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1.0 Introduction

Previous modules established the need for fast acting excitation systems for steady-state and transient stability purposes and the need to
add power system stabilizers to restore the small-signal stability of the grid. This module discusses the fundamental concepts associated
with stabilizers and the different implementations that are commonly found on the power system. The material presented in this module
covers common stabilizer structures.

As a starting point, we return to the rotor equation-of-motion that was previously introduced.

where, as before

TM = change in turbine input power

Ks = synchronizing torque coefficient

KD = damping torque coefficient

= change in machine angle
= change in rotor speed

= rotor acceleration

For the case where the generator field is supplied with fixed excitation and manual regulation, the overall damping coefficient is normally
positive, resulting in a stable system. Under these conditions the damping coefficient is primarily determined by natural turbine damping,
damper windings located on the generator rotor and possibly load damping. When a high-speed exciter and high-gain voltage regulator
are employed to increase steady-state and transient stability limits the damping coefficient is reduced and, under certain system
conditions, may reverse sign. As previously discussed, a negative damping coefficient corresponds to an unstable system; one in which
rotor oscillations will continue to grow until the machine loses synchronism.

As was the case with the spring-mass-plunger system, we would like to add an element to our system that contributes directly to damping
torque by opposing variations in rotor speed. The initial response to the problem of oscillatory instability was the addition of damper
windings to the generator rotor. On salient pole generators these damper windings normally take the form of solid copper bars traversing
the pole faces with the ends shorted together in a squirrel-cage arrangement. On round-rotor (thermal) machines separate windings may
not be included in the design, as the flow of eddy currents in the solid-iron rotor body provides the necessary effect. In either case, the
damper windings do not carry current as long as the rotor turns at a steady synchronous speed. As soon as the rotor speed oscillates or
deviates, induced currents flow in the shorted damper windings creating a component of electrical torque that opposes the speed
variation. There are limitations to the amount of damping that can be provided by such windings, and in many cases supplementary
damping must be provided by other sources to ensure stability.

The torque applied to the machine rotor can be varied in one of two ways:

1. The mechanical torque to the turbine could be modulated by means of the governor. This method is normally not practical for the
frequencies of oscillation associated with local modes because of the speed of governor action required, and because of the time
constants associated with the components of large turbines.
2. The electrical torque could be modified by means of the field circuits for the frequencies of interest (remembering that electrical
torque change introduced through the field approaches zero at very low frequencies).

2.0 Conceptual PSS Design

Power system stabilizers employ the second method of changing torque. Since pure damping is introduced by producing torque changes
that are exactly in-phase with speed, speed is a logical choice as the input signal to the stabilizer, as depicted in Figure 1. Many practical
stabilizers are built using this simple structure [7]. Other designs of stabilizer are introduced in subsequent sections.

Figure 1: Simplified Representation of Speed-Input Stabilizer Hardware

The stabilizer alters the field voltage of the machine as a function of speed change. As there is some delay or time constant between field
voltage change and the resulting magnetic flux change, phase lead or a derivative component is required to produce an electrical torque

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component that directly opposes speed change. Since the derivative of speed is acceleration, this signal may be thought of as being
comprised of speed and acceleration components. (Note: It must be reiterated that on average the electrical torque will always equal the
applied mechanical torque, ie. only small transient changes in electrical torque can be produced by changing the applied excitation.)

Figure 1 shows the basic components that are present in virtually all power system stabilizers. The derived stabilizing signal is "washed-
out" or reset, using a high-pass filter, so that the stabilizer will not modify the terminal voltage for steady-state (or very slow) variations in
generator speed and system frequency. The extent to which the stabilizer contributes to damping is controlled using a calibrated variable
gain circuit. The final stabilizer output signal is injected into the voltage regulator input to produce the required variation in the exciter
output and field voltage. The main elements of this stabilizer are summarized below:

measure or derive shaft speed signal

remove steady-state component of speed signal using high-pass filter (washout)
apply phase lead or advance to signal
apply adjustable gain to stabilizing signal
connect to voltage regulator input

Figure 2: Overview of PSS Connection

The phase lead block shown in this figure is a common component in most control systems, but may be unfamiliar to those not involved
in this field. As stated earlier, there is some delay or time constant between a field voltage change and the resulting magnetic flux
change inside the generator. Hence, if the torque is to be modulated in phase with the speed change, it is necessary to "advance" the
speed-change signal before applying it to the input of the AVR. A phase lead circuit achieves this function by taking a partial derivative of
the speed signal. The output signal from the phase lead card will be advanced in phase (or time) by a fixed number of degrees that,
ideally, will equal, and therefore offset, the delay through the generator field circuit.

Stabilizers that are designed based on this general description are sometimes referred to as conventional stabilizers. Within this
category there are a number of possible implementations, differentiated primarily by the method used to derive the input signal. The
following types of conventional stabilizers are discussed in the following section:

Differential Angle Measurement ()

Shaft Speed Measurement ().
Frequency Measurement (F)
Power Measurement (P)
Accelerating Power Measurement (P)

3.0 Functional Design of Power System Stabilizers

3.1 Differential Angle () Stabilizer

The first application of a PSS used a stabilizing signal proportional to derivative of angle [1]. This was derived from phase measurement
between generator internal voltage (Eq) and a remote system voltage (Es). The two voltages were obtained from simulating networks at
the generator terminals and an angle transducer was used to provide a dc signal proportional to the phase angle. The signal was
differentiated to provide the required stabilizing signal.

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This stabilizer suffered from two principal shortcomings. One was due to the variation in system impedance seen from generator
terminals over a wide range, depending on operating conditions; this resulted in instability of the device when the actual system
impedance was much lower than the value used in the simulating network. The other shortcoming was caused by unavoidable time lags
in the measurement, which had an adverse effect on the stabilizer performance. This method was therefore abandoned in favour of
direct measurement of shaft speed.

3.2 Speed-Based () Stabilizer

As the name implies, the speed-based power system stabilizer relies on the measurement of the generator shaft speed for the stabilizing
signal. As this is probably the most common design of stabilizer, it is described in some detail in this section.

Figure 1 is a functional block diagram of a typical speed-based power system stabilizer used in hydraulic stations. Actual units are much
the same as shown in the figure except for practical implementation details. For example, it is common practice to use two stages of
washout to remove the dc component of speed. This enhances the reliability of the electronic circuits and eliminates effects of dc offsets
in the operational amplifiers. A terminal voltage limiter is also included in many implementations. During major system disturbances, the
stabilizer may act to increase the terminal voltage to an unacceptable value. The limiter ensures that this doesn't happen.

The original approach to obtain the required speed input signal was to install a toothed-wheel on hydraulic generators. Two or more
magnetic pickups were then used to sense the passage of each discontinuity produced by the teeth or groove and produce an electrical
pulse output. An electronic comparator circuit converts the pulses from the pickups into a signal, which automatically eliminates any noise
either produced by small defects on the shaft or picked up in the wiring. Immunity to signal amplitude variations is also obtained through
this circuit. The output of this squaring circuit feeds a monostable circuit that generates an equal-area pulse (constant amplitude and
width). The average dc voltage level represented by the train of constant area pulses is directly proportional to shaft speed. A low pass
filter is used to filter the pulse train and to obtain a dc signal.

Since the stabilizer works on speed deviations and not absolute speed, "washout" or high-pass filter circuits are used to amplify only
changes in speed. The last stage of the stabilizer is a phase lead circuit, which provides phase advance of the signal to compensate for
the delay introduced by the generator rotor circuit.

While speed-based stabilizers are conceptually simple, a number of implementation problems were encountered when they were initially
introduced. Among the most important considerations is the minimization of noise resulting from the speed measurement. The allowable
level of noise is dependent on its frequency. For noise frequencies below 5 Hz, the level must be below 0.02%, since significant changes
in terminal voltage can be produced by low frequency changes in the field voltage.

On the first installations of speed-based stabilizers on hydraulic units (vertical shaft), large once-per-revolution shaft run-out was
encountered. As the shaft moves in the horizontal plane the spacing of the pulses produced by the pickups is modulated by a large
component at the rotational frequency (e.g. 100 RPM = 1.67 Hz). Removal of this signal using filtering is impossible since its frequency
falls within the range of the actual electromechanical oscillations that we are attempting to measure. One solution to this problem
involves using multiple magnetic pickups mounted around the periphery of the geared wheel such that when their signals are added
together the shaft run-out component is cancelled. This method, though successful at removing the effects of shaft run-out on the
derived speed signal, is relatively expensive to construct, calibrate and maintain. Despite the fact that these units were used successfully
for many years, this approach has been abandoned in favour of speed derived from other sources, as discussed below.

On the early applications of speed-based stabilizers on horizontal-shaft round-rotor machines, a different problem was encountered [6].
The relatively long, small-diameter shafts are subject to lightly-damped torsional modes of oscillation. Each torsional mode represents
the exchange of energy between different rotating masses through the interconnecting shaft sections. Torque introduced at the generator
end of the system has the potential to de-stabilize one or more of these modes. Solutions to this problem were developed including
alternate placement of the speed probes and tuned notch filters. The notch filters introduced control system modes, often referred to as
exciter modes which frequently limited the maximum in-service gains. The additional cost and complexity led to the search for
alternatives.

3.3 Frequency-Based (f) Stabilizers

Terminal frequency has been used as the stabilizing signal for several PSS applications [2]. Normally, the terminal frequency signal is
used directly as the stabilizer input signal. In some cases, terminal voltage and current are used to derive the frequency of a voltage
behind a simulated machine reactance so as to approximate the machine rotor speed.

The sensitivity of the frequency signal to rotor oscillations increases as the external transmission system becomes weaker, which tends
to offset the reduction in gain from stabilizer output to electrical torque resulting from a weaker transmission system [3]. Hence, the gain
of a frequency-based stabilizer may be adjusted to obtain the best possible performance under weak ac transmission system conditions,
where the contribution of the stabilizer is required most.

The frequency signal is more sensitive to modes of oscillation between large areas than to modes involving only individual units,
including those between units within a power plant. In theory it would appear to be possible to obtain greater damping contribution for
inter-area modes of oscillation than would be obtainable with the speed input signal.

The frequency-based stabilizer, however, suffers from several shortcomings:

a. During a rapid transient, the terminal frequency signal will see a sudden phase shift. This results in a spike in the field voltage,

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which is reflected in the generator output quantities.

b. The frequency signal often contains power system noise caused by large industrial loads such as arc furnaces. This has in many
cases prevented the use of frequency as an input signal [4].

Despite these limitations, frequency signals are often now used in place of measured speed in various other stabilizer configurations. A
speed-like signal may be derived from the frequency of a compensated generator terminal voltage signal. This method tracks the
changes in the position of the generator's rotor by devising the frequency of an "internal" voltage - one that is tied to the position of the
generators quadrature axis, as shown in Figure 3. Both the generator terminal voltage and a voltage proportional to the generator's
terminal current are used in deriving the internal voltage. Auxiliary PTs and CTs are used to obtain a composite voltage of the form:

Ecomposite = Et + It Xq

where Xq has been used to denote an proportional to the generators quadrature axis impedance. For the frequency range of interest,
the transient impedance is most often employed.

Figure 3: Derivation of Compensated Frequency

On analog stabilizers a comparator circuit is used to detect the zero crossings of this composite signal, a pulse train synchronized to the
internal voltage frequency is thus generated. This analog approach has been used at some hydraulic stations to produce a derived
speed signal for use within accelerating-power based stabilizers to overcome some of the difficulties of deriving a direct speed signal, as
discussed earlier. This approach to deriving a speed signal from internal frequency is most commonly employed on digital stabilizers
based on sampled ac voltages and currents.

3.4 PowerBased Stabilizers

Power-based stabilizers are also employed at some locations, however they have a number of practical drawbacks. The relationship
between speed and power deviations, during electromechanical oscillations, is dictated by the swing equation.

If mechanical power is held constant, the relationship is given by:

Examining this equation it can be seen that shaft acceleration will be proportional to and opposite changes in electrical torque. For small
changes in speed (which is always the case on a large synchronous system) the electrical torque changes are almost exactly equal to
electrical power changes. Based on the above, we can see that power changes (inverted) will lead speed changes by 90. This
relationship is exploited in stabilizers that combine power and speed changes. For the case of a pure sinusoid oscillating at the machine-
system frequency, adding a component of measured speed change to a scaled component of measured power change will produce a
signal that is phase advanced relative to speed changes. By changing the relative gain of the two signals different amounts of phase

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lead are achieved. In this manner, a stabilizer that does not require a phase lead circuit is achieved.

Stabilizers utilizing power as an input can be designed with a non-minimum phase characteristic, effectively utilizing lag networks rather
than the lead networks associated with the minimum phase characteristic utilized with speed or frequency input. This allows damping
performance equivalent to a speed-input stabilizer but with lower gain at high frequencies. In particular, the interaction with torsional
modes of shaft vibration exhibits a declining gain versus frequency characteristic as opposed to the increasing gain with frequency
associated with speed or frequency input stabilizers.

Other systems use a combination of speed and electrical power directly. Speed is used for the proportional component of the signal and
power is used in place of a derivative component of speed. Because the speed signal is not differentiated, this system is less susceptible
to torsional destabilization than the equivalent speed based system. Since the power component is not integrated, it is less susceptible
to mechanical power changes than an integral of electric power stabilizer.

Nevertheless, this design does suffer from some practical drawbacks. First of all the phase characteristic of the overall PSS is somewhat
limited, and cannot be easily tailored to match complex machine system transfer functions. Second, and most important, this type of
stabilizer does require some compensation to prevent large terminal voltage changes from occurring whenever the mechanical power is
changed. This limits the maximum practical gains that can be employed with these stabilizers.

Figure 4: Phase Relationships in Power-Based Stabilizers

As will be discussed in the next session, the power-input stabilizer allows positive damping contribution at local-mode frequencies, but
does nothing to improve inter-area mode damping.

3.5 Accelerating Power-Based (P) Stabilizers

The limitations inherent in the speed-based stabilizers were overcome in the design of stabilizers that indirectly measure accelerating
power. Stabilizers based on accelerating power are now the industry standard. The principle behind accelerating power stabilizers can
be explained by referring back to the swing equation introduced in the last section. The right-hand side of this equation, the difference
between the mechanical and electrical torque, is referred to as the accelerating torque (or power since speed changes are relatively
small).

To derive a speed-like signal, which does not contain the unwanted run-out, we can make use of the swing equation as shown below:

A change-in-speed signal may be derived by examining the integral of the accelerating power component in the above equation.
Electrical power is easily measured, using a watt transducer, but mechanical power must be derived from gate or valve positions, (not an
easy task). Electronic circuitry may then be used to combine, integrate and scale these signals to produce the necessary stabilizing
signal. This derived signal is inherently free of shaft run-out components and can be used directly without the need for special filtering or
processing. This method permits the use of much higher stabilizer gains, producing more effective damping of electromechanical
oscillations.

While this method of producing the required stabilizing signal would appear to be ideal at first glance, one significant problem remains.
Although the derivation of mechanical power was tested at some locations it proved extremely difficult to produce an accurate signal. To
overcome this difficulty, the swing equation is first used to derive a signal proportional to the integral-of-mechanical power.

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The above relationship is used to simulate a signal proportional to the integral of mechanical power change by adding signals
proportional to shaft-speed change and integral of electrical power change. The astute reader will note that this entire process reverts
back to using the original measured speed signal; on the surface it would appear that nothing has been gained. Although this is true, a
subtle change is made to the derived mechanical power signal prior to re-introducing it into the equation. Normally, mechanical power
changes are quite slow, relative to the electromechanical oscillations of interest. Knowing this, we can low-pass filter the derived
mechanical power signal without affecting the behaviour of its output signal for normal variations. When this filtered signal is combined
with the electrical power signal, it still produces a valid accelerating power and derived speed signal. This process is depicted in Figure
5. The input signals to the stabilizer are shaft speed and electrical power. The shaft speed signal that is used does not need to be
separately processed to remove torsional components, since it passes through the mechanical power low-pass filter. Stabilizers that
utilize this approach can normally be applied with much higher gains and are therefore much more effective in stabilizing the generator.

Figure 5: Simplified Block-Diagram of Accelerating Power Based Stabilizer

The overall transfer function for deriving the integral-of-accelerating power signal from shaft speed and electrical power measurements is
given by:

The design of the mechanical-power low-pass filter is a compromise between the requirement to remove high-frequency torsional and
noise components and the need to allow legitimate mechanical power variations to pass through the filter un-attenuated. This is
discussed further in an upcoming section.

In addition to the main signal paths required for the stabilizer signal deviation, practical implementations incorporate logic and protection
features. Key signals, such as speed, power, voltages from the power supply and torsional components in the speed signal are
monitored by built-in electronic circuits. Should any of these signals deviate from normal levels, the stabilizer logic will isolate the
stabilizer signal from the AVR. In addition, level detectors monitor the loading on the generator and automatically connect the stabilizer
to the AVR at a load in excess of an adjustable fraction of the generators MVA rating.

Built-in test facilities are often provided to allow easy on-line verification of the stabilizer and excitation system performance. These
facilities provide isolated and transduced signals to allow the recording of generator terminal voltage, field voltage, electrical power and
stabilizer output.

The P stabilizer is the standard configuration used by many utilities, and it is now implemented as an algorithm on the digital exciters
produced by virtually every major Manufacturer.

3.5.1 Practical Application Issues

Early stabilizer designs suffered from failures due to mechanical components such as speed pickups. Replacement of the measured
speed signal with a derived frequency signal has greatly improved reliability at many facilities. The early analog-electronic designs also
suffered from reliability problems due to failures of components used to implement the adjustable settings (e.g. switches, potentiometers).
Digital designs have eliminated these components and improved reliability and ease-of-use. Further gains in reliability are achieved
when the PSS is implemented as an internal component of a complete digital excitation system, since this eliminates any additional
hardware.

Although the original requirement for the PSS units was based on supplementing the local plant modes of oscillation, many new
installations and retrofits have been applied to improve damping of inter-area modes of oscillation [8] as is common in Western utilities.
In order to be effective at damping these modes of oscillation, the high-pass filters (parameters Tw1 to Tw3 and T7 in Figure 8) must be set
to admit frequencies as low as 0.1 Hz without significant attenuation or the addition of excessive phase lead.

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Early attempts at re-tuning PSS for these frequencies identified some side effects related to mechanical power variations on the units.
Tests on the original P design on thermal units included fast intercept valve closures, that produced a step change in power of
approximately 5%, followed by a ramp of 0.55%/s [6]. The maximum terminal change produced by a PSS configured with short washout
time constants was below 2%, for the normal in-service gain. On the first tests of this design on hydraulic units, mechanical power ramp-
rates of up to 10%/s were achieved under gate limit control.

The introduction of long high-pass filter time constants produced excessive terminal voltage and reactive power deviations. In response
to this problem, the mechanical power low-pass filters were replaced with a ramp-tracking design with the following transfer function [9]:

where T9, M and N are selected to produce the required attenuation of higher frequency components appearing in the speed signal, and
T8 is selected to provide the desired ramp-tracking behaviour, using the following relationship:

T8 = M * T9

Figure 6: Ramp-Tracking Filter Response

Selection of these settings is discussed along with the other tuning requirements in another module. With this design, the filtered integral-
of-mechanical power signal can track rapid rates-of-change in the measured electrical power signal, greatly reducing the terminal voltage
modulation produced by the PSS. The performance of this filter may also be critical to the behaviour of the unit, in the event of
inadvertent islanded operation resulting in large frequency and mechanical power variations.

Most new PSS units are digitally implemented. The units installed to-date have been trouble-free, and have produced the expected
benefits of ease of tuning, maintenance and performance verification. The digital implementation of the PSS has also permitted further
refinements to the monitoring and signal conditioning, including:

advanced input signal supervision, allowing the PSS output to be attenuated or turned off during failures (e.g.PT fuse failure)
advanced limiting and digital filtering to remove un-wanted signal noise and prevent the PSS from altering the generators terminal
quantities outside of acceptable bounds
self-diagnostic features to warn operators of conditions for which the PSS performance may be compromised.

4.0 Input Signals and Transducers

The proper functioning of all power system stabilizers relies on accurate and reliable signals obtained from the generator and the
excitation system. Proper interfacing to station or unit control logic is also required.

The signals that must be available to the stabilizer for the stabilizing functions are:

Shaft speed for the stabilizer

Shaft speed (or terminal frequency) and generator electrical power for the P stabilizer

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In addition, for terminal voltage limiting and dynamic test purposes, generator terminal voltage and generator field voltage are required.

The following discussion applies to analog electronic implementation of the power system stabilizer. Digital implementations make use of
a variety of different signal processing structures, most of which are not explicitly provided by their Manufacturers. Nevertheless, the
following discussion includes some common issues and features associated with measuring the PSS input quantities in digital
implementations.

4.1 Speed Transducer

Under normal operating conditions variations in speed are extremely small; on the order of 0.05% (0.0005 pu) of rated. The speed
measurement technique is usually centered around a conventional tachometric circuit and a gear wheel mounted directly on the turbine-
generator shaft or indentations machined directly into the shaft, with stationary electro-magnetic pickups. This arrangement produces a
signal whose frequency or pulse repetition rate is proportional to the speed of the shaft. A previously discussed, a special arrangement
involving multiple separate ac-coupled probes may be used to eliminate shaft runout in the derived speed signal.

A pulse is produced as the pickup senses the passage of each discontinuity. An electronic circuit converts these pulses into equal area
pulses (same amplitude and width). If there are a sufficiently high number of teeth on the wheel, the subsequent filtering of these equal-
area pulses, to produce a level proportional to frequency, will require relatively small time constants, leading to wide signal bandwidth.

The filtering used for speed measurement is more complex than that used with other quantities, as dictated by the requirements for high
gain, wide bandwidth and high noise attenuation.

Speed inputs are rarely used in conjunction with digital PSS implementations. Where they do exist, the speed measurement is often
performed in analog circuitry, and the resulting voltage is sampled by the digital system. Due to the small changes involved, A/D
resolution is an issue and the input to the PSS must be converted to a speed deviation signal (i.e. offset removed and gain applied) prior
to sampling.

4.2 Power Transducers

Power and integral-of-accelerating-power based stabilizers require a signal proportional to the instantaneous value of the 3-phase
electrical power of the generator. In analog implementations, the transducer used to measure this signal must introduce negligible time
delay, to avoid interfering with the proper phase relationships of the various signals inside the stabilizer. To obtain this signal, a three-
phase Hall effect watt transducer may be used without additional filtering. Since the transducer contains three instantaneous elements,
each producing a fully offset 120 Hz sine wave, the sum of the signals from the three elements is a smooth dc voltage, generally in the
range of 50 to 100 millivolts. A faulty element inside the transducer can be easily detected by examining the output waveform. A
significant amount of 120 Hz noise indicates a fault.

In digital implementations, the ac voltage and current waveforms obtained from the generator instrument transformers are sampled
directly. These inputs can then be used to derive both power, compensated frequency and terminal voltage as an input to the PSS and
limiters. Although designs vary widely, the best results are achieved if CTs from all three phases are used and at least 12 samples are
obtained on each power cycle. Slower sampling rates or fewer CT inputs results in excessively long discrete delays and "time constants"
in the calculations. This in turn hinders the performance of the stabilizer at higher frequencies, especially where large amounts of phase
lead are required.

4.3 Measurement of Generator Terminal Voltage

Generator terminal voltage is normally obtained from the secondaries of the potential transformers feeding the Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR). A three-phase transducer is used to obtain a dc signal proportional to the ac voltages. Transformers at the input
provide an isolation level of at least 1500 volts while at the same time stepping-down the voltages to approximately 15 volts line-to-line.
A six-pulse bridge rectifier is used to obtain a dc signal proportional to the ac signal. A filter circuit removes the 360 Hz component that is
present in a 6-pulse rectifier is output. The final output level is scaled to provide a convenient level for the comparators used for the
terminal voltage limiting function.

The same comments provided earlier for electrical power measurement apply to the terminal voltage signal although bandwidth is not as
critical in the PSS limiting application as it is in the closed-loop AVR.

5.0 Block Diagram Representation of Stabilizers

For the purposes of power stability studies on digital computers, all elements of the system must be represented by transfer functions,
showing important time constants and gains. The P and stabilizers, are represented by standard models incorporated in an IEEE
Standard [5]. The standard models, PSS1A for the PSS and PSS2A for the P PSS, are shown in Figures 6 and 7. Input and
output signals and signal limits are all set to per-unit values in these models.

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Figure 7: IEEE Type PSS1A Single-Input Power System Stabilizer Representation

Figure 8: IEEE Type PSS2A Dual-Input Power System Stabilizer Representation

6.0 References

1. Experience with Supplementary Damping Signals for Generator Static Excitation Systems, W. Watson, G. Manchur, IEEE Trans.,
Vol. PAS-92, Jan/Feb 1973, pp 199-203
2. Design of a Power System Stabilizer Sensing Frequency Deviation, F.W. Keay, W.H. South, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-90, Mar/Apr
1971, pp 707-713
3. Applying Power System Stabilizers, Parts I, II and III, E.V. Larsen, D.A. Swan, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-100, June 1981, pp 3017-
3046
4. Dynamic Stability Improvement at Monticello Station - Analytical Study and Field Tests, E.L. Busby et al, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-
98, May/jun 1979, pp 889-897.
5. IEEE Recommended Practice for Excitation System Models for Power System Stability Studies, IEEE Standard 421.5-1992.
6. A Power System Stabilizer Using Speed and Electrical Power Inputs - Design and Field Experience, D.C. Lee, R.E. Beaulieu,
J.R.R. Service, IEEE Trans. Vol. PAS100, Sept 1981, pp 4151-4157.
7. Effect of High-Speed Rectifier Excitation Systems on Generator Stability Limits, P.L. Dandeno, A.N. Karas, K.R. McClymont and
W. Watson, IEEE Trans. Vol. PAS-87, January 1968, pp.190-201.
8. Application of Power System Stabilizers for Enhancement of Overall System Stability, P. Kundur, M.Klein, G.J. Rogers, M.S.
Zwyno, IEEE Trans. on Power Sys. Vol. 4, May 1989, pp 614-626.
9. Accelerating-Power Based Power System Stabilizers, G.R. Berube, L.M. Hajagos, IEEE Power System Stabilizer Tutorial, 2007

7.0 Exercises

Stabilizers are used to increase a generator's __________ coefficient.

List the input signals used by an accelerating power based stabilizer.

Simulation Exercise - Power System Stabilizer Operation

This exercise provides an opportunity to experiment with the effect of PSS gain on the operation of a unit's stability. Refer to the Virtual
GS Help file for complete instructions.

Simulation Exercise - Single-Input Power System Stabilizer

This exercise is intended to familiarize the student with the effect of the settings and input signals of a single-input PSS on the response
of a generating unit. This is a much more detailed simulation and includes complete control of all of the PSS settings. Refer to the Virtual
GS Help file for complete instructions.

Simulation Exercise - Dual-Input Power System Stabilizer

This exercise is intended to familiarize the student with the effect of the settings and input signals of a dual-input PSS on the response of

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a generating unit. This is a very detailed simulation that allows experimentation with different configurations and different input signals.
The simulation allows complete control of all of the PSS settings. Refer to the Virtual GS Help file for complete instructions.

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