Psychology

Sensing the Environment

Sensory Processing
Sensation
o Threshold: the smallest signal that can be detected.
o Weber's Law: The threshold for detecting a stimulus-change is a constant ratio. Eg. You
are holding a dumbbell, and someone puts a stone on that dumbbell, can you detect it with
your eyes closed? For humans, the stone must be at least 2% of the dumbbell for you to
detect that change.
o Signal detection theory: used to predict when and how a signal will be recognized amidst
other sensory information. There are four possible outcomes:
1. Hit - signal present and detected
2. Miss - signal present, but not detected
3. False Positive - signal absent, but detected (eg. hallucinations)
4. Accurate Rejection - signal absent and not detected
o Sensory adaptation: Our sensory neurons adapt to (become less sensitive/ignores) stimuli
that are constantly there. For example, our inner ear uses this process to make recurring
loud noises sound softer.
o Psychophysics: the psychological study of the relationship between a physical stimuli and
mental response. For example, a series of different pitches played for a subject to test which
he/she can detect (humans can detect pitches ranging from 20 to 20,000 Hz).
Sensory receptors
o Sensory pathways: the pathways followed by a nerve impulse from a sensory organ (eg.
eye, tongue, ear, skin) to the brain or spinal cord.
o Types of sensory receptor
By stimulus:
Thermoreceptor- detects temperature (heat)
Chemoreceptor- detects chemicals
Photoreceptor / Electromagnetic - detects light/electromagnetic waves (ie.
rods and cones in the retina)
 Mechanoreceptor- detects touch and sound (mechanical stimuli such as
vibrations, as well as pressure applied to skin)
Baroreceptor- detects pressure (ie. blood pressure within vessels)
Nocireceptor- detects pain (specialized chemoreceptor)
By location:
Exteroceptor- located near/at the surface of the skin, detects stimuli on the
surface of the body.
Interoreceptor- (aka Visceroreceptors) located near visceral organs/blood
vessels and is linked with the autonomic nervous system. For example, we
know we are hungry when nerve endings in our digestive mucous
membranes detect an increase of fatty acids in our stomach.
Proprioceptor- located near tendons, ligaments, joints, and skeletal
muscles. A specialized mechanoreceptor, detects position of the body.
Vision
Structure and function of the eye
o eye structure
Light first travels through the cornea
Then through the pupil (hole in the iris muscle)
Lens = focuses light on retina.
Ciliary muscles: changes the shape of the lens to focus light
Vitreous humor = fluid.
Retina = screen on the back of the eye = contains photoreceptors.
Photoreceptors
Photoreceptor cells located on the back of the retina.
Rods = senses light and dark (no color), more sensitive.
Cones = senses color, less sensitive.
Rhodopsin = chemical responsible for light reception = Retinal (chemical)
+ Opsin (transmembrane protein)
Light converts cis-retinal trans-retinal.
trans-retinal then causes hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cell, which
prompts the chain of events that sends signal to the brain.
Sends signal to brain via a bundle of nerves on the back of the retina
(where the blind spot is)
 o Optic nerve: transmits signal from the photoreceptors to the brain
o function: take in light, focus it, form an image on the retina, which is trasmitted to the brain
via the optic nerve
Visual processing
o Visual pathways in the brain
Nerve impulses travel from each eye along the optic nerves and meet at the optic
chiasm
Here, half of the nerves from each side cross and resume to the back of the brain
The left side of the brain receives half of the left optic nerve and half of the right
optic nerve
The same goes for the right side
The binocular field of vision is where left and right fields of vision overlap.
o Parallel processing: parallel processing is what allows our brains to quickly process visual
information such as color, depth, motion, and size, simultaneously, instead of one by one.
o Feature detection: the Feature Detection Theory describes why a particular part of our brain
is triggered when we look at something (ie. looking at animals trigger one part of the brain,
and looking at words trigger a different part.)
Hearing
Structure and function of the ear
o ear structure
Ear canal = auditory canal.
Tympanic membrane = eardrum.
Ear bones = malleus (hammer) incus (anvil) stapes (stirrup).
Vestibule = contacts the oval window (where stirrup vibrates), is continuous with
semicircular canals and cochlea.
Cochlea = spiral = houses hair cells.
Semicircular canals = 3 of them perpendicular to one another = senses position and
movement of the head, help you balance.
o mechanism of hearing
1. Sound enters ear.
2. Hits ear drum (tympanic membrane)
3. Malleus (hammer) Incus (anvil) Stapes (stirrup)
4. Vibrates fluid in Cochlea.
5. Transmits to fluid in Cochlea.
6. Cochlear hair cells excited by vibrations, and sends signal to brain.
Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
o Sound ear drum vibrations in cochlea vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII)
brain
o The auditory nerve then sends the message to an area of the brain called the brainstem
o At the brainstem details of the signal such as frequency, location, duration, and intensity
are deciphered.
o Next, the signal passes through the thalamus and into the auditory cortex, a specific region
found in the temporal lobe of the brain.
o Here the signal is translated by neurons into a message that we can understand
Sensory reception by hair cells
o The vibrating hair cells within the basilar membrane bend when they come in contact with
the tectorial membrane.
o This movement opens up ion channels within the hair cells themselves that release
neurotransmitters.
o These neurotransmitters stimulate dendrites from bipolar afferent neurons.
Other Senses
Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)
o Pain, pressure, temperature, proprioception/position, and whether a muscle group of the
body is being contracted.
o Perceived by skin, muscles, joints, and ligaments.
Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)
o Sweet (sugar, e.g. glucose): "T1R2" and "T1R3" receptors.
o Salty (salt, e.g. NaCl): sodium channels
o Bitter (basic, e.g. Quinine): T2R receptors
o Sour (acidic, e.g. HCl): TRP (transient receptor potential) channel.
o Unami (meaty, e.g. glutamate, amino acids and nucleotides): a combination of T1R1 and
T1R3 receptors.
o Taste bud
Spherical in shape, covered in taste hairs that are used to detect chemicals in our
food, and are connected to taste receptor cells
A taste pore is located in the center of the taste bud
 For food to be recognized by the taste bud, a chemical called a "tastant" must be
present. This chemical is soluble to saliva, so it can be easily absorbed between
and among the papillae (small fleshy projections covering the tongue) and into the
taste pores.
Once taste hairs detect the tastant, they stimulate other taste receptor cells, which
deliver the message to the gustatory area of the brain, where the signal can be
translated into what we taste.
o Pathway: tongue -> glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX) -> brain
Smell
o Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals
Olfaction (smell) begins with olfactory cells found in the roof of the nasopharynx,
(our nasal cavity)
The olfactory receptors within the nasopharynx detect chemicals in the air that
dissolve the mucous-covered nasal membrane.
The nasal membrane contains olfactory nerves, which extend into the olfactory
bulbs/nerves (cranial nerve I).
o Pheromones: chemicals that behave as signals to the brain that cause a response common
to members of the same species. They serve as important chemical messengers, and help
animals to prepare for events such as danger, a discovered food source, and when it is time
to mate.
o Olfactory pathways in the brain
Kinesthetic sense: also known as "proprioception" senses position/movement of ligaments,
muscles, and tendons.
Vestibular sense: controlled by hair cells in the inner ear. Responsible for our sense of balance (how
we perceive gravity) and movement.
Perception
Bottom-up/Top-down processing
o Bottom-up processing is a type of processing that begins with various sensory receptors,
which pick up signals and send them to the brain for integration and processing. For
example: prick your finger with a pin sensory information sent to brain feel pain.
o Top-down processing begins in the brain, where information from previous experiences
has already been brought up by one of the sensory systems. The brain draws on this
information to interpret new sensory information. For example: you see pin remember
pain from past experience decide not to touch pin.
Perceptual organization (e.g., depth, form, motion, constancy): the process by which our brains
structure information into structural units that is easier to visually understand
o Depth- we perceive how far away an object is, not just a flat 2-D image.
 o Form- our ability to recognize an object's shape/outline. For example: In the dark you are
able to see a car, not because you can see its colors, but because you can recognize its
shape by piecing together outlines.
o Motion- motion perception is our ability to recognize that an object is moving.
o Constancy- the brain tends to maintain constancy of certain attributes of objects, such as
color, size, and shape, even though some of these traits may have changed. For example,
as you watch a car approach you from far away it may seem small at first, and increase in
size as it approaches you. Even though this is what your eyes are seeing, you know that the
car has remained the same size.
Gestalt principles: The Gestalt (German word for "whole") principle states that the "whole" object
surpasses the singular details that make up an image. E.g., when you look at a flower, you do not
first notice the defining lines of the flower, then the pieces that make up the flower, and then the
color of the flower, but instead, you see the whole flower as a single image.

Making Sense of the Environment

Attention
Selective attention: our ability to focus on something that is going on while other, non-related things
are going on around us.
Divided attention: the type of attention we need to use when we are forced to do more than one task
at a time. The degree of how divided our attention is depends on the difficulty of what we being
asked to do.
Cognition
Information-processing model: describes how our brains work as machines that pay attention to
and perceive our surroundings. Once this information has been processed it is stored in our brains
so that it can be drawn upon later.
Cognitive development: the development of one's ability to understand concepts and think
reasonably for oneself.
o Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. Sensorimotor (ages: 0-2 years): Involves learning to perceive the world using
senses. During this stage they learn object permanence, the concept that even if
you hide a ball under the rug, the ball continues to exist.
2. Preoperational Stage (ages: 2-7 years): The child learns that objects and ideas can
be shown using symbols, such as images and words. They also learn to speak.
During this period of time the child is very egocentric, and do not understand other
people's perspectives.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (ages: 7-11 years): During this period of time the child
learns the principle of conservation, which is the concept that a tall slender cup can
 hold the same amount of fluid as a short wider cup, even though the cups are
different. The child is also able to think logically about actual events.
4. Formal Operational Stage (ages 12- adulthood): During this period of time people
learn how to reason based on morals, how to form hypotheses, and other forms of
abstract reasoning.
o Cognitive changes in late adulthood
Adults over the age of 60 have delayed reaction times and slowed speech because
their information-processing capabilities have become slower.
One of the most significant cognitive changes that occur during adulthood is our
memory. After the age of 60 it is more difficult for us to recall, but our ability to
recognize is still mostly intact.
To recall something is to recover information without being given any
clues. So, without prompting, an elderly person would know that your
birthday is in July.
To recognize is to recover information when given clues. For example, if
you were to say, "My birthday is coming up!" someone elderly could
recognize that your birthday was in July.
After the age of 60 time-based tasks become difficult. For example, it may be
difficult for someone over the age of 60 to follow a weekly routine, such as going
to physical therapy twice a week for their 2:00 pm appointment.
o Role of culture in cognitive development
The culture we grow up in lays a platform for social relationships to form, as well
as serves as an environment to observe others' social interactions.
The things we learn from what we observe in our environment shapes how we
behave and think. Some people think in images, and some think in words.
Studies have found that different languages lead to different ways of thinking and
reasoning.
o Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development
Nature: the hereditary influence / genetics
Nurture: the environmental influence such as social culture and education.
"Nature vs. Nurture" - our cognitive development is a complicated interaction
between our genetic predispositions to certain abilities and disabilities (nature) and
our environment (nurture).
Biological factors that affect cognition
o Processes that occur in the frontal lobe include organization and planning. The
hippocampus, is responsible for forming new memories.
 o The amygdala (and the rest of the limbic system) is also involved with cognition. Its job is
to arouse the necessary emotions, causing alertness and motivation necessary to complete
tasks.
Problem solving and decision making
o Types of problem solving
Trial and error - the process by which we experiment using various different
approaches until we find one that is effective.
Algorithm - the process of following a set of particular rules or calculations, often
involving a computer, to come up with the correct answer.
Heuristics - the process of using cognitive shortcuts, formed by someone's previous
experiences. A "rule of thumb" is an example of a heuristic.
o Barriers to effective problem solving
Confirmation bias: a tendency to look for information that supports and agrees with
your idea, instead of seeking out new information that may disprove or go against
it.
Fixation: the failure to see an issue from a new perspective. Sometimes fixation
occurs because of a mental set.
A mental set is the inclination to fixate on answers that have been
successful in the past, even though they may be irrelevant or inappropriate
for solving the current problem.
Function fixedness is a tendency to observe the functions of things
(objects) as static and unchanging. For example, one may think the only
way to get to work is by driving, when other methods exist such as biking
or public transportation.
Approaches to problem solving: a combination of trial and error, algorithmic, and
heuristics.
Heuristics and biases (e.g., overconfidence, belief perseverance)
Heuristics, or mental shortcuts, are used so that we can make quick
decisions.
Representative heuristic - we have a tendency to make judgments
based on the probability of something happening based on our
typical idea of a particular event. For example, we believe we will
receive a cake rather than a salad when it is our birthday. This is
because cakes are typically more representative of a birthday than
a salad.
Availability heuristic- tendency to believe that something is more
common or more likely to happen just because it is more readily
obtainable in our memory. For example, if everyone in your
 household has the flu, and someone at work coughs, you may
jump to the conclusion that they, too, have the flu.
Belief bias is the tendency to cast judgment on issues using what someone
believes about their conclusion, regardless of the logic that was used to
support the argument.
Belief perseverance is the tendency for us to hold on to our pre-
existing beliefs, despite being presented with evidence that
contradicts our beliefs.
Another way that information can be skewed is by how it is
"framed". This is how the information is presented (ie. in a
negative or positive).
o Intellectual functioning
Theories of intelligence
Intelligence Quotient - ("IQ") created by German psychologist William
Stern. The first tests to measure intelligence were created to measure a
"mental age", marked by a collection of abilities/disabilities that children
of a certain age group possess
The eight types of intelligence
1. Nature Intelligence- the ability to understand the biological aspects of the world.
2. Linguistic Intelligence- the ability to write, read, and speak.
3. Intrapersonal Intelligence- the ability to have insight; to understand one's inner self.
4. Interpersonal Intelligence- the ability to understand and associate with other people.
5. Mathematical Intelligence- the ability to perform in numbers (math).
6. Spatial Intelligence- the ability to see and process the world (space) that surrounds you.
7. Musical Intelligence- the ability to compose and/or perform musically.
8. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence- the ability to perform athletically (dance, sports, manual labor,
etc.).
General intelligence (also referred to as the "G factor") is the type of
intelligence that underlies all types of intelligence. It is arguable whether
this factor is quantifiable.
Emotional Intelligence is a type of intelligence that refers to one's ability
to understand, sympathize/empathize, regulate, and express one's
emotions.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence -Developed by Robert Sternberg, 3
components
0. Experiential intelligence- (also known as creative intelligence) the ability to familiarize oneself
with new circumstances and form new concepts. For example: If you move to a foreign country and you
are able to learn the new language, you are exhibiting experiential intelligence.
1. Componential intelligence- (also known as analytical intelligence) the traditional idea of
intelligence. Includes ability to logically reason and think abstractly. Also includes the ability to
communicate and think mathematically. This type of intelligence can be evaluated by standard tests of
intelligence (e.g. IQ tests).
2. Contextual intelligence- (also known as practical intelligence, or "street smarts") this is the ability
to apply one's knowledge base to the world around them. Example: You have learned that UV rays from
the sun can give you skin cancer, so when the sunlight becomes intense, you move to sit in the shade.
Primary Mental Abilities- Belief is that we are born with seven primary
mental abilities:
Reasoning
Numerical ability
Associative Memory
Spatial visualization
Word fluency
Perceptual speed
Verbal comprehension
Savant Syndrome is rare, and is characterized by extreme talent in one
particular area, such as music, but rather poor cognitive functioning in
most other fields. This condition often involves a form of mental
retardation, such as autism.
Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
Both heredity and the environment play large roles with regards to one's
intellectual capabilities.
In addition to genetics, life experiences can also affect one's intelligence
scores. Environmental hardships (especially during development) can
negatively affect one's cognitive abilities (e.g. trauma, malnutrition,
isolation, and sensory deprivation).
Variations in intellectual ability
Intelligence is hard to measure; many of the tests administered to quantify
intelligence have built-in bias, and have unavoidable confounding factors.
For example, sometimes racial groups score differently from each other
not because of their race, but because of different incomes and availability
to different qualities of education.
 IQ Scores: The average score on an intelligence test is 100. The lowest end
of the spectrum falls below 70 mark. At the high of the scale, there are
people who score higher than 130.
Consciousness
o States of consciousness: consciousness is defined as the state of being awake and able to
process what is happening internally and externally
Alertness
Alertness and arousal refer to our ability to pay attention to events that are
occurring around us.
Drugs, poisons, and head injuries can hinder our ability to be aware.
Awareness can also be altered by a variety of conditions, including ADD,
chronic fatigue syndrome, ADHD, depression, and narcolepsy.
Alertness depends on our 24-hour cycle.
The reticular formation (also referred to as reticular activating system,
RAS) structures of our brainstem control levels of arousal.
Sleep
Polysomnography (PSG) is a test used to test measure physiological
processes during sleep. The test includes a series of smaller tests,
including:
Electrooculogram (EOG)- measures movements of the eyes
during sleep.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)- measures the electrical impulses of
the brain, these high frequencies and low amplitudes are known
as alpha waves (collectively referred to as neural synchrony).
Electromyogram (EMG)- measures musculoskeletal movements.
Stages of sleep
Stage 1- This stage of sleep has mainly theta waves that are of low
to moderate frequency (3-7 Hertz). During this stage of non-REM
(rapid eye movement) stage of sleep there are slow eye
movements.
Stage 2 There is a decrease in heart rate, respiration, and body
temperature. During stage 2 the EEG measures moderate
brainwave activity. This stage of the sleep cycle is defined by the
introduction of k-complexes and sleep spindles that blend in
among the theta waves.
Stage 3 and 4- this is the stage at which we sleep the deepest, and
we transition into slow wave sleep (SWS). It is characterized by
the presence of delta waves. Delta waves are low frequency (0.5-
 3 Hertz) but high in amplitude. During this stage of sleep there is
no eye movement, and growth hormones are secreted.
REM (rapid eye movement)- this is the last stage of sleep,
characterized by swift eye movements and the presence of dreams.
The brainwaves measured by the EEG are low intensity and erratic
frequency, and look like the waves that are observed in someone
who is awake. REM sleep is also characterized by a lack of muscle
movement. This type of motionless sleep is called paradoxical
sleep.
Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles
One sleep cycle: stages are passed through in sequence (Stage 1,
2, 3, then 4), then rise back through the stages (Stage 4, 3, 2, then
1), before entering REM sleep. One cycle takes the average person
90 minutes to complete.
As these sleep cycles continue, the amount of time spent in "deep
sleep" decreases, and time spent in REM sleep increases
Theories why we sleep
Because we are not nocturnal creatures, so during the day
we have the light to use our vision, and during the night
we avoid predators by sleeping
Sleeping is a healing/restorative time for our body and
brain tissues.
We grow during sleep (while we are still developing); the
pituitary gland releases growth hormones.
It is thought that our brain is processing the day's events
and creating long-term memories.
Sleep and circadian rhythms: The circadian rhythm is a biological process
that oscillates throughout a (roughly) 24-hour period. It is also commonly
referred to as a biological clock, and can vary depending on age. Our
biological clocks are affected by the amount of light we are exposed to
(natural and artificial). Light triggers proteins in our retina to send signals
to the pineal gland, which produces melatonin. Melatonin is a hormone
that causes us to sleep.
Dreaming: occurs during REM. If one does not sleep well enough to reach
the REM stage, the individual will spend more time in REM the next time
they sleep. This compensation is known as REM rebound
According to Sigmund Freud called the "story" of our dreams
(called manifest content) are symbolic of our unconscious ideas,
called latent content
 The Activation-Synthesis Theory states that physiological
processes happening in the brain create dreams
Sleep-wake disorders
Parasomnias are abnormal actions that occur during sleep.
Example of a parasomnia is somnambulism, popularly referred to
as "sleep walking", as well as night terrors.
Dyssomnia- this refers to an interruption in quantity, quality,
and/or timing of sleep. Popular examples of dyssomnias include
sleep apnea and narcolepsy.
Sleep apnea is characterized by disruptive pauses in
breathing that can last up to a minute, often causing the
person to wake up. (Occurs more in obese people).
Narcolepsy is a condition in which someone will fall
asleep somewhat randomly, but especially when the
person is relaxed.
Insomnia- this refers to the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep
for lasting periods of time. It can be caused by chronic stress, and
is often treated by sleeping pills.
Irregular Sleep-Wake syndrome is an extreme form of insomnia, with only
1-4 hours of sleep in a period of 24 hours. Someone with this syndrome
does not feel sleep deprived, and is able to function normally.
Hypnosis and meditation
Hypnosis is an interaction between a hypnotist and a patient during an
induced state of consciousness in which the patient is in a state of being
open to the hypnotists' suggestion(s). It is thought to work by blocking
information being received by sensory neurons
Hypnosis cannot cause someone to acquire extraordinary
capabilities or to commit acts that go strongly against their morals
(e.g. robbing a bank).
Used to help people recall old memories, though sometimes
accidentally inaccurate
Scientists have observed measurable changes in brain activity
during hypnotism. This could mean that the changes observed in
the brain are creating a different state of consciousness. Two main
theories
The Dissociation Theory states that the hypnosis patient
is experiencing a divided state of consciousness. It is
thought that if the patient alters their focus and tunes-out
their everyday state of consciousness, they will be able to
 focus on another more specific and directed state of
consciousness.
The Social Influence Theory says that people under
hypnosis are highly vulnerable to social influences. This
means that the hypnosis patient may do and say what the
hypnotist expects of them without even meaning to.
Meditation is the act of thinking and focusing the mind on
something (e.g. breathing in, breathing out.) It is done in many
different ways, and is usually practiced to reduce stress
Dialectic behavioral therapy (DBT) is a type of cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT). It is prescribed widely among people
diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, depression,
anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). DBT teaches
a number of behavioral skills such as emotional regulation,
mindfulness, and distress tolerance. It's goals are to help people
be aware and present of the "here and now", and to learn to tolerate
negative emotions.
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a program based
on the management of stress. The program includes various
activities that focus on mindfulness, such as yoga and meditation
o Consciousness-altering drugs
Types of consciousness-altering drugs and their effects on the nervous system and
behavior: Drugs can alter the way we are able to cognitively function by changing
the way our neurons fire. The three main categories include depressants,
stimulants, and hallucinogens. Depending on the substance, our neurons can fire
more slowly (depressants), more quickly (stimulants), or by mimicking other
neurons (hallucinogens).
Depressants (e.g. alcohol, opiates, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates)
Depress the inhibition and reasoning areas of the brain
Use leads to delayed reaction time, slurred speech, and poor motor
skills
Can cause short-term memory loss (blackouts)
Affects dopamine (responsible for happy feeling) and GABA
(Gamma-Aminobutyric acid, responsible for calm feeling)
systems
Opiates (e.g. opium, morphine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, heroin)
Opiates are byproducts of opium
Classified as a type of depressant
 Opiates behave the same way as our own endorphins, causing
users to feel relaxed and joyful
Prescribed to relieve severe pain
Barbiturates (e.g. tranquilizers, Mebaral, Butisol, Nembutal)
Classified as a type of depressant
Prescribed to aid with sleep, anxiety reduction, prevention of
seizures
Users feel relaxed and tired, sometimes confused
Can cause slurred speech, slowed heart beat, and weakness
Should never be mixed with alcohol, can be fatal
Benzodiazepines (e.g. Lorazepam, Clonazepam, Xanax, Valium)
Prescribed to alleviate excessive anxiety
Classified as a type of depressant
Can also be used to prevent seizures
Stimulates GABA system, creates feeling of calm
Should never be mixed with alcohol, can be fatal
Hallucinogens (e.g. Marijuana, LSD, Psilocybin mushrooms)
Users see images that do not exist in reality
Colors may appear more bright
Can cause euphoria and state of relaxation
Sometimes user can experience extreme fear (depending on what
user is seeing)
Not normally prescribed as a therapeutic drug
Stimulants (e.g. amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)
Increase the speed of bodily functions (breathing, heart rate,
overall increased energy)
Users feel energized and hyper alert
Often used for purposes such as staying awake and improving
physical abilities
Prescribed to treat attention deficit disorders such as ADD and
ADHD (Adderall).
Drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain
 Drug addiction is a disease in which people feel an excessive, constant
compulsion to use drugs. Sometimes this is limited to one type of drug;
sometimes the user will abuse multiple types of drugs. It is theorized that
addiction is reinforced by the release of dopamine in circuits located in the
brainstem (especially the nucleus accumbens, the pleasure center of the
brain).
Psychological dependence occurs when the drug user is dependent on their
drug(s) of choice to avoid painful emotions and memories. Often times the
user has been subjected to emotional and/or physical trauma in the past.
Physiological dependence occurs when the user's body becomes so
accustomed to having the drug that when the user stops they experience
withdrawal. Withdrawal refers to uncomfortable feelings such as fatigue,
nausea, irritability, and headache once the drug has been stopped.
Withdrawal can be fatal (e.g. alcohol).
Memory
o Encoding: the process of creating memories from the sensory information we receive.
Four types of encoding
Semantic encoding involves encoding sensory information with specific
relevance to the person (a phrase, word, image, event, etc.) that can be
applied to a particular situation. This type of coding does not use sensory
input such as sound, taste etc.
Acoustic encoding involves encoding sounds (language, music, other
sounds). We use our echoic memory to recall the auditory information that
has been stored.
Tactile encoding involves the use of our tactile senses. It is how we recall
how something feels (physically). For example, we can remember silk
feels smooth.
Visual encoding involves the processing and encoding of images and other
visual information (e.g. pictures, someone's face, a specific place). Before
becoming a long-term memory, visual information is stored within our
iconic memory (a type of memory specific to the storage of visual input).
Process of encoding information
The hippocampus (located in the temporal lobe of the brain) receives
sensory information from the cortex. There is also a pathway that leads
back (from the hippocampus) to different areas of the primary cortex. This
neural circuit is responsible for recording and linking associations with the
memories we form.
The serial position effect explains that we are least likely to remember the
information in the middle of a list, and most likely to remember what was
listed first and last.
 The primacy effect is a phenomenon in which we are more likely to recall
information that was listed in the beginning (as opposed to information
mentioned in the middle of a list.
The recency effect explains that we are also more likely to recall
information that was listed last.
Processes that aid in encoding memories
A mnemonic is any method used to improve one's ability to recall
information through the use of vocal repetition.
Methods for memorization:
Elaboration involves the relation of new information to old, long-
term memories, to form a sort of narrative.
Chunking is a process that aids in recall by organizing pieces of
new information into groups that fit into particular categories. For
example, if you are trying to remember all the animals you saw at
the zoo, you may choose to remember them by the habitats they
were in.
Acronyms are words or short sentences that represent a larger
idea. For example, in order to remember the order of operations
(in mathematics) you could use the acronym PEMDAS
(Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract).
Associating memories with images has also been shown to aid in
recall. This technique is especially effective if you can link new
information to images or ideas that are personally applicable. This
technique is known as self-reference.
It has been shown that information that is processed on a deeper level (such
as information that is personally relatable) is more likely to be
remembered. This effect is known as depth of processing.
Another technique for memorization is to create hierarchies. For example,
if you are trying to remember the members of a family, you may decide to
create a hierarchy system that orders them by age, oldest to youngest.
o Storage
Types of memory storage (e.g., sensory, working, long-term)
There are three stages of memory: 1) Sensory memory 2) Short-term
memory 3) Long-term memory
Sensory memory is the first recall of sensory information; it is quick and
short-term. For example, if you touch a pan on the stove, you will
remember it was hot.
There are two types of sensory memory:
 Echoic memory- the memory of a sound (very brief, lasting only
as long as about 4 seconds). For example, the specific sound of a
bird chirping.
Iconic memory- the memory of an image (even more brief than
echoic memory, lasting not even a full second). For example, the
color of a stranger's eyes.
Short-term memory is a memory that is of short duration, approximately
20 seconds. An example of this could be remembering someone's address
just long enough to type it into your GPS. A subset of short-term memory
is the working memory, which refers to the immediate processing of
events and linguistics. This is the type of memory that we use most often
in school when learning a new concept.
Long-term memory is a memory that can last infinitely, for example,
remembering the date you were born, the face of your mother, etc.
Other types of memory
Declarative memory (also known as explicit memory) refers to the
memorization of information to the point where the person is able
to "declare" it. For example, when you remember a song and are
able to sing along to lyrics.
Procedural memory (also known as implicit memory) is the
memorization of how to complete a task. For example, one would
exercise procedural memory when driving a car.
Episodic memory refers to memories surrounding a specific (often
important or meaningful) event. For example, remembering the
specific details of and surrounding a serious car crash.
Semantic memory refers to memories of facts, such as the name
of the president.
Autobiographical memory refers to the collection of memories
that we collect about ourselves over a lifetime. Such memories
include life events, relationships with people, emotions, etc.
Retrospective memory refers to memories of things that have
happened in the past. This is the type of memory we are using
when learning about historical events, etc. Retrospective memory
includes episodic, semantic, declarative, and autobiographical
memories.
Prospective memory refers to memories that must be had in the
future. For example, one might say to themselves "I must
remember to get milk when I go to the grocery store." This is an
example of prospective memory.
Semantic networks and spreading activation
 Semantic networks (also known as frame networks) are neural networks
that signify lingual or logical relationships between ideas.
Nodes are what we call the specific ideas/ events that we remember.
Various associations connect nodes. These associations vary in strength;
some are remembered and used frequently, some are rarely called upon.
An example of a node: the image of a tiger. An example of an association
of this node: large animals, which could lead us to another related node,
such as a lion (because it is a large animal, too).
Nodes become activated when adjacent neural signals are strong enough
to reach a response threshold. This threshold can only be reached after
signals from other (neighboring) nodes have been added together. This
cumulative effect is known as summation.
Spreading activation is a phenomenon that occurs when a series of nodes
are activated. These nodes create an activation pattern of other, related
nodes that will be activated. This is how we remember more details about
a singular event.
o Retrieval
Recall, recognition, and relearning
Recall is the ability to remember information. Three types of recall
include:
Serial recall is the ability to remember various events, or a list of
items in the sequence in which they occurred or, were listed.
Free recall is the ability to remember something "out of the blue",
without a cue.
Cued recall is the ability to remember something once cued or
asked.
Relearning is the process of learning something that has already been
learned in the past. For example, if someone who hadn't played the piano
in twenty years were to sit down and try to play the piano, they would
likely have to relearn how to play.
Recognition is the process of identifying details within a collection of
information.
Retrieval cues
A retrieval cue is like a prompt that is used to remind us of something.
Example: if you heard a song in the car that you wanted to remember for
later, you would come up with retrieval cues, such as which radio channel
it was on, who you were listening to the music with, if the vocalist was
female or male, etc.
 Priming is the activation of past, related ideas and associations that are all
related to one main idea. Example: You are shown a sponge and then asked
to name a type of cheese. This may have primed you to say "Swiss"
because of an association you made with the holes, found in both the
sponge and Swiss cheese.
Retrieval failure occurs when there are not enough (or not substantial
enough) cues for the person to remember.
The role of emotion in retrieving memories
A mood-dependent memory is a phenomenon in which information that
was learned while someone was feeling a certain emotion is most easily
remembered when the person is experiencing that emotion again. For
example, if someone is unhappy, this emotion may remind the person of
other things/times that were unhappy as well.
Some memories are emotionally biased. This means one's memory
becomes skewed in a certain direction according to that person's mood.
For example, if your dog has an accident in the house, you may remember
your dog as a pain, when normally you love your dog.
Processes that aid retrieval: cues, emotions.
o Forgetting
Aging and memory
Short-term memory begins, on average, to decline after the age of sixty.
Some think this may occur because of a loss of neurons (due to aging). As
we become older, we are much more likely to struggle with free recall
(recalling information "out of the blue") than with recognition.
Information that is important/meaningful, and information regarding a
skill (e.g. how to ride a bike) is less likely to be forgotten. Information that
has little importance to someone is much more likely to be forgotten.
Memory dysfunctions (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Korsakoff's syndrome)
Dementia is a chronic disorder of mental processes, particularly the ability
to recall. It can be caused by an injury or disease of the brain; it is not
contagious.
In addition to memory loss, other symptoms of dementia include changes
in personality and cognitive abilities (e.g. reasoning).
Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia. The majority
of Alzheimer's patients are over age 65 (early onset can occur around 40
years old). Symptoms include forgetfulness (common first symptom),
changes in mood and behavior, and difficulty speaking and swallowing.
Alzheimers is a degenerative disease, and can worsen to the point of
physically disabling a patient. There is no cure for Alzheimer's disease.
 Korsakoff's syndrome is a chronic memory disorder that is caused by a
deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine). It is a condition that is most
commonly caused by heavy, constant alcohol abuse. In addition to
memory loss, symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome include confusion, poor
coordination, disrupted speech, and involuntary eye movements.
Huntington's disease is a fatal genetic condition with no cure. Its
symptoms include memory loss and dementia, as well as involuntary
movements of the limbs. The disease is caused by neurons that are
genetically programmed to degenerate over time.
Amnesia refers to partial or complete inability to remember something.
There are two types of amnesia:
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories (this
can be a result of damage to the hippocampus).
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember older memories
(things that have happened in the past).
Decay
As the time (when you learned something) increases, so does the chance
that you will forget it. The time since something was learned is known as
a retention interval.
The Decay Theory states that if long-term memories are not recalled often,
it will become harder and harder (if not impossible) to remember them.
It is also theorized that our inability to remember certain pieces of
information may be due to the natural physiological death of neurons,
especially as we age.
Interference
Interference is a phenomenon that occurs when one memory interferes
with the creation of another memory, preventing it from forming. There
are two types of interference:
Proactive interference occurs when old information (previously
learned) prevents you from being able to remember something that
was learned later.
Retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new
information prevents someone from remembering information
that was learned previously.
Positive transfer occurs when old information helps someone learn new
information. An example of positive transfer would be learning how to
scramble eggs after already knowing how to make sunny side-up eggs.
The Interference theory states that learning new information disrupts one's
ability to remember long-term memories.
 Memory construction and source monitoring
A schema is the overall framework of how we remember something
(structure and components of the situation, details, etc.). Schemas can
skew information. An example of a schema skewing information: being
asked to recall the doctor's examining room that you saw as a child. You
may remember certain things that were there, but due to your idea of what
a doctor's examining room should look like, you may remember things
such as tongue depressors, cotton balls, alcohol, etc., regardless of whether
or not they were actually there.
People can also accidentally alter what they remember by being
misinformed by others. False information can make people prone to
forming false memories. This phenomenon is called the misinformation
effect.
Imagination inflation occurs when certain memories are either constructed
or exaggerated by the person's imagination. This is one way false
memories can be created.
Memories are usually more accurate if the person can remember the source
of their information. When the source of information is forgotten, this
mistake is known as a source monitoring error.
The ability to form and recall accurate memories can be negatively
affected by afflictions such as depression, trauma, brain injuries, and high
levels of stress. They also make people more prone to source monitoring
error.
o Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning
Neural plasticity
The term neural plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt
according to various environments, behaviors and emotions, as well as
new synaptic processes.
There are four types of neural plasticity:
Compensatory masquerade- the use of a new cognitive process to
carry out a task that previously depended on a cognitive process
that used to be impaired. It is the process of the brain finding
another way to accomplish something when the first (typical)
method is ineffective.
Cross-modal reassignment- the brain can adapt through the
introduction of new inputs to an area of the brain that was
previously lacking its main inputs.
Map expansion- information processing of a particular region of
the brain can be heightened by frequent exposure to stimulus/ new
information. For example, the area of the brain that deals with
 mathematics (inferior temporal gyrus) would become heightened
after taking a calculus class.
Homologous area adaption- if the brain suffers damage to
particular regions, sometimes it can shift the responsibilities of
that area of the brain to another, undamaged area. This adaption is
most active during the early stages of development.
Throughout someone's lifetime his or her brain is constantly changing. It
is now known that new neurons can actually grow in particular areas of
the brain, such as the hippocampus and cerebellum. The birth of new
neurons is known as neurogenesis.
Memory and learning
We are able to form reliable memories after the age of 3. Memories of
events that happened before the age of 3 are unreliable, and are susceptible
to a phenomenon known as infantile amnesia.
As we age, our brain does not grow larger, but increases its
interconnectivity between neurons. These connections between neurons
are called synapses. These synapses are strengthened with use, especially
when they are associated with strong emotions.
Neural nets consist of neurons that are activated at the same time in
response to a particular association. Neural nets are activation patterns that
consist of synapses that represent groups of information stored in our
memory.
Long-term potentiation: the consistent process of strengthening neural synapses
according to various activation patterns. As a synapse strengthens, the signal
transmission time becomes quicker. For example: a mouse is placed in a maze, and
in one of the corners is a piece of cheese. Assuming the mouse is successful, and
finds the cheese, the mouse will more easily find the cheese (if put in the same
place), next time he is placed in the maze.
Language
o Theories of language development (e.g., learning, Nativist, Interactionist)
Learning
Languages (with native competency) are usually learned by the age of 5.
Theory of Universal Grammar (UG): all languages are alike in structural
foundation, and because of common grammar rules and patterns, we are
able to learn to speak without formal instruction.
Some believe that we are born with an innate biological platform for
language development (Nativist). Others believe that linguistic
development is dependent on usage and experience (Interactionist).
 Nativist- this perspective reinforces the idea that language is an innate feature of
our being. Supporting ideas include:
Every human society known to man has had its own language.
Every human (without injury/disease) is able to speak its primary fluently
by the age of 5.
Despite being able to speak a language fluently, we cannot describe the
reasons for using particular sentence structures, principles of grammar,
etc.
Interactionist
The Social interactionist theory says that language is acquired and
perfected by interaction (particularly interaction between a
developing child and a linguistically experienced elder).
This theory is based on a social-cognitive model, and places
importance on the construction of a child's social circle, which,
once constructed, serves to improve the child's language
development.
Influence of language on cognition: It is thought that language can help broaden
our understanding of the world. It enables us to share our thoughts and ideas.
Speaking with one another can also expose us to new vocabulary and grammatical
structure. Confounding factors include: environment, genetics, and culture.
Brain areas that control language and speech
Broca's area: responsible for forming speech. Located in the left frontal
lobe. If this area is damaged, the person can't speak properly but can
understand you just fine.
Wernicke's area: responsible for language comprehension. Located in the
left temporal lobe, in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus. If
this area is damaged, the person can speak fluently, but the words are
gibberish.

Responding to the World

Emotion (PSY)
Three components of emotion:
1. Cognitive- this is how you choose to interpret your emotion. For example, if your father is
having heart surgery, you may understand this to be a dangerous situation, and dangerous
situations make you nervous.
2. Physiological- this is how your body physically reacts to any given emotion. For example,
if you are nervous, you may feel your heart beat faster, have sweaty palms, etc.
 3. Behavioral- this is how you express your emotion. So, if you are nervous, perhaps you will
bounce your legs, tap your pencil, pace back and forth, etc.
Seven universally recognized emotions:
1. Happiness
2. Sadness
3. Fear
4. Surprise
5. Disgust
6. Anger
7. Joy
o Difference between happiness and joy: Joy is experienced through things such as spiritual
connections, witnessing/completing selfless acts, etc. It is a feeling of peace and
contentment. Happiness is more temporary than joy, and is based on external
circumstances.
Adaptive role of emotion
o The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that people tend to perform at their optimum ability when
they are moderately emotionally stimulated. This is to say that when people are extremely
emotional, or totally non-emotional, they are less likely to perform at their best.
o Emotion can also play an important role in survival. This is particularly true with fear.
For example, you may be afraid to travel alone. This fear can serve as protection
against misfortunes such as getting lost, hurt, having your belongings stolen, etc.
Theories of emotion
o James-Lange theory of emotion states that the behavioral and physiological aspects of
emotion are what lead to the cognitive aspect of the emotion.
For example, if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase,
and you may scream. These physiological and behavioral cues are what lead you
to understand the situation as scary.
o Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that the physiological and cognitive aspects of
emotion occur independently and simultaneously. Once these have occurred, the
behavioral aspect will be carried out.
For example, if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase,
and you may interpret the situation as scary. This would then lead you to scream.
o Schachter-Singer theory of emotion states that in emotion, we first experience
physiological stimulation, then we cognitively interpret what is happening, which then
leads us to the emotion we are experiencing.
 For example, if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase.
Then you might cognitively examine the details of the situation, and experience
fear and decide you are scared.
The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion (PSY, BIO)
o Brain regions involved in the generation and experience of emotions: The limbic system,
including structures such as the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus, is the
region of our brains that controls emotion. It is located underneath the cerebrum, on both
sides of the thalamus.
o The role of the limbic system in emotion
The amygdala is largely responsible for the emotions we experience.
The amygdala communicates directly with the hypothalamus, which controls
physiological features of the emotion, such as an increased/decreased heart rate,
loss of appetite, and a racing heart.
The hypothalamus interacts with the prefrontal cortex. This area of the brain
decides how someone will choose to behave because of an emotion they are
experiencing.
o Emotion and the autonomic nervous system
2 divisions of autonomic nervous system:
1. Sympathetic division- ("fight or flight") prepares the body to react in an
emergency or high-stress situation, and regulates the bodys endocrine
glands. When the sympathetic nervous system is activated these glands
release epinephrine (adrenaline). This causes an increase in pulse and
blood flow to muscles.
2. Parasympathetic division- ("rest and relax") allows our body to store
energy that can be used in the future. When the parasympathetic division
is activated there is an increase in stomach movements, and a decreased
flow of blood to skeletal muscles.
The autonomic nervous system works along with the limbic system and the
reticular activating system to allow us to experience and understand our emotions.
It largely controls the physiological aspect of our emotions.
o Physiological markers of emotion (signatures of emotion)
Depending on the emotion, some physiological markers of emotion include
increased pulse, increase of adrenaline, sweating, increased, respiration rate, and
changes in blood pressure.
An obvious, and universal sign of sadness (or other negative emotions) is crying
tears.
Depending on the emotion, you may experience a flushed red face from increased
blood flow (e.g. anger, embarrassment).
Stress (PSY)
The nature of stress:
o Appraisal- this term refers to the way someone interprets any given event. This
interpretation will determine how someone decides to feel, and later act.
o Different types of stressors (e.g., cataclysmic events, personal)
Cataclysmic events- These include stressors caused by catastrophes. They are
difficult to predict, and occur on a wide scale. Examples of cataclysmic events
include wars and natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.
Personal events- These are stressors that involve significant life changes, and are
experienced especially in young adulthood. Examples of personal events include
starting or ending a relationship (or marriage), moving, losing or getting a job, and
the death or birth of a loved one.
Daily stressors- These are stressors that are experienced on a regular daily basis
throughout one's day. Examples of daily stressors include paying bills, mowing the
lawn, getting stuck in a traffic jam.
Effects of stress on psychological functions
o Mild levels of stress can help increase one's psychological functions and serve to increase
levels of motivation (e.g. preparing for a job interview)
o If someone is experiencing a high level of stress their functioning can be impaired by side-
effects, including fatigue, anxiety, and inability to concentrate.
Stress outcomes/response to stressors
o Physiological (PSY, BIO)
1. "Fight or flight" response by the sympathetic nervous system causes the release of norepinephrine
and epinephrine (adrenaline). These hormones cause an increase in respiratory rate and pulse, as well as an
increase of blood flow to skeletal muscles. It also signals the release of glucose into the bloodstream.
2. A series of events are initiated by the hypothalamus occurs during stressful situations. It releases
hormones that stimulate the pituitary glands, which then communicate with the adrenal glands to release
cortisol.
Cortisol is a hormone that causes the body to use fat as a source of energy
(instead of glucose, as it usually would).
Excessive exposure to high levels of cortisol can be detrimental to the
immune system, as it prevents the activity of white blood cells.
o Emotional: High levels of stress can be unhealthy for a person's overall well-being.
Excessive exposure to stressors can lead to psychiatric disorders, including PTSD (post-
traumatic stress disorder), anxiety disorders, and depression.
o Behavioral
 People behave differently when presented with stressful situations. Some choose
to deal with the stressor head-on, while others decide on avoidance of the stressor.
In an effort to avoid or numb stressful emotions and situations people may choose
to consume drugs or alcohol.
o Managing stress (e.g., exercise, relaxation, spirituality)
Exercise- aerobic exercise is said to be an effective method for relieving symptoms
of depression. By exercising, the body releases hormones that are thought to
relieve depression, such as serotonin, endorphins, and norepinephrine. Overtime,
exercise also lowers blood pressure.
Relaxation- a process known as "biofeedback" can be used to release muscle
constriction, slow pulse, and control respiration. People also partake in activities
such as guided meditation and yoga to help themselves relax.
Spirituality- Religious groups are often beneficial with regards to relieving stress.
They provide social support and guidance during stressful situations.

Social Processes that Influence Human Behavior

How the Presence of Others Affects Individual Behavior (PSY)
Social facilitation: people perform simple tasks better when in the presence of others. Eg. you can
hike longer when with other people, or you study better when you have a study buddy. This rule
does not apply for complex tasks since you might get nervous and mess up.
Deindividuation: this is basically mob mentality. When you're in a mob, you're not longer an
individual thinker, and you'll end up doing bad stuff that you won't if you were alone. Eg. You
usually don't steal, but one day you're in the middle of a mob looting a store, you are more likely
to loot also.
Bystander effect: someone gets attacked, and all the bystanders do nothing. The more bystanders
there are, the less likely someone helps out.
Social loafing: you pitch in less effort on a group project than an individual project.
Social control (SOC): ways to prevent anarchy
o informal control: unenforced social norms. Eg. You don't tell jokes at a funeral.
o formal control: stuff you can be prosecuted for. Such as vandalism.
Peer pressure (PSY, SOC): you want to be accepted by society, so you do stuff that your peers do.
Conformity (PSY, SOC): Changing your behavior because of peer pressure.
Obedience (PSY, SOC): Changing your behavior because of authority.
Group Decision-making Processes (PSY, SOC)
 Group polarization (PSY): when you're in a group, you tend to make more extreme decisions, do
more extreme things. For example, a group of liberals discussing over issues - the conversation
will get more and more liberal.
Groupthink: when you're in a group, you tend to go with the flow and shut away your individual
reasoning. This leads to poor decision making as a group.
Normative and Non-normative Behavior (SOC)
Social norms (PSY, SOC)
o Sanctions (SOC): punishment for not conforming to social norms. Eg. Shame and ridicule
of the individual.
o Folkways, mores, and taboos (SOC)
Folkway: a casual social norm. Eg. Burping at a dinner table.
Mores: a more coercive social norm than folkways. Eg. Going out naked.
Taboo: most severe social norm. Eg. Incest.
o Anomie (SOC): the lack of undermining of social norms. Eg. Individualism, social
inequity, isolation.
Deviance: violation of social norms.
o Perspectives on deviance (e.g., differential association, labeling theory, strain theory)
Differential association: associating with deviant people causes you to become
deviant too. This can promote social change.
Labeling theory: labeling people affects their self-image, and can lead to either
more conformity or deviance. For example, labeling someone as a pothead can
either cause them to stop smoking because they are ashamed of being a pothead.
Or, they can embrace the label and say, yep, that's what I do.
Strain theory: social structure can pressure people to comit crime. Eg. A lower
class at the bottom of society, with all the discrimination associated with it,
pressures that individual to steal.
Aspects of collective behavior (e.g., fads, mass hysteria, riots)
o Fad: a short-lived trend, a "thing". Eg. Beanie babies.
o Mass hysteria: rumors and fears affecting a group of people. Eg. Witch hunt.
o Riot: a group of people vandalize the streets because they are not happy at society.
Socialization (PSY, SOC)
Agents of socialization (e.g., the family, mass media, peers, workplace): you learn the norms of
society by interacting with these agents.
 Attitude and Behavior Change
Habituation and Dishabituation (PSY)
Associative Learning (PSY)
Classical conditioning (PSY, BIO): stimulus -> biological response
o Neutral, conditioned, and unconditioned stimuli
neutral stimuli -> no response. Eg: Bell sound prior to Pavlov's dog's training
conditioned stimuli -> acquired response. Eg: Kitchen bell sound triggers Pavlov's
dog to salivate
unconditioned stimuli -> natural response, no need for conditioning. Eg: Smell of
steak triggers salivation
o Conditioned and unconditioned response
conditioned response = the response to conditioned stimuli
unconditioned response = the response to unconditioned stimuli
o Processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination
acquisition: learning the association. Eg: dog learns to salivate because Pavlov
always gives them food after ringing the bell
extinction: losing the association. Eg: if Pavlov stops giving dog food after ringing
the bell.
spontaneous recovery: association returns after extinction, but never as strong as
before.
generalization: Eg. Dog salivates to anyone ringing a bell
discrimination: Eg. Dog salivates only to Pavlov rining the bell
Operant conditioning (PSY, BIO): behavior -> consequences
o Processes of shaping and extinction: reinforcement shapes a behavior. When the
reinforcement no longer happens, the behavior relapses, it's called extinction.
o Types of reinforcement: positive, negative, primary, conditional
positive reinforcement: behavior -> reward -> more of that behavior. Eg: study for
your exam, and I'll reward you with a good grade
negative reinforcement: behavior -> less punishment -> more of that behavior. Eg:
study for your exam, and I'll stop giving you bad grades
primary reinforcer = natural rewards = food, drink, pleasure
secondary reinforcer = unnatural rewards = money, grades
 o Reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval
fixed-ratio: behavior is rewarded every time or every nth time
variable ratio: instead of rewarding exactly every nth time, it's rewarded maybe the
1st time, then 4th time, then 2nd time, etc
fixed interval: behavior is rewarded again only after a fixed time interval, like 60
seconds
variable interval: instead of waiting exactly 60 seconds, the time interval may be
90 seconds, then 20 seconds, etc
o Punishment: opposite of reinforcement, a deterrent to behavior.
o Escape and avoidance learning
Escape: you touch a caterpillar, it stings you, you jerk away
Avoidance: you learn to not touch a caterpillar
The role of cognitive processes in associative learning
o Latent learning: passively soaking up knowledge
o Problem solving: step back, think, and come up with a solution
o Instincts: mother goose will protect her eggs. If you try to teach a goose to abandon eggs,
it won't work because it goes against their instinct, this process is called instinctive drift.
Biological processes that affect associative learning (e.g., biological predispositions, instinctive
drift) (PSY, BIO)
Observational Learning (PSY)
Modeling: copying others
Biological processes that affect observational learning
o Mirror neurons: a neuron that fires both when you perform an action and when you see
another perform the same action. Thus, it's also responsible for empathy: if you see
someone else hurting, you hurt also
o Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions: vicarious emotion = feeling what
other feel. Empathy = feeling an emotion that you share. Vicarious = feeling an emotion
even if you don't share it. Eg: seeing someone skateboard, you're like wow that must be so
fun, even though you never skateboarded before.
Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior: loving family makes
someone a loving person. Abusive family makes someone an abusive person.
Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change (PSY)
Elaboration likelihood model: two extremes on how individuals respond to persuasion, most are
somewhere in the middle
 o central route processing: think, analyze, then draw conclusions
o peripheral route processing: superficial details like how likable the speaker is,
catchphrases, slogans
Social cognitive theory: we learn how to behave by observing others in society instead of trial and
error
Factors that affect attitude change (e.g., changing behavior, characteristics of the message and
target, social factors)
o Changes in your behavior -> observed by others -> Changes attitude
o Message -> influences target -> affects attitude
o Social = environment -> influences individual attitudes

Self-Identity
Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity
Self concept = self construction, self identity, self perspective, self structure = who am I = gender,
race, status, etc
The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity
o Self esteem = how you feel about yourself
o Self efficacy = your confidence in succeeding
o Locus of control = who controls your fate
Internal locus = you control your fate
External locus = others, luck control your fate
Different types of identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class)
o Race/ethnicity = color/culture
o Gender = your masculinity/femininity
o Sexual orientation = who you are attracted to
o Age = how old you feel
o Class = how rich you are
Formation of Identity
Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)
o Moral = Kohlberg = development of moral thinking by cognitive reasoning, resolving
moral dilemmas and the concept of right and wrong.
Preconventional morality (preadolescent): centered on consequences
 Obedience: fear of punishment
Self-interest: desire to gain reward
Conventional morality (adolescent): social roles
Conformity: seeks approval of others. Eg. Good boys dont steal.
Law and order: social order. Eg. If everyone steals, then society wouldnt
function.
Postconventional morality (adult): social rules
Social contract: individual rights. Eg. Everyone has a right to live.
Universal human ethics: abstract principles. Eg. Bribing the teacher for a
good grade just feels wrong...
o Psychosexual = Freud = our sexuality and libido (sex drive) influences our psychology,
and manifests differently as we develop. Fixation (overindulgence or frustration) during a
stage leads to problems later on.
Oral state (0-1): we like to feel orally, like sucking, biting, putting things in our
mouth. Fixation at this stage leads to excessive dependency later on.
Anal stage (1-3): we like to feel anally, like defecating. Fixation can lead to
excessive orderliness or sloppiness.
Phallic stage (3-5): males love mom and envy dad (Oedipal conflict). Females love
dad and envy mom (Electra conflict). To resolve these conflicts, the child identifies
with the same-sex parent and focuses energy on other things like school.
Latency stage: upon resolution of the Oedipal/Electra conflict
Genital stage: enters heterosexual relationship starting at puberty. Sexual traumas
in early stages lead to homosexuality, asexuality or fetishism.
o Psychosocial = Erikson = social interactions shapes psychology. Conflicts caused by social
demands causes problems later on.
Trust/mistrust (0-1): can I trust others? Conflict leads to later paranoia
Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3): can I be myself? Conflict leads to external
locus of control.
Initiative vs guilt (3-6): can I act? Conflict leads to either being too afraid to act or
overcompensating by showing off
Industry vs inferiority (6-12): can I be competent? Conflict leads to low self esteem
and self efficacy
Identity vs role confusion (12-20): who am I? Conflict leads to lack of
personality/identity.
 Intimacy vs isolation (20-40): can I love? Conflict leads to isolation and inability
to form true relationships.
Generativity vs stagnation (40-65): can I make a difference? Conflict leads to
boredom or self-centeredness.
Integrity vs despair (65+): did I live a good life? Conflict leads to bitterness and
fear of death.
Influence of social factors on identity formation: you are influenced by those around you
o Influence of individuals (e.g., imitation, looking-glass self, role-taking)
Imitation: we imitate role models, peers, especially those similar to us and those
we identify with
Looking-glass self: you're friends see you as funny. Your boss sees you as lazy.
Your ex sees you as dumb. Your looking-glass self is a combination of all of these
different perceived versions of you by other people.
Role-taking: pretending to be or experimenting with other identities. Eg: play
house, play doctor, etc.
o Influence of groups (e.g., reference group): reference group = who we compare ourselves
to. If your reference group is a bunch of over-achievers with 40+ MCAT scores, you'll
never be happy with yourself. However, if your reference group is the average med school
applicant, you'll be happy with a 30+ MCAT score.
Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation: we observe things around us, imitate
it, and identify with it. Thus, culture and socialization shapes who you are.

Social Thinking
Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations
Attributional processes (e.g., fundamental attribution error, role of culture in attributions)
o Your behavior is attributed to / caused by attributional processes: such as persons
(yourself, other people) or situations/environment. Internal attribution = your disposition.
External attribution = your situation.
o Fundamental attribution error: we tend to attribute someone else's behavior to their
personality/disposition rather than their situation. Eg: we tend to jump to the assumption
that fat people are lazy and over-eat, rather than more situational attributions such as a
health problem.
o Culture: western cultures = individualist = attributes behavior to internal/dispositional
factors (personality). Eastern and African cultures = collectivist = attributes behavior to
external/situational factors (like society, your tribe, your team mates).
 o Actor/observer difference: we tend to make excuses for ourselves and blame others. Eg:
if we or our friends make bad grades, we say the material is hard and the professor sucks.
If it's someone else making bad grades, we blame it on laziness.
How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others: when put ourselves in other peoples shoes
and assume they feel the same way we feel. Bems original experiment: test subjects see a video
of a man raving about doing a boring task. If Bem told the subjects the man was bribed $20 to do
this, the subjects came to the conclusion that the man hated the task in reality. On the other hand,
if Bem told them the man was only paid $1, the subjects assumed the man actually enjoyed the
task. Note, all these are assumptions based on self-perception, as the subject never met the man in
the video.
How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others. Examples: body language
changes the way you feel about someone. You are also more likely to perceive someone positively
if you are in a relaxed, comfortable environment.
Prejudice and Bias
Processes that contribute to prejudice
o Power, prestige, and class: rich vs poor, have vs have-nots. Eg: you come across a poor
person, prejudice kicks in, and you classify that person as being a hobo. You come across
a rich person, prejudice kicks in, and you classify that person as a snob.
o The role of emotion in prejudice: emotional level prejudice = prejudice that leads to
arousal of emotions. Eg: if you were robbed by someone of a certain race, you'll learn to
associate those negative emotions with that race even if the next guy you meet didn't do
anything.
o The role of cognition in prejudice: cognitive level prejudce = prejudice based on rational
thinking. Eg: racial profiling - if you observe that a certain race commits crimes more
often, you will treat everyone of that race with prejudice.
o Discrimination = prejudice that leads to action
Stereotypes: putting things/people into categories. It makes things simpler, but can lead to
prejudice and discrimination.
Stigma = extreme dislike of a person or group based on a difference such as belief, HIV, etc.
Ethnocentrism: judging others based on our own culture and perspective. Eg: you may look at face
paintings of tribes and find them weird, but if you step outside your ethnocentrism, you realize
that the tribes probably look at you and think your lack of face painting is weird.
o Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism
Ethnocentrism = placing yourself at the center of the universe = judging others
based on the assumption that your culture is superior / most correct
Cultural relativism = no one's at the center, everything's relative = perceiving
differences in others with an understanding that no one's more superior or inferior
Processes Related to Stereotypes
Self-fulfilling prophecy: if a race is stereotyped a certain way, people will have those expectations
from you and create conditions to fit those stereotypes. Eg: if the stereotype is your race being
good at basketball, people will expect you to be good at it without even knowing you, TV ads will
show your race playing basketball / wearing Air Jordans. In the end, this makes it easy for you to
become that stereotype, thus, a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Stereotype threat: if you have a negative stereotype against you, you'll be overly-defensive about
it. This causes anxiety that may impede performance.

Social Interactions
Elements of Social Interaction
Status: your social status
o Types of status (e.g., achieved, ascribed): achieved = obtained status, such as becoming a
doctor. Ascribed = you're born with it, such as your race.
Role: the role you play for a given status. Eg: treating patients when you're a doctor.
o Role conflict and role strain: role conflict = conflict between multiple roles (Eg: being a
doctor and a soldier at the same time). Role strain = conflict between requirements within
the same role (Eg: patient care vs patient autonomy. Jehova's witness refusing blood
transfusion, which may save their life. Parents refusing vaccination of their kids.)
o Role exit = quitting a role
Groups
o Primary and secondary groups: primary group = long-term relationship/interaction, such
as family and friends. Secondary group = short-term relationship/interaction, such as
classmates, colleagues.
o In-group vs. out-group: you identify with/belong to your in-group. Groups that you don't
identify with/belong to is called an out-group.
o Group size (e.g., dyads, triads): dyad = pair relationships (eg: husband-wife, staff-
customer). Triad = 3 members (eg: parents and single child).
Networks: made of social relationships/ties
Organizations: made of professional relationships. An organization is an entity in itself. It has a
goal, structure, and culture.
o Formal organization: secondary groups that serve a specific need/goal. Eg: governments,
corporations, universities, hospitals.
o Bureaucracy: a system of government where non-elect government officials make the
decisions.
Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
 Hierarchy of authority
Impersonality
Written wrules of conduct
Promotion based on achievement
Specialized division of labor
Efficiency
Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g., iron law of oligarchy, McDonaldization)
Iron law of oligarchy: government tend to shift toward being ruled by an
elite group
McDonaldization: shift toward being efficient and practical like
McDonalds/fast food restaurants.
Self-presentation and Interacting with Others
Expressing and detecting emotion: verbal and body language
o The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion: Popular belief is that girls
are more emotional and they are also more sensitive to detect emotion. Research shows
that society has particular expectations of how boys and girls express emotion. Eg: girls
can cry, guys should act tough, girls should be gentle, guys can be aggressive. This shapes
how guys and girls express emotions differently.
o The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion
individualistic cultures (Western): individualistic emotions predominate, such as
pride and anger
collectivist cultures (Asia, Africa): emotions that promote interconnectedness
predominates, such as friendliness and shame
Presentation of self
o Impression management = self presentation = how we act in order to influence how others
perceive us.
self-disclosure: introducing yourself as doctor to a patient
managing appearances: wearing a white coat, looking compassionate
ingratiation: telling your interviewer that his research is fascinating, even when
you couldnt care less
aligning actions: aligning/justifying your actions by making excuses
alter-casting: imposing an identity on someone. Eg: as a doctor, you should...
o Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach)
 dramaturgical approach = using theater performance as an analogy to impression
management
front stage: when youre being observed, you act to conform to societys
expectations
back stage: when youre by yourself, you can be yourself
Verbal and nonverbal communication: verbal = things you say. Nonverbal = body language
Animal signals and communication
o Bees: waggle dance to communicate location of pollen
o Baring of teeth = aggression
o Birds: fluff up their feathers to look bigger and more intimidating
Social Behavior
Attraction
o interpersonal attraction = like/dislike. Causes include physical attractiveness, proximity,
similarity, familiarity, complementarity (opposites attract), reciprocity
o physical attractiveness = how good someone looks
o sexual attractiveness = how much sexual desire they arouse
Aggression = behavior that intends to cause harm
Attachment = parent-child relationship = develops during first 2 years of life
o secure attachment = normal = caring parent, child upset if parent leaves, comforted when
parent returns, child prefers parent to stranger, good social skills later on
o avoidant attachment = uncaring parent = child treats parent like any stranger
o ambivalent attachment = inconsistent parent = child upset if parent leaves, but may not be
fully comforted when parent returns
o disorganized attachment = child abuse = disorganized response to presence and absence of
parent, such as avoidance, resistance, confusion, repetitive behaviors such as rocking
Altruism = helping others at the cost of yourself = evolutionary helps you indirectly as you share
genes with those you help
Social support
o Biological explanations of social behavior in animals = genetic (hunger drives foraging,
testosterone drives mating) and social (learning from those around you)
o Foraging behavior = seeks out food
o Mating behavior and mate choice = finding, attracting, and choosing a mate
 o Applying game theory: game theory = decision making. Decisions have a benefit-cost ratio.
Pick the choice of action that has the most benefit-cost ratio.
o Altruism = help others at the cost of yourself. Alternatives: spite (harms both), cooperation
(benefits both), selfishness (help yourself at the cost of others).
o Inclusive fitness = explains altruism = when you help others who share genes with you,
you indirectly help yourself
Discrimination
Individual vs. institutional discrimination
o individual discrimination = it's just you doing the discrimination
o institutional discrimination = the society doing the discrimination. Can be subtle, such as
providing different access to opportunities, promoting positive/negative stereotypes in the
media.
The relationship between prejudice and discrimination: prejudice = pre-judge = you're judging
someone based on their race before even getting to know them. Discrimination = action = you are
prejudiced against a certain race and because of that, rejected them from med school.
How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination: power (ability to obtain goals), prestige
(respect), and class (socioeconomic status) divides people into haves and have-nots. This leads to
prejudice and discrimination.

Understanding Social Structure

Theoretical Approaches
Microsociology vs. macrosociology
o microsociology = focuses on individual face-to-face, everyday social interactions
o macrosociology = focuses on populations, social systems and structure
Functionalism = study of structure and function of society
Conflict theory = Marxist theory = groups/classes within society have differing amounts power
and wealth. The upper class use their power to exploit the lower class.
Symbolic interactionism = interacting via symbols. Eg: the cross symbolizes Christianity, thumbs
up symbolizes approval. Symbols can vary between cultures. Eg: the two finger peace sign is
offensive in England.
Social constructionism = social constructs. Eg: money (it's just paper, but society made it worth
more than paper).
Exchange-rational choice
o exchange theory: relationships form from exchange/negotiation of goods/services
 o rational choice theory: people make everyday decisions based on rational choice
(weighing the costs, benefits, probabilities)
Feminist theory: study of women (objectification, stereotyping, gender roles, experience, politics)
in order to understand why there is gender inequality.
Social Institutions
Education
o Hidden curriculum: what schools teach kids by accident. Eg: a rich-kids only school
teaches kids the expectations and priviledges of being upper class.
o Teacher expectancy: a teacher's expectancy of a kid influences how that kid will perform.
Eg: a teacher expects less from a minority student, lowers the bar for the kid, subsequently
the kid did not develop his full potential.
o Educational segregation and stratification: poor areas have poor schools which have lower
quality education
Family: reproduce, socialize
o Forms of kinship
Primary kins = next to each other on a pedigree = husband-wife, parent-child,
siblings
Secondary kins = separated by one kin on a pedigree = your parent's parent
(grandparents), your parent's sibling (aunts/uncles)
Tertiary kins = separated by two kins on a pedigree = your parent's sibling's
children (cousins)
o Diversity in family forms: eg. Single parents, homosexual parents, step parents,
grandparents, etc.
o Marriage and divorce: marriage from a healthcare/legal standpoint makes your spouse
your next-of-kin. If anything happens to you and you can no longer make decisions, your
spouse have the legal authority to do so on your behalf.
o Violence in the family (e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse): abuse can occur to
anyone, any age, any gender, and can be both physical and emotional
Religion: meaning of life/death, spirituality
o Religiosity = religiousness = how religious you are
o Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults)
Church = stabilizing, in alignment with government, mainstream religious
teaching
Sect = splits off from the church to promote a more traditional/orthodox version
of the religion
 Cult = splits off from the church to promote a novel version of the religion.
Usually led be charismatic leaders.
o Religion and social change (e.g., modernization, secularization, fundamentalism)
modernization: adoption of technology by society. Causes secularization.
secularization: religion loses influence on people
fundamentalism: strict literal interpretation of the scriptures. Eg: the world was
created in 7 days.
Government and economy: social order
o Power and authority
o Comparative economic and political systems
Capitalism: private, profit-orientated
Socialism: state-owned, distribution of resources
Mixed-economy: mixture of capitalism and socialism
o Division of labor: Construction workers do nothing but build houses. Doctors do nothing
but treat patients. You are able to live in a house despite the fact that you know nothing
about construction. Division of laber makes people specialized in their trade, they become
really good and efficient at it, which would not be possible if they are required to know
everything from every trade.
Health and medicine: treats the sick
o Medicalization: human conditions becoming disease entities that are then studied and
treated under medicine
o The sick role
Rights: it's not your fault that you're sick, and while you're sick, you're exempt
from work (your normal social role)
Obligations: You should try to get well. You should see a doctor and
cooperate/comply
Issues with the sick role: pushing a sick role on someone who doesn't think so
(homosexuality used to be considered a disease entity. Some patients wants to
avoid the sick role due to stigmatization/HIV or because they want to continue to
work). Sometimes we blame people it's their fault for being sick (obesity and
lifestyle).
o Delivery of health care
primary care doctor (firstline) -> specialist referal
 medical staff: doctors (diagnose, treat/prescribe), nurses (administer, bedside
monitor), EMS (stabilizing the patient long enough to reach the hospital)
o Illness experience: experiencing symptom -> assuming sick role -> seeking care ->
establish doctor-patient relationship -> recovery
o Social epidemiology
epidemiology = public health = incidence, demographics, and control of disease
social epidemiology = how society affects health. Eg: poor socioeconomic status
is associated with poor healthcare.
Culture
Elements of culture (e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values): these elements make up
culture, which is passed down to the next generation.
Material vs. symbolic culture
o material = technology, clothing, architecture, etc
o symbolic = language, beliefs, etc
Culture lag: material culture (technology) changes faster than symbolic (beliefs, values). Eg: we
can clone humans, but we feel its unethical to do so.
Culture shock = going to a different culture and be shocked at the differences
Assimilation = integrating into a different culture.
Multiculturalism = melting pot, like New york
Subcultures and countercultures
o subculture = a culture within the predominant culture. Eg: wearing Hijab in America.
o counterculture = a subculture that is radically different / opposes the mainstream culture.
Eg: the hippie generation.
Mass media and popular culture
o mass media = media that targets the masses. Often exaggerated and modified for effect.
Has a heavy influence on pop culture.
o popular culture = pop culture = mainstream culture
Evolution and human culture
o culture as product of evolution: people with culture have stronger attachments and
communicate better, thus more fit.
o culture as driver of evolution: modern technology means were no longer subject to the
same selection pressures as animals. Eg: we have less body hair, we have smaller jaws,
smaller muscle mass than our ancesters.
 o culture evolves over time
Transmission and diffusion
o transmission = vertical = passing culture down from generation to generation
o diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to other places. Eg: westernization of the world.

Demographic Characteristics and Processes

Demographic Structure of Society
Age
o Aging and the life course
o Age cohorts: millennials, generation x, baby boomers, etc
o Social significance of aging: elderly = needs social security and medicare = taken care of
by young workforce. Baby boomers = large aging population.
Gender
o Sex versus gender: sex = biological male/female. Gender = behavioral/psychological
male/female.
o The social construction of gender: we can't tell directly if someone is XX or XY. Therefore,
use have an agreed-upon set of characteristics that define male and female. Eg: wearing a
skirt is a female characteristic constructed by society.
o Gender segregation: bathrooms, sports, etc.
Race and ethnicity
o race = your outward appearance. Ethnicity = the culture you identify with.
o The social construction of race: we classify people into races based on outward appearance.
o Racialization: ascribing a racial identity onto someone.
Predominantly black/white neighborhoods racialize newcomers, and will either
welcome them or reject them based on their race.
Corporations racialize employees and promote/limit their advancement up the
corporate ladder.
o Racial formation: we construct/form races to justify treating people differently. Eg: slavery,
genocide, who to be friends with, etc.
Immigration status
o Patterns of immigration: immigration is increasing, most of which is from Mexico,
Caribbean, and India.
 o Intersections with race and ethnicity: race and ethnicity are different things that can overlap
or be different. Eg: being Caucasian can mean you are Greek, French, Irish, etc. If you are
Black, but you are born in France and lived your whole life there, you can also call yourself
French.
Sexual orientation: heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual
Demographic Shifts and Social Change
Theories of demographic change (i.e., Malthusian theory and demographic transition)
o Malthusian theory = population grows exponentially and will eventually outgrow its
resources. War, famine, disease bring the population back down to a sustainable level
(positive checks). Population control (preventive checks) such as later marriage also keeps
the population from outgrowing its resources.
o Demographic shift = changes in population makeup, including birth and death rates
(demographic transition)
o Demographic transition = changes in birth and death rates a society goes through as it
develops
stage 1: preindustry society = both birth rate and death rates are high
stage 2: better conditions = death rate decreases
stage 3: better population control = birth rate decreases
stage 4: industrialized society = both birth and death rates are low
Population growth and decline (e.g., population projections, population pyramids)
o Growth: birth rate > death rate
o Decline: death rate > birth rate
o Population projection = estimate population at future date
o Population pyramids: bottom heavy = population growth. Top heavy = population decline.
Side skew = gender imbalance.
Fertility, migration, and mortality
o Fertility and mortality rates (e.g., total, crude, age-specific)
Mortality = death per population per year
Total fertility rate = total number of babies the average woman has in her lifetime
in a population
Crude fertility rate = babies per population per time
Age-specific rates = rates for an age bracket
o Patterns in fertility and mortality: developed nations have low fertility and low mortality.
Underdeveloped nations have high fertility and high mortality.
 o Push and pull factors in migration
Push = why you want to leave this place = lack of jobs, natural disasters,
descrimination, etc
Pull = why you want to go to the other place = better paying jobs, promise of a
better life, etc
Social movements
o Relative deprivation: what is considered poor in the US is different than what is considered
poor in Africa. We compare our haves and have-nots to those around us.
o Organization of social movements
Proactive = promote change
Reactive = resist change
Organizations = facilitate social movements = NAACP, PETA, etc
o Movement strategies and tactics: advertising, protests, formation of organizations, etc
Globalization
o globalization = interaction and integration of nations
o Factors contributing to globalization (e.g., communication technology, economic
interdependence): globalization is made possible by technology, and driven by the need to
trade.
o Perspectives on globalization
proponents: economic growth and development
criticisms: colonialism, inequality, cultural assimilation
o Social changes in globalization (e.g., civil unrest, terrorism): cultural assimilation,
colonialism, inequality can cause civil unrest and terrorism.
Urbanization
o Urbanization = dense area of population where people migrate to = cities
o Industrialization and urban growth: industrialization = more manufacturing = more need
for workforce concentrated in one area = more jobs = urban growth
o Suburbanization and urban decline: with better transportation and the ability to work at
home, many people prefer to live in the suburbs (city outskirts), where there is less crime,
noise and pollution. This depopulation leads many areas of the city abandoned,
contributing to urban decline.
o Gentrification and urban renewal. Gentrification = arrival of wealthy people into poor
urban areas, raising rent and property values. Urban renewal = clearing slums in cities and
redeveloping it.
 Social Inequality
Spatial Inequality (SOC)
Residential segregation: poor neightborhoods (bad schools, high crime rate, poor healthcare, cheap
housing) vs rich neighborhoods (good schools, low crime rate, good healthcare, expensive
housing). Relocation is difficult both ways (poor people can't afford to relocate, rich people don't
want to relocate), so segregation occurs.
Neighborhood safety and violence: poor neighborhoods have high crime rates.
Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks): poor neighborhoods are cheap due
to factors such as pollution, crime rate, lower access to quality healthcare, crowded conditions.
Poor people can't afford expensive housing, so they reside here and are exposed to more health
risks. Infectious disease rates are higher in people of lower socioeconomic status.
Social Class (SOC)
Aspects of social stratification
o Social class and socioeconomic status: social class = your background, status = your
current situation. Eg: a homeless person who just won the lottery comes from a low social
class, but is now of high socioeconomic status. A millionaire who just went bankrupt
comes frome a high social class, but is now of a low socioeconomic status.
o Class consciousness and false consciousness: class consciousness = awareness of your
class and the interests of your class as a whole. False consciousness = awareness of
yourself and your interests only. The communist revolution is based on promoting class
consciousness of the lower class.
o Cultural capital and social capital
Cultural capital: knowledge, skills, education.
Social capital: connections.
Economic capital: money and property.
o Social reproduction: transmission of social inequalities from one generation to the next.
Eg: poor families give birth to kids in poor neighborhoods, with less access to education
and opportunities, and they grow up to be poor also.
o Power, privilege, and prestige
Power = control over other people
Privilege = perks
Prestige = reputation, how much respect people have of you
 o Intersectionality (e.g., race, gender, age): intersectionality = the study of having more than
one of racisim, ageism, sexism. Eg: the unique experience of being a black woman
examined by black feminism rather than mainstream feminism.
o Socioeconomic gradient in health: inequalities in healthcare exists. The lower
socioeconomic class has worse health than the upper class.
o Global inequalities: developed vs underdeveloped nations. These inequalities are
reinforced by unfair trade practices in globalization.
Patterns of social mobility
o social mobility = moving up/down in the socioeconomic ladder
o Intergenerational and intragenerational mobility: intergenerational = changes from parent
to kid. Intragenerational = changes within your life time.
o Vertical and horizontal mobility: vertical mobility = moving up and down the
socioeconomic ladder. Horizontal mobility = changing jobs within your own
socioeconomic class
o Meritocracy: advancing the socioeconomic ladder based on merit and achievement.
Poverty
o Relative and absolute poverty
Relative poverty = being poor compared to most people around you.
Absolute poverty = being poor such that your basic needs are not met (food,
shelter, clothing, water).
o Social exclusion (segregation and isolation) = excluding/blocking off someone or a group
of people from society's opportunities, rights and resources that other groups have access
to.
Health Disparities (SOC) (e.g., class, gender, and race inequalities in health)
Top 5 mortalities in the US: heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory (COPD), stroke,
accidents
Class: lower class have poorer health in general.
Gender: women live longer, but suffer more non-life-threatening illnesses (arthritis, fibromyalgia,
depression). Men die younger, from accidents and serious illnesses (heart disease, cancer, COPD,
diabetes). Men are also less likely to seek help and are less compliant.
Race
o Whites: cystic fibrosis, skin cancer
o Blacks: sickle cell disease, sarcoidosis. Also more likely to have diabetes, stroke. They
also develop hypertension earlier.
 o Asians: stomach cancer (nitrates in food preservatives)
Healthcare Disparities (SOC) (e.g., class, gender, and race inequalities in health care)
class: lower class have poorer access to healthcare and are more likely to be uninsured
gender: women are more likely to seek help and see the doctor on a regular basis. LGBT are less
likely to seek care due to fear of discrimination.
race: blacks and Hispanics are less access to healthcare and have poorer healthcare outcomes.