/A is not near or equal to 1.

Hydrogen is an element where 2Z/A is not equal to 1, but obviously there will
be no hydrogen formation.
The case of interest is Halite. It is a formation where 2Z/A 1. There is a huge
difference between measured density from tool and actual density. Another
formation is Sylvite (KCl). For Oil and gas, 2Z/ A 1.
BULK DENSITY DEDUCTION FROM ELECTRON DENSITY:

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

An empirical equation converts electron density to bulk density so that density


tool gives the correct bulk density for 0 to 100% water limestone mixtures. The
above figure is a laboratory formed graph. This figure is used to deduce the bulk
density from tool response i.e. electron density. Several mixtures like 100%
water-no limestone, 100% limestone- no water, 50:50 by% limestone & water
mixture etc. through this, correlation is formed. But these correlations are
regional, they are based on a particular environment and one correlation cannot
be used in another environment (region). Deviations in density might occur if
environment is not concerned. By using the correlation, electron density (tool
reading) is converted into bulk density, which will be equal if 2Z/A is 1. If eb
given that the formations 2Z/A=1, then there might be some error causing the
deviation, which has not been compensated yet.
However, some formations like Halite (NaCl) dont have 2Z/A=1, so in these
cases you wont have electron density=bulk density, and the results will always
be lower than your true density, i.e. measured bulk density is underestimated.
Our concerned lithologies are usually limestone, dolomite, sandstone and
shales; such rocks have 2Z/A=1, so we dont find issues of compensation (like
above) and the correlation can be effectively used for the determination of bulk
density. Note that the graph has not been calibrated for all lithologies. But it
works for the rocks of our interest.
Bulk density is weighted average density of a porous rock with some fluid in it.
Imagine a situation of 2 intervals, where gamma ray reading is same (same
lithology for the 2 intervals), but density value is changing. This means fluid is
changing or porosity is changing. PEF log is a lithology log too.
USES OF DENSITY LOG: The density tool is most often run in combination
with (i) a gamma ray log, for depth matching, (ii) a caliper log, for borehole
quality control, and (iii) a neutron log, because the interpretation of the density
tool together with the results from the neutron log provide one of the two best
lithological assessment techniques for a reservoir. Others are:
1. Bulk Density determination
2. Porosity determination and fluid indication
3. Permeability indication (through porosity)
4. Acoustic impedance
Acoustic impedance is the rocks resistance offered against propagation of
sound waves through the rock. It is product of density of rock and velocity (of
sound in rock). Acoustic impedance is used to give velocity in rock values for

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

seismic surveys for the determination of time interval of wave, to form seismic
section. So, acoustic impedance generally comes from well logging.
Fracture porosity is a secondary porosity that develops in brittle formations due
to some tectonics after the deposition of the rock. It is a post deposition
porosity. Limestone or dolomite are brittle formations, their initial or pre-
depositional primary porosity is very low, similarly they are nearly
impermeable.
Fractures induce secondary porosity and enhance the permeability. The only
permeability in limestones or dolomites is due to this fracture porosity. Fracture
porosity is usually found in limestone and dolomite, and are not found shales &
sandstones, because they are ductile in nature and expand to release pressure.
Fracture porosity is usually 2-3%, not very high, but fracture permeability is
very high. Limestones without fractures are impermeable, so they can occur as
cap/seal rock or source rock. But fracture permeability, or permeability induced
in limestones after fractures can be up to 10 Darcy (only fracture permeability,
not the total).
Fluid will flow through fractures, matrix doesnt allow fluid to pass. Good
Sandstone reservoirs have usually 50 mD, which is considered quite large.
Fractures are of different types, interconnected, not connected etc. It is
necessary that fractures be connected (the 3rd kind of fractures). Only then
reservoir is useful and good.
FRACTURE POROSITY DERERMINATION:
So, we need to know that how many fractures are connected. Since fractures
that develop form the fracture porosity, therefore it is useful to determine the
fracture porosity i.e. how much porosity was induced after deposition, by
tectonics. So, density log porosity and sonic log porosity are compared and
through this we get to know how much fracture porosity is present in the
formation. This will be discussed in sonic log.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

PHOTOELECTRIC FACTOR LOG (PEF LOG)


Photoelectric effect, in well logging context, is defined as a gamma ray
interaction in which the gamma ray is fully absorbed by a bound electron
(electron of an atom). The highest probability for this effect occurs at low
gamma ray energy and in a material of high atomic number. The photoelectric
effect is the principle behind the PEF log, which identifies lithology. The log
measures the photoelectric absorption factor, Pe.
Thus, the photoelectric factor log (also called litho-density log) is a continuous
record of the effective photoelectric absorption cross-section index or Pe of a
formation. The photoelectric absorption index is strongly dependent on the
average atomic number Z of the constituents of the formation and the energy of
the incident Gamma ray (Er).
THEORY:
PEF log is a lithology log. Its tool is run with density tool. It is basically a type
of density tool itself.
Recall, we studied that when gamma rays
enter the formation, they undergo Compton
scattering and lose energy. When they lose
energy, they fall to an energy level where
gamma rays are called soft gamma rays,
these gamma rays will undergo
photoelectric absorption. Photoelectric
absorption will occur when GR energy is
lower than 100 keV. Electrons will emit
when they absorb photons. The number of
photons absorbed depends on the capacity
of formation (recall changes in curve A).
Curve A is composed of number of free gamma rays, that are not absorbed.
Such GRs that dont get absorbed are called free GR, these GRs get detected by
tool (note that high energy GR can also be detected by tool). Some lithologies
(sandstones) dont absorb much photons, so curve A is larger as more free GRs
are detected by tool, while absorption is more for limestones, so curve A is
smaller.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

The reaction of photoelectric effect has been found to be related to average


atomic number Z of the constituent atoms of formation and the energy of the
incident Gamma ray (Er) by the following relation;
4.6
Z
J =12.1
E 3.15
r

The unit is barn/electron. Photoelectric effect will be dominant if atomic


number is very large, and gamma ray energy is less.
IMPORTANT NOTES:
A Barn is 10-24 cm2. The degree of absorption of photons depends on the
average atomic number and the electron density of the formation. Pe is unitless,
but since it is proportional to the photoelectric cross section per electron, it is
sometimes quoted in barns/electron. Since fluids have very low atomic
numbers, they have very little influence, so that Pe is a measure of the rock
matrix properties. Sandstones have low Pe, while dolomites and limestones
have high Pe. Clays, heavy minerals and iron-bearing minerals have high Pe.
Thus, the log is very useful for determining mineralogy.
The log is recorded as part of the density measurement. The depth of
investigation is of the order of one inch, which is normally in the flushed zone.
PEF can be affected by heavy minerals such as barite in the mudcake or mud
filtrate. This concept can be used in determination for existence of fractures.
Caliper log will indicate a mudcake presence (smaller diameter of borehole),
and PEF value will be very high (because barites PEF value is very high). So, it
means fractures are present. But sonic log determination is a more reliable way.
USES:
The photoelectric absorption index (J or Pe) is used primarily as a matrix
indicator. It is one of the best lithology indicator. With PEF value, you can
easily deduce the lithology. Moreover, clays, heavy minerals and iron-bearing
minerals have high Pe. Thus, the log is very useful for determining mineralogy.
It can also be used to determine existence of fractures.
LOG PRESENTATION:
A PEF curve is normally plotted along with neutron and density logs in track 3.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lec 16- Thursday, 8th June 2017 Made By: Maisam Abbas, PE-038

EFFECT OF POROSITY ON PEF VALUE:


Porosity has generally only a subsidiary (minor) effect on the PEF value. Matrix
type is more important-it affects the most.
The porosity and fluid saturations of rocks vary, and so it would be expected
that the measured Pe values might also vary with changing porosity and fluid
saturation in the same way that many other logs do. However, the values of Pe
for the fluids commonly found in rock are so low compared with the values for
the matrix, that their influence is negligible. The one exception to this is perhaps
highly saturated brines, which may have a significant Pe value. The figure shows
how little influence up to 40% porosity changes have on the Pe values for
quartz,
limestone
and
dolomite.

The PEF log is therefore sensitive to differences in the mean atomic number of
a formation without being sensitive to changes in the porosity and fluid
saturation of that lithology. This combination makes the PEF log an extremely
good indicator of lithology. The ability of the PEF log to accurately indicate
lithology is not impaired in gas-bearing zones, where the combination of the
formation density and neutron logs may have difficulty distinguishing between
lithologies.

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