Unit Operations

George Grancer Brown

_.-0 .,. 1III1u& CAMnBt.L V)l'I~ ...arEMOII or CKEltICAL JlSGl lfln:IlU' O
~o DMlf O. nu:
OOLl,Sla OJ' s..'COINEllalNO, US IVSMlTJ OF JlICIUOOI

Alarl Shiftl'lll'_t Georse Marlin Brown

1'110_ OJ' eft.IlIC,U .. ItNGUIIUalNO, UN I- AUOCIA.T& raorr.lleOll or C'U:MICAL DOl-
vDUTY or IlUCBIGAN NEERING, NOIITliW&WnaIN UNU'EItillTT

Donald LaVerne Katz lloyd FArl Brownell

J'llO""O. PI' eII.IlICAI" I:NOII'fEEKlNG AND AMNX:IAT& P/WP'r..">5011 01' CH&:IIICA1, ENOl_
CUA.-.A1f or 'I'!lS DZ1'AJlTMCNT or CHEIII.ICAL NEI::1USO, UNIVEJ\8JTT or MICHHlAN
AND IlETALI.UWUCAl.. ENOINIi:ⅈNO, ~NIVER-
IIlTT OJ' .... CHlGJ.M

Ridaanl Schneidewind Joeeph J. Martin

~ or IIIInALLlIIlOIC.U. ENGI N EE" 4IIlIOClATI: r/lOFEIIlIOa or CHEloIlCAL IINOI_
DIG, vtll YIII3!TT O. Ylc.IO",. KUalII'G, UN IVEMITT or IIIIlct1I0,,'"

Robert Roy White GeorKe Brymer Williams

r .orsM()a or ell.llIc"L IlII'OUfEEJUMO, 11MI- AMOCIATI: 'AOnMOa or CHCMIC"L 'ENOI-
TIlMrTf or MICHIOA. II'II.1JU NO, UN IVEIIIIlTT or IIIICHIOAN

WOllam PIau Wood Jun. Thom s.nehero

..:tJ'E!lII01I or III&TA LL1J1Wlc.&.L IU'OIN&U- AMIn'AlIT I'JIOn:MOlt 01' CHJ:~IC4L 1'01
DIIO, UlUVaaur!" 0 1' IIIICIUOAif ",1:&""'10, VIf,VI:-.:ITr 01' .IllClU04'"

JefJaIC Louis York

UIIJOC14TS ..-01'11lIII0& 01' CIl&KICAL l:"'OI,,al"O,
VJUVI.MIft OF IUCIUG.OII

~
cas
CBS PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS
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 Preface
This textbook. is the first to carry the title Unit Operatimu, but it is not the first
to treat the suoJect. .
Modern practice anrl equipmp.nt are emphasized ILl! well as ma.themlltica1 inter-
. pretations, as only by properly designed, oollStruei.ed, and operated equ ipment can
mathematical treatment yield usefu l result/!. The object is to build the student:s
knowledge and power progrcSfJiveiy and continuously until he has a. reasonably
clear concept of how to approac~ the problem'l of design and operation of processing
equipment. The unit operations are grouped according to similarities in action or
in methods of calculation and presented in ,sequence according to iDereMing diffi-
culty. . .
By gJ:ouping similar operatiollil and using a common nomenclature in similar
theoretical discussiollfl. we find that the titudent makes more rapid progress, less
effort is required to master nomenclature, and a better Wlderstanding is gained oC
the rel&tionships among the different unit operations. The ~iation and com
plI,rison of similar opemtions from different industrinl processes is the essence of
unit operations and the major factor in developing chemical, metallurgical, or
process engineers capable of sucttSSfuJly designing new plants for conducting new
processes. The full advantage of the study of unit operations can be realized only
if the unit operations are themselves associated and compared 80 the engineer may
more skillfully seled the most suitable operation and equipment desired for each
step in the process. The tendency of -the specinlist to treat each unit operation lUI
Ito specialty having its own peculiar re>uI ~. rationalization, and nomenclature is of
questionable value in any suatained edu.cational effort and is to be resisted by all
means in an undergraduate curriculum.
The arrangement in oroer of increasing difficulty rather than in order of assumed
importance continually presents new advanced intriguing problems to the student,
maintains his interest, and encourages him to continue his awn development
beyond the limitations of the book. The treatment of those operations covering
solids in Part I requires little more preparation than is ordinarily given in high
school, whereas the treatment of mass kal18fer in Part JV is suitable for 1', p08~
graduate course and is presented with a critical attitude tending to develop the
research point of view.
The inductive method is generally folluwed, relying upon observations from
experience rather than upon deductive rationali~tions. This method is:L powerful
tool of the pmcLicing cngineer and has been Cound moet satisfactory for under_
graduate st udents. However, kinetic explanations are not neglected and receive
increasing emphasis in the last part on energy and mM8 transfer as an important
means 10 a. thorough understanding of the mechanisms involved.
PhY$ics, calculus, and a beginning course in material and .e nergy balances, or
thermodynamics, are assumed &$ pren>quisites to unit opera.ti~ns. Even with this
background the student may be confused regarding dimen!lions and energy balances,
and these subjects are treated rather fully . It. is hoped that .all chapters have
"ii

 PREFACE
received sufficiently extensive treatment to meet the requiremenu of any under-
graduate curriculum so tha.t the desired emphMia mAY be obtained by omission
rather than addition. Alnut 180 recitations should be required to cover the
entire material in an adequate manner with undergra.dua.f.e students, allowing 8
to 10 for the first five chapter! and 50 to 60 ea.ch f~ Parte II, IU , &lid IV. In &.
postgraduate course for studenUi who have completed an undergraduate COUl'8e in
unit Operatiollll, this time could be redueed by one-third or one-haiL With appro-
priate omissions the text has been used euooe8llfully for undergraduate courses
of three qUllJ'ters with a total of 117 clas8 meetings and of two seme8te.rs with ..
total of 105 claN meetings, as well as for a singl&-eCmester short course of 60 clase
meetings.
References to the literature are included for the purpose of attractin,g the stu-
dent's attention to other 8OUl'Ce8 of information a8 well as to acknowledge eources.
An effort. bas been made to give credit for 'all material used, but 80 many workers
have contributed so much that 'it is impo8lllbie to recognise the contributions 01
everyo'ne. Indebtedness to previous texta and handbooks and to manufacturers of
equipment is freely, acknowledged. Tbe apecific belp and ~OD8 of L. F .
Stutzman and George '111od08, Associate Professors, Hdlan. A. Dahlitrom, Asaiatant
Prolessor of Chemioal Engineering, at Northwelltem Univeraity, F . Charles Moeeel
and Cedomir 8liepoevich, Assistant Pro(ef!80~ of ChemiCal ~gineeri~ at The
University of Michigan, Dr. Joseph Allerton, of Sayville, L;mg Isltt.nd, and Verne C .
Kennedy. Jr., of. Chicago, aDd the frank criticisms of .tudents who have used the
material &II mimeographed- notes have been invaluable. tolerance and your 00-
open.tion in helping to eliminate erron and .ugert improvements at they may
appear are requested;
'l'K: AUTHORS

Contents
~ ......
1. lrttroduewlD too the Uni~ OpHaUon'
CIt.\.P'l'J!:.
I t. Transportation of Fluids I-Pipet and Fittinp 122

.
Unit ()pf.n.tiODa ClaI$fifld, Ii PTacl.ie&l Opera.-
- ~ '; Fundamental CoorepL&, 3; Application of
TbreadOO CoruieoctioDll, 123;"Fittinp, 124; Vllves,
124; BeJI-..ad-Spignt Connections. 127; Welded

a_ """""" ConneetioM, 127; Fla.upd ~ 129

"an I. Sol"" 5 12. Tl"VWlporl.t.tiop. of Fluids 2--~ RelatiOq
13'
7 DimensioN and Unite, 131, .T he Flo" &tu...tion,."
2. PropertJe. 01 Solidi!
133; Friction 1..-, 136; Dimenaional Analyai.,
9 136; ProblelJ\$, 146
IndulJtrial Screening Equipment, 9; Detennining 13. MeMUl'f)ment of Flow of Fluids 149
Particle SiM!, 16; ScreeII Analyees, 17: ProblCIn>!, Dispiaooment Flowmeter&, 149; Current Flmv--

"
.. SiN Reduction of 80lkk 25
meters, 152; Manomet.er, 1M, Pitot Tube, 156;
VeDtun Met.er, 156; Flow NouJe, t57: Ori&e,
1 ~7; Area Met.e .... 161; Problftms, 163
Objedivee,' 25; 8tapBol Reduction, 26; OperatlDt;
Varlt.bIe., 26; Couae SUe Red uction, 27; Intu- 14.. Pum~ina: and Colnpretlliog 1M
II'Iedi.ate SiHo Redudioll. 32;.:ijne SUe Reducliou, Reciprocatilll Pumps and CoIllpl"'ell8Ort, 167;
37; Enerv Requirelnenla, 42; Prob)eme, 45 Rotary Pwups tor>d BIowera, 174, eenWupl
Pumplaod Com~ ITl; Special PuJ)l.PI and
5. lUndlil1l of &6dB. 49 Blowe.... 19".(: Problems, 197
Port&ble Power-Driven Mft.chinea, 49; Permanent
I.n8tallAtions, 51; FJilht ConVf)Yo1'll, 53; Belt Con-
15. G... Flow at Hi&h Velocity I,.
veyon; M; Weight lXlternUlUotion, 61; Problems, Nol.IlM. illS; PipeB, 2Oa;':Proolema, 209
54
Pari II.
6. .PropertioB of Fluids
F"".,. "
67
16. Flow of Fluid3 throUCh Porous Media 1-8inale'
Fluid Phalle 210
Compu tatiONl, 216; Equatione Ueed for anililu
Flow throu&h POI"OOII Bed.. 217; Problelu, 219
, .'
V~ty. 67; Relative Motion betll'een Fluid5 aod
17. Flow of FlWds throu&h POrollll Media 2-TWiJ Fluid
Solids, 68; Problems, 71
"'- Z2II
7. The F10w of Solids I.hrough Fluids
Maximum Velocity, 73; Two-~ MOo
72
_228
Rmi.dual Sel.uRtion, 223; F'Io:ri of tba WetUoa
Fluid, 224; Flow of Nop.weuilll FIuid,~; Prob-
tiou, 79; Problem!!, 83
8. ClNIificat.ion
"Equ&l Falling" Particle., 84; Equipmeat, 85;
. 18. Filtra t.iob
Gravity }'ilt.e.... 229; PIst.e-.ad-Framo Filtan,
231; Batclll-eaf Filteril", 233; Continuo.. Rotary
JiainI, 91; TabliDa:, 115; ~dC) ClaNiJica.-
Vl.;C"um Filten, 235; Ope~tion, 241 j &1eetJoo 01
tion, 96: Problems, 97
Filtenl, 242; Filter Caleul&t.ione, 242 ; Blower Re-
9. Flotat.io;ln W qui_nUl {or Rotary Vaeuwn Filters, 263; ProO-
\t;mt,2M
Jolot.atioo Cella, 100; F~t.ion Aplw., IOf; Cal-
culatiou fOJ' It. Flot.&t.ion ~ 107; Ptolmms, 19. Ceotrifuptioo 258
k"
'09 Equipmeat., 258; Cak:u1atioos, 266; Probleo:w, au .
to. Sedimea\&Uon 110 20. Fluidi&ation of SoIXiII
t..boratory BaUh 8edimentaUot:!., 111; Equip. P&rticulate FtuidiuUon, 269; AlWt'Ptino FlWdi-
-t. ml; C<lnt.i.nUOllll Sedimentation, lHo; Sepa- u.t.ioo, 270; C&leUJat.>ou of Requil1Kl. ~
raUoIl from G-. lUI; Probiflrrll. IlIO Drop!!, 270; Criteria Jor' Pa:rtieulate aDd Agrtp- '
, CONTENTS
CH,lP'I'li:Il
live Fiuidi l&tion, 272; Traneportation of Fluidi~od
Dil!pereed Solid8, 273
r.,. " '. ~,...,..,i"'." M .... TralU/~r:
rlt. l<I.eal Sf.,. C_eJH
21. Solid-Liquid Elltraction
Equipment, 277; Mp,thods of Operat:"'n, 282;
Method of Calculation, 282; Gr.phi~1 l[ethod~,
286; ProblemA, 294
22. liquid-Liquid Extrar.ion
Equipment, 298; Methodll of Operation, 301 ;
Method. of Calculation, 302; Equilibrium ReI&-
tionllhips in T ernary SyatemA, 303; Graphical
Methods, 3OS; Continuo~ Countercurrent Multi-
p-Coo\aet OperaUoo, 31; Intermediate Feed,
308j ReBu.x. 312; M. . or Maio Ratio DiacraJn,
316; ProbJem.s, 320
23. Vapor-Liquid Tmnsfer Operations 1
~uipment, 322; Calcult.UoM by Enth&lpy Com-
poIIiUou Dlq.ram, 325; StriPpinl Culumns. 33 1;
Rect.ifyin, Columna, 332; Complete FrI.ctiooatillg
Column, 33.; Food Plate t..:-tion, 337; Re8ux
Ratio, 337; Total Reflux, 337; Minimum Reflux,
339; Optimum ReftUl[ Ratio, 339; Partial Con-
de~ 339; Open Steam, 340; Enuaimnent,
MO; Plate Efticieocy, 343; ProbleIlllJ, a43
:U:' Va por-Uquid T ransfer Ope.ratiODII 2-DelIign -.nd
Control of Fn.etionating Columnll
Bubble Plate CoIUIIlIlII, 346; Pa.eked Column.s,
361; lnatrumentation and Control of Fl'8.(ltiQnat.-
ing Colulnll4, 362; Probltmt, 366
25. V.-por-Llquld Tn.nsCer Operatioftf! 3------Calculation
of Ideal Stagetl Asauming Constant Molal Overflow
Gnapbical Methods, 367; Analytic Expressm,
_ 370; Mul ticomponent!l, 37~ ; Sbort Procedure,
386; Problems, 387
26. Vapol'-LiquHi Transfer Operat.i.ollH +----Dieti lletion
t.od CortdetMIiUon
Bat.eb FmetioOll.tioll, 300; Vaeuum and S\u.Ju
Di.ltilla\ioo, 391; A&eotropie and Extraetive Di.-
tillation, 893; Problema, 396
"n. Adaorption
&.uipmen~ <""9; Method of CaleulatioD. 407;
Probk!m, 411
28. Heat Tranafer 1 415
Heat E:':change Equipment, 417; Theory flDd
Fonnulfltion, 424 ; CoD<luetioD throud> a Series of
Solids, 429; Convection, 431; Ca l~ula tion of Heat
Tranger Coeftident, 432; M eal!. Tempen.lure I);J-
ference, .34; Foulin, F actor" '36; ProblerTIII, 436
...
OIl AP'n:R
2!). He/lt Tranllfer 2- Transftr Coeflicien~ between
Fluids and Tubctl 438
.1"ids ioollo Tu bes, 438; Fluids ool.aide Tube.,
443; Problems, 0144
275
30. II lmt Transfer B-Conde!llling Vapors a.nd Bollin,
277 Liquids 448
F'i lmw ise Condensation, 448; D ro pwi$e Condtn-
63tion, 4~1; Boililli Coefficicn l4, 463; Probkuw,
m
.56
'1. Hent TtlWSfer ~T4diation
mack Bodietl, 4~7 ; Goometric F~tonJ, 461; Allow-
.,
ance for Nonbla.ck Surfacl'fJ, 464; Radiant Heat
Tra.nafcr to Banks of TubeS, 464; Gt&phiea.\ Solu-
tion for Radi.tion in a Funmce, 466; Radia.ot
Jleat Ttanal'er Coefficients, 467; fUdiation from
Nonluminous C--. -468; Radiation from Lw.ni-
nOW! FI&me., 471; ~JeIIlll, 473
322 32. Evaporation --""
Huri~ntal-Tube Evaporator, 474; Vertical-Tube
Evaporator, 47S; Forced-Cireu1ation Enporaior,
'"
476; Lon~Tube Vertical E"'porator, 4n; Traps,
H8; Evaporat AUl<iliariee, .79; EvaporalAll'
Operation, 481; )'lultipie Effect, 481; VlI.por R&.
compressioll, 482; Hoot 'trlLll8fer Cotftidenl4, 483;
Ca1euIation8, 484, Problema, 492
33. Cry3la.lliZ&uon 403
346 Rate of Cryat.lliu.tion, 493; Yield of a Given
Operotion, 494; Purity of Product, 4%, Energy
EKwta i" the P~ 495; Size uf Crystals, 497,
Equipment, 499; Prob1elfll!, 501
34. Agi tation 503
366 ObjcctiY<:S lind Requiremen te, M3; Type!! of "i-
tation F..quipmen t, S04; Po .... er Consumption of
Agitators, 506
35. ~Iasa Transfer 1 510
The Rate Equflt.ioo, 510; The Driving Fome,
388 Fupc~ ty, am.I Concentration, 5U ; Wetted-Wall
Column..., an Adiabatic H umidifier, 512; M_
Ti&nsfer by Molecule.r Diffu~on, Slot; Diffusivity,
b15, MD.S8 Transfer in Turbulent Flow, 517; Di~
menllioOll.I AO/lJyeh, .518; AnnlOfO' between M o-
398 m~ntum, Heat, and '\[IIM Trnnafer, 5111; Du.trlbu-
tin!!. of Moh,culnr and Ttlrbuient Shear StnlM,
52(); Prandtl M ixi ng Lfongtb, 522; Pbyaieal 8i&~
ni61l&nce uf Di mensionless Groups, 523; Problems,
'24
36. ",IMS Tnmsfer 2-t~fficientl in Packed Towel'll
i:J:Perimcntal MII$!J T ranRfer Cocfficient4, 527;
(',Q~1ation 0{ J.iquid Pb!U!ll Coofficient&, 529;
'"
Correlation 01 GM Pru.sc Coeftid('nla, 530; Th
Tf'lUlSler Unit, [031; Dititi1latiun, 635; liquid-
Liquid Ext.ra~tif)n, (036; Maslil Trn Mfer in Systems
 CON'I"ENTS

~~
ef'FluidII and Gran. &l:idl, 638; Fluidized Beds,
539; Probkml, MO
37. Simu....'\aneouI Reat ami M. . Trantfer I-Pay
.

A_
CJrAnJ:.
NOme.DclatUle

Liqui(\..Liquid ~:'>ria, &81 ; Vapor-Liquid

.,
.."

........". Equilibria., MI; Ea\balpy CoDoeotntioD Data.

De6DiUoM., M2; Bumidit.y Chart. M3j Wet.- ud Ethaool-Wa t.ff, ti82; Vapor ~rea, 583; Vola.-
Dry~BuJ, T~ &4&; The Interactron of tility Equilibrium Dilt.tibuUon Raw., K, for-
AU Ad W..... 541; Adiwlie Bumidifica~ Bydrocarbona, Mi; 'J'bmuJ CoDdudiviw., 584.
~j J)eiI_idiecat.!on, M9; CooIiIll To"",", 562; & \un.t.ed &lid VIf)Or DeuIi~ 685 ; Vm.i tiee

~
...
NaiunII DnI\. 663; Meehanica1 Draft., S66; Cool--
iDe PODdIJ, 667; epr.y Poruk, 5057; ProbI.!un.,.
,
of lCquidt and Vapon. 586; Specifie HM." of
Uquidll .ad VaJXd, 587; E Dtlalpy 01. Pardin
Hydrocarbon Liquids, &88; EnthalpY Of Pan.IIin
Bydrocarboa. G_. 689; Itot.hermal Dec:re_ in
38. H_ t and M . . Truefer 2-Dryioc
I>JoyiDt: Equipment, 569; Tny Drier'll, S59j Rotary
'" Enthalpy of G_ Accompanying &II. Increaie in
Pn.ure, 6QO; Comp,.bility Factor for 0 - ,
~ 669; Spray Drien, 1160; Drum DrlerB, "5/54; > 691 i EnQWpJ-oonOllQtratJOIl Dlt.c:ram. Ammonia-
Vaouum Drit!I1I, 566; MechaDUIm. Of 'I>t-yiq; Solids,
56&; Calculatione, 66Q; ConUnI1Ollll Drier8,672j
:r..tiIutbJi; Dryiaa,Rau.. 673; Prob~ 67.
w.w,m
...
------:... ------
~
---
(11) MASS TRANSFER ..'

.Principles of molecular di iiusion and diffusion between

phases. Concept of stage wise processes.
. Distilation, vapour liquid equilibria. fWD cDmponenl idea l

mlxlures. McCabe':hieh~, method, nonideal binary systems.
enthalpy concenlratlon diagrams, plale efficiencies, plale and
packe~ columns. H. E. T. P. and H. T. U. Batch , azeolropk;,
extractIVe. steam and vacuum distilations .

. Absorption, mechanism of absorption theories of abso~tion

eqUl~men! , .' ra.nsler coefficient and absorption wilh chemical
. reachon. Pnnclples of absorption . .

Extrac tion, eq uilibrium data use of trangular diagrams

c oc urr.ent and count ercurrent arrangements, conti nu o u ~
'- <.!'!x!.r.a~JIQfl and .Ira n~fer c!?effjci e~t ~~in_ciRles of leaching and
--_..... -.
methods 01ca lculations.
- - - .......... _-_. . - - , -

eqUi~~~~~if;~~I~~~~;i~~~;i;~sa~x~re~. ~U~idity cha rt _ana'

principles 01d in ehum,dd,callon.Drylng,
ry g. types of dryers and calculation methods.

AbS:~t:~~e:d ~~~Z:~~~~~~~n and crystallisa tion equ;pm:nr.
Texl Books:

Mc?a be. and Smit h, Unit Operations

Englneenng.:' McGraw-Hili (Asian Edition).
In Chemical ,,
j,

TreybaJ, R. E. Mass Transfer Operation.

,

MCGraw-Hili

,.

.. '. " 1 J' . I

.,.:. J: '. CHAPTER

",;.. ~ , ., r.>
'd hl.~ ' .. 1 ) .,
'. I L~.n'.j.l , .' A ,,; .
. -,fe, - '.j ,
'v,., "; ...... iI.

"",..,.. "',
;f... '
lntrqduclwn 10 the Unit Operatwns
'.
N geoeral.,there are two different approaches to cept of unit operations was first crylitallize<1 h,v

I , the 8t}Ldy, of. industrial prpcessing. ~-b .par-

. .:ticular industry, such as tI~)uccWQJ , getrolc~Ul'l"
I t' M~I " d t " I d' 'tg h
P &$ ~c, .c~pper,'~1i "Y<'!" 'M us ry" me U 109 ., c af-
A.,p,: I~ ttJ e t in 191,5.
'TIie 'ai=tR 0 f 'pu 1vermng,
.. ti filte'
evapora fiR,
d' Wli . 1
rmg, IS tlg, -'
and other Opet"8.tioti5 constantJy ~ earried,. on in chemicuL .
acterllltlC operat.lons,'1TIay. be studll~i aa II. u0I1 ; or the". works ha ve been !IO thoroughly de\::eIoped u to. amount
different operatioM . C;OPlmop ~ lO, many 1i ndustr~al al lllJl!l~ w apecml 8C ieo~. p :\,

p~ may be c1~ijied. eac!J. according ~ i~ An y chemiN!.1proce8'I. on wru..teveor Beale conducted, may-

fu nct ion without regard to .the indu'Itry us ing it, be mIOIved iuto a l'oordinllteaerie8 of what may be tenDed
and each such operation s tud ied as a unit. operation . . ; "Unit O.eerat.ion:!,.," all pulvcrizing drying~ roosting, erys-
Thlls bent tramder is a s.ingle or unit openat ion;::om- t:a1li1iin. fil tering. e\'aporatillg, electrolyzing, aud 80 on.
mOil .to pract-ically all indus~riell, aflu kn owledge.of The number of t hese basie unit operations ill not. large and
reb t ivcly few of them are involved iu any purtieular proc-
t.h.I:! ,pr i ncipl~ of heat transfer, ilI ,equally Uie(ul to an eflS. The compleKity -of' c-hemieal engina:rinll:' mults from ~
engineer in any in.4ustry reqvidng .the transfer oi the varicty of COn<j.itioIl8 l&/J,to temperatul'fl, pres8ul't, etc,. ,
heat. , .... ' . " ulldpr which t~ unit oMl"ationa must be ~ out in
-,As industrial pr~ pave-,become more vari _. d.ifTel'Cll~ ''p~ell8e;8, ~nd from. the limitations ,~8 to jmate-. ,
and, ~hnicaJ, the_fiel~oMn t.o the, ~Jliineer hav~ na.ls of e~l)Struc\lon an,d de:sl~ of a pparatus Im~ by
wi'dened and it has ~a. increasingly difficult, if ~~Ieal and C1hemical eh~:~r of the reaetmg sub-
".
not impossible, to cove,r t~ va.riou~ industries in an
~,.,a.J.e ' mlUlner witbout lim iting the stud~1.3 to a A st.udy of t he unit oper&.tionS is jUIJt ~ valu1wIe'-'
few c!oeely; relatal ficlds. By s Ludy ing the unit. to the opera ting e ngineer as -to tbe d~iiner:"since all "I
operations themselves and the ir functio ns the engi. industr ial operations, or plaiJUi, are oot1lf!(l8e<l pbytliJ
neer ~s trained to rccvgtIi.z.e these (unctiollS in new cally of a series of uni t opera tions in thei r proper
ind~tr,ial processes; illld by applying his knq-iyledge..:_ sequenCe. The ability or caPacity of a plant no is
and s}cill in the corresp?nding unit operations he is. great.er than t~at of its w.eakest unit. The operak>r
able. to design, eOllStruct, and operate a plant for a analyze! his c,o mplex operations into unit.8 Jor i1idi ~.
ne,w prClCC,'>8 with almost as much confidence as fqr a vidual impro .... el'(lent, and the d esigner synthesizes
plll.... ed procCSl>. For t~esc reasons thEl study of unit complex opCrat ions from a number of unit op"mtions. ;
operations has proved to be the more effic ient
approach to t he study of indUBtrial proce>!sing.
; UNIT OPERATIONS .CLASSIFIED'
Although the imporlance. of these operdlioM that
are cqrnm9Jl to different intlust-ries \I'M ret'<lgnized as In Ihis t rea tmen t t he unft. operations are classified";
early as, ~893 by Professor George Lunge, the con- or grouped accordiag to their function and th;e ph&$('
P'roCCIIOr Grorp;e.Lunge of ,be .'ede1..J PoIyta:hnic &:hooJ
. ,
t Arthur D. Li ttle u d",irm...n of thf! V.itl03 CornmiUIe("
of Zurich, in ILn ILddrese on the " EduCII.Uoo of._ llldustrilLl of the D<:p&rtmcnt uf Chemistry ILDd Chtlmic&1 ElJgineerinc
Cbemi-tII" pTe!!ent.eU at the <'..-QnilTe311 n( ChcmieUl at t :-.e Ex- of tlk; i\ht.S&tcbusetts Institute of Technology io .. report 10
position in CbiCf.jl;o, 1893. the (' n;;ident o~ t he Instit utodn -.1915. ;' 'r J ' .
I .i , . "" K "' ',':\' _I' "

. .'
 2 INTRODUCTION TO TIlE UNIT OPERATIONS
or phases treated. A f)hast is a homogeneous and
mechanically distinct or separable mass. Thus sand
and water are two mechanically distinct masses, and
each repr~nts a separate phase; whether the sand
ig separate from 'or slIspended in the water makes no
difference. An oil phase Aoating upon water, or
emulsified with the water, is a homogeneous mass
mechanically disti nct from tlll~ wider whetber or not
it is continuous ; and it is, therefore, II. separate
phase from the water pbase. Similarly, a copper
ore contail18 the miner-oi l chalcopy ri"tc tl.S tl separate
solid phase from the surrounding gnuguc or rock,
no matter how finely t.he mineral may be dis-
",.,."j.
The phases present at anyone time may he one or
more solid phases, and one or more fluid phases.
. Sand and water represent -one solid and one fh;id
phase, oil and water are two fluid phnl:lC~, and the
mineral end gangue are two (at least) solid phal:\es.
A mixture ot .solid salt, ice, water, and water vapor
cont.ains two solid and two fluid pho.ses. Oases are
flu ids. Ordinarily there will-exist ooi).- one gt\.SOOUS
phase.
The order of treatment begins with unit operations
that treat solids alone, such as mechanical size sepa-
ratic.n, size reduction, and conveying of solids.
These are followed by operations involving fluids.
Since all fluids must be confined to stClre them or to
direct their flow, a solid boundary phase is always
involved, whether the solid particlee are flowing
through the fluid as in clBssi.fication and flotation,
or whether the fluid is flowing through a solid as in
fluid transportation or filtration. The operat ions in-
volving transfer of material from one phase to an-
other are next treated by the method of equilibrium
stage!! or contact!. These include leaching (solid to
liquid), extraction (liquid to liquid), gas absorption
and distillation (vapdr to liquid), and adsorption
(fluid to solid). Heat transfer and evaporation fol-
low. Heat transfer deals with the rate of energy
tra.ruofer a.nd serves 88 a meMS of leading directly to
the concept of rate of ml:l8S transfer as applied in
crystalli&a.tion, drYing, absol'ptioD, distillation, and
the more complicated operations involving eatal)'llts
and "'tea of reaction.
PRActICAL OPERATIONS
In the study of unit operations, it must alwa)'ll be
remembered that a unit operation is simply a lUlit of
a more oomplBJ[ operating pl.a.nt: a heat exchanger
in a sugar plant, a crusher in a cement pla.nt, a diItil-
!ation column in a petroleum refinery, aDd. that the
important requirement in each case is a aati:lfact.ory
workable overall operation. It makes no difference
whether the result is obtained by exMt mathematical
calculation, by empirical approximation, or by a
good guess based on the application of sound judg-
ment, provided it is a satisfactory, workable, ec0-
nomical operat.ioo in its entirety.
The unit operations are the best available meLhods
for classifying and formulating the combined expe-
~ce of engineers as a guide to the operation and
de;ign of industrial plants. But these data, although
of grea~ help, are inadequate in t hemselves to insure
successful operations. The successful engineer must
develop sound judgment by his willingness to try,
to recognize failures, 'and to keep on trying until be
arrives at a satisfactory result. Seldom if ever does
he have the opportunity to assemble either on paper
or in physical form the ideal or perfect operation.
Engineering operations require approximations and
compromises. If made too nearly perfect, they may
cost too much and last too long. Many pJ:ww be- -
come oOOolete before they wear out.
All the information no..... available started with a
single observation. As additional observations were
made, the engineering mind began to draw conclu-
sions which cou1d be presented in the form of an
empirical tabulation, such as the power requIred to
operate crushing and grinding machines. Frequently
these tabulated data could be presented in the form
of & graph as a more satisfMtory basis for extra.-
polating and interpolating the results. The next step
was to derive an equation for the line represeotin&
the plotted data and to indicate me&n..B for estimating
how the corutants in the equation would be affected
by different conditions. These equatiOM miahi then
be rationalized or sometimes "derived." However,
the student and engineer should always keep in mind
that these conclusions are drawn more or lese &OUD.dly
from a series of more or less reliable observatiollB
that have been empirically correlaU!d; also, they
should remember that the practical operator in the
plant who may never have seen the equatioo or
-beard the tenn "unit operation" has probably made
more observations himself than an those involved in
deriving the equ,tion. But it has taken the practical
operator a. much longer time to acquire his skill with-
out undenotanding than it has the modem student 01
unit operations to acquire his comprehensive under-
standing.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Certain concepts or conclusions drawn from many
observations are regarded as runda.ment.&l because,
the more carefully the observations a.re made, the
more closely do the data conform t<l the previous
conciUt!lion. Perhaps the most important of these to
the engineer is the law of conservation of mass and
,",,,,,.
Operations involving awmic energy have e~pha-
Ped the cOncept that mass and energy are dll~tJy 2. The Ener&y Balant:e
re1&t.ed. The quantity of energy equ.ivalent to a
unital mass is so large, about 3 X 10 1& ft--Ib of energy any plant or unit operation to determine the energy
per pouDdmass, or the lJla3S is so small, a~t required to Cll.rry on the operation or to maintain the
2.6 X 10- 1' poundms,ss per British thermal umt
(Btu), that ordinary mean~ of meas1lTement..are in
capable of detecting any increase or deerease.m m~
accompanying a chemical p~. In engmeermg
operations, when nuclear changes are not involved,
the mass of the products equals the mass of t.he re-
actants. This is in accord with engineering ex~
fience over many years and simplifies calculat.ions,
sint.-e material balances ('an then be made inde-
pendently of energy balances.
The following four concepts are b[l8ic and form lbe
found ation for the calculation of all operations. If
nuclear changes are involved, the energy changes be-
cOI1le ~ great that the first ami second concepts are
not independent and a combined energy and mass
balance must be made.
1. TIle Materia' Balance
If matter may be neither efea-ted nor destroyed.
the total mass for all materials entering an opera tion
equals the total mass for all materials I('twi ng that
operation, cxcept for any material thn.t may be re-
tained or accumulated in the operation. By the
application of this principle, the yields of a. chemical
reaction or engineering operation are computed.
Ir. continuous operations, material is usually not
f>Ccumulated in the operation) and a material balance
consists Bimply in charging (or debiting) the opera-
twn with all material entering and crediting the
operation with all mau-.rial leaving, in the same
manner as ust:d by any accountant. The result must
be 8. ba\a.nce. The a.cco.mt&nt uses dollars as his
unit, IUld the engineer uses pounds, tons, etc. In
making a. material. balance, the engineer should not
attempt w use units that may be Crea&.d or de
Btroyed during the prccl'Sil, snch as nnits of volume
or moles, or cubic feet, gallons, barrels, or moieeulcs.
a
As long &::I the reaction is chemical and does Dot
destroy or create atoms, it is proper and rrequcDtly
very convenient W employ awms as the basis for
the material balance. The material balance may be
made for the entire plant or for any part of it as a
unit, depending upon the problem atl hand. It is
most conveniently mn.de by adopting as a bll8is for
calculation a fixed quantity of materia! which pa..!:IfIe8
through the opera.tion unchanged.
Similarly, an energy balance may be made around
desired operating conditions. The principle is just
as importailt a.s that of the material balance, and it
is used in the same way. The important point to
keep in mind is that all energy of all kinds must be
included, although it may be converted to ~ single
equivalent form such &8 Btu's, calories, or foot-
pounds for the sake of addition. A balance cannot
be made of heal or electrical energy alone, since all
energy is convertible and all forms must be included
in the balance.
3. The Ideol Contact
Whenever the materials being processed are in
contact for any length of time under speciAed condi
tions, au.h M conditions cf temperature, pressure,
chemical compo&ition, or elect.rical potential, they
tend to approach a definite condition of equilibrium
which is determined by the specified conditions. In
mauy cases the rate of approach w these eq\Li~ibrium
condit.ionlS is so rapid or the length of time is suffi.-
cient that the equilibrium conditions are practically
at l.;lincd at ench eont.act. Such a contact is known
as an cC"juiliorillm or idc!\l contact. The caltulation
of the number of ideal cont.acts is an important step
required in undcn.t anding those unit operations in
volvinp; transfer of material from one phtwl to an-
other, ~uch as leaching, extraction, ab~rption, and
distillation.
4. Rate. of an Operation
In most operations equilibrium is not aHamed,
either because of insufficient timc or because it is not.
desired. As /lOOn !l8 equilibrium is attained no
further chtlllge can take place and. the. pr0ce88 etope,
but the enginr.er must keep the prOCl!'88 going. For
this reason rate operations. such as rate of energy
transfer, rate of mass transfer, and rate of cbemienl
 INTROQUCTlON TO TIlE uNIT OPERATIONS
rea,etiOD, are 0( the greatest importance and interest.
In all such ea8efI the rate 'and direction depend upon a
d1ft'erence in potential or driving foroe. The rate
usually may be expressed as proportional to a poten-
t.i&l drop divided by Ii resistance. An apptieation of
~thi. principle W eleetrical energy is the familiar
Ohm's law for steady ,or direct current.
HI - E, -6E
1- P. - - R-
where I _ fate of electron transfer or current of elee-
. trieity' (coulombs/ see. or amp),
,
~. g ' _ electrical potential, and t1i _" the increase
. in potential between points 1 and 2
(volts).
R _ resistance (~hnls). I,
In b~t:transfer un~ similar conditions for steady
Bo~, the time rate of heat transfer from mass A in
contact with I1l88S B is
TB ' tempeI'lLture of m&88 B.
-fJ.T - the tempera.ture drop.
R - resistance to heat tr&n8fer.
In solving rate problems as in heat transfer or mass
transfer with this simple concept, the major difficulty
is the evaluation ,of the resistance term. In pract~,
the values of the resistance term are generaDy com-
puted from an empirical correlation of many deter-
mmataoJ18 of transfer rates under different conditions.
The blU!ie concept that rate depcnc:h directly upon
a potential drop and inversely upon a resistance"maY
be applied to any rate operation, alt1lough the rate
may be expressed in different ways with particular
coefficients for particular cues.
APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS
These principles, used' singly or in combination,
and the coordinate<l knowledge of the unit operations
as presented ill this textbook, the handbooks, and

--
dQ
. dt
dQ
TA-TS
R - -(Ta - T A )
R
-AT
---
R
other technical literature c(lll8titute the 8Ctence or
lhCOl"y of the unit operatioll8. Practical engineering
consists in applying the undel"'ltanding of t.hMIe
where - - the instantaneous time rate of heat operations &lid practical Imowkdge of the many
. fit transfer or the quantity of beat types of equipment that may be employed to the
transferred per ~nit of iime from design and operation of a commercial plant tha~ will
8.
mass A to m 888 show not only a material balance but &lao a favorable
... TAO. temperature of ml\S8 A . dollar balance.

, ~ "', .
 PART I

Solids

T
HIS section deals with those operations which treat material in the
. solid state only : screening, size reduction, and handling of solids .
Before discussing these operations the properties of solids should be
reviewed.
 CHAPTER

" . i. ; '

Properties of Solids
..
MONG the many properties of sulids, those of Mobs'-scale, which is ba.!lcd on a serip.! of llJ.inerals

A . listed below are of particular significance in

engineering operations.
Density, usually expressed by the symbol p, is
of increasing ha.rdneSd numbers W! follows:

,
I Talc
' Gyp8UIll
6 Feldapa.r
7 'QuartJ
defined 88 the mass per unit vQlume. The units are
usually poWlds per cubic foot, or grams per cubic ,
3 Calcite
Fluorite
8 ToPfiz
Corundum, I!SIpprure
centimeter.
Speci% gravity is the ratio of the density of the
Apatite 10 Diamond

Esct. mineral ie the list will scratch all those of a

material to the density of some reference substnm:e,
lower number. A mineral of unknown bardness is
or pi Pm. For solids and liquids the reference sub-
rubbed against these test min eral~, and its hardness
stance is usually water at 4 C. For mOtit engineer-
is indicated by the softest material which just
ing work the specific gravity may be given the same
scratches it. The approximate bardnesses of some
numerical value as density in grams per cubic
common materials are: dry finger nail, 2.5 ; copper
centimeter, but the spetifle gravity is a dimension-
less ratio. TABLE 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Bulk (or appartnl) def'l.a1ill p~ is the total mass per
unit of total volume. For example, the tme density
of quartz is 2.65 grams/ceo But a quartz sand of M.w.w
",.
.1,.'" MI.>eoooOI,.
)b/... It
...
,... ~-..

._-
'or .. '

-. -_.. ----_._- -'

ib/"" It
2.65 grams mass may occupy a total or bulk volume
,..
.
of 2 ec and have a bulk density Pb of 1.33 grams/ceo
The bulk density is not an intrinsic characteristic of
the material since it varies with the size distribution
AIIuni AI,O.
s.....ile
BonIN, BoSO.
,.
O'... hod 80
Ctoohed 180
......
,
1.5-U
H..-
Otll>or ..... bio

........" ........,....
Calcile. Coco. o.""hocl QO-itil H'lIaIoooI
of the particles and their environment. The porosity {Ctuoh.d IO-IOO} 1.1-1.0 Monoeli ...
of the solid itself and the material with which the
G,-powo, Co9O.2fuO
H.!lW.iIe. F.,o,
'" CnoooIotd 160 &.I-U Tticlio ..
pores, or voids, are filled also influence the bulk I')TiI<e, r eS. 1.0-6.1
"'"
density. For a single nonpo rous particle the true
density p equals the bulk density Pit-
H(U"dneu' of certain solids such .B.8 met&!s and
HoiW, N.c\

....
0.-""
~ ""
.....
1~1 - 1 1l2
{~:}
On.<e! 100-111
u
, H_
".,.

1.1-1. 7 Cw.bi.

........,
..... 1 ...... 0 OoM
plastics may be defined as resi!;tance to indentation.
8sMI<ri", WI
iIeoo.<ot._ ... ...-..Iooo.. W

The hardness of minerals is usually defined as resist- Cot-.l. _

CooI,Ii. _ _

~H
....
ance to scratching and is usually expressed in tenns
Rupmor
I'<N"
Dumben relu to eotriOfi in tbA bi bliOgraphies..
tm. claapter, _ p. 8.
7
C~

.......
~~

- ~

I
....
 8 PROPERTIES OF SOUDS
penny, 3.0; tooth enamel, 5.0; penknife, 5.5; ordi-
nwy """" 5.8.
BriUlen.uI or friability refers to the ease with
which & substance may be broken by impact. The
hardness of a mineral is not. a sure criterion of its
brittleness. Hom, some plaStics, 8JId gypsum are
soft and tough and are not easily broken by impact.
Coal is 80ftana also friable. Friability is the inverse
quality to toughness. TlnlfIhJU83 is the property of
metals and alloys called impact resistance.
The crystalline structure and crystal size influence
the friability. The structure also detennines the
shape into which parlic1es na.turally break: when
subjected to a crushing operation. For example,
galena, PbS, breaks into cubes; miea into plates ; and
magnetite into somewhat rounded grains. ThOlle
crystalline planes which are easily broken are tenned
cleavage p14nes. The quantity of work necessary to
fracture a unit area of cleavage plane can be deter-
mined by experiment. When metals and allo)'B are
stressed beyond their yield points, Ii simillU' e1eavage
takes pla.oe in the crystals; but the crystals do not
break apart, they simply deform.. Wood and aebe&-
toe are fibrous, do not posseB8 cleavage planes, and
do not crush readily, but must be tom or shreddld.
Friction is the resistance to sliding of one material
against another material. The coefficient of friction
is the ratio of t.he force parallel to the surface of
friction in the direction of motion required to main-
tain a CODlltant velocity, to the force perpendicular
to the surface of friction and normal to the direction
of motion.
omUOGRAPHY
1. Nurm, E. H" W. F. BUNT, &nd L. F. RAlIBDzLL, Miner-
aI.ov!I, 3rd ed., McCr..w-Hill Book Co. (1936).
2. WII.Lu.JIa, 8. R. t Jlani_ and Hard_ M~
Ameri.....rl Sonety lor Metals, Cle~hwd (1942).
PROBLEM
A copper t ube, 1 iD.. I.D. and 2 It lon:, iIIlilled with steel
balls of J-in. di.8 mcter. The llpace between the baI.. is 6UN
wit b 1'fater. The _pcciJic gravity 01 . teel ill 7.8. What ill
tho bulk density of the contents of tbe tube1

Screening
T
HE separation of materials on the basis of
size is frequently important as a means of
. preparing a produd for sale or for a subse-
quent operation. It is also a widely used means of
uMiysis, either to control or gage the effectiveness
(If another operatinn, slich as erushing or grinding,
or to determine the value of a product for some
sJX~ific appiicatiflO.
10 the marketing of coal, for example, the size of
t.he particle!; is the basis of its 'classification for l;8.ie.
Certain equipment such as st.okers reqlfire definire
limits of size for slll'ce8l:lfui operation. In the case
t.f sand and gravel for concrete, on thtl other hand,
only a properly blended serres of sizes will insure the
most dense packing, requiring the minimum of
cement and securing the greatest strength and free-
dom from voids.
It has frequently been observed that the rate of a
chemical react ion between a solid and a fluid II:!
roughly proportional to- the surface involved. Since
the sury-ace 'areas may be computed from a knowledge
of t\!e sizes of the particles, a sizing operation is of
particular value in controlling the !"ales of reactions
involving solic,ls. The combustion of powdered coal
illustrates the desirability of conl.rolling the grinding
operation to proriuce material of definite ~ize limit.;
in order to control the rate of combustion. Since the
setting of Portlu.od Cl;'mentmust take- plnce within a
specifie<.l time, it hws heen necessary to specify certain
size limits. The hiding P9wer of a pa.int pigment is
indicated by size since it depends upon the projected
area of the particles.
Screening is accomplished by pws:,;ing the material
over a surface provided with openings of the desired
size. The equipment may take the form of station-
ary or moving Lar~, punched metal plate, or woven
CHAPTER
wil"e mesh: Screening consists in separating a mix-
ture of various size8 of particles into 1,\\"0 OJ" more
portions, each of which i8 more \llLiform ill ,,;ire of
particle than is the original mixLl1rr..
Dry sereening refers t.o"lhe t l"eatment. of a material
containing a nat.ural am()unt. of moisture or a male-
rial that has been dl'ied before screening. \Yet
screening refers to an operation in which lI'alel' i~
adde<.\ 1,0 the maferial heing treated for the purpose
of \V~hing thl;' fine matcl:ial through the I:lCreen.
The material t hat-fails to P(\::iS thrl)lIl;lr the i;creen
is referred tll ll.S bV~~iz(', or plu~ material, ami that
which pa.s&'s through the SC1"C('n opl'nings 18 referred
w !\.lj IIm\ersire or_minns mate'rial. \rh~nihorotlmn
one screen is lIscd ( ~I\d more than two sizcs arc pro-
duced, the vario\l"; frar-lions may be JesignalN
according to the ofx~nin~s employed in mr..king the
separations. Fur example , 'fahle 2 shows three
different. ways of im\i('lIting s ize~.
TARLE 2. THREE :\IETHODS OF INDICATI:-l"G
HIZE FH \CnONS
Thin!
1 in.
Ovc",izo' +{ in. +1 in.
Through I in. nn ~ in. -l+ { in. lil in.
Thn,ugh: in. nn twin. -~ + r'1I" in. ~/n in
t.:nd"r.;il", -h :O in.
INDUSTRL\L SCREt::\i:"G EQUIP:UENT
GI"uziil'8 are widely uscd for screening large lSizes,
particula.rly of I ill. unci O\'CI". They eon:,;ist lSimply
of a &'t of parnlld Imrs >;(1H1nttcd lJy spacers at the
endlS. The hars mny he laid horizontally or inclinN
longitudinally 20 to 50 dl'gll,('" from the horizontal,
depending upon the nature of the material treated .
10 SCREENING
The mrunl crOSll section of the bars is t.rapezoidal with
the wide base upward to prevent clogging or wedging
of the particles between the bars, Inverted railrood.
rails are frequen tly employed. Owing to the wear on
the bars, they are frequently made of manganese
steel.
Grizzlies are usually construeW about 3 to 4 rt
wide with the bars from 8 to 10 it in length . TItey
are freque ntly used before mat~rial i.o'I sent to a
cnl~hcr to remove the emllllcr particles from the feel
to the crusher.
In some grizzlies, a cam arrangerne.."lt causes a
slight lengthwise reciprocal movement of alternate
bars, permitting better fiow of material through
them and preventing clogging. Ehdless chains pMS-
ing over sheaves may rcpJactl the bars, constituting FlO. 2. Triple-deel:ed mechanital1y vibrfltl !SCreen. (W. S. '
Tiller Co.)

is to be handled stationary screens aTe usually--aban-

doned in favor of the vibrating &creens.
Vibrating screeni are used where large tonnages
are ro be treated. The vibrating motion is imparted
to the screen surface by means of CItJIlS, eccentric
shafts, unualanced fiywheels, or electromagnetic
means. A complete screen ma.y have a. single screen-
ing surface, or it may be double- or triple-decked, lIB
indicated in Fig. 2. This screen is driven by ap
ecccnt-ric shaft, as shown in F ig. 3. The wire screerui

FIG. I. Meehanically vihrated har grizJiy. The materia l

enkl1l at the top left and ....orb itll wILy downward to the right.
The Large or ove~~ partida! .re di$Chllrged over the lower
right end, and the emaHer pArticiell pa$! t hrough the ~Iot~
between the ba.!'1! into a hopper directly below. (NOTdbfrl1
MIll. Co.)

the chain grizdy. These more elaborate grizzlies

are for somewhat sticky or clay-like material.
Figure I shows a grizzly mounted on springs with
the whole ll88Cmbly vibrated mechanically.
A rough figure for the capacit.y of grizzlies is
approximately 100 to 15(1 tons of material per square
foot of area per 24 hr when the bars arc spaced to
give ahout 1 in. of clear opening.
Sllllwnary lCTeen, are mnde of punched metal
plate or woven wire mesh, usually set at. an angle
with the horizontal up to about 60 degrees. They
are suitable for intermittent small-tlC8.le operations,
such as screening sand, gravel, or coal by throwing Flo. 3. Sectional drflwincollbe mechanism of a mecbaoica Uy
the material against the &creen. When large tollll1lgC vibraled IICTeeQ. (W. S. Tyln Co.)
 INOUSTRIAL SCREENING EQUIPMENT 11
are held in place under tension by the clamr:; and
supported on the vibrating frame. The rotating
shaft is supported on the stationary hune by th~
~" oute!' relier bearings which are fastenOO to the sta-
tionary frame. The eca!ntric carries the roller bear-
ings which support the vibrating frame. The vibrat.-
ing frCome is poeitioned by springs, four of which are
indicated under oovers on each side of the Hereen
MOwn in Fig. 2. The flywheel is mounted ~
trically on th~ shaft as a counterbalance w bclance
the vibrating frame, screens, and load of material
being screened. An adjustable masB is provided for
controlling the eccentricity of t he fl.ywhecl. Rota.-
tion of the shaft gives the screens a circular motion
in the v~rti cal plane. As the screen passes the top
of its cycle, the material is thrown clear of the
screen surface. The material will be moved along
the screen in either direction, depending upon the
c:.irection of rotation. Such screens are operated
(Fig. 4) with a slope that may vary from the bori-
sootal to about. 45 degrees. These SCteel18 are oper-
atnd with an amplitude (diameter of the described
circle of motlon) up to about U in., depending on the FlO. I). Vibrating m e.m&nism consigting 'If lion &cl!'l$tAble
unbt,ianoed fl.ywheel and shaft mounted rigidly on & vibrating
scree.n harne, which ig in turn support.ed on sprinp..
(Nordbttr, Mf,. Co.)

size of thl' materia'., and with a frequency of vibra.-

FlO. 4. Double-dedr.oo mechanically vibrated lICn!en operat-
ing under test conditiollll, (W. S. Tllkr Co.)
tion or rotation of about 1200 t() 1800 per m inute.
They are made for heavy duty with opcnir.gs above
1 in. and are widely used for dry screening of par-
ticles from 1 in.. down to about 35 mesh" (O.OI64 in.)
at an angle of about 20 degrees. For wet screening
the angle is reduced to about 5 or 10 degreeg. Usu-
ally the feed enter"! the top of the screen, but some-
times it. is found desirable to feed at the lower end
of the screen and discbarge at the top.
In another type of screen the vibrating frame is
mounted on springs, and the belt-driven rotating
shaft. is mounted only on the vibrating frame . Vi-
bration is caused by creating an unbalance on the
rotating shaft by mounting an adjustable unba.la.nced
flywheel (Fig. 5) to give the desired a.mplitude. Such
a drive is mechanically simpler than the counter-
balanced eccentric-shaft drive previously described,
M ull ill .. term .t&tinl the nUJnb"r of opening!! per liocar
inch 0 1 IICl"een surface. T he..ue 01 the opening depeoUa on
the , iUt of the wire, but 101" &creeD!! of II. st.&lKlard s.:0ie8 the
mesh ia &pecific dCllipI.tion 01 the &perture, lLIi ~tll.t~ in
T&ble 4.
12 SCREE~ING

but it is not (,:ljlllhie of w; rugged constructi on. If

two \lIlbalalH;I'{j 1I"1i{.'t'ii;arc rolated in opposite
diffi'(jun:; !It the ~am(' numi)(>r of revolutions per
minu te (rpm), thl' vibration may t.e strictly nonnal
to Ihf" pilUle of the ~rccn .
An eh;tromagnotic vibrator In!>Y be attached 19
the (;enter of the ~crc('n, U3 shown in Fig. 6. llla
frame is rigid uno the scref'n i8 vibrated by the
solenoid whose core is fas\cnp.(i to the center of the
sertell . T he coro of the solenoid works against ad~
jU!:lt1l.blc ~pring tension, as showil ill Fig. 7. In this
IV:!y the amplitude of vibrat i'Jrl Inay be varied Ill" t.o
about Ys in. In othl>r ty pe:; the core is fastent:d to
the frame supporting the scrccn and vibratl"s the
frame and screen. With such an arrangement Lhe
solenoid may be mounted obliquely to the w rccn
!FIG. 6. Vibrelillll: IS"I1)'n emp!oYlflj!; an l'I~"'lrom!l"ncli~ vi_
bIllting unit .. tlll-ched to the (,,'nk, of the SI'T"('!>. (IV. S. surface, giving the screen a motiun u.t an anglo to
T yltr Cp.) the normal. High amplitude in I!. screen vibrated

Fw 7. (:roil .o..'P\ i'''1 (If ilrdl'Ofll" 1<''''1 ip ''u""tO!' or Fig_ 6. The hand"'hpP\, I, tldju~t~ tne ~pring ten..ion an d 1imit~ the leogth
of strok(' ""wo,d hy til<" .. lr(-lr(,n"'IC""I, 'l. O]",,,,lml': on the armu tu rc .Jiro~t.ly eo",I('CI~~J to the IloCro..~,n, 6. (II'. S. Ty&r Cu.)
 INDUSTRIAL SCREEI\,]NC EQUJPl\tEN~ 13
The undesirable particles flow oVl'r the end
or ~ iCl"Hn into II separet. conuinl'r

Th. Super.Adive BaH CI."!,,

5Creen and a frH passage of
FlO. 8. Reciprocating screen "itb bRU cleanel"ll. Tbt ovel'I!ize BoWlS o~...,r the end of the IlCreen. The balIa an confined ! ..
limitf!d ISreM diredly bemath the screen, and supported on 8. COIU'1Ie wire screen. The balls bounce apifl/jt thie 8.Upportinc
l!CTeen anq gi~e additioruo.i vibration to the screen dire!!t1f above, Tht ue!!ired fine material ptISI!eI:I. through the fJCreer'~
(J, H. Dav Co.)

in a fixed frame (Fig. 6) may eause fatigue failure
of the IIcreen near the clamps. If the screen is sup--
ported in a vibrating frame this limitation docs not
apply but a greater energy is required to overcome
the inertia of the mass of the frame, The solenoid
is UIlually caused to strike a block or anvil, thereby
suddenly halting the upward motion of the screen
and thro\\'mg the material clear of thc screen, This
U! particula rly desirable in 'the handling of sticky
:nat.erlala, . These screens arc om-mally used for
material from about 8 mesh down io 100 mesh or
finer and have been lIuccessful in wet screening, The
frequency of vibration is determined by the fre-
qucncy of the alternating current used and vsries
from about 900 to 7200 vibrat-ions per minute,
The lower frequency is used for coarser screening
(8 mesh) and the higher frequencies for the finer
screening.
The capacity of a vibrating screen varies widely
with the character of the material trea.ted from 2
tons/fIQ ft of surface per 24 hr for materials such as
damp eay f)f powdered soap, up to 30 tons for dry
materia) such as coke on screens of about 6 to H
. . .h.
Oscill4ting lICNJetI.a are characterized by a. relatively
low speed (300 or 400 oscillations per minute) in a
pla.ne essentially parallel to the screen. The riddle
ill a screen driven in an oscillating path by an eccen-
aic or other mechanism attached to the sole support
of the screen, usually a vertlco.l bar extending from
the top of the screen box. It is the cheapest form of
I!;roen OIl the market and is used for batch screen-
ilg.
A lIifter is a box-like container holding a number of
1Cmen cloths nested on top of one another and O!!Cil-
Jared by an eccentric or oounterwcighbJ in a nearly
circular orbit. ~'lany of these devices cany a coaree
screen directly below the e<:reertJftg cloths on which
rubbcr balls arc confined to limited areas and are
caused to bounce against the lower surface of the
screen cloths as the device is oscillated.
lltciprocati1l{J 8CTten3 (Fig, 8) are driven by an
eccentric under the screen at the feed end. The
motion varies from gyratory (about 2 in, in diameter)
at the feed cnd to a reciprocating motion at the
discharge end. These screens are UlIually inclined
about 5 degrees, giving the screen a motion normal
to the cloths of about h 0 in, Further vibration may
be caused by including rubber balls as shown con-
fined to locttl &reM below the '}Clive screen surface.
This type of !!Creen is popular and widlJly used for
screening dry chemical::! down to about 300 mesh.
Trammels, or revolving screens, oonsist of a screen
cylindrical or conical in form rotated about its a.xis..
FlO, 9. Compound trammel. (C, 0, Barlldf olld 8nmtl Co.)
Simple trommels may be arranged in series ,vith the
undersize of the first passing to the second trommel
and the undersize of the second passing to the third,
etc, Somctimes the trammels ar!! built with screens
of different sit.e8 throughou t their length, the feed
I4 SCREENING

FIG. 10. Tandem-type trommel. The feed entenl at the left end and passes Qver ~ueeessh'cly eoane r IICreens M it worka it&
Ivay to dit;eh&rge of the oven;ize at the rar right. (C. O. Barlldl and S 'IOII! Co.)

entering at the end of the finest screen (Fig. to) . In to cause the particle to fall to the centr ifugal force
this way it, is possible to collect materials of different te nding to carry the par ticle amu nd.
s ize ranges from a s ingle trommel. But the opera.rion
is not so efficient /l8 that of a series of simple trom- mg ~
2mv 2
-- 0- -
2,'
0'
mels, or a compound trommel. D D
The compound trommel (Fig. 9) contain!! two or where m - mll.!!S (lb) .
morc concentric screening surfaces mounted on the g - sccdendion of gravity (ft / S(!c 2).
same shaft. The coan!Cr screening surfu.ce is lhe II -velocity of particle, or of trommel, in
innermost, and the finest the outermost, with inler- circ\llar path (fp,,).
mediate sizes arranged between the two limits. With D _ diameter of trammel (ft).
provision made for the separate removal of t he over-
size from each screening surface, the undersize of When N = nurnUer of revolutions of trammel J}(,r
each screen becomes the feed to the screen of the minute,
7I: DN
next smaller aperture. , ---
GO
Conical trammels have the shape of a t.runcated
cone and are generally mounted with their ax(l3
horirontal.
Trommels aTe quite effident for coarse sizes. The
g - ~e:Y
inclination of the trommel varies from about ~ in. 2 oo'gD 6Q2g
(for wet screening) to 3 in./ft of length, depending N - -- ~ -
2(TD)2 'i.7I: 2n
on the nature of lilt! materia] to be processed.
The capacity of the trammel increases with in-
creased speed of rotation up to a point where N~ - 2-
Jr.,02g
blinding occurs due to crowding of material through 271: D
t he screen. If the speed of rotation is increased still At sea level g - 32.17 ft/ St'cll and N .. 76.65/"";1;
furth er to the critical speed, the material no longer With compound trammels the speed of rotation \8
cascades over the screen surface but is carried around nAturally governed by t he diameter o( the outside
by centrifugal force. The best operating speed is screen.
usually about 0.33 to 0.45 times the critical speed. Tr')mmcls are usually about 3 to 4 ft in diameter,
'I'he criticol speed oj rolll/ion of a tromm!'1 may be ' from 5 to 8 ft in length, and driven a t 15 to 20 rpm
computoo h.\ Cl:jIUlting the force of gmvily l!'luling with 2M- to 5-hr motors.
 lNDUSTRUL SCREENING EQUIPMENT 1.
The trommel is best SUIted for material from ~ Collecting terms
to 2~ in. in size.
F(xl' - XR) - P(xp - %R)
Rem are revolving $CreeM driven at relatively high
speed. They are used in the flour milling industry
and for other light, dry, t\OMbNlsive material. The
screening surface eonsista of silk bolting cloth sup-
P
-F - (ZT - XR)
(Xl' - XR)

ported by wire mesh. Speed of rotation is above the Substituting for PI F

critical speed for a trammel and is such as to throw "

the oodersised particles outward through the bolting
cloth by centrifugal force. The surface may be
cleared by brushes inside the reel. Reels are gen-
erally 24 to 40 in. in diameter and 5 to 8 ft long, and
they are rotated at speeds that may vary from 100
to 200 rpm.
TM effectivem" of screens is based upon both the
recovery in the product of the desired material ill
the feed and the .exclusion or rejection from the
product of the undesired material in the feed. For
example, the specificationa for hycira4lic hydrated
lime (ASTM Cl41-42) require that the product con-
tain not more than 10 per cent by weight of material
coarser than 200 mesh.
If Xp _ mas,s fraction of dealred material in
product,
x, _ mass fraction of desired material in feed,
XR - maas fraction of desired material in reject,
P _ total mass of product,
P _ total mass of feed,
R - total mass of reject,
z,P
Reco"ery - - -
z,F
Rejection (1 - Effectiveness of recovery or
(1 - xp}P
undesired material) - 1 - (1 xp)F
FJiectivencss (recovery X rejection)
_ -,,_P(I - .c(I,---_"'C)-ooP)
xTF (1 - xp)F
Weighing the en,tire feed and product is not prac-
tical, and it iI3 deBirable tQ express ttlC effectiveness
from the analyses of samples alone. A material
balance around the screening operation gives
x,F - XI'P + xRR
xp(XI' - l'R)
Recovery
Xl' (xp XR)
. ,
RejectIOn - 1 - -;:
,(I:---"",,~)(;:z,'----_'".'C)
(1 z,)(xP ZR)
Effectiveness .. (recovery X rejection)
_ xp(ZI' - XR) [I _ ~(I:--_X"'~)7(,,,,,_--,Z,,,R~)J
;C,.(zp - 'XR) (I XI')(zP XR)
These equations permit the
desired calculation of
recovery, rejection, or effectiveness of any sizing
operation from size analysis of the streams, without
knowledge of the quantities.
Rapid feeding or too steep an angle of the screen
gives insufficient time for complete separati()fl of the
fine and coarse material. Excessive dampness in
the feed may cause cOOtlll.ion of small particles to
fo rm larger masses, or the adhesion of small particles
to large particles. Worn screens with enlarged aper-
tures will p8SII more oversize material into the under-
size fni.ct.ion.. Clogged screens (blinded) retain more
undersize material in the oversize fraction. Tbe
effectiveness as defined above is a numerical expres-
Ilion for the effect of alJ these factors.
Capacity of ICnen.! and elTectiveDe!18 are closely
related. If a low efficiency or effectiveness may be
tolerated, the screen may be operated at high
capacity. The ability of the device to prevent
blinding of the screen surfa.ce is probably t.he mOl!t
important single factor detenninillg capacity of the
screen. In dry screening, the greater the amount of
moisture or dampness in any particular material, the
Ot.her expreMioJU! for effectivenel!l!l are uaed, meh &II the
rec:overy, or rejection, till defined above, or the product of
recovery &nd enrichment.
~p(~, - :Ill) (~)
~,(zr ZR) I -:I,

All these e,,~ live ditreNln~ vuuea. dt;pendinl on

F - P+R whet her ~he unde"';te is eoosldered the J"e}eet or the proouct.
Substituting ror R The ex~ lor effectivenea in the text p\"1'A the same
nm.e, nogardleM .. r whethe r the unde.rsbe it tho produCt. or-
z,P - XI'P + %RF - %RP reject.
16
IO~\'cr is the capacity of the screen. ~ause of its
greater surface area, finer material can tolerate a
greater percentage of moisture. If the fct.J t..'Ontains
a high proportion of material of a siUl ju~t ",lightly
smaller than the size of the openings in the screep,
called "near mesh," the capacity of th ~ scrC!Cn wlll
be greatly reduced. For example, if the size of lpe
openings is Yii in. and there is Il. large proportion of
%2-in . gralns in the material to be screcneq, the
screen's capacit y, for the same degree of effect.iveness,
will be much IOI'."er than if most of the undersize
material is smaller than ~2 in.
The ratio of the open area of the screen to the tota1
area is an important factor in detennining its
capacity. Because of the direct dependence of
screening capacity upon the area. of the screen sur-
face and upon the screen aperture, the capar.ity is
usually expJ.essed I. in terms of tons of feed per square
foot of screen area per millimeter of screen aperture
per 24 hr, lIS indicated in Table 3. For example,
a vibrating. screen having 6 9Q. ft of snrfaee and an
aperture of 2 mm may be expected to have an approx-
imate capacity of (5 to 20)(6)(2) - 60 to 240 tons
of ore per 24 hr.
TABLE S. THE APPROXIMATE CA PACITY OF
SCREENS FOR DENSE MATJ::1tIALS SUCH
AS ORES
Capa.city Range,
toll5/"'l ft an,.. jmm
Type of Semen aperture!24 'h r
Grizzl ie8 H\
St.tionary acrecns I -~
Vibrat in&: flCreene: >-20
ShAkin&: and OIIciIlating 8Creellll :HI
Trommele 0.3-2
U \be OIcilIatilll 8CmeM are .1110 vibrated by me&nII o.f
the rubber balIa dcacrlbed, 1M capacit.ieIJ will be lIOffie1Vha.t
inere&llld o'ftr thole of tM .simple OIIcillating 8Creen..
DETERMINING PARTICLE SIZE
The aile of a particle ma.y be expressed in different
ways. If the pa.rtic!e is a spbere, tlle diametel', the
projected area, the volume, or the surface of a par-
ticle may be the significant size. If the particle is a
cube, the ed&e length, the projeeted area, th~ volUme,
or the surface may be the significant dimension
in4icatins size.
Various methods are used for measurements of
particle size. These depend on the aiae range, the
The bibliocraphy for this chapter ap~ OD p. 22.
SCREE.J'\lING
physical properties, and the condition {)( dryness or
wctness pcrhliss.iblc. Thc following methods are
used in laboratory and control work.
l\'liCl'()t;Cope. For very small 6i~ of the order of
a few microns ( I micron equa.ls 0,001 mm), the
sample may be placed under a micl'()8(lope; the size
may be determined by simple meMurement of a
photomicrograph uf known magnification, or it may
be determined directly by means uf a filar microm-
eter. Tbis device consjsta of a movable cross hair
built- into a standard microscope eyepiece. The
movement of the cross hair is actuated by a cali-
brated micrometer screw. The cross hair is moved
until it appcal'8 in cont.act with one edge of the par-
tide, and a readieg is taken on the micrometer; then
~hc cross hair is moved to the opp06ire edge of the
particle, and anuther reading is made. The differ-
ence in readings is a measure of the particle "di-
ameter." This number divided by the optical
magnification of t.he object ive and eyepiece will give
the true dimension in inches or other units. The
microscopic method is frequently employed to meaa-
urn particles of dust from the atmosphere and to
evaluate the clTcct-iveness of air filters.
~reening. Perhllps the simplest method for
laboratory lOizinp; consist~ in passing the material
successivdy o\'or a !Series of screens or sieves having
progressivp.ly smn.llor openings. Tho size of Do mate-
rinl which has PRsseq through one screen and has
hoen retained on a ~reen having openings of a
swaller size is usually considered to be the arithmetlo
!!overage of the tWQ screen Qpeninp and i.6 called
ttte " average dimeQ3iop" (or- "average dia.zneter")
represented by the symbol D.~.
Sedhp.enution. 8edimenb\tion methods &re
based on the fact that small particles of a given
ffiarerinl fall in a fluid at a rate that ill proportional
to their aize. One method involves shakina a sample
of the solid in water; aftel' the mixture stands a
definite length of time, portioM are removed from
diffeJ'lmt levels 'by mea.na of a pipet";. Theee pOl'-
tioll8 are evaporated to dryness, and the reaidueI!I
weighed. Other modifications have been developed,
such lIS having one balance pan fn1SpeIl.ded in the
pulp N suspended l!IOijds and \\"eighina at intervala
as the parl.icles IlettJe on the pan.-
Dutriation alao depends on the velocity of !!let;...
tling. If the material is placed in a rising stream rJ
fluid having a fixed upward velocity, partic1eB whoee
normal falling velocity ifl less than the .vel~ty of
the Rui'd will be carried upward and out of the Ve!58e1.
 SCREE..~ ANALYSES IT
If fractions obtained from a series of Ruid ve loc i l i~ I-in. and 2in . sj ~, but the 9-io. and IO-in . sizes are
are collected and weighed, a complete size an~ llysi.s almos t :llikc fOf pmct ical purpooes. AU the mate ..ia1
rr.sy he obtainoo. limier I in . down to II. micron would be in one
Centrifuging. &'I.!imcnt:ltion i~ too slow f.,r fractiun.
particles uf diameter under }1 m icron. Therefore a A mi)te 8l1l isfilctory series of screens ill one in which
centrifugal force is substituted for the nonna! force t.he oJX'"lI i n ~ or ~/l.ch successive member varlt."lI from
of gravity when the size of very small particles is to t.he next by If. multiplier such as to givc EI. series having
be determined. orcnings of 8, 4, 2, I, ~, and so forth. These sizes
Other Methods. The coercive (mll.gnetic) fOf('e
TA B!.!:: 4. TYLEH SCHEE:SS '
of a. pa.ramugnetie material such II!! mlLgnet ite i>l
di rectly proportional 1..0 its !!~i fic lturfliW, regtlrdll'"S..~
of its mape. This rela tionship hus served as u Sl:Inda N
means of dctcnnining the s urface, o r lIi::e, of such InlctVll t , ,- -. -
parl-icles. The amount of light trn ngmittet.i" th rough
a suspension of a definite quan tity of the finely
.. y'2',
ApIl rture. Al'e:rtu l'I', 1 A,ICrlun', :\lcah
I1 Wire
Di:tm.:t.er
in. III. Illm N umu.ir . '
divided Solid in kerosene in a tu be of specified d imf'll- m.
_ .._. _ _ 1 _ . _ __ _
lIions depends upon the proj ~ l~ arc[\. of thc par-
ticles and is used as a methOd of det.ermining partiCle
size.' TIle surface 'size of quart z parti(' les hll.':! 1-*-'C1l
1.050 1.050
0 .""
26.67
22.43
I .. ...
. ....
I 0 . 148
0 .131\
mC8l:lurcd in fCSCMCh \\'ork by t he ra.te of solution 0 . 742 0 .742 18.85 .... . O. IM
in solutiolta of hydrofluor ic scid . It. is 1'L.'limmOO that 0 .1>24 15.~ .. . .. 0 . 120
0 .525 0.525
, 13.33 .. O . I~
the ratc of solut ion ill ma.o.;s per ullit of time is directly
proportions l 1..0 the surfl\ce area of quart, . 0 .371
O .4 ~'
0 .371
11. 20
U.423 ..
.-00 .092
. 105

0 .312 7 .925 2Ji 0 .1\a8

0.263 0. 263 6.6\lO 3 0 .070
SCREEN ANALYSES 0 .1-2 : 5.613 3)j 0 .00.5
Screens are generally used for cont rol and nnalyti~
cal wo rk. They are constructed of wirl'! mesh cloth,
0.185 0 . 185
0.1 56
I
,
4.,""
3.962 ,
4 0 .005
0 .044
0.131 0.131 3.327 6 0.036
the diameters uf the wire alld ' the (lpa('ing of the 0 .1 10 2. 'l<J.f 7 0 .0326
wires being closely specified. The"S(l SC I"f;eIlS form
the bottoms of metal pans about 8 in. in diameter
0.093 0.003
0 .078
2.362
1.981 0 .032
0 .033
nnd 2 in. high, whose sides are SO fMhioned that the 0.005 0 .005 1.651 10 0 .005
,0 .055 l.3t.J7 12 0 .028
bottom of one sieve nests snugly on the top of the O.MG 0 .04(; 1. 168 14 0 .""
next.
Screen AJMlrtul'C and Scrt!en Inte rval. The 0 .0328
0 .03'.10
0.0328
0 .991
0.833 ,.I' 0 .023a
0 .0172
clear space between the individua l wires of the 0 .0276 0 . 7U1 24 0 . 0141
screen is termed the screen aperture. Frequently 0.0232 0 .0232 0 ."" 28 0 .0125
0. 01\).5 0.495 32 0 .0118
the wrm mesh is applied to the number of apertures 0.417
per linear inch.; for example, a. I()..mcsh !!CreeR will
have 10 openings per inch, and the aperture will be
0.0164

0.0116
0 .OW4
0.0138
0 .0116
0 . 351
0.295
"
42
48
0 .0122
0 .0100
0 .0092
0.1 in. minilll the diameter of the wire. :vIesh is 0 .0097 0 . 248 00 0 .0070
0._ 0 ._ 0.2118
therefore II. nominal figure which does not pennit
accurate computation of the screen openings or 0 .00\8
0 .0009
0.110611
0.175
0.147
"
OJ
100
0.110'12
0 .1lO66
0 .0042
aperture without knowledge of the wire sizes used 0 .0049 0.124 115 0 ._
by the manufsct.urer.
The screen interval is the relationship betwoon the
O.O()U 0 .0011
0 .1\036
0.104
' .1\811
160
'70 ......
0 .002Il

sueces8ive size! of screen openings in a series. A

simple arithmetic series might be used such that the
. 00(1)

0 .002\
......
. 00(1)

0 .002\
0 .0'14
0 .061
' .01l3
200
~
271J
0 .0021
0 .001&
0 .0016
~ screen openings are 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 in.,
for cxample. The weakness of such II. system is
that there is 1,\ large relative difference between the
0 .0015
0 .0017
0.0015
0.043
'.008 '"
400
0.0014
0.0010
 SCREENING
vary in a geometric progression, and the factor or
screen interval is 2. If closer sizing is . desired, an
additional ~reen is inserted between each two screens
of the previous series and t he screen interval becomcs
0 . Thc standard screens used in the United
States employ a screen interval in which the factor
is v'2 although V"2 is sometimes used for careful
work and research.
The first commercial laboratory screens using t his
system were the Tyler Standard acreen.1. This series
of screen., is baaed upon a 200-mesh screen with
wire 0.0021 in. thick and with an opernng of 0.0029
in. (0.0074 om). The other siZl;:s vary by a fixed
ratio of 0 . A supplementary set can be purchased
for intennediate sizes 80 that the oomplete set varies
byV2.
The United States screens introduced by the
N ationa! Bureau of Standards differ but slightly
from the Tyler series, being based on a I-mm
opening (No. 18 mesh) and varying by V'2.
The British stAndard SCreeDS are similar hut. have
wires of different gage.
Method of Making a Screen Analysis. In
making a screen analysis, the individual lOCrI..'Cns
comprising the entire series, varying for example by
the ratio vrz from 3 mesh to 200 mesh, are cleaned
with a brush and tapped free from any adhering
particles. Tbey are nested together with the coarsest
- or 3 mesh at the top and the {mest or 200 mesh at
the bottom. A bottom pan and top cover are put
in place to complete -the BE!t . A weighed amount
or m&terial is placed upon the top screen, and the
cover is replaced. The 8I!Bembly may be SlJpportai
and rotated by one hand fi1Id bumped against tlle
other hand at intervals to set up a jarring nction.
Mter a period of time, the fines, - 200 mesh, are re-
moved from the bottom pan. The pan is replaced,
sharp tap or blow being given at the top of the
screens for each revolution. Shaking is continued
for 15 to 20 min. Other machilles employ vibratol'$
or other motions.
Factors which militate against accurate resulta
are overloading of the screens, which may result in
blinding which is the wedging of particles in t.he
openings; or electrOlltatic force:'! causing small part.i-
des to adhere to one another or to farge parlicles.. A
small amount of moisture may also cause adhes.ion
or oobesion of particles.
Wet-and-dry screening is suitable for very precise
screen analyses since it avoids the dangers of adhe-
sion and cohesion. T he weighed sample is placed
in a beaker and pulped with a nonllOlvent, frequently
water, and then decanted over tbe finest screen in
the seri~, for example, 200 mesh. More water is
added; stirring and decantation are repeated until'
no fines arc in suspension after stirring. Water from
& wash bottle is played on the screen until the drip
is clear. The water is decanted from the undersize
fract-ion , and the material is dried. The oversize
is also dri~ and put over the entire series of screens
as usual. The Dew - 200 fraction is weighed with
the fractil?n obtained by wet screening. This pro-
cedure gives morc accurate resulta since the cblWcc
of fine particles clinging to large ones is minimized.
Method of R eporting Screen Analyses. The
customary manner of reporting screen analyses is
shown in Table- 5, in which the mass fractioIlB re-
tained on cach of the serecns are given.
T ABU: 5. TYPICAL SCREEN ANALYSIS
I
AVCI'1IIIC Diam-
M_
eter of P"rtieiell, M_
Tylo-
""".
Mesh
D (or Wei,ht)
Fraelion
' .......
J<'r&c\ion

""'b
and shaking is resumed to see whether ally more
fi nes are revealed. When no ncw material nppeal1! om io. "'-,
in the bottom pan, thus indicating for all pradicnl
purposes that the screening operation seenll! to have - 8 + 10 I0.2007 0 .0191 0.03 1.0
been completed, the sieves are disassembled and the -- 1014 ++
14
20
0 . 1410 0.055S
0 .100 1 0 .0394
0 . 14
0 .25
0 .97
0 .83
individual fraetiona are weighed. The material, for
example, which passed the lOO-mesh screen but was - 20 + 28 0 .0711 0 .0280 '.20 0 ."
- 28+35 0 .0.'i03 0. 0198 0 . 14 0 .38
retained on the ISO-mesh screen is designated the -35+ 48 0 .0356 0 .0140 0.00 0.2<
]00/150 or - 100 + 150 fraction.
Since the !:lhaking of the screens is a rediou!:l prQCC&j
and open to error, mechanical screening u. desirable.
- 48 + M
- " + 100
-100 + 150
-150. + 200
I 0_0252 0 .0099
0 .0 118 0.0070
0. 0126 0.00l96
0 .0089 0. 0005
0.06
0.04
0 .03
0.02
0 . 16
0 .09
0 .0>
0 .02
In one of these machines, the Ro-Tap, the screens -
are fastened into a vertical framework which is ToW 1.00
given an elliptical motion in a horizontal plane, a I
 SCREEN ANALYSES 19
.,.
/ 1\
02<>
,.20 /
f ~ 0.15

5 <
~ 0.10 /
, I
~

'.05
If ' 1\
0

/ \
,o 0.02 0.04 0.06
Average Oi.amelat, in.
Fm. 11. FractioJl8.1 plot of !:<Creen analy,is of T&ble .5, show-
ir.l& the rn&/!IS fraction (oolumn 4) retained on 1ICrt'e1Ul ill the
!lentil in~rv81 v'2 all a function of the average particle di-
""lOIter retained in Mcb fraction (column 3).
Th(,'!!e data. may be presented graphiCl&lly by any
OIle of l>everal meLilOds (Figs. 11 to IS). But most
of the resulting curves are valuable primarily as
pictures of the size distribution of the mixture. Sucb
pictures tell a great deal to an experienced obtierver
but are misleading unless the method of plotting
and the materittls com~rising the mixture are not
changed from curve to curve. FrQ.Ctirmal plD~ of
tIle mass fraction rctain('d on each screen versu!;
average screen aperture (Fi~. 11), or cumulative plo~
of the m8S8 fraction pass;ng each screen versU8
particular screen aperture (Fie:. 12), may be the
basis for comparisons of different mixtures of the
same materials, indicating changes with tiRK' or ship-
ment. The fractional data (Fig. I I) give different
u" a g S2
" B
8 ~ ~
o 0 CJ 0
" " " ""
0.08
A_age Diameter, in~ D.,.
Flo. lB. FraC\k>nai plot of 1I<:ret'.1l au&lysie of Table 5, &holriq
the Ill8S!I flllction retained on !lCf"l)eIlil in the Mlries interval
V2 pioltod IIgllilllll. too iog&rithm of the averl.C'J ptlrticl~
diameter retained in each irn.etio n.
curves for dilierent SCft!Cn intervals an~ are thcrefore
specific t o the particular screen series used 8J! in
Table 5. This limitation does not apply to plots of
the cumulative da.ta. (lo'igs. 12 a.nd 14.) which give
t.he sa.'l1e values regardless d screen interva.ls. The
cumulative plot docs Dot requ ire the computation
of average diameter but rather the addition of the
fractiOn!! passing through the screens.
Ordinary rectangular coordinate plota crowd many
points in the small size range into a narrow section
of the curvc. A better picture is obtained with ihe
logarithm of the average of screen apertures (Figs.
13 and 14), all this spreads the points for the small
particles along the dimension scale.
Still furUltr use ean be made of a. plot of the loga..-
rithm of the mass frartion retained on each screen
against the logarithm of the arithmetic average of the

! ,.
1 08
.

!r',. /

Jio. 12.
t: o 0.02 0.04 0.06 o.os
ser-n Apertn, in.
CWlIulative pl<Jt d scmen 'analysis of Tahle 5
0.10
"
ooCJ
5(;reen Aperture. in.
~"a~
ClQ

Fla. 1~. Cumulntive plot of 1CreeD. analyru of Table ~

Ihowin& the m&8II fmction pMlSin(l: through tereeM (ecl.umn 5) Bhowinc the m888 fraction paaing IICN>BllII all a 'unetion oi
all a function of the acreen aperture. the logarithm of th~ screenll.perture.
 SCREENING
apertures of tbe screens bounding the fraotion (Fig.
1.5). Experimental results indicate t.hat such a plot
gives a. s~a.ight-line relation for t.he small sizes of
crushed or ground material when all particles are of
the same basic crystal structure. The straight, line is
valid in the size range below 200 mesh, the limiting
anaIyt;caI screen, except for natural dcposil.$ where
part of the fine material ha.s been carried away by
8W1J)e!l8iOll in water. Thus, an' extrapolation of the
...
.,
V surface area.
1
. et.e., are the number of particles and x!, X2 , XI, etc. ,
R1
~~ ! ~g- ~ ~ ~ ~!d
~
- are the mass fractions having diameters D" ~ , D3 ,
....vtl1P IMorneter, in.
Flo. 1.5. Los-10K fractions! plot of screen analysis of Table 5,
ebowiq; the maM f ...c\.ion retained on each screen in the
.. riel; iDt.ern.l V2 .... funetion of the BveJ:&&l:l particle di&m-
eter retained in esch fntct.ion.
st.rai&bt line (Fig. IS) will
give approximate quanti-
ties of the material in each small size fMge. This
extrapolation must be stopped when the total quan-
tity through the ~mesh screen is obtained by a
cumulation of the small fractions. The extrapolation
is valid only if the same screen sire interval is main-
tained in the small sizes as was used in the ~t8ndanj
screen range, 0
in Table 5.
for these plots of the data given
Evaluation of the Sereen Analysis. From the
tabulation of datIL. IL8 in Table 5, extended if neces-
sary by the extl'apoiation outlined above, variuus
ulculations can be made to provide further infunna.-
tion.
The average diameter of a mixture of !5Olids is a
term requiring careful use. " Average" signifies a
composite individuaL representative of an entire
group of similar but not identical Bpecimcn~. As
aueh, ihe "average" property should be capable of
multiplicatio~ by the Dumber of specimens ir. the
. entire group to give a totaLvalue for that property.
Thus, strictly, ClVerag<e dianuter is that diameter
which, when multiplied by the number of particles,
will give the sum of all the diameters in that group.
The average 8urface is that IlUrface by which the total
surface area may be obtained. SiIDllai-iy , the
averat;e volume or average ma88 is that volwne or
mass from which the total volume or mass of the
group may be obtained by multiplying by the num-
ber of pari-icles.
No single parti.c1e can satisfy all these average
propertiee. The smallest particles contribute little
to the sum of diameters, total weight, or tots!
volume, but they contribute heavily to the total
Frequently average diameter is used to designate
the composite particle having some other average
property than t.he 8.v~ diameter as defined above.
Care must be exercised in interpreting average di-
ameter since the term may be so defined as to be
useful only for comparison of particles having some
other average pr.1perty. Forexa.mple, if N I , N z, N;.
el.<:. , respectively:
1. The true arillt:m~tic avtrO{Je diameter is
N l +N2 ++N", !.N;
Since
~N - -
M[XI
- - + C- Z2D,3 XN ]
- + ... +--
p CI D ,3 2 CND.v l
_ M ~--"--
p CJ)3
where M '"' total ma88 of alillarticies.
C is 6. constant depending {'In the shape of the
particle by which
the volume ;
. rr
is multiplied to obtain
6" for spheres..
-
I for cubes, etc.
"
~ CD'
True arithmetic average diameter'"' -
. "
~CD'
2. The mean IJUl"faa dunm'.n' is or considerahle
value, parl,j('lJlarly in studying the flow of f1uirls
through porous media (Chapter 16) where it is used
as the diameter of tl}e particle Dp. It is that diam
eter the square of which , whron multiplied by the
number of particles and all:lO by a suitable constant,
R, depending upOn the particle l"ohape (r fOl; spheres,
6 for cubes, etc.). gives t-he total surface of the aggre-
 SCREEN ANALYSFS 21

JQIoi.e-"Tlumber of particles One of the important. properties of solids is tbf'_

BID j 2N 1 + B2DlN2 + ... - B(D. u.)2I.N,. surface area. Since it iiS impractical _to determine
the number of particle.'! in a mixture, the usual basis
The mean surface diameter (Dour ) ill for evaluation of surface is a unit of mass. The
I --=-
:E :r,.B,., qJijiJ; trar/act. or the kUTloa ana peT unit 01 maN!
is an important property of solidB which varies
e;D;
(J).w) - widely depending upon the condition of the surface
BI; x; as well as the particle size.
CiD,' The 8p1-f~ surface .could be computed easily if
3. Similarly the moon volU17U diaml'/R.r or mean the particles were of known geometry, but they are
m&SII diameter equals of many different shapes and highly irregular. If
the sphere is considered , its su rface area i8 llfil,
I.N.C i D,.3
- ,/-cI;--,I.Xi
.::::::..-
';
where D is the diameter of the sphere. Its mass is
pT[)!/6, where p is its demiity. The specific surface
CiD. of iJPherical partidtJJ is area divided by mass or 6/ pD.

:.::;:
,,000
".000
~
20,000
~

10,000
<000
~~ ~
MOO

...,.
'.000

2.000 ~~
-
E

, '.000
800
600
~
,
"" ~
""
200.
~" "'-
"'-~ ~
' 00
80

..." II
I<,;
20

10

, :: :! 2 Ug
'"
A~ Diameter.
Flo. 16. ActU&l lpeci lie -.ui_ .. a function of .vert\~ diameter D...c for quam, e.leite. Iphalerite, pyrite, and ~
22 SCREENING

Aver... Particle Dilmetet. microns, D....

~'I(j. 17. Rloli"" or ~l lI'ei fic: AUrf",.e;c ...~ (I. fU""'tum of lIverallt diaml..u ,r of p&rt icles D.v for 'Iuarta, pyrite. ~J..rite, Cfl lcite
lind ",1en:l.

'j'1lc dime[ll!ion of the part icle I".ootrolling its fllr the ratio of specific 8urfo.ces n are shown in
rctention un Ii S(:reen is called its " diamflter," D. ,.... Fig. 17.
"'01' irregular pm'tides usually encountered in SC I'een*
ing, this so-ralled "diamet.er," D. vl , is usually the RIBI.IOGRAPIlY
>4CCond hu'ge:4 dimcm.ion of the Jllirticle und mwst I. GAUDIN', A. 1\( , Primiple' of Mi" NYiJ. ImMing, M,:flr.lw-
not be con fu~ with the diameter of a sphere. Hill ltonk Co. (1939),
2. GftOIM., J OHN, "Crushi ng and G rin.linK," 1I. S. Hllr, M inl!it
The specific surface of particles having a Imown B..u. 402 (1938).
ratio of actual sllrfu.ce to the calculated surfoce of Ii 3. R iCHARl1&, R. R ., and C. E. T.Q<": KI:, T t zlbool.: "f ()rt Ik t .
~phere of the same "diameter" (Dne - D for sphere) inv, 3rt! ed.,
McG.,.w_HiII BoIlk Cu. (1!14()).
4. TAaaART, A. F., Handbook Ilf Millmu /)rt!.;,,g, John
i", (injpD.
v" where n i8 lhe ratiQ of lJ'fJf'.Cijil: Bll/faces Wiley a nd Son~ (1945).
IUUJ becomes UTl!ty for spheres. 6. W. S. TY).~;JI. en., 1'''t Prrofil4J,fe Uu of T,*i,,(/ Si~,

.'--_.
<':iI!vclnnd.
(Spceific surface)
G/ pD .,.
I. ,CalculAte t he ~urinClP. per unit volume in "'Iuare oent~
Since Ii mixture of particl~ contains many different meters per cubic ocntimH(.or of gillen.. huring t h" L'CI'een
sizes of particles, the basic definition of specific SUf* luul.iyeis below. 1J.'!e t he methool of cxtrapoiRtion for -200
m ""h, and R&'IUme that tlw two points between 100 a nd 2()0
f:1.Ce is tlle totul surfnr.e area divided by t.ota\ muss.
me!h I~t('r,nioo tim ~trai Kht Hn<l in ,\ l<lg_klj( p\t)t. ~1M!(:i.6r.
Tile tula\ s urface urea is I!:r.lvily "I !C>~le "" _ 7.U .
l'et'OIollt " I:\'
MOO, 1t' \JI.iIl(~ 1

3
4+
+ , 1.0
4.0
nnd !:mi is the totul mWlli, if m, is tile Ina&! of the 6+ 8 8.1
8 + 10 1I . S
rruction i.
10+14 16.0
The specific surface then ,i" 6 (L (D.,.,). 11;m.. ) j pT.m, 14 + 20
20 + 28
14 .8
13.2
ur ~ L , ~. 28 +" 8. 1
+48
p Du,
Figure 16 s}J{)ws the- actual specifiu lI\lI'face as
"' +
~8 !l5
6.2
4 .1
!l5 + 100 3.(1
det.ermined by rates of go\ution t as a fun ction of-tb~ -100 + 100 2 .2
average "diumeter" D. ~, for. quartz, calcite, ~phu\- " - 150 +200 I.,
t'x ile, pyrite, lUlU galen/j,. The l:iJrre:sponding val~ -roo 5.3
 PROBLEMS 23
2. Gatamle thlfspee!6e .urf~ in !!Quare oentimetenl per ~ P""'dered coal ,dth tbe aereen a.na!ysi.\: given Jx.1o,,' lI.II
~'TI.m (jf pyri te IL'lY!nl , thc_ lICn.'(In a~ly.is b.'low. Specific "1~c~..:f" 1s fed to a viurat ing 4S-meSh sen:..,n in an at templ. to
~ IJ'svity Of pyrite - 5.0. rt.move t he 1..uxle$ired fine IT\Il.l erial. \'Io'hen- the 8CJ'Ct!n WAIl
ne ..... {he "versize and undelllire sn.al1flell "'ere l1.li listed under
. Pt:tl:cntll.JCl!
(",JU" "L~ IL."ltl"d "N.. ",." Afwr 3 IlInnths' opel'll.lion, the

""'"+ ,
H.,t ll.in.,d
"o"ly_ "n' ,,~ 1"',,010"1 "(lId." What .. t he "ff~ LiVf'n_ Of
3 II", "'n..,,, (<l) ,..I",,, I",W "IM I (I.) ",I ..." ..1,11'

" "
+
+ 8 '"
7. 2
+
8
10 + ,.
10 12 .0
17 . 6
Ovc,.,.il(~
~ . --

l' +20
20 +2R
IG. ~
12.1)
:\1,...1.
3
+
1<'... 1
11.1110
Nell'
0 .012
Okl
O . Ot~
N~,,' OJd

28 + 3.'i ltl.tl - + H O. lrl'l 0 .027 0.031

35 +
'48 1.2
" +
8 +
tUll oa 0 .078
0.100
!l.OM
0. 1]:.!
- 48 "+ 41.',
- GO + 100
/;.tl
3.8
- 111+ I' '" lI .lIS t
tl . 102 0 . 12tl 0 . 142
14 + 211 O. 111e> 0."" 0.22\'
-100 + 150 ' .8 ,,>+ 28 0 . 13 ] 0 . Hl2 0.182 ..
- 150 +200 2. 0
28 + ;j;j 0.101 0 . 125 O. I(H 0 .093
35 + ~8 O.O!l5 0 . 117 O.OW .0 . 171
3. I n tIl(! pe lr,,\eulIl irx11.\"l ty , p.~ " i! kI ernck,~l in oonl:wt .IS + 105 0.070 0 .0'1!l 0.0;;:5 0.24(; O. J8tl
\0 ith "olid CAtlllysw. to yield hillh-oolaroc ulc ndinJl: .tvc ks, wit.h li..'i +100 0 .047 0 .015 0.008 0 . 183 0 . 141.>
a line'v diviJ.,d clay ~ t bo. c:t.t:U~t.. The yidJa obt..ti......J -100 + lIiO 0 .03 1 0.005 U. UI 0.11 1
Are So function of the IJU rf"OO:&ro1l of the ClI.I.. I)'>lt.. The c:J.l.u.ly~t
hl>I:I a density of 1.20 gl1l11l!l /CO !lJld il.ppl"oltilUatdy th~ ij:.lUIC -150 +2tX) O.O'l!l 0 . 10:; 0 .071
~pI!ci6e SUMaw ratio M quarh. A Stlmplc uf this !lUlteri,,1 - 20n O.Oli:.! O.3'la 0 .222
....... acrwned, &n<.I tbe IlUI.tcria.l through tIN! ~ll\C!Ih IICrucn
WIM furtbcr sized by air elutrilltion. From the re!ulting 5. Tablo !!nIt ill being fed to a vibrating $crocn ut the rate of
Iln.. ly!li>i given below, determine the s(lecific surfil.(lI': (lKjU3.ffl SOO Ibth r. 'l'hol. d~red product ill tho 48/ 65 mesh fract ion.
cent imeters per gram), the ari t hmetic average diall"\Cter. a nd A 48- and a 65-1IlCI!Ih eereen are t hcrorore LI!Ied (double deck) ,
the metln IRlrfat:e diameter of the O'l.t.alyst. the food being introdu ced on too 4S-meeb screen, the product
Thll specific BurfllOe 110 computed dOO!! not include t he bein" discharged. from the 65-me!!h lICl'l.'IJn. DurinII' the opel'-
IIUrlsee in the (:o'l.pilklrica wbjch rnay inCfro8ll the totIIl surf ... ce at.ion it Wall obJerved that the average proportion 01 OYet-
a bout :DJO-fold. size: product: un<kreize was 2 : 1'1 : L
(a) Calculnw effcetiwnetll of the scroencr .
(/I) If &en.'en d imcl'l.'lions ,,'ere 2 It by of It., ealculate the
capaci;,y of the 65,.Il}Cflh ISCree n on tile Iw<is of ;I. perfectly
1\1:1-..,
fWldioniul 4S-mc"h !lCn~'n lind a[.;,u Ull tiM' ix>."i" uf the
M,,~h 1,'r, .<'Ii" 1I
:u'IlUllpo.tf"nll",ul" "r I llO' "' n~ n.
48 + 6a 0 .088
UnJ~r-
0 . ]78
m
_
"
,,-....
+100 !liA!,
Ov"r-
-100 +150
- 150 +200
0 .2!J3
O. IM &roen
m_
F .... Product.,
m_ r~~

-200 0 . 247 M,,", fraction {rMctioD ' fraction lJon

10 + 14 0.0003.\6 0 .0008
ElutriatOO Fraction 14+20 0.00373 0.008 0.0006 0.00003
20+28 0.089 0 . 189 0 . 016 0 .00012
Siu Li mite, Mass Fr:tclion - 28+35 0 . 186 0.389 0 .000 0.0000
microns (of Oricirml &luplll)
M + 48 0.258 0.337 0.322 0.0f)36
0 . 1\3
0.078
-" +"
- u.s +100
0 .281
0 .091
0.006
O.OOS
0 .~2(j

0:067
0 . 344
0.2\19
0.042 - 100 + 16(1 0 .062 0.005 0.02. 0 . 237
0 .014 -Joo +200 0.020 0 .001 O.OO'l 0 . 11
.U
e. Ooa
taD per t.our of dolomite .. produoed toy IlI'UIIbiI'll yftfd,k1 s..,en, 111 "I:~/Br..(~ a% KuiMN)
aDd. ,bell --. ,~ a 14-meih , I!ICreeIl.. Al'lI'din
kt t.he _ ~ bekrw. cabi.te (II) the t.ot.al k.d In fbo If &.apia Weicht.
____ ud (') tJ. .eet.i~ 01 lobe 8CftIeIL +K in. 3825 pamI
J.(" X 8 m.h 1(108

"'"'"'
U......
..... ...... 6X 14
14 X 28
m'
303

Tyler MMh
.......
F-''''
%
""-
PrOOuct., Cireula.tinc
% ,_%
28 X 48
~ XO
219
S!m

0verlI0w from &reen

,,.
.~ 1:4,.8
"'.0 "
28 Size 8&JuPe Weicht
,,~ 0.0
,..
"'.0 28 + K in.
,"00
4800
' 28.5 40 .0
"'.0
".
Oth.ro\lh
KX81l'l1!111h
fiX 14
2905 srama
'167
._
" m 14 X 28 117
WOo. '.7 "' .0 28X48 68
100 throuch 2." 10 .0
48XO 278

7. The data bebor W'tll'e obtained on the operation of :& Underflow frtlp, &=cD, 9.8 T6a1/IIr (Dry 800dB)
e-u-h (eq,uare) h\llMll8l' _ n at the tipple of .. oot.l mine.
n. _nine ... done 't o.eparate .. TeTy fine r$fl*l from. Sise 8ample,%
' - ~.uearn 10 tt.t i' eouId be~. Caleulate (II) J1 X 6 mesh 11 .3
the _'ftI'y and re)eetioD. of Neb ... fl1lodion and (II) the 6X8 7.8
_eI'eet.ift-. 8 X 14
14 X 28
28X48
~XO
a.
6.9
8~

.'

' .
,

,
..
~
',.
f
,


Size Reduction of .solids
N inrlUHtrie$ that p rc.eess raw material in the
I solid state 01' use solid material in the prxessing
of fluids, reduction in the size of the solid par
tidee is frequently required. In the producti<'D of
gypsum piaster, the raw gypsum rock is removed
from '~he quarry in large blocks, sometimes 5 ft in
diameter. It must be reduced to particles fine
eoough to pM8 through '). lOO-mesh screen in oroer
to provide IIllfficient specific surface for hydration
to tAke place rapidly. This means a reduction ie
size from ~ in. to 0.005 in. Pigments in paints must
be very fine in order to give good coverage \\'~
applied to a surface.
Red uction in size involv"S the prcxiuction of
smaller mRSII unite from tarter ruMs units of the ll&D1e
material ; it therefore fol1\,1ws that the operation must
caU8(l fracture to take place in the larger unitl!. This
fracturing or shattering of the larger m&88 units is
accomplished by the application of pressure. All
trm Kid materiaU !"I'e crystalline in nature ; that is,
the awms in the individual crystals are arranged in
definite repe.atirig geometric patterns, and there are
certain pl~ in the crystal along which shear tUfliI
place more readily. The pressure applied mW!t be
sufficient to cause failu re by shclIor along t hese
cleavage plane6. If the e.hcar along these planes re-
suits in deformation but not rupture, the defonnatioo
is called plaatic dElformation. The segments of t.he
cl'ylItal Miide N ong on each other like a pack of (lards,.
the only I'ftIUlt being a change in dimensioos of the
crystal. In order to bring about actual size reduc-
tion, it is neC88sa.ry that the material be actually
fractured and that shear movement, once IItarted,
rwultll in cornpleltl !Oeptlrutioo of the qlIM~llts be-
tween which the she!\!' JiUlure oooun-ed.
CHAPTER
,.
From this, it might appear t hat,the best method
of causing rupture to take place in solid material
would be the application of shearing loads. How-
ever, the orientation of crystals in solid matter is
usually so irregular ~hat the direct a.pplication of
compressive loads is just aa effectiVe ItS shearing loads.
All equipment. for size reduction of solids U8eII com-
pression, or s hear, or both. as disrupting forces.
OBJECTIVES
The plll'p<)6e of hlze reiuetion is not only to make
" little one! out of big ones" \"hen the effeotivene8if
can be me8Ji!urcd by tt.e deg ree of fineneaa of the
product, but also to produce a product of tbe desired
size or size range. The size requirement8 for vRrioua
products may vary widely, and hence different rna-
chines and procedures are employed. A size range
entirely salisfactory for one purpose may be higb1y
undesirable for a,n,)ther, eVo:!n when the llame au!?
Iltance ia involved. Powdered coal is widely used for
firing industridl furnaces, a!ld iwnp coal is also fEd
inoo furnacee by mechlUlica.l stokers. But. powdered
coal could not be used in the Hooker, and lump coal
could not be used in the equipment designed for
firing pulverized or powdered 00&1.
In many CMftI, it i.s necessary to use a product with
rat.her narrow limits in size variat.ion. It is usually
impossible to acr.omp1ish t his by "ire redu nt.ion only_
Screening and clSMifiCtl.tioD by variOUl'l mean& a.re
required 00 secure the desired limitation in aile
rlUl8e. The two unit operations' of size reduction and
aiae separation are further closely &SI!OCiI!.ted in that
I~t.ury,;c reen lUW,Yl:IeI urc IlCCeiSSary 1.0;) cvaluat.&
the effectiveness of a given size reduction operation
" .'
 26 SIZt; RU)UCI'ION Of.' SOJfi:us
as well 88 to furnish data for estima.ting the po,,:cr or
energy required.
Ores of metals ooMist. of varying amounts of
valuable mineralll B88OOiatc<i with undesired gangue
minerals. The finst step in proctltt!ing Ore8 for th.1
f'eOOV(lry of metal values is the sepatMotion of the
values' from the gangue, dinoe the ore 88 ta.ken from
the mine contains both tYp(1@ of minerals together in
solid ma8Se!!. Unless ' the valuable mineral exist.<> in
great enough concentration to permit the ore to be
reduced to the metal without previous treatment, in
whir.h elide I,he gangue is u~\IRlIy sepsratoo in the
molt('n !:It,ate, il. ill nec~l'y t.o break lip t,h e ore mas>
',Illpt,hanic:ally, I,hur; freeing the valuable mineral>:!
froDLthe; pdgnc. The minerah! are then .;cparatcd
by pvity or flotation methods resulting in copoen-
'tration of the valuable minera.la.
The plolip(lSC5 of size reductions are therefore two-
fold: (1) To produce solids with desired size ranges
or specific surfaces. (2) To break apart minerals or
crystals of chemical compounds which arc inti-
mately a8!IOCiat.OO in the IIOlid state.-
STAGES OF REDUCTION
For succcsaful 'size red,llction, it. is nece!l88ry that
every lump or particle must be broken by eontact
I\'it.h other particl.e s or by direct contact with the
moving parts of the ma.chine. As the breaking action
proceec:ts, the number of particles increases, requiring
more contacts per unit masi. Thus the capacity of a
particular machioe of fixed. dimensions, 88 in tons per
d ay, is much 1e88 for lUTIall sizes than for the larger
lIizes, since it is necessary for the smaller particles to
remain in the machine for longer periodl! uf time to
sUl!tain the 'requ ired oumbel' of contactK. No device
has been developed capable of automaticlllly adjust-
ing itself to t he varying requirements of eont.act. In
commercial operationll, sufficient capacity in the
intermediate and fine ranges of size reduction is
obtained either by operating several similar units in
parallel Of, baiter, by f'mpbying machinp.!! which
furnish greater numbers of contacts per unit of
lime.
:\-Iachine" pt"lwirlinll,: the N"tluired largt> OIlm~r of
contact." particularly for srnaller-size malA'!rial, have
been deveJoped, primarily for the last stages of size
reduction.
For c(Jffinwreiai reduction in Si1R 01 mlU:lSf'8 of
solids I ft or more in diameter to ~mesh si7.C,
usually at least three stages or steps are followed
which are divided 8Cl.-'{)rWng to the types of machines
bcs~ adapted to each stage, The three steps arc!
1. Coarse size reduction: feeds from 2 to 96 in, or'
more,
2. Intenncdilltc "ize n~luctwn : feeo;l..; from I 00' 3
in.
'3. Fine size redu otion: feeds fl'tJlll 0.25 to 0.5 in.
OPERATING VARJAUlKS
The moisture cortknt II( l:iOlidl! to he reduced in II;ZU
or
i!i importAnt.. If it IS below 3 ~ per cent by weight.,
nu plI.l'ticlIlar difficII\t.ie8 arc cncollntel'edj im/(lM. it
app!1l1.1'1:1 t.hat. the pl'CIICllCe of tbil! amuullt of muilll.1I1'C
ill uf real benefit in mzc reduction if for no other
reason than (or dust con trol. When moisture cont.ent
e.'~ceeds about 4 per cent, most I'OAterials beoomo
sticky or pasty with a tendency to clog the machi Ie,
This is particularly true in the eoa.rse and inter--
mediate stages.
A large excess of water (SO per cent or mom)
(aeilitates t he operation by \,!ashing the feed into
and the product out of the zone of action and by
furni shing a me&nl! for transporting the solids about
the plant as a suspension or l!iurry. Wet {lTirl<iing Is
mostly confined til the tine stage of reduction.
The redUction ratio is the ratio of t he ~vel"tij"rc
diameter _Of the feed to the average diameter of I-he
product. Most machines in the coarser ranges of
crushing have a reduction ratio from about 3 tv 7.
Fine grinders may have a reduction ratio as high jl.'J
100.
In jr: crushinl}. t he cnlShed product with what-
ever fine;; have been fonned III quickly removed afi('r
a I'O lattvl'ly short. !;ojourn in t.he I:rnshing zone. TJie
pruJuct may Row Ollt ,b y gravity, hP. bluwn out with
cumprCllSCd air, be wll.l>hed out with water, or hI!
thrown out hy centrifugal fo rce, This method <If
operation prevents the formation of an excessive
amount of fines by limiting the number of contacts.
In choke feeding ' (tho antithesill of free crushing),
the crusher is equipped with a feed- hopper arid kepi
filled (ur choked), 80 that it does not freely discharge
Ihf' \' rnshm pr<xhwt . ThiR iruI'NI_Jl:ll'lI.tly t.he I"" "
porlillo of fines prnducffl and f lp\' l'e1lJ:'eN t.he ('apar;t\.
In'!'oOme in~iancAA ~hokl' fcedinjl; may reomlt, in ern;l-
omy of operation, eliminating uno or more rcdw:ing
stap;es because of the large quantity of fines pro-
dw~I.
Ench ,.;Iugc in "ire I'Od uc tion muy, a nd ffC(lllently
docs, have B. osize..l:IOpal'ating unit folluwing it, 1 tlu:
 COARSE SIZE REDU<." ION 27
oversillC ml\,terial is returned to the crusher, the oper- ize tbis, one or two heavy HywheeilS are IYII./lIllli...-d on
Ilion is termed closed circuit U no material is re- the ma in shaft of the crusher. The muchine il:!
turned for recrushing, the operation is called open driven by Hat belts or V-bells.
circuit. Closed-<:ircuit operation is economical of
Ilrushing power, which at best is high, permits smaller
uni ts per given tonnage, and produces a material
with greater uniformity of size.
Although the size of the feed is an important
factor in t.he selection of a machine, other facton!
must be considered, such as hardne&:l or structure of
the material. From the 3tanupoiDt of crushing,
minerals with a T\'fohl! hard nell8 of 4 or less are classed
lUi IOOft j othe~ are considered hard. Machioel> for the
coa.~ preliminary cnllihing of soft mat-erialij .do not
need to be so sturdily coniilruct.cd or ij() elaborate in
rlCfoiign as machines for breaking hard materials. In
the finer size ranges, similar machines are used for
both hard and soft materials.
l\Iachines exerting a tearing action and called
diBinugrator8 are employed for reducing the size of FlO. 18. Secti!)""l drnwinJl: of make-type jaw r.ru.;iMlf.
fibrous materials such as wood and aabestos. (A.U~-Cllalmm Mfg. Co. )

The lJIJdve crwher (Fig. 19) il:l l:IUJ,ject W uncve n

COARSE Sll REDUCT~ON s tresses inherent in its del:!igrt a nd therefore is made
Machines for the coarser stages of size reduct ion ouly in small sizes. It differs from the Blake crusher
handle feed lSillClS from 3 to 4 ill. and up. For hanl in that the movable jaw _is pivoted at t~ bottom
materials, either jaw, gyratory, or disk crushers are and the width of the diOlCharge oPCl1ing remains
used. For soft materials where the production of prIWtica.Jly conlltant, thereby yielding a more closely
fines is to be limited, as in crushing coal for sale, such sized product . ~ 0 toggles are required, the juw being
devices 8S hammer mills or toothed tonS are em- opera .x\ through the pitman by the eccentric. If
ployed. only one gize-reducing machine is being employed,
the uniformity in si:re of product may be of advan-
Coor8e CrU8herBJor Hard Materiot. tage, but otherwise the machine is of limited usc.
Jaw Cru sh ers. Jaw crushers are repl"eIiienttd by
the Blake and Dodge types a.nd operate by &pplying
1:1. crushing pressure.
The BWke cnaher (Fig. 18) consists C8!lent-iRlly of a.
east-steel frame supporting one fixed and one mov-
a.ble jaw. The jaws are made of cast steel lined with
a tough abrasion resistant metal, such 118 manganese
steel. ' T,be movable jaw is pivoted at the top and
operatecl"by the eccentric, pitman, and toggles. The
pitman il:! given a nearly vertical motion by the ec-
cent-ric, and, lIince one of tho toggles is mounted in
rigi!1 journall:! at one end of the cnlsher frome, the
reciprocating mOl-ion of the pitman causes the other FlU. I!.I. &'(:Iioual 0.11'11.""", of IJOOgo;~IY I " ' ~.. w ('ro.o;I"r.
toggle to move the jaw back ar.d forth: The jaw is (A.U.....Chalntel"ll Mfg. C... )
held against the toggle by a tension link and spring.
Crushing is accomplished only when the movable The power is npp lif'fi l.hrougb tI long lever, 8Ild if thl'
jaw movc~ toward the fixed jaw. This means an (:rusher hccomes clogged cnormous Sll'egllC!:! are I'oI't
intermittent- JX.lwcr requirement. In order t.o equal- up in the mf'mbcn. whidl become exce$Sive ill ma-
.. SIZE REDUcnON OF SOUDS

TABLE 6. CAPACITIES OF BLAKE JAW CRUSHERS

(Atn.-Chalmel'l ?oJI,. Co.)

s.. ... J'ood ..... ........

'<

........'
I

-,
D ....... r~ Sol,; .... III.
."".."..
<m"" "'",
'" Jaw .~ M_ w....,
, ," , I "I,
H_
"
,.,.~

)( Oope, iK,

'" I I
I 0
" u
"
..
-

or, ur >or " 10. 000

II )( 10 0 ~r
'" "
. . ... .. ......
>0
"n " "
U

:u x 15
'" " n""
" "
0
" ~

~X~

42 !ic: 40
0
.. ,n ~
'00
w
IIOT
ml
,~
" , r ,wr
'" " ro,""

140,000
0
'" '00
'"
'" '" '"=
,~ 197
"
tl)( :to U. ,,.
0
'" '" '" 14$ .000
-
,~

'"
n,
,,,
~

... ,,. ,.
4& X .2

110 )(
0

0
,ro
,~

'"
'" '"
,,,
~

,..r
,~

,~ ~ n. .... 1/10,000

2 16 .000

,
-- .
U,
'" '" '" '"
"' x.. ." .,r "'T
.....
~, W <&2'11 ,000

... .
," ,., "

0 ., 00 ~ , .."

'" '". '"

"x .. 0

.m...
" . "
"

. '".
"
"

.ro
" .
...
"

"
.

.
,.
'" 4110 .000

.. A .. ,w...dud jo... placet (oJnoo~) . t r _ "'napo. ""ur.

B .. ' :Nondooklnl" jaw plate< (oorrupted) .

TARLE 7. CAPACITIES OF DODGE CRUSHERS There are many different designs of jaw crushers,
(AIJi5-Chalmel'll Mfg. Co.) some of. which combine shear with compression. The

.... I
TO< Diooehaf n St11itl1. I ~ .
..... "'''''.
Uruv..aal jaw crusher (Fig. 20) combines the prin ~
cip1es of the Dodge and Blake crushers. It gives two
crushing strokes per revolution because the pivot
......
Oponinp,

, ". ~ .""
Motor
"~
"'~Ibt.

"
is above the bottom end of the jaw, causing the
bottom of the jaw to move forward while the upper
'"
xG.pe, I
" "
~.~

end of the jaw recedes.

.,' ,", ," m ,, Gyratory Crushers. Gyratory crushers were

..
OX. 1.100
OX> . =
12 X I
UXII ,". ," ='" "" ..~
lS , m
developed later to supply a machine wj~ greater
capacity. Actually, the crushing action of gyratories
is similar to the action of jaw crushers in that the
.. !' .. to ... 1"" hour. moving crushing element apprOHches to and recedes
from a fixed crushing plate.
chines with gape!! .. above II in. The constant open- Figure 21 shows a $U8pendtd~ndk type of gyra.-
ing or the jaws at the discharge end gives the Dodge wry, consist ing of an outer frame carrying an in-
,crusher an annoying tendency to dog which is absent verted conical surfl1.ce known 8.8 "concaves" and an
in the Blake crusher. inner gyrating crushing head. The conical crushing
lil!.IJOJ ito Ih" ltI'Ctlh:llt distance het"~"Iln the jl!.W$ or crush- head is supported on a spindle which hugs from It
illl eurfllee$. 8Hitabl~ bearing in the upper portion of t he ml\Chin~.
 COARSE SIZE REDUcnON

Flo.~. Sectional drawing of UnivcrMl ttmlmli,nOO roller. I Flo. 21. Sec~ional drawing of gyratory eruslU!r of sutpended-
oo.rin&:;aw ertll!oor, (lJ"i~ Engi1ll!Q1'1I4 t!mp.) _ aplndlo type. (AUU-Clialmoa Mfll. Co.)

TABLE II. CAPACIT IE..'l OF GYRATORY CRUSHERS

(Allis-Chalmen Mfg. Co.)

Fi rw_.t Setting Coa rSlll\t Setting t

Reoom-
Si~cof Feed Driving mended Crusher
Opening, Gape
Si.e of Di~_ RiU! of Dis- Pulky, rpm Motor, Wcll[ht, lb
X Length, in. Cllo~eity, ClIlJfll:i~y,
char~ Open- charge Open- HOCI!CJX>wt'r
t.ou/ hr inK. i n.
tOTl$/hr
ing, in.

2K X 10
X,. lli " li
", ., 700
.50
3 700
,000
"" 1a.-25
10 X 40
13 X 45
16 X 1>6
'"
2
3 "
120
'"
3%
,
4
93
128
17'
'00
375
300
25-10
50-75
">-l00
30,000
45,000
62,000
2OX68 3% l52 246 330 75-- 125 94,000
OOXOO
,
4 235 '% .50 325 125-175 169,000
36
42
X
X
126
132 '% '"
475
6%
6"
''""
300
300
175--225
200- 275
263,000
286,000
."
."'''''
50 X 162 6 1li 2.50 22a--300 675 ,000

-
54 X 162 6li lO5O ';0 22;;-,..'>()() 630,000
lO
00 X 6li
""
22;-JOO
174
00 X 182 ')< 1420 IO.K """
1900
250
250
,
125,000
1,000, 000

Finellt permitted for this size gyrawry.

t eo..~t permitted for this 8iae arawry.
 SIZE REOUCTION OF SOLIDS
The lower end o f the spindle is a circular shaft free
to rotate in an eccentric sleeve. The eccentric Rleeve
is driven from a rolllting main shaft through a set
of bevel gears and rot.at~ \\ilhin II. fixed cylindrical
housing. The cr ushing spindle is free to rotate. But,
lIS soon as feeding of the machine starta, rotat.ion
ceases and gyration is the only motion, causing the
head to approach and ret:cde rrom the concave sur-
fl~s , bre~king the feed by II. cnpiliing pressure a.~ it
pas;es down through the crusher.
In the fixed-spindle gyrawry (Fig. 22), thc eccen-
tric sleeve is inserted between the fixed vertical shuft
and the movable vertiCalI cone. Ry rotttting lhi.-;
FIG. 22. SeetioMl drawinJl: Qr Td.mith parallel pinch erti"her.
(2mi/1I 8,.,;.ltui.., Wl)Tb.)
eccentric sleeve the a:'I:]S of the conc i.'1 given a
cylindrical motion with a " parallel pinching" !l{;tion
on t.he material being crushed.
Gyratory crushers have large capacity because the
act.ion is continuous. The capacity is similar t-o that
of a jaw crlmher having the same gape and a length
L equal to the .perimeter of the gyratory. Since all
the coarse crushers have greater capacities than the
devices for the tiner ranges of size reduction, 3.
gyratory of sufficicnt size to handle the required size
(If feed may have an l!XCCSllivc f:a.pacity. Jaw crlL<ID-
c~, therefore, are frequently used for the first (:Cllirnc
breaking operation, followed by gyratoriee.
Cupaci&' of jaw and gyratory crushers with
Jl;UpcS of 4 in. to 2 ft may be approximuted by tile
Tagga rt' fo rmlllu:
T:o O.6LS
whero 7' =- capacity (wns/hr).
At = length of leed opening (in j ..w ~ru8he""
normal to gape; in gyrator\es, the
perimeter of a circle whose diameter
is the arithmetic average of the diam-
eters of the two cones) (in.).
or
S = greatest width discharge openiD& (in.).
Exerel....,. Compll.Te ~ captLcities foil eetirnated by tilt
Taggart fOl"mul1l \\i~b t.ha.l aivtlfl in Table 6.
The power requir~ lor jaw and gyrawry crush-
f!rs are about the same, but the gyratory Jott.d is
somewhat more unifonn since it is crushing contin-
uously wherea.s the jaw crusher worn intern.ittently.
In choosing betweeD a jaw crusher or .. gyratory
crusher for a given installat.ion, capacity is the
criterion. If capacity requirements are small enough
so that one jaw crusher is adequate, the jaw crusher
is the usual choice bCealllJC of iulower original e()8t
and upkeep. If capacity requirements are large
enough to keep a gyratory in contiDuou8 operation,
the gyratory is ul:lualiy preferred . Taggart ' 8taf.l!8
an empiric!!i rule that "il the hourly tonnage to be
crushed divided hy the square of the gape in inches
is less than /).115, use a jaw cM.1'lher; otherwise, ..
gyratory."
Co..,."., C,.utlhersfo,. Soft Materiab
Such materials n.~ cQ8l, gypsum, some types c:J
limet!tone, ice, fire clay II,J'ld shalCI:I are len bard than
4 on the ]\foh!l scale and donet require the hbavy and
expensive types or c rushe~ needed for hard mat&-
ri8J.~. FrequenUy, the siR reduction desired for these
100ft materials excludetl the very fine ranges. and mOtit
of the crushers deeigned for such materials produce a
small amount of excessively fiDe material.
The B,.ad/qrd br~ for coal (Fig. 23) combines
the two features of breaking and screening. The
periphery of the macbine at! a reinlorr.ed &creen which
allowa the ooal, when sufficiently reduced in size, to
pass through. Breaking ill accomplished by rotation
of the cylinder: . Tho ooal il:l lift..ed on interior shelvfll
and ~rdJ(on by falling and striking the coal below
a::r'the cylinder is rotated. Harder material such an
I:IIa.ie and tram p iron Pore not broken and gradually
pass out from the open end of the brP.p.ker as indi-
cutcd .
 COAR:;t: SIZE mmUCTION 31

" ' 1'1.23. P hllll l0m oirnW lnll: of R,"'a\l[on! lm:uktr . Run_of_mine eonl !!IlI<'I'1I throu gil II .., " hule .... . hE" lar IlntJ, iil liflod , fa lls,
fin'" is hroklln I,), the impn.et, ~jnl<: thn.ugh IK'rfor.Llions inl" II", rhme bel" ... ; rod.; an d refU!ll' !Ore 1'1<"';00 <>tIt all indie"t(~1
in tbe fOrt gl"OU:x!. (l'w'~!lll.'an;" ("ru~/.~r Co.)
12 SIZE ItEDl"CTIO" OF SOLiOS
:\ loo/ill'(/ (fill UIW!("r' for coal, g,vpo:<um, it,*"
!!Oft. mate-rials (Fig. 24) accom plishes llTf'llkinR by
r l'P'!.'SlIl'1' of jhe tef'th Ilgainst the Jar~r l1\mp~ of the
.'.';.2:-,. R.c..,tKm,,1 111,,\\" ill~ ~I ~, ... illjt o''''l'IItion of
mill. rA/!i.-Cltu/"'f7>< Mfg. CtJ.)
material, d;~illtcgntlmg it in much 1,11(: Rarne manner
iee is brok ~n up manually with an i,:f! pkl.:.
Iii;
Ex cc~ive prodllct ion of fine;; is thus prevented.
Knl)hl~l and :mwoth rolls (Fig. 30) arC nlw widely
for coar;;c crushing of soft materials.
W!ef.l
A hammrr mill (F ig . 2,) may he used for coal or
even fihrous material. 1leavy bl{K~ ks of steel are
athu:hed by pin!; In 11 tIL,,1.: IIr d isk;; rev(llving at high
or other speed ....;thin IL BtUn:iy boulling. Tbe hammers deJiVl'T
heavy hlows t.o the feed ml~wri81 while it is in 811&-
penB;on, driving it against a. breaker plate until it is
fin e enough to pass through t,he openings in the cage
b!lr~ a .. the bottom oCthe mill constituting the screen.
Some of these mills a re bllilt in cxtremely Ia.rge sizes,
the individual hammers wf'ighing IlB much as 2.50 II .
Ye ry !:Itumy housings are req uired for such halTU'l'klf'
mill,;. The same type is ILli:IO adapted to fine pHI-
Vl:'ri1.ing. the size of the proouct being controlled by
t.he ",iZ(1!I of t.he dii'K:hargf~ III:r()Cns. The httmmer
mill i ~ p r,)hahly thc must versat.i le type of crushing
dCl'j l1P, cu rrt'.l\ tly availl\blc. For wet material the
cagt>:> for ~'I"'e Ii S arc rcpla.ce<.l with c orrugnt.cc.l grind-
ing pla t,eIi.
A sv-called lffjuirn-l-cflge dUinlegraror (Fig. 2f) is
'll~f\l l in te-uri[l~ apart fihrou~ material sllch as wOod
hllll:ks and n~bclltos. The device COMilll;; tlf two 01"
mm" concentric cages T()tated in opposite directions.
The fct.'" is introdueoo in Iv the inner cage. Centrifu-
1\ bamrner gul foree rlrivcs the material into the sptK.'eS between
the rotating cages where it is torn a.part , and thence
into t he outer ca.sing from which iJ: is diBCharged to
a conveyor or st.orage hin.
INTERi\lEDIATI: SIZE REDUCTION
CVII/! crU:dIl'TS, developed sill(.'e the 1f'2O's, have
gained such wide R.CfCptW(.'t' that they may be re-
garded a.~ s tandard in the intermediate talIge. A
I
 INTER'IEOlAn: SIZE Rt:OUCTION ..

FIG. 27. &",tional drawing of ,,,,,Ie cru.;lwr. (Ntml/;trg .ll/g. Co.)

st.&ndard cone crusher is 8hown in Figs. 27 and 28.

The drive is similar to t hat of the gyr:\tory crw:lhcr.
The inner cone or "cnlshing head" is supported by
the tapered et.'centric journal which is rotated by t:lC
bevel gears dri ve n by Ihe main shaft,. Tho entire
weight of the crushing hend and 51)indle is !!lIpported
on a bearing plate supplied with oil undcr pres&.lre.
The op(wB.tion is quite similar to that 01 the gyratolT
crui3bor, but there are two important painl!! uf difff'I'-
enoo. The outer 81ationury cru~hing plate flm't>!;
outward to provide ali increa.;;ing ares o( di,;chtll'l,"C
80 tha{ ~ lhe machine can quickly eleal' ilSClf of Ihe
reduced product. 111 is lltationary cruMhing plate
is held in potIition by a nest of heavy helical tensi()f\
springs so that when tramp iron or other uncruflhable
objects enter the crushing llone the plute is lifted,
preventing fraoture of the plate Ilfld injury to t,he __
machine. These CODe crushers are available in two FlO. 28. CU! 'I\''''Y view aho",if\ll: action
sizes, the standard (Fi,. 27) fOf COOt'l!Cf feed , and a (NurdIxrf Mfg. Co.)
 SIZE REUUCl'WN of SOLIDS
8O-i:a1led "short head" for finer fL'Cd. The feed to
cone dHshers must be dry a nd rather uniformly
sized. Cone crushers give lJC8t m;ult~ whcn OIJeJ'lll.
ing in elosed circuit with &lrccn~.
The Tclsmith GYrru!phere, Fig. 29, is a vari::ttioll
of the cone crusher. Thc er1l:lhing head is o;plwrieal
in contour, and tho crushing platr is hflld in pu.'Iil ion
by springs llnaer compn>;;.';.ion in>;leao of t('n~ion .
The drive and oiling system is I;imilar to tha t of the
FIG. 29. &ctional drKI\'lng of TClStnlln liyrMphcrc. (Smith l!:>IIJinr:erinq Wurh. )
cone cnishN. The spherical head fw;i lila tf..'>S dis--
chargc of the crushed prwuct.
Crushing rol~ consist of two heavy cylinJurs rr.
vrilving toward each olher, the feed being ni pped l!.nu
pulled downward through the rollll by friction. As
slwwfI in Fig. 30, modern cruSDers drive bUlll J'fllls
positively, breakage heing prevented by moun I.ill;/;
t h.e bea rings of ona of HlC rolls agaill~1. nCijIi> of heavy
comprell8ion "pringiS. Since Ulerc ill IL l:un~ itlCl'd hlfl
amount of wear on the roU~ , t he cru~hing !Surface
consillU! of a tough steel ~lt.'cvc \rhich ill IIhrunk 01\
to the mnin cylindrir-,J ('u.~tin)(, makinl( possihlc LiIl'
replaf..'ClnCflt of worn t'nlshing l:Iurfa(:eg, The weuring
of grooves in the surface of t.he I'OH ~ is largely pro-
ventOO by a device in the bearing of one roll whieh
gives it a limited latera.l motion simultaneously with
t he rotntion. The size reduction accomplished by
rolls is relatively small, the average diumeU!r of the
produc t being about one.rourt-h tha t. of the feed.
('one crushers are I''placing rolls for intermediate
~ize reduction of ores beCllusc their reduct.ion ratio
is two or three time; that of rolls ;Lnd they rP.qu irc
less maintenance.
T he diamd c r a ud spac mg of rIIlJ,. may be varial
o ve r ra.ther wide rangc:>, allowing considerable var'-
ations in fl ize of feed and product.. This flexibility is
a favo rable r-haracl.edslic uf crushing rolls, which,
cumbined wit h t he low initial oust, has encouraged
t he wide adoption of rolls fur moderate size reduction
of all si u~:;. The proper diameter and spacing of the
rulllO, the capacity in tom~ per hour, and lhc rnt"llIired
horsepower fo r crUBhing rolls may be computed !\II
fHI10W ~.
The coefficient of friction of the mineral against
t he ;;~l SUrrl ll:t:S o( the roUs incorporated with Il
rdatiml>;hip l>ctwecn tile oim('n~ ion of the "material
tu be crushed and the dia.meter of the rolls determines
 INTERMEDIATE SJZE ltEOUCTJON
FlO. ao. Cru~hmg ro~ls.
whether or not a particle will be drawn int.o the rolls
and crushed. Figure 31 is a line diagram showing the
outline of R spherical particle in position to be
crushed between a pair of rolls. The vectors Fr and
PH represent the fo rces acting on the particle at the
point of contact with the roll and may be represented
iJy the l"e!>ultant force FH~
A .. - ringle of nip (the value for angle A in Fig.
31 corrt'::lponding /.0 PH hr.ing horizontal) .
Dr "" dinmctc.r of the I"olls.
DI - diMrncter of the feed purticle,
J),. = maximum dimension of the pnJllut'l (lI1 ini~
mum diMancc between ro ll.;).
fi'r = tangentiul force on the part icle.
F N = normal force on the particle.
FH = result"nnt of Fr and P....
J FH i!:l at a negative angle (poinling downward)
with the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 31 , the particle
will be drawn betl\'een the rolls. If PH is nt II positive
:mglc \vith t.be hOl'izolltnl, the jJurtid(' will ride on t he
rolls or be thl'OlI"ll up and out. und will not be cl'\.lshed.
The angle A between the two tangenh at the points
36 SIZE REDUcnON OF SOLiOS
of contact of the particle with the roUs indicates The limiting vaJue for the angle Aj2 at which the
whether or not. the particle will be drawn bet.ween resulting force is horizontal is called the angk of bUr
the "'Oils. The fheoretical capacity of rolU is the weight or 0.
The definition of the eoofficient of friction is the ribbon of feed having a width equal to the width of
ratio of the force tangent to the surface to the force
normal to the surface. In Fig. 31 , this is FT/ FN.

I i---- -D.- -H

D,

Flo. 31. FQf"Q!$ exerted by crushi", rolbJ for .. IIPberi~

p'rticle in position to be crushed.
In the limiting case F H is horizontal and f---D.--1 D,f---D. --~
tan (,!) _FT
2 FN
Fm. 32. Foreea exerttd by en.Wtin&: rolls on a slab at the
approximate an&le of bite.

which is equal to the coefficient. of friction . the rolla, a thickness equal to the distance between
If the particle ill a sphere, the rolla. ADd a Iebgth equal to peripheral velocity
, D. D, ' of the roll! in linear unita per interval. of time. This
- +- may be expre98ed in tons per hour:
A 2 2 D. + D,
""--
2 D. D, Dr+D, T- -oo._~LD:c"::
-+- 2000
2 2
The value for tne angle A. corresponding to tbie where T _ capacity (toIl8/hr).
limiting case is called the angle of nip, A ... " - peripheral ve10city (fpm). For rolla up
For lImooth steel rolls the value of the angle of to 72 in. in diametei, " is ullually
nip A. is usually about. 32 degrees for ordinary approximately equal to :100 + 84D .
rocks. In industrial operations general practice is L _ width of roll! (ft) .
to dep!rmine the theoretical minimum roJl diameter D~ _ distance between rolls (It).
Dr, add 1 in. to allow for wear, and selec~ the Dext p - density of material (lb/ cu It).
largur industr.ial roll. The actual capacity is usually from 0.10 tu 0.30 of
If the rolls are operat~ on a slab of steel (or a the theoretical.
particle of similar shape) aa indicated in Fi~. 32, With the increasing use of cone crushers for inter-
Dy D~ mediate size m1uetion of ores, the application of
A ae
-+
2
-2 D~ + D~ rolla in this field is being limited to the sise range
008---- - between cone crushers and fine grinders.
2 tiC D D
~+bc Dr+ I Gra;JitJj ,tamp'. The oldest method for size reduc-
2 cos (A/2) tion of solids is undoubtedly a husky human being
Dp(I - 008~) - DI-D, swinging a heavy hammer. When man began to
devise mechanical methods for industrial operations,
 FINE SIZE REDUcrION
. he naturally thought of a rock~rushing device in-
_volving a weight to be lifted and
dropped on t.he
material to be broken. For tPjs re8.'!()n the gravity
stamp is the oldest recorded method for size reduc-
tion in the intermediate and fine size ranges. Gravity
stamps are stili used to a oonsiderable extent because
of the ease of oonstnlction in the field, especially for
crushing gold orcs when the gold is to be amal-
gamated with mercury, in spite of the fact that
capacity is low and the costs are relatively h igh.
Figure 33 is a modern type or stamp min. The
stamps are vertical shafts raised by c:ams operat.ing
under oolllU'8 fastened to the u})per PMt of the shafts.
Flo. 33. G ....vi\,. 1Itam!l mill. (AU.:.cMl~ Mfa. Co.)
. . The lower end of eaeh shaft is equipped with a
heavy cylindrical metal block which strikes on a sta-
tionary hard metal slab. Since & stamp miU has no
means of clearing itself of the crushed proouct, the
operation is usually carried out on suspensions of
solids in water, which pass slowly through the crush-
ing lonP ,
The reduction ratioe in stamps may be as high M
150, making them one of the mOllt flexible types of
machine!! for size reduction.
FINE SjZE REDUCTION
Sise reduction in the finer ranges has usually been
termed fine grinding. This is due to the fact. that
mMt of the older devices for reductton in this range
eoosisted of two main pari.&, & statiooary surface
37
and a surface rubbed against the stationary surface.
The upper ind nether millstones used for grinding
flour from grain are t.ypical. Such a machinf' CII.l1>;("1
disintegration mainly by the appliCftion of !:!hesr
loads. Most recent devices in 6ne size reduction,
s uch as ball mills, depend more Ofl impact than .m
shearing forces. The division of the operations "f
size reduction into crlLShing and grinding is no longer
descriptive of the operations used in coarse size
reductiOll, a8 distinct from tine size reduction .
F)G. l-t. C uta"'HY lInd fleCl401'lll1 d iacran' of b",.1 mill ...ilh
air cialolifior. or $!jlIltat.or . (C~Wn EftgihUn"'l en.)
In the transition from the old-style shear-gt'inding
device5 to the wldespread application of hall mill!!
and rod mills, iSCveral mar.hines appeared in whirh
the material is reduced in size ootween rullpn!, ur
heavy balls, rolling agajn~t a crushing ring. In t!lc
Chilean mill, the horiwlltal axes of t.he roll!:! are
usually stationary, and the flat pan cfJ.:rying the
crlt.3hing ring revolves. The bowl mill (Fig. 34) may
be I'egalued as it$ modem d evtJIopmcnt.
The Raymond roller mill (Fig. 35) COll8ists IIf
rollel"l! !!uspended all balanced jounlals from a rapKlly
rot.sting spider mounted on the upper end of the main
shaft. The revolving rolls exert prC!:'!0'3 ure on a sta-
tionary confining ring by centrifugal force. A plow
mounted on the apron or slec\'c revolves with the
shaft to throw the material into the crushing zone.
~ mill is usually provided with a sizing feature
.. SIZE REDUCTION 0" SOLIDS
whereby the material cannot leave the machine The length of the cylinder is usually aoout equal to
until it is fine enough to pass through a screen of the diameter. Most ball mills are continuous in
given mesh or be lifted by a stream of air of constant operation, feed entering at one nnd and discharging

FlO. 36. Cutaway a nd sectional diagram of Raymond roller mill with air cb.iiiifier or R pe.llItor. (CQmblllliDn BIl/Ii-".., Co.)

velocity. The so-:called whizzer consists of vertical
vane!! rotating rapidly in a bori~tal plane to knock
oversillC particicH out of the rjsing stream .
Bail miUtJ are horizontal rotating cylindricaJ or
conical steel ch.unbers, approximately half full of
steel or iron haiL!. or flint stone& The aiae reduction
is aceomplished by the impact of these balls as they
fait back after being lifted by the rotating chamber.
through the opposite end or through the periphery.
They may be oPerated either wet. or dry.
In cylindrical ball mills the product. may be dis-
charged by overflow through a hollow trunnion (Fig.
36). The smaller particles are IIUSpended and carried
out by the circulating fluid, such ILl! air or water.
The.Hardinge mill (Fig. 37) ill typical of cylindro-
conical ball mills. The larger balls and larger pa.r~
 FINE SIZE REDUcnON

FI(;.3G. &Il mill ~ho,,-ing feeder.nd hollo ... t runni()/l. (AUu- FlO. 38. Interior view of em"ty ball mill showing grale lind
Challll~1'3 Mfg. Co. ) roUed ateellinc~. (AUu-Chalm.tr~ Mffl. Co.)

tides of feed arc supposed to segregate to a certain
extent in thp. cylindrical port ion of the mill with the
greatest. diameter. 'Vhether or flOt t.his supposition
is true, there is a definitc relationship between size
of p3rticles and size of baUJS fe(juiN>d for effe(!th'e
size reduction. In any casc the lifting _ cct 0 11 the
balls i!! greatest. at the greatest dillmet.er, and the
large r balls willlJC most eITective in size reduction at
this poin t.
In "grate mill!:l" the product p~ out th rough the
openings in a vertical grate or diaphragm (Fig. 38).
In the trunnion mill, the proouct may be raised by
:-adiat plates or scoops on the otltside of the grate
(Fig. 39), p.lshed away from the grate by helical
V!l.nes on the inner periphery of the cylinder, and dis-
charged from the hollow trunnion by which lite mill
is supported . If the mill is supported by pcriph~ral
tires riding on rollers ( Fig. 40), the materilll simply
Rows out through the grate and through the open
cnd of the mill.
CumpoUlld ball mills consist of two to four cylin-
d rical eOffiJ)(lrtmcnts separated by grates. Each
successive compartmcnt is of smlliler diameter and
eonLains balls of smaller sizes for finer grinding.
, .-

"

.,
.
~

j
Comlllfitiw} 5-ln. b.a!!
rtlttion of c:tusflina:
. j
1IiI:, of ~tI$ 2-1n. materilll """-",,~~~:u:03
ID II'IIIa"iaI -15.6: 1
Fl o. 39. Out.side view of IratA: IIIIOWin, radial plall!!' which
FlO. 37. Cut4way diaP"Bm ind ieaLing ideto liled opcrMLion of mille the product and eau..<IIl iL w be dilM:hargal through the
,,"nieal ball mill. (llaroinl}fJ Co.) hollow trunnion. (AUi~-CIW1>U1'3 Mig. Co.) '"
... SIZE R EDUC'flON OF SOLIDS
FI Q, ofO, Gr.-Ie mln 10th opt.O-f':nd d ischnge.
Such a mill is e8-'lCntialty iI. ileries of mill~ operating
COllI iUlloll::lly .
The lincl":! of ball mills are "'!lIlaceable and u.'!lIally
made frum alloy ~teel. Uther matcriald such :"...i>
ru bber, Cl:I3t iron , ceramic, II.lId I\JCk pI'Oducls are
sometimes used. The wear on linen! i8 usually frum
0.1 to 0.5 Ill/ ton oj product. The balls introduced
into the mill vary from 1 to 6 in. in diameter, and
the wcar is from 1 to 3 Jb/ ton of product. It. I!!.
customary to compensate for ball wear by introduc-
ing one or more fu ll-si.red balls to t he roili at least
on~:!. day.
R()d milu are similar t,) 1)1111 mills except that the
grir.ding media arc steel rOl.b~ 1'8t:,er th&.Ll halls. The
nods are always longer than tbfl diamete.. of the mills
~1". H. ".L.
I,,"ri..... vi... 01 ..... 1 mill ........inlt ill v.ri"y,.
o<ta~ of W~ r rrom "",.vicc. (A.Ui~Chal""," .\fl , . Co,)
(TAt: .Hi"" find oSmdt(T SI'Ppili ro.)
:111(1 thel'..fol'e IiI' ill the mill pnn.Hl'l tv the axis" The
impm't of the rvds is l'cf.. ived 1ll!linl.'" by the la.'I(Cl'
pill'lidC>!, callsi!!,,; pl"t'fele."ial 1'{'C.iUctioll VII t~ .e
e .oar.sc:;;t It.rtid~ and I~i \'ill g :l mvre clVOiC" sized
fm.xluct. Rod mills are m()n~ c:pcnsive to operate
than ball mills, but their liS(' iii indicated wh.m 9.
-"mull proportion of fines is de~ in...u in the pr~)lhl('t.
Fip;urc -11 . WlI the inside of a typical roo mill and
indi,c ates the w~ar and replacement of the rod;:; by
thei r different diameters" Whe n the rods become
badly worn they mil!'!] be removed before they bend
or hl-eak; if they become shortr than the diameter
of ] he mill they may become wedged in such a posi~
tion as to be beld ap;ainst the lining.
Tube mill is a term used to identify a long cylin.
drical milt (usually about 22 ft long) utilizing pebbles
of flint and ceramic linings 'lIld usually opcrq,tcd
intermittently on Ii hatch of tnllterial. Tubc mill"
havf' lnrgc!y 1J<!(:u replaced by hall mills e:ccpt in
cu,..'s whcTl" iron in the P~lIct eannot be tolerat.OO,
Opel'u1jn8 Condition.
The rate cf rotation of ball milill ~hould be Icss
than the sJ)CC(\ at whic;l the ch3rge is held II.gainst
th(' in",iilf' s{jrf~~ct' by ccn trifut!:u l for(.'C , S ill v'e no size
l\!llu<'t ion ,,"ould tll kc place unless the h:ilb fall UpOIl
tiU'l malerial to be crushed. At low s~" wl.ere
thf' balls simply ron over each other and are not
cU1'ried up and dropped, only the ljm~lIest part iclflS
~U'e atTeeted. The ;".riti('al ma:imum speed may be
determined in the same rr..mner as d~ribed for
lrommel ~recll!l" With a correction malic for lilt"
diameter of the ball, the eritiul rate at >!C8. lewl
 n~E S11.. REDl:C:TION 41
.lUl~ be IU\("('rt"inM fn)fYI fhf' f'xpl'f'R..'1ion 0
i 6.65 i I I
,
N - ----
v:o=d ., I I I
,
whlre N - !"f'\'ullllion..d per min.n t'. I ! I
I
/) = tliume tcr uf the mi ll (ft ). : A- I
I
d = tli:' m('f(' r '"If the l)!lll,. (rt) .
.0
V , ,
I I

At low l:!pPf'(ls wh('t"(' Ihf' ('"Q1I 1('" nlS are simpl~' ! ,, I , ,

tumlH! lit" I"OlIt'(l u\("r. the power I'{'(luired to dril'!'
ttl(, mill 1'llriN di rec tly with the spE"Cd of rotation ..
At higllt>r " 1)('('(18 sliPPdgE' Ol'Curs bel\\"E'('n the COll-
!('ntl! lind thr lining, alld Pl)\\"{'r feluinm('ntsill('I'('H.""t,
more ,uu\\"ly with spt't'l.l of l"Olatioll.
11I(rt'a:;inll; th' IUlld (buill:! alld material) in a ball
mill will im'I"('1I&l the pu.lfOr requil"t'ments \Il1til the
ma."Ximum \'ull1 e is rea-.ed, after whiC"h the power
requift'ment d('('1'('3ISe" with in('rt'n:;mg loaU us tlw
ct'ntt'l' of gravity of tile load appl'OaC'hl'>:< til('" axis of
rotation. For \\"('1 grinding the maximum pt)\It'f i"
J"t'(lllirt'{i wh('.n the wt'ight iru.ction of IlOlids ill tilt'
f('('d it! abtmt 0.('00 10 0.75, The load ma~' be in-
ere8llt'd hy incrt'lLlIing the weight of bulls m l rooll(""t'(l
intu the miH, by Ilperating on ntaterial (wel pulp) uf
hight'f dens ity. or by operating af a highel' pulp
k!.vel. The pulp kJl'el or quantity o r mktt'riaJ lK>ing
ground in the mill i$ a major faetor in Ihe opera tion
of the mill .
In the lIimpJe overflow t.ype of rontinuo lls 1",11
mill (no "dillphragin), the feed ('nlt'f8 III .Ine ('nd ami
t,he. procilll't HO\\"l:l ou l Ih rough th(' hulltl\\" irllnnioll
(0)
t '",, 42. (.. ) :<. ...;.II ... t tii"jCl'>llU vi uwrH..", ""II mi tl. {Ill s.....-
I,.....,d , ti~ltntlll of I. ,n mill '~ltlil>P',, 1 "'11 1"' 1 >i''''~ Kltl .. r Kill'"
.... Io,,,;n I"",','r I ~ ,II' t,v,L1. (.-lUi".('j",I,,,,u "'f,. C.... )
'II I ,
I
'" 0 I
Circ~latinl
2 3
Load. TO/l5 Clrc~lated
4
pM
5 6
Ton of Fre$h Feed
FIG. 43. R~la li ,-,,, b.'I"......" "i""U,-,li1'" hu\ anti .pn:o.!ut"l;,,"
nf fines in " L,,!) ",itl \.>oiug (\lJenlh~\ in do ....,] ci,rcuit.'
at the other t'nd. M sho\\"n ill Fig. -l2a. "fht' telu-
I i\,t'l~' fixed or l'UIl:!tnnt pulp If'n,j !l1"\'\' idNl. b~' ~uc h u
[llill mf'tlns that tht' t'tf('(,til' t;' I!('~ Ilf grinding ('an be
('ontl"tJIII'(I ullly by th(' ~iU' li nd quantit.\ (If ball:> 01'
til(' flltl' of ft't'd. . ',"ith Ill(' lI~e of dinphra~m:i thl'
pulp l('n'l may 1>(' Lndt>\lt'ndf'IIi1.1' c{) nTruIlNl.- al IIny
dt'Sil"('(llt'nl hy mnking titt' diuphr:lgm or gratl' ;:;olid
fur HIt' de>lir('(1 di:ltnnt"t' fr(>m the pt'ripht'ry (Fig.
-I-2b) .
lower 1'111.., 1t'l"d $ rf'$ult in gl"('9 te r freedum of
mo\'eml'tft of Iht> 1);111", \li lh C"on~ t \l(,ll t improl'emeDt
in (>if('('l i\'(' n(';<,; (If j!;rindilltt:. III 11 ",impl .. o\'erftull'
Iypt' (of m ill 11\(' 1);111,, 111,'" kinf'lit t'1lt'T"g.\' when falling
inln the dt'l~ pilip, And 1;'(' t'lllIl lI('1 fun't'>l bt't \\"('t'D
1i.lIs II ndt'r Ih(> "'lIn,I \'(' I~' Iht' pulp d('(rell.'lM, i.;
:\Iill" willi liia pilrdJl;IlI" ur t;mt <'t' l>1V\'kf't.i In m.lillluul
111(' prupt'r pulp 11'\'1" III'(' n'p'Ir::>t1 11.1 dt'li\'er 25 per
('('Ill mOIl' pruduct nr th(' ( '01' 1";'( ' \ "jU' r:mgt' wilh an
inl'rC'aSl'(j ptlll'er J"f'tluift'nlt'llt uf olll ~' 20 p('~ C('nt .
] ....111' \('1't'1" of pIlip :lIld 111.. rt.a~,, 1 time ill !he mill
!"t'sult nl""-I ill u (k\" In ~' I.f U\'t'l"gl"imling.
Clo8f'd rirl"llil flpan/i.", \0\('(' diugrlllll ac('olllp:IllY-
illp: exnmpl(', p. H) i~ u",uall.\ 1It""'!;I:tur)' ill bull mill
llperntioll "il)l't' thC'~(' ruill .. dUIIII! h.ft-t, a ~il\ illg fictioll
till tilC'ir produl'l , A sizill~ dl'\' ilI'. "'lIt'h!ls n "{'"\u"si-
fi(')"." is plm'l'Il in lSt'ril'i! with tht' bnll min. and tht'
OYC'I-:-:iu' nwt C')"Lal frlllll tilt, "ir,iIlJl; Illlf'rat iull is )"f'-
tUfIl('tilu tilt' m ill for fllrthn !lizl' r('tiud illll, III "1I1'h
Il}It'mtiulls, lilt' dn'Hhllill~ IllUd nlll,\" \)t! the major
llurl. of tht' f('I'I1. Thl' P!"('St'lIt tn'l ul i~ to t1~ nigh
('in'uialing loads, The IIppruXim:lh' rt,jlllio.n ship I~
hn'1'n lilt' p r'lthwl itln of lint.". and t'in'ulat ing load is
,q lO ln l. ill Fig, -13 ,
'I'll(' m p<lr iiy til bull lIIi/l.. Ilt'IWIlt.i:1 \'er~' lurgely on
lilt, n.'lIUdion ,..... Ii" 1\" I\"('\I a:' (.n Ill.. hp.rdtl~ o'
t l"..,
 SIZE REDUCTJON OF SOUDS
material, and ii cannot be aceurat~ly cnJculated.
A reasonably ' conservative e8timate of the capacity
of a cylindroconical (Hardinge type) ball mill in toIlS
l)C:r 24 hT i.'\
Maximum diameter X Length (ft)
Mines.' A drop weight crusher (Fig. 44) Wall used
for accuraw determination of the energy expended
in crushing, and a rate of sol.ution method for accu-
rate determination of the 8Uriace of the particles.
The resulta of their measurement.'! on quartz (Si02),

C,
where C,! varill>l rrom (j t() 3 for mor;t normal opera-
tiollS.
The normal capacity of cylindrical ball mills in
tH:l.~ per '2'1 hr. may be estimated as
Volume of mill (eu It)
C o
where C uJ';ua11y varies from About I to 2.
ENERGY RF..QUlREMENTS
Although most of the power required for driving
crushers IUld grinders is: used in O\'ercoming mechan-
ical friction, the actual eucrgy used in !Size red uction
i.g an important eOllSideration and theoretically is
proportional to the new surface produced, as there
i.~ no change in the male rial except lIim and the
v
V
V
0
V
5 10 15 ro ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
KikIe'Im-CentimeteBper Gnlm 01 Q\grtl
Flo.~. ReiatWn d enerv i'!Put to !lUrfare prod uced in
crushinc qUArt. with & iJrop weight erusher.'
plotted in Fig. 45, show a constant energy requi:-e--
mcnt of I kg-cm for each 17.56 i:IQ cm Q:f new surface
produced for this quartz, or, as U8Ual1y exp~ ,
17 .56 Bq em of new 8urface procluccd by the applica-
tion of I kg-em of mechanical cnergy.
RiUinger's number designates the new surface pro--
duced per unit of mechanical energy absorbed by the
material being crushed. The values vary forrlifferent
materials, depending on the elastic constants and
their relation t.(l the ultimate strength and on the
manner or rate of application of the crushing force .
A few values of Ritiinger's nwnber as determined
by (I, drop weight crusher are given in Table 9.

TABLE 9. DROP WEICHT RITIIN GER'S NUMBER

FOR A FEW COMMON MINERALS"

Rittin&Cr's Number
Mineral eq in./lt-Ib eq cm/ lt.-Ib sq cm/ q-cm
Quartl (Bi0z) "'.7 2<3 17 .56
Flo. 44. Qia,gram d drop wei~t I:nI8ber."
Pyrite (lo'e8t) 48. 7 31. 22.57
Sphalerite (ZnS) 121.0 780 66.'
creation of new surface. This principle was first
recognized by Rittinger.4 Rittinger's law was first
Calcite (CaCO s)
Calc!... (PbS)
163.3
201.5 I'"
1300
7.5 .9
93.8
eoofirmed beyond doubt" by the U. S. Bureau of
The energy absorbed in crushing mixtures of these
-The prineiple known .. Klck'l) Ia.... that "~he e~
required to produoe alllllogowJ chtlnll'l'l of ooofigunLtion or rriinflrals can be calculated by addition if the propor-
geometrically similar bodi08 v"riuIJ all the volunll'lll or II18Me:!! tion of earh mineral is Irnown in the various screen
or thei!e bodie8," W88 at 01\6 time Af.l'Qneousiy II.pplicd in the fractions before and afwr CMlslling. The most rapid
theory of erushinl!. It Ietl to \.be ialee ooocJusK,n that the means of estimating the new BUrface produced is by
coerX)' l'ieq'lirod in crt1!!hini: ...... prnportion&! to the dec:rea8e
the use of IICreen analyses as discussed in Chapter 3.
iD ...tumc or ,,... of the partk-kol. Thill principle in now
f'I!COgIIized l1li .. ppliQ&bl,e only 1.01 pla>!lic deformation or par-
Other mel-hod~, l:Iuch Ill! the rate of ijQlution, IU'e more
tides withiu tllo! elwltic limit IUkl Hut to crushi"". prto(:ise but more diffir.llil to execute.
 L~RGY

The mechanical energy supplied to the entaher is

REQUIREMENTS
always greater than that indicated by Rittinger'a
number, &8 friction 1088e8 and inertia effeet8 in the
e<luipment require more energy than the actual pro--
duction of new surface. Also, fracture is accom-
plished, not by static loading, but by exceeding the
minimum rate of loading or deformation. Even
brittle substances adjust themselveB to slowly applied
loads, and fracture does not oceur the illBtant the
load is applied but only when the rate of loading
e,-eeeds a certain minimum.
The total energy supplied to the crusher, there-
fore, ::iependll.upoll the rate of load application, which
differs with the type of machine and conditions of
()peration. Table 10 gives values {or the new surface
'produced per unit of energy IlUpplied to the material
being crushed in a laboratory beJ1 mill qperated at
t!le sa.me speed but with varying weights of similar
lILting the crrahing ejftifINUBB for any such opera.-
..
tion. In the ball mill with 178 lb of baLL!, the cruah-
ing effect.iveness is 94/ 243 - 0.387. In this I1WlDer
the performance of variOlls machines, and variatiolll:l
in the sa.me machine, can be compared,
The overall energy eff.)Ctiveness (or efficiency) of a
crusher is always much ICBS than the crushing effec-
tiveness, 88 the latter does not include the mechan-
icall088C8 such 88 friction and inertia, The capacity
of ball mills cannot be accurately calculated because
of the etTeeUi of variablelS &lch 88 the relative grind-
ability of the material and the range in size reduction.
An approximate idea of the capacity and power
requirements of ball mills, both cylindrlcul and
conical, may be gained by reference to Table lL
TABLE II, CAPA 'TY AND POWER REQUIRE-

... ,,-
MENT'... ",F BALL MILLB
balls in the machine whiltl vinding equal weights of.
{Iua.rt&.

TABl,!:: 10.
:~WRt'ACE
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF NEW
ytlODUCED PER UN IT OP ENERGY
.--
........,
- ........ ,. . -.....
-x
.x>
... .. .-.
'.-
.-
....
""'. a_
"' "" "'
~A_
' ~IJ, -.rt4"

'"

~;.,.",
,~ -

FOR QUARTZ x< '.M " " " 1%- 16

. -...
'x<
"
M
c..IcuJat.eJ hy IlUbtnoclinr; ~be energy required to driv(I the 'x< '.- N
~

mill containing ballll but no IlUIterial from tho! total ODe...,. 'x<
.... n
,.
.... .. ......
requi ..... 1 to drive the operating mill for the same le~b of OX> ~

time. .X>
:X I
II,,*,
I!,CIIO


." ~
,. ~
,.
'" ,
...
Total Wei&ht
oi ;:~:: :n IX 12 N." ... m
.Ball Mill, Ib sq in./ft-Ib eq c.m/ ft--lb IIQ. emJkc-4'.ID
36
71
5.'
10.1
36

'"
2.'
4.6
ox.
'x<
OX<
21,10,

".-
7~ ,OOO

D

" "
'"...
"00 . ....
...'" ......
110-1_

1<2
17.
'"
12.7
14.6
12.1
62
94
7S
5.'
6.'
5.' I X" ......
,....

~M"
,

~

,."" "
I X~;

,. . ..,...
Drop ""flight

............. ....."
x>
"
.. "
m
~""'" 37 .6 17 .00

,
OX>
The new surface proo.uced per unit of energy sup-
plied to the material. being crushed in 8. ball mill is
much less thall for the drop weight cfUllher. Thill
OX>
ox.
ox.
12X O
....
110.000


"
"
.. .. .
,..,oo
'''' ,~ '" ,n.

~
,~

may be explained by the high percentage of ineffec-

tive blows and other 1088CS in the ball miD. The
important practical point is the variation in effec-
tivenel!lS of Bille reduction wit..h the total weight of
blllis charged, showing a maximum value at a.bout
175 Ib of balls in this particular mill.
VS.hles of the Rittinger number as determined ill
the drop weight crusher rep~nt maximum effe<'-
tivene88 in sile .reduction anu roay lie used in culc:lI-
IlI u.t,.tive E.J.ample, A ball mill operating in clOl'lld
cireui!. witb a 1(n.IIlf;f!h ""rocn glVt'lll the IICreen ana!yl!C8
!rio.... The ratio of the oYcrsUe to the un<":rsi:u: (prod!...:!.)
IIt rt!llm i>< ; .0"10<> ..' hen 200 1.088 of gak-na. I.I'C handlutJ pet da,.
Tb" bltH mill N<luires !5.0 bp when runnint; empty (with
till) hIIH~ hut .... ithout pklna} lind 20.0 hi) when ,Jeliverilll:
200 t<>flll per o..y of galena. Find:
I. 1'00 <.ftectivcm_ fIr "ru..hirll! u...~ un drop 'II'eigM
cru~hinJ( :lH 1.00.
2. TI~ ovu!ll.ll .. )\ergy ~.ffi,,"'oey,
.... SI ZE REDUCTION OF SOUDS
:.. T~ d",...jfyinc IlCree:I t'ffecli'ft~ Etl'eef,ive._ 01 elMeifying eereeo

Ovel'!ize Ulldel1lir.e %"v, - %.11) [ (I - %I')():' - %11')

Mill from from - ",(%,. _ J:.II) 1 - (I _ J:1')(:t1' _ J:A'l

Mesh
Food, feroon,
wei&ht % v.eiiht % ....eight %
,,~~
M_inMlII
Produel ])ot.
~ ..
Dlltribu
4 + 6 1.0 0 0 Calculated SiN D;"tribotion 100 Ib 01 Ii<)n.
Oy.roI.., M_
6 + 8 1.2 0 0
M~
~

M 0 ............. %"
8 +
10 +
+
"
14
2. 3
3.'
0
0
0
0 ..... % ;n
(ho""; ..
% in

,
Undenoi ..
(Und<roI ..;
1.o1O!>\. lb
''''~
M lU

,,,...
14 20 7.1 0 0 - 'nI + U 18.87 la .~1
'.m
20 + 211 15.4 0 0 -85+48 M." '2 .011 18 .(10
18 .5 13.67 -" + 0.5 27. 12 27 .1 2 14 .cr:
28+" 0 - r,.; + 100 20.70 ~.M 11 .112
"+48 17 .2 32.09 0 - 100 +1l1li ' .M If. I!! I1 .U '.m
48
f!.6
+ tI5
+100
15 .6
10 .4
Tl . 12
20 .70
0
2.~
- 150 + 200
-'" ,' .m 13.M
0.02
It. n
M .M
" ...
' .Q
- 100 +100 0.' .4 . 3.~ 14 . 12
100 .00 100.00 1113.13 100.00
- 160 +200 1.3 2 .07 13.54
- 200 0 0 70.02 M&SII %in mill product ,
- MIWJ % undeni ...
100.00 l00 .OCr 100.00 ~1II.911 % OV~i";ze + 1.0705
H13.33
Snlution.
Tht; distribution of material I!IIllIl1er thM 200 metlh in mill
lOO-mesh w'''ne ween product from an ext... pola.t ion 00 II. plot of
M'M produet Joe (n)UII retained, per oeD') \.!I'Ilq los (DoYa )
Bell mil
ill given be low.
200 tans/
A..,... M~ ,11:1\1J1

Analy .. III. The Rittinger number meuu~s the minimum

elle rr.y required to form new BUrfRce. If the new BIlrfaC6
nwu...,
(D ov.) ,
microlll!
63
Product
% in
?flU

6.98
%i.n
Under-
,;"
-14.46 1. 65
-
D
0.378
eree.ted per unit time is ca.leulated, then the minimum ell(!~a:Y '.00 0.'"
re<!wred for the formation CRn be CRleulRted. "
:J1.8 ' .00
12.22
10.34
1. 60
1.03 O.4{17
In nrder to evaluate the new surf&OC of the product, the
minUII 2OI:MneI!h fl'llclions may be evaJmkd by the !!tl1light-
22 .'
15.9
4.24
3. 58
8.78
7 .41
I."
1.45
O.Ss.5
0.676
line plot. 8I.Ieb u Fig. 15. This method ill valk1 only foc the 11 .2 3 .03 6.28 1.42 0.""
pI'O(!uel. 0( 1\ -r-hanical enJllbina: device a nd not for the 7." 2." ' .58 lAO 0.""
ebuJlliliod product. There'ore the ajq distri but ion of the ' .59 2. 19 4 . 54 1.375 1. 117
mill product m ....t be computed and extrapolated lor the 3.84 0." 0 .41 1.35 0. 144
DlI\$IJ fractions retained beIo.. 200 mesh. Tile sum of t hei!e
fractiorla mUlllt!!-qual the minW! 200-rneosh fraction.
33 ." 70 .025.611 - L . -
~ m.
The fraetiorlll of mill plt.'duct below 200 meeh...-e then C:>n- D.n
wrted to f"'eli.oM of the undersize stream . The surfaeee SutfMee arcl!. fot this fraction of the undenize IItre&m
of the fl'Mtiollll~ calc,u1ated either from thfl actual specific
turface_ in Fig. 16 or from the I'Illatlollllhlp (p. 22): .5.611X1Q4X6 4 '2150 '/7002
- ---
7 .'-3-- " ~' aq em IilI"lUlll!
6 n;m,
Total. IIWfIlCl,! .. - L - - M_ SpociIi, ",.w
,.
.. is evahuted from the data of Fig. 17.
(Dn.)1
"""'.
Mel!h
% .0 Surface, SurflC&;
1)nOOfllUe S<i cm/ grnm oq=
- 55 +100 2.32 85 .8 109 . 1
Theoretical eft'cc:t;VCOO$ll of Oal l mill
- 100 + 150 14 . 12 115 .4 1,629.4
Minimum pow "" required to _a~ ...." . eurf_ - 150 +200 13 .M 155 . 1 2 , 100.0
Power in,-,reaeo due to t. hll./'KI!
- 200 70.02 4.5 ,250.0

~ver&ll "nerBY etlecti.,enes!! c.f ball mill 100 .00 ~9 , ISO tq em lJUrfaoe
are_f lOO
M : nimum energy I'Ilqui red to o~ate new surbJe gramlll of
Trw (loorlD' used Undnrlllizlll
 PROBLEMS
FEF..!) SURFACE CALCULATIONS PROBLEMS

,,_ _Ii< Actual

SUrl'_. 1. A ahort..bead anne' crusher is availabt6 for eruahin 2 tont
,,~ .

M""
% in
F""
Swf_,
lit! em/ gam ...
eq em / IOO
~
of pyrites pel' hom. On limilsr materia.la, ~he o~rall eoerJY
j,'fficicooy h!UI t-n found to ~ 3. 1 ~ per etIl'It.. 11w! raw feed
is to be ~ by a j&w oruaber, . hoE,product. ~
, + I.'
+ 7.' 7.' the feed to t.be CODe cr\III!hu. ~ oone cruaher opera'" in
- " ..
11.9
h + I'
1.2
2.3

12.S
eloaed circuit with a 14-me8li IICI'8eIl. 11le cone auaber ;
prOOud and n.eyclo IItream aDair- ""' gi~n heklw. OD.
10 +
14 3.' 16.4 67.4
:.M bMia of calcula\ions and of &D1 8IIISUDlPWJona wbieh :roo.
14 + 20 7.1 21.1 149 .8
lI13y find JJOOeIR.Ij', /!elect _ ~~",Je elUIlher ,hAt will
-20 +28
-28+SS
IS.4
18,6
26 .'
35.7 .,..,
U4 .6
do too job.
TIle surface ratio (n) IDII.)' be OOfUIIdered to be 6..6 oLbo'ftl
-35+48 17 .2 0(7 . 2 811. 8
3 mesh. The full 'oad ene'1O' nKluiremellt for the ~
-48+65 IS.6 63.' 082.' oone CfUflber ill 5 hp. The r ..cycle MI';'" (n.,<:yc)P, stream/prod-
- 65 +t OO
- 100 +150
10 .4 ''-8
116.4
892.3
750.1
Ue\. stroam) ill 1.
'.5
-ll!O + 200 1. 3 166.1 201.6 Prod.", Reeyele Stream
Mesh Mai.! % Mesh M.,. %
4,968.8aq em ~tal
-14 + 20 29.8 - 3 + 4 3.8
surfaoo/IOO
- 20 + 28 30.2 - 4 + 6 10.0
.N_ lIlIriaee treAted _ (49,180 - 4968)
&n1Illl of feed
-28 + 35 26 .0 - 6 + 8 19.6
-35 + 48 9.6 - 8 +1 0 26.0
.. ,212eqem/ 100cram- offeed -48 + 65 S.H -10 +14 36.6
-65 +100 1.6 - 14 +20 4 .6
. . (44,212)(0072)(200)
100.0 100 .0
'l'!lore?cal eft'eetive_ .. (6.462)(1.98)(1()i)(24)(201.5)(5)

.. 1.266 hp ... 263

6 hp . 2. A. b&l1 mill, ope ... t~ in a clnIIP.d circuit ....ith a claMifier.
_ ill 1.I.'II'ld to grind a.lcite after it haa b.d preliminary en&I!hinc
Ovenll1 euetl.)' effeetin-neea .. . ""
2il .. 0.0633 in j_w auslienr. 8cnleo. aoalyaee d the ~ ~ ~
giren below. '
The bolD miD feed (2S ton.I/ hr) ill estimated to - bolYe a
SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS CAlCULATIONS 8pl'ci6c swf'_ of m eq ~m/gam. When the baD mill iii
opented .ith a rceyde of 76 tona/bt. 75 n .. aPe required to
~I' .. I - 0.02a2 .. 0.9768 d rive the bRII miD. Determine the eIlicieney 01. tbe baD null

."",
%, .. 0.0907 + 0 .0762 + O.33lJ) .. 0.1i049
...1 Reeycle; " . Produ...-t,

Scn"'lD
~JI .. 0.0642

effOC'tivcneM
Mill

mll88
...... .,..,...,
' Cla8lifw a...m.,

% mMI%
.
-%
[
1 _ (0.0232)(0.4407) ] _ 0.914
(0.41l51)(0.9126)
Tyler Screen MetIb
0.525 in. - 0 . 371 in.
0.371 in. - 3_h
~l.ained

' .7
20.1
PetAined

'6:3
""'"""
3m.... + 4meah 17 .9 7 .
'BtBLIOCRAPHY
6
+ 6
+
12, 1
'.6
'.2
'.3

1.
I. C\tJl)II'f, A. M., Print;il'lu 0/ MiM;r(d DnMin(J. MeGraw- +10 5.5 3.0
Hill Book Co. (1939).
2. GftOlIft, JOHN, "Crushing and Grindina:;," fl. S. Bwr. M inn
B"U.402 (1938). ContailUl oompiet" hibli"llTllphy. -20
.. + "
+ 20
+28
. .7
2 .7

,.
3.'
16 ."

...
! f! :g
20.7
.,
.
3. RtCH.UID8, R. H., and C. E. Locu, Ta;ibooI< '" ON: Drus- -28 + "
mg, 3m 00., MeGraw- RilI Book Co. (1931l).
4. VON RrrI'lNOEH, P. R., Llr.rbovA "" A ,ifbnllit"ngd:ImM,
- 35
-
+ IS
+ ., I.'
2.'
2 .'
I.<
i';. 7
19.3
Berlin (1867).
S. T.l.OOAIn'. A. F .. HandbooI: oJ MiMrtJJ l>raWIg, John -"
- 100
+ 100
+150
\..1
1.7
1.2

13. 7
11. 7
Wiley and 80M (1946). - 150 +200 1. 5 9.S.
'.6
6. DAVIa, E. W., "8&\1 Mill CTUihinc in CIoIIrd Circu it .nth -200 3.0 . :lR.1i
' .5
Screeru.,' BwU. U...,. &i...... ta, No. ~ (IDU).! BoJL 10,
&ItooJ. of It/i>ul Bq. && Tot_ 100.0 10&:0 !OO.O
.. SIZE RJo.:DUCfION OF SOLIDS
3. A Clement plAnt ia pind.in 10 toM/hr of a bani rock S. QuMta: from the mll)ll jllelI t oyer a piuly with &.ilL
(8pecifie pvity, 3.8) in a h~ disk pinder operatin3; 8pa.cinJ and then to a B"ke at.ndard ;'W' C!'Ullher with
in a cIoIed circuit with .. 6S-rnesh ICteeD. Re&uIar cbecb a 4O-i.1L by 42-in. foed openlnJ and a ~ dilclu.rgc eettin&-
upon the poIIeibi.1ity 01 o~ part)elel ~ throurh the The ertI$her operatel!l at 190 rpm and IwKIb 130 tonB/hr of
ICftJefI .bow that all material in tbe unden:ile Itream from feed. Screen ~ of t)lo felld and product are liven
the _ 0 win ~ throuah .. ~meeh IIereI!JI,. beloW'.
Drop weicht laboratory te8tI upon tbe ~l.erial beiq (a ) What arc the thooreti~ po'A'er rcquiremenla.?
t:nIIbed IDdieal(! thac. the abeotption of I ft.-lb of _.tID' will (b) What me motor reoommentled? Why?
ftft1It in eruti<ln of 110 8q em of new 1IW'f_ and that the (In the &i.e ranv- iooita t.ed the a veJ'lllll SUrfllW ratio may
8pI!cifie lIW'faoe r.tiOll are ideut.ical lrith tbolle of Iphalerite. he &!IIR1IDIld to he 8.0)
(0) If the enel'l)' elfideney of the ,"oder is 18 per oent
.m tbe knotll'n 8trtamll ha:e the ana.iyeell PftD belo.... wh3.t F"'" M_
ln.oo.I~t
M_
ill the bo~r required by the IJinder! I'rne- 8cl't'f'n F_
S':nJCn
(&0) What ill the eft'ecli nl_ 01 the IIIlrnen!

Raw Diechlll'F (>vtonR:se

AJI",1;uro, in .
- 34 +2tI .6
tion
0 . 181 -. Aperture. iu.
+4.23
tion
O.I~

,- -
"eud to from from -28. 1> +2-1 .0 0.343 - 4 , 2,3 H OO o.m
Grinder, Grimier, -24.0 +20.3 0.220 -2.00 + 2.11 0 . 167
-20.3 +J7.0 0.165 - 2 . 11 +1.49 O.IOS
M~h lraetion f raIltioli - 17 .0 +14 .3 0.064 -1. 49 +t.~ 0.008
-14' .3 +12 .0 0 .037 -1.0.5 + 0.81 O .~ I
3+ 0 .0.\
- 0 .81 +0.67 0 .04<>
+ 6 0. 10
- 0 . 57 +0.403 0.039
0.20
- : ~ I~ 0.30 -0.403 + 0.28.5 0.0:33
- 10 + 14- 0.20 0.04 0.05 - 0 .28.5
-0.201
+ 0 .201
+0 . 142
0.028.
0.025
14 + 20 0 . \0 0.08 0.10
-0. 142 +0 . 100 0.023
-20 + 28 0." 0 . 16 0.20
- 28+35 0 .2< 0.30 -0. 100 + 0 .0707 0 .0 18
- 36+48 0 . 17 0. _ -0 .0707 +0 .0500 0.016
- 48 + M 0.10 0.0075 - 0 . 0600 +0 .0353 0.010
- 66 +100 0.08 0." 6. In an a~tempt t.o eyaluate the efficiency of a 24-in. by
-100+1&1 0.'" Il)..in. Blake jaw c~r. a \let of eo&I'IiIOJ analytical _ , .
- 150 +200 0.04 ..-...s oonst-ructed from welded atee! roda. The 8landa.rd
- 200 +270 0.02 Tyler v'2 relt.t.ionahlp between acreen apert.uma Wall main-
- 27'0 +fOO 0 .01 ~ in UliB ~ of I&rp_,..
Ca..\cite WM fed t.o the e~r at the rw.te or
60 tonafhr.
4.. A feed of 1&1 toni/ day of pyri lell moo be l)OlllIUi.nuted The di8charge !leltint; of the jall'l W'M 6 in. The CI'Ulher ....
hom the rnatuialsiKe pven below .. feed (the product front .. driven by .. 35-bp motor. ije~n uaI,,- of the feed and
aontrollin _ 0) to tbe me ranp pY'eD helow .. product the product r.re liven in the tt.ble below.
(the feed lo .. reduetion pr.-). A ball min is to be Il!!ed. (0) Calculate efficiency of the cruaher, ...urninl the motor
II. will be 1o.ded with ballII to operate at .. erushi"l declive- ,,'M opcllltinl at an averap of U ila. rw.~inJ.
~ of about 32 per cent., tb) HOOI' many toN per hour of p}ena ouuld be fed to tn.1
(a) What IIisc cylindrical mill Ihoukl be ee\t!eled1 CTUllber and reduood over the same aill) I'llJlIC with tbo flame
(b) What llise motor will be needed to drive it? IlOwer?
(el What ill the overall ene-iY efficiency! (c) wtw.t it! tho capacity MCQrtliug w Taggart'! ronnul&?

M~h

3 +
Feed, JT\&I!IIII
fraction
0 .036
Product,
fraction
III&III

Aperture of - -
Fool,

fraction
Product,

fraction
Spedfic SurfIlCC
Ratio ..
Averap Diam
rOl'

-"
+ 8 Scn:.en, M eter of Mate-
8 + 8
0 . 111'2
in. '" rial on Screen
~-"
0.""
8 + 10 0.284 0 .010 22.S 0.0 0.0
10 + 14 0.123 0 .072 16 .71) 0 . 11i o.n 10 .0
14+20 0 . 228 II .11.... O . a.~ 0 .0 ' .7
- 20 + 28 0 .29.\ 8 . 40 0 ." 0 .0 !I."
- 28+35 0 . 170 '.03 0.15 0.0 !I.O
-35+~ 0 ."'" ' .20 0 . 10 0.05 8 .S
- 48 + ~ 0.072 2.1/7 0.0 0.20 8.0
- 6.'i + 100 0 .04<l 2.10 0.0 0 . 46 7 .2
-100 +1&0 0 .000 1.48 0.0 0." S .S
- I~ +D) 0 .002 1.05 0.0 0." 8.2
 PROBU:MS
7. A grinder .. to be tilled to ..n- ...il.kleooo! oce 01 the
lood abe !lho\Ion below. I.aborat.ory t.elta: 01:1 IIbnil&r equip-
IDtIIlt indicalAl ~ba~ the product I!izc IIwn beki ,....m be sati8-
l..etory, and that the &rindcr b apprmlimate1y 8 per cent
efficient in oon'ftrtin inpUt enerxY into Bir.e .. ~fnctton III!
evidenced by an incn'aae in '''.Hfare.
I t is eet imatoo t hat . enJllher to handle 10 ~h(l~t tons/ht
will ()()lIt "boot t4OOO. If the crueher (lperlliel! (In /I. 24-hr
bMis for 300 dJt.Y!i!yr, it is estimated that main/.(:mmt~' 0061.11,
willreeult in the (RAtion 0( 110 IIq em of new surfaae. on-
teo!b al80 indica.te ;h&t. the surf~ area ~lioB for the cnakrial
are identical ..;tb t holle 0( sphalerite.
If the eoorcY effiti.-;ney 01 U>e grindN is 18 ,oet oenl and the
kn,,"n 5trelI.~ have the anal)f1'C'8 given below, ... hat ill ti)Q
hOnICp<>wer roquin..'d by the winder? What. ill ttlO ctl't'CtiVQ-
IICI'O! uf the ocrocn?
n..w Di.w:h/l.rlC Ovcnsl"O

- -
fo'ood to from {"nn
o~rhead, -.nd ordinaryn>pi800IlYmt 008t.8 wUl be ",bout 50 per Grinder, Grinder, Screen,
cent of pnwer ()()lltI!. F,J.erlric po....er rostI! 2 or.n11l/kwhr.
If this rua.ch ine depreciatee on a ~traiKht.-li<le 1>IUIie lind its MMh lradi<lfl { tACtic'lt f raction
lire is ee~ima.tOO d 10 yr, ~.hu.t is the p ~nlt r.(V!t per ton
or ore? + 0.10
, + 0 .20
........I.m:""" 1'",,1\1"1, mlU!6 + 0 .<0
Ty k,. .\It"'" I.... <:ti<lf. fr:u:liQn 8 + to 0 .20
Ii + 8 0. 143 10 -+ 14 0.10 0.'" 0.03
fI + lU 0.211 14 + 20 0." 0 .06
10 + 14 0.2JO "'+28 0.00 0.09
l4.+20 0.186 0 .008 28+" 0.25 0.35
20+28
28+35 1'
0 . 120
0 .016
0.'"
0.277
"+,,
48+65
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.08
ar. + 48 0.034 O. J4!l 6.5 +100 0 .06 0.05
48 + 65 0 .101 - 100 +150 0 ." 0."
65 +100 0.068 -160 +200 0.03
- 100 + 150 0 .044
- 150 +200 O.02'.t 10. QuaTU IOC'8 IhmICh b-o IIUCCCIIIiVII g illooll orr tbe
IMII'" oshaIt which dnt.wI a total 0( 20 hp. Tbu feed averace-
8. A roll crui her is to be IlIICd to crush nlL'<lium hanl q uartz :I in. in diamuter and ..... allllriaoc I1I.tio n of 10. Tbt. criOOe ...
(specific gravity, 2.65). TIle produet from the crutShec iII"", running tmpty require 2 hp. Their capacity is 3 \o../ b.r.
be 1M tc. a number of rod mill~ (6 ft by 12 ft) itJ. lh" rate 0( T he analyBel of their produeta aro &:lYen below.
8 toNl / hr to each mill. The power DClfl8Umption 01 each I"Od (II) Calculate tho bonIepower UIled In eaeh grinder.
mm Ja 160 hp. with &n overall e!".erg,Y cl'fectiv~lIe"" ur efficieucy (~) Cak'UI~te the effiMeucy of the ,;rindetll if Rittirlier'R
of 2.0 per !lent. number (new IJUrf8.Ol) produced por unit of ~nergy) it 37.6
The 'rod milbt oPCl'lLtt, in p,m".,J cir~uit with /I. 4S-mcsh IIQ lll./ft-.lb.
IICrnI.!n. 'I'hI:I ratio of recyd.., to po:xluct iII l : l .
Primary Grinder
If the IlUrfaoe ratio n for quartz iIiI to for all sizeII .boYe
3 meth, determine the 'leUing (distance bet"''()Cn the J"Oi\s) MeIlh %
in the -ro1l CJUIIher. - 4+ 8 20
- 8 + 14 30
C\Msit;er Product ~d" 1$1'-"1 - 14 +2R ao
~I - M_ - 28 + 48 15

~
M'+" 48 Fnw:tioll
0.05
1\1ceh
-20 +28
Jo'ract.ioI!.
0.05
- 48 +100 .5

J.'inal Grinder
~8 + 56 0."' - 28 +~ 0.10
M +100 0.10 - 35+48 0.80 "~h %
- 100 +150 0.05 - 48 +66 0.05 -28 + 48 10
- <8 +[00 20
O. Jo'ivo toM of hard rock (~ptlCifie Jl'l\v\ly, 3.8) are foo - [00 T200 00
.. very ""'.... r (,<, 8. rone crusher ill el.....'<l circui t .... ith a ~g.lllI:tIh -200 n~h + 0.001 in. 30
...._rnP.Il. Refllw ~.oo.,k>t upon the JlO"'I'ibili~y "I over:.iw
puI,i~'" r--ing through I.br. >Ir.n!fln I<hQw ~hll' ... 1 mllk-n..]
- 0.001 ill. + O.CJK13 in. 10

in the untkl'l!izI> .stream -fr"m It... II<:M!n will 1_ lhroudl II

28-0_ eereen.
DtOfJ we icht laboratory I.e8l& upon tbe malerW. being
cn.lShed indic.\.e that Ulll IlblJorptioo 0( I fWb of e~'1D"
..
Meded to run tbe min e!DPCoY.
SIZE REDUCTIoN OF SOUDS
FoIlowini: is .. .be &I'Ialysill Wb~ is iJwI-.:y ~ per boar if h _ feed
fA ~ feed and pnXIuc\.
,.... Product..
rate (10 ton./hr) is '*'" ill tbe cbed cUcuitP
M~h -% -% , 12. The double-roll tootbtod cru.her of a ooaI OOJpOntion
yi~ld~ .. product of the indlrllllPd """"fm IlnalyHill .... hen I'lI'\IIIh-
Jiin. + ~ in. 25.0, 7.2 i", 239 toll8/hr Wlilll 38 np.
~in. + 3 27.3 '. 1 {oj If the 1IW'f&lle ratio " .. g:, .bat ill Rittin~', numbo'r
3 + 8 19.2 '.2 (or 1bit pari.ieulu intt.a.IIationf
+ '" 19.6 ' .1
8 (II) From lhit cakulatioa and an)' data. you c.D find in
- 20 +48 8.' 7 .' the handboob, "bat is your eooellll!ion M to the efficiene)'
- 48 +65 7 .1 2.7 of this cruaher1
8.2
.........
- M +100 7.3
-100 +200
- 200 mesh + 0.001 in.
21.9
67 .8
1.9
1.6 ''''.
-%
+2~in. 16 .88
A eloeed cirouil lI)'l1ten\ ill atIpeIIted all .. me&I'IB of l1\ducirIJI:
po..-er _ts. A IlIho~lory test. indica~ the fnllowinl; 2H X2 " .62
""'-lUI. muk' be ob1ained with .. c" ~ circui~ unit using lhe 2 X 1M 10 .82
abol'e feed and !!CreeDi", t.be cn- produet. 011. .. 48-moIsh IM XHi IUO 0.311
_ ( I n ..hr_I.341 hp.hr), Hi X I}( 11.12 ::.24
,-,
M... -
F"",,.

% -
0-
tile.

%
,-
{Tuder-
IlUe,

%
Hi X

1 X '"
Mx~
1 6.77
1.76
1.44
1.04
:'.10
16 .~
18.84
21 . 14
-
-
8
+ 8
+'"
.. .1
13.2
' .1
.29.3
!" "
"Xl<
Jl.
0 . 42
0 . 21
8.02
' .43

-
)( X
-00 +48 L4..1 31.4 Nothlnc M.xO 1.13 14 . 10
-48 +OS 20.2 23.'
-OS . . 00 24.3 6.' 1.... J{. X tI mesh 2.83
-"100
-DJ meah.
+:100
+ O.OCH In.
16.2
7.9
48 ....

11 eleetrieit:J ..... I Cltnt/ b.hr. no.,' mud! iu po1i"eI" IOItII

' 6 X8
Ij X It
)4, X 28
....
2.42

2.09
ooald be - - ' per)'eV t,y .. rlo8ed cim&it. if f80 t.c.. fA pmd 28X48 1.28
eli.D.br ... poo.!'.oed cIail:r. 365 da,. .. yeKf 48Xn 2.18
 CHAPTER

Handling of Solids

ANDLING of material!! deals with their 0.03. Loading uno unloading time varies greutly

H movement !Qver retati\'ciy short distances

such at:J from cargo ship and freight car to
storage, from plant to plant, or from one piece of
with the material being handled but runs approxi-
mately Yi to 1 min/ II)O lb of material. For distances
greater than about 200 ft, power tl'ucks or tractol'-
- apparatus to another, as distinct from the transporta,.- drawn trucks are more efficient.
tion of materials cJter relatively long distances such To lift loads weighing more than 100 t.o 150 lb,
- as .by ship, rail, or motor transport. various mechanical devices are employed to amplify
U~ted manpower involving shoveling, push- the force exerted by the workman. All these d.vil'Cli,
ing, carrying, and lifting is recommended for moving such as chain falls, pulley blocks, hand-power hoists,
solKl materials short distances, uSUEuly not exceed~ and jacks, are based on the lever principle. For ex-
10 ft, and '()Diy when the qusntity does not exceed ample, in raising a I-ton load by means of a chain
4 or 5 Wns. In exceptional C88e8, 88 in an t!Jllergency fall , a man would pull about 50 Ib and wouid pass
OF when the operation is not repetitive, larger quan- about 100 ft of chain through his han<b per minute,
tities may be 80 moved. elevating tbe load about 2 rpm (80% eff.).
Under normal conditions a man can do work at llle rates given apply to conHnuous work. It is
the rate of about 1500 to 3000 ft-Ibj min; for example, possib1c to double or triple the rate at work1or short
an average 150-lb man can lift 20 lb on the end of a intervals if they are followed by a rest period oJ.
shovel a distance of 5' ft within a radius of 5 (t at an equivalent Length.
average continuous r&t.e of 15 strokes per minute.
The handling rate varies considerably with indi-
vidul!.b, with the nature of the materia.l being han-
PORTABLE PQWERl)RIVEN MACHINES
dled, and with the method of handling, but it always Electric-~t.ora!1c-OO llery trucks are available in var-
decreases rapidly when the material must be lifted ious capacitics, the most (ommon being the 2-ton
higher than 3 to 5 ft 'or moved a distance greater than truck wit.h a speed of about 4 to 0 mph. The
5 to 10 ft . Lifting of more t han 100 to 150 lb per general-purpose trurk (Fig. 46) has a fixed platform
man should be avoided as it may result in a strain on which t ll"e load is carried. The lift-platform truck
or rupture. ill a similar unit wit.h a platform t.hat is elevated by
Al$ri,W ~ with wheelbarrows, two-wheeled power. It is used primarily for handling material on
hand trueks, four-wheeled floor trucks, or carts is skids. Special'types of trul'kl:l mu.y be obtained, such
recommended when the radius of WOl'k is increasoo to as the crane truck, dump body truck, tiering ur high-
100 to :l)O ft. Dependin on the device, 8lI average lift trucks. Elect.ric t.rucks will r'un about 8 hr with-
man can move 200 to 1000 Ib 8oC1'08S a horaontal sur- out recharging or battery 8ul>stitutjc)f}. Ample cha.rg-
faoe at the average rate of J~ mpb, or 130 rpm, ex- , ing facilities and battery storage must be provKled.

..
cluding loading. unloading, and return. The rolling GMOline-pouw.red indrl./riDl trmh are similar 10
eoeffieierat of friction usually will be about 0.02 to the electri~ truckS! but. have speeds up to 15 mph .
50 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
Fill. 46. F:I~ttie-AtOl1tlCl!-battery j,rur.k, ti~wl'h.trorrn type.
(1',,/.0 ,uld T _ MIg. Co.)
In general, l,he gasoline trucks ure better adapted
for longer hauls OUldoora, whereas the electric trucks
are ideal for silorl hUllls indoors.
Truiicr& are frequently used in conjunction with
industr(u.l trucks. The larger trailcl'S tuoe generally
drawn by tractors. Rubber-tired traetors are em-
ployed for hauling across relatively smooth and
paved surfaces, whereas tractors with caterpillar
treads arc used over rough t~rra.in. J n rough ter-
min I!kids often replace trailers.
'rraclor$, which in themselves carry no load but
draw truii<'r8 or m al~iul on 8kids, are extremt'ly
valua ble gcneral-plIrJ)IJtIe muchincg nnd are livtl.ihlble
in Il large runge of l!.iros.
Pawer 8ho~'('18 are widely used for h!lJldling large
quantities of solid materials with portable equip-
ment. Open-pit mining. excavation, nnrl the hlUl-
dUng of open-air stumKC pilCll are examples. Steam
shovcl1:l am economical to oppratp, but, becauSf' 0;," the
e.'I(tra man hour~ requiN!d to get, \ IP ~tcam and ot.her
disadvantages of the tx,i icr, til", gllSOline and diesel
power shovels ha\'e gllined great favor. Electric
shovels ure uften uSl'<i where ample pleetric power i~
uvuiluule. Puwer shuvels opel'at A 011 a tumtll.b!e
and have a boom which may be mi:iCd or lowered.
The materinl to be handled is pkked up by a thru1:It
or drag motion, elevated with the boom, and rotated
to the point of discharge by the turntable. DillChargt-
 PERMANF..NT (NSTAI.LATIONS FOR HANDLING SOLJDS 51
is by gravity and occurs when the scoop is inverted The angle oj 8lUk is the angle of minimum sJope
or a gate at the back of the scoop is opened. Power measured r....m the horiaoota.l at which any looee
~hovels are generally u~ in conjunction with com- solid material will flow. The angle of TtpOIt ia the
mercial dump tnlcks but are often employed to load angie of mlUimujll slope mes.sured from !.he hon-
}'ailroad Un! directly. The flewer shovels have cater- :r.ont.a.1 at which a heap of loose solid material will
IIi1l0.r t ..etti.L:I and cun be movtiti frum place to pla<.'e stand without &diding. approximately 17 degrees for
untie!" their own power. Power shovels are expensive wet clay earth, 27 degrees for anthracite coal. 31
nnd fCquire skilled operatore. Their purchase is degrees for fine sand, 35 degrees for bit.uminous cOal,
warranted only when large quantities of bulk mate- 39 degrees for dry earth, and 39 to 48 degreet!l fOl'
rials are being handled at changing locations. A gravel.
10ClLi contractor can often supply thib equipment for Vibrators m.a.y be ul!ed to keep gravity .didos free
Mort perioo>:l IIr will (.'1mtrnct to move a lluantity of by giving the slide a vibration in Ule ~ireet.iOll Of
material. How. The most common type is the magnetic v ...
Oanity or I;rKlge cranes ("'ig. 47) are often IUICd brator, operating on alternating current with lhf!
for IOLU.ling and unlOH.ding rll.ilrotW C8.T>:l or ships. wme frequency of vibration as thecurrcot frequency.
'l'h{J!;fl machines oonsil>t of two support.ing towe~ The di8placement of the slide is small, U$u~lly les!i
with a bridge between. A trolley moves back and than 78 in., but th~ frequency of vibration keeps the
forth across the bridge; the entire crane is on wheels slide in motion relative to the solid material because
und CUll be moved along a track. The trolley hWJ a of the inertia of the solid.
grab lJucket or lift. This type of equipment i>:l widely If a heavy spring is employed with the magnetic
ul!ed in the Great Lakes area for htuldling are and vibrator, the forces o! the spring and magnet become
;oal. Electrical drive i8 the general practice. A a.dditive in one dircdion and opposite in the other
skilled operator is required who generally ridel! in a dir"Ct:tiofi, caumg a slower mot ion of the slide in
cab on one of the Lowers. In the larger and newer the direction of the s.maUer force or accelerutlOn.
tlC!ligns the operator's cab il, placed j. the trolley. The material on the slide tellds to ride with it in
tile directioll of slower movement. With this aT:
rangement, gra.vity may be overcome and a solid
PERMANENT INSTALLATIONS FOR
material m.9.Y be conveyed up an incline (Fig. 48).
HANDLING SOLIDS
MaU!riai that lli being moved from one fixoo loca-
tion to another fixed location continuowdy or at
frequent inU!rvals usually can be more economically
handled by some type of pem18nent installation.
\vh"'n. the material must pass through .II. aeries of
operations, gravity feed can ofU!n be used to advan-
tage, the raw material being bmtlght to the top of
the building or structure by a conveyor or elevator
and passing downward, operation by operation, until
removed tiS product at the bottom. In idea.: situa-
tions the cnly power requirement is for the original FIG. 4.8. Di ll./i:r~mmati.c ropreaent.....t.ion of magnetic 't'ibrator \
elevation of the raw material. Loose material is f""ding up an innli ..... to right. The spring and eleotrio mal5Jlet
work tOi'-'tho:or to give a flLllt rolum to the left and 110 slower
usually guided by means of a chute or slide. The moVtlm~nt to the right.
dlUteli may be straight or spiral. The angle of the
slide wiLh the horizontal must be suffi cient to over- Vibrators Me oflen used to obtain uniform feed from
come the frictional resistance. The coefficient of a hopper having an adjustable gate at the bottom.
friclio!) varieR with different materinls but is about A great adv.nltige of the electric vibrator is that. it
0 .3 to O.(j for most dry 8'lIKls on steel slides. Mate- obtains motion of the alide without any mechanical
rial often ))eeomf!8 wedged betwoon the sides of the parts requiring IlIbr;1)ation, resulting in low main-
<:illite, crenting additional re8ilSt.a.nce", . ~ that an tenance coslS.
:Ul~ll' of -15 dC'KIl'('S or s\..('f'per is desiralJle for Ole A mecha.ni':/l.1 feedf'r pla<.'Cd inside th~' tank 01
:;lidt'. IWIJvvr is iIIu ~tl'atol'" in Fig. H!. Lumps of material
 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
FHi. 41'1. M ~..,m"iC'l I feeder to vrovide onir"nn I'II le of feedillg
$JIi.b f .....m oo;>pt!r. (.~q.oII ....... AooM.t_ Mf,. Co.)
are uroken by the revol ving conf' IOnd moved at. u
uuiform rule to the discharge opening by the feede r
lingers.
Mec1wrlical CQn 1."ryors
:\techani('al conveyors may move materials by a
scraping action or by IL carrying nc tiou. Another
type of conveyor, the pneumatic, i!:l dCS(:ribcd under
the handling of fluids.
Serapen. Screw or helical flight CC1lt'eyor& (F ig.
50) consist \)f a 8t,1 sh uft. havin" Il spiral or hclieal
fin fli!:ll{med to the shaft and rotating in a trough
without tollching the trough, SO that the helical fin
pushes the material along the trough. The shaft iOl
driven by a motor through gcurs or a chain. The
COl! veyors are made in sections from 8 to 12 ft in
lellgth that may be joined together t.o obtain Ibe
desired length . The tor5ionul ~t.re$6 devdopcci in Lhe
sllUft usually limit<; a single drive to about 100 ft.
Diameten; vary from 3 (,() 24 in.
Screw conveyors are compact, requiring little head-
room and no return mCChWli$.fl\. They urc Ci!o-
nomieal ill original cost and muintcnanee. Thc mate-
rial is also mixoo as it passes through the conveyor.
Thit; i!:l often an advantage. The tendency to crush
friable mate~-jals mayor may not btl an advantage.
IolG. 50. o~ llect ion of 11 screw or helical oonveyor. (Lillk-
BtU Co.)
For handling abrasivc materials, the fin may be
mado oC CMt iron or tipped with a hard metal &.lloy
l:Iueh as mungane!'ie steel. Tile trough may be made
considerably la rger than the fi n so that the material
ruhs on itself rather than on the trough, thereby
reducing wcar on the trough. In selection of the
di ameter of the conveyor, considerat,ion must be
given to thA Si1.e of the lump, as shown in Table 12.
TABLE 12. MAXL\(CM SIZE OF LUMPS FOR
VARlOI Ie; DlAMI:.'TERS OF SCRF-W CO~V.EYOltS
, , ., .
c.... ...~..., dlt.rn_. ;h.
AU
..........
[.urn. . 2U '"
l~ m ... in.
:.u PO' - .1
,, " ," , " '"
" "" "" '". '"
~
, ,
'" '" ,"
.
Screw convpyol'lS are used to handle a wide range
of materials, such as gra.:Jl, asphalt, crushed coal,
ashcs, gravel, lind sand. A special typc, the riubon
conveyor ill which the centcr portiun of the tLclical
nn is ah!lf'ut, is suitable for sticky, gummy liquids,
such as mO!u"'lC'lI, 11I)t. t.ar, and ~ugar.
T Il'': hor.~cpO\\f'[, req\liremcnts of ~crcw conveyors
and of ILl! conveyoN! operating with tl. 1:ICraping a.ction
may be cstimalHl WI the SUOl or thc power to run the
equipment alone, the power to overcome the frictiOD
of the matedu! bcir.g moved, and the power to lift
the m ate rial uny vertical height. For screw con-
veyors t.he hOl"llCpower to run the equipment alone
is essentially thnt required to overcome bel!ring and
The bibl'oKr.. phy for thi s chapter appilQllI on p. 64.
 FLIGHT CONVE\'ORS
TABLE 13. APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM CAPACITIEB
OF HORIWNT AT. SPIRAl, OR SCREW CONVEYOR$I
-
rJIlhl N<III.abrui_ H....,. N...... bno fl .,. ,\brui ...

o; __ ,,"r

or 11<.......
.....
~h<eri&l. ~,E-, ... ~ M.terial,
e .... Coal ,-
101.wloJ.... E-

iD. M.,.i_
M_d oM ...i
CtopKity,
ow IVIt.
mOm
,~,
Ct.p"oity.

-
... II/h, mum
R_
C_p"oity.
.~ II/hr
....
m_

,
...
" ""
= .""" r2.\

"" "" "

..
~

,,
,,
'"
oro
'"
......
,,~

,oro
""
~

''''
,~

175
""
,., .',.,"
2.\~
' 00
' 00
"" .00
00 ... .
'" "
~,

"
,." ,,.. .,"'"
M

'"
""
"
""" ,w '00 '''''
,,'..'""' '''' ...,
'"00
U;oII
~
M

00
.
'"" I ,"", "w
2100
..
" I '"., I "
'''' ""'
'"" '''''' '"
F:!o.61. Flight eon wyl>T wi th flilhta.upported on the trouch.
gear friction IUld is prop!'ftionuly small. For hori~ (LinkRelt Co.)
___ ~ntal movement the total horsepower may be esti~
to 30 degrees. The conveyors are widely ul:lCd for
- - mated ws follows. t
loose material til/lot is Ilonrll)fl\.l~ive, ~uch as grain,
Horsepower food waste, garlmgc, and coal, but Illcy are not !!uit-
able fol' friable al.)rlll; ive material, such lIS clillkers,
(Cocfficient)(Cupncity, Ib/ min)(l.ength, ft) gravcl, or crusl1ro ore.
33,000
flight
where coefficient .. 4.0 for ashes .
., 2.5 for coal.
= 1.3 for grain.

Flight CcrWCyorB cOllsi.;t of one or two end l~ chairu;

passing through a t.rouJZ;h or sct of guides (Fig. 51).
The chain~ have plat.e!! of wood or s~eel called flight..; Fro. 52. SecliOl!al diaKrn.m of two-c hnin rol1r-lJ.Upp<'II.< ~d
attaehed at regular intervals. The fligh t." arc shapt'd flig.ht conveyor.
to fit the trough. The chains pull the Uight8 and the
mster iul along the t rough nnd pass over sprockets at. Capncilips of AiKht conveyol1S may he estimated
the end of the n m, one of the sprockets acting as the from the follow ing formula. ! (80% efT.) .
drive. VariOlls designs are used. Sume flights Re mpe
BDSPb
on the trough bottom (Fig. 5 1). Some with two T- - -
chains support the fiightl! by the chains or wlleB or 0000
whcre T = ton s/ hr.
by arms riding on a guide track (Fig. 52). Qne type
/J = wid tl. or fl ight (in .).
has a pair of rollers 00 each fl ight I\nd a sll1,11;lo eon~
D = depth of flight (in., .
neeting chitin at the cenwr. Either or both the bot
S = s]W'ed of COllyeyor (fpm).
tom and upper run may be used in handling material;
P~ = bulk densit.y of matcrinJ handled (lu/e n
however, it is most common to employ the lower run.
ft ).
Speeds of 100 rpm are common, hut the SI>Cl-d may
"'ary from 25 to 200 fpm . . Thi,. exprc;!jion a pplies t() hori7.0nt.al conveyors
Flight conveyors may be used on inclines up to 45 and t,1 conv(~yuf'll inclined to an Il,nglc not exeet.>dillg
degrees, bu t preferably the incline should be limited the angle of repose for the materiaJ handled.
 HANDUNG O:F SOLIDS
The horsepowe r required to drive flight conve.ror~ OCCIIPY olily a IKlrtion of the entire cfOf5S..!!eetionai
may be estimated : area of Ihe duct. The duct is kept filled or partially
filled with material. The movement of the flights
_":("1') ) -,-
-,,(,,L,-- +~b,,(W
,=),,(L:,).o:
(S::)-,+_1:0::::.L conveys the material in the duet because the friction
hp "" :-
1000
between the particles uf the material is greater than
in which hp - total h Orl:lCpower at conveyor .tIhaft. the friction between the particles and the smooth
T - material handled (torus/hr). walls of the conveyor duc t. It is used primari.ly for
L - length of conveyor from center to hani::Hing finely divided or powdered material &lch
center of sprocket ({9. as fl our, cement, clay, and looae material such as
W .. total weight (lb) of chain and flightll sand, coal, xrain, a.nd brcakflUlt foods. One of its
per (oot of distance bet'o\"eeu r.en~ majllr adVtUlL!Lge8 is its ability to cleval.ti vert.ically
ters (both runs). Ul:lually about (Fig. 5-1) as well lUI to convey horirontally. The
equal to- T _x/ 4. See Table 1M. "lOlled duct may also be, important.
S - speed (rpm). Sial or drag ccmt<efJurB (Fig. 55) consist of one or two
. a _ constant for material (Tabkd4) . cha ins to wbich are attached c~ bars, us ua lly of
b '"" constant for conveyor (Table 14). wood, whicb drlij!; on a flat-IKlttom t.rough. They arc

TABU; 14. POWF.n CONSTANTS FOR niGHT OONYEY0R81

,
o I "'.

~
Inclination with R orir.ontai S W 25 ' 30" 35 40 W

Anth",eite 0.343 0.42 0.60 0 .586 0.66 0.73 0.79 0." 0." 0 . !i45

Bituminous 0.00 0.69 076 0.83 0.88 0.% 1.02 1.08 1. 13 1.15

,.... 0." 0 .62 0 . 12 0." O.. &'.i 0.00 0.97 1.03 1.06 1.10
-
b
1"light.IJ and chain supported on bloelul
... h~h slide di.-ect.ly 011 the lr&ck 0.03 0.03 0.03 0 .029 0.028 0.027 0.026 O.OU ! 0 .023 0.""
Fli,:hta supported by 3J+in. roller\! 0.004 0.004 0 .001 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0 .003 !0 .003 0.003
I

Redhr oorwtyOr3 (Fig. 53) Me a special type of used for conveying loose material such as chi ps, saw~
flight conveyor for dry and iooec material. The dust and refuse.
conveyor (Fig. 53) coosi!d3 of a metal duct which The simplest Conn of t.he drag conveyor is the drag
may be circular, rects.nguiar, or St"jUare, through chain, consisting of simply one or m ore endless cilains

-
which a chain passes carrying f1igbta _ The flights running in a trough, generally of wood.. No flighlll

.... ..... <:000&


or slats Ilre needed, as contact with thf1 c:hain is
8ufficient to move the materiel. They arc primarily
for the handling of aMes and similar material. The
FIG. 54. Phllntom '! .... WIIlR of lteUl~r elcv:t.1Or.
.-trlellvon. Mh- Co.)
depth of material conveyed depends on whether the
ffiaterill.l is tine or lumpy. The capacities when mate-
rial is being carried to a depth of 4 in. at a speed of
30 linear fpm vary from 400 to 800 ell ft of material
per hour for chains of 46 to 54 in. in width. The
capacitieR are directly propurlionni to the spet.'<i, but
~I>CI!ds IIhnutd not ex(:t.'ed 30 (pm for Il.brWliw matt"-
rials.
CARRIERS 5.'
I' ln. 1i.5. Dmg =-onveyor for 1lO! /'ement clinker w.ing cuI .tool
dOl, chili". (r,\Q"~ B,-.u en.)
Carr ien. /lell contocyora, as the name "Suggt'flU,
~onsist of endless belts, suitably Kupported and
drivfm, which carry or transport wl ids from place
to place. Belts are made of canvas, reinforced rubber
or balata, l\.Ild strip steel. Strip stt':('1 is abo em-
ployed for cOllveying mal,erials through furnaces.
Belt conveyors are adapted to wide varieti!5 ami
quantititll! <)f material!>, require relatively low power,
and can tralUlport solids for long distances. The
initia.l costs an; usually higher than for other tYI*S
of conveyors, but thi~ is IIOt the decidin~ farlo!' in
practiCe.
(Sl~
FIG. 56. ~ed belt conveyor. ((.'ilai" Btli Co.)
The loaded belt. (Fig. 56) is carried all gnlUJl"I ot
!:lmaU idling rollers (Fig. 57), so arrlUlgcd that. tht
belt forms a trough. The widt.h of the belt variC!
from 14 to 00 in., and Ihe number of idler~ variC!
c'oTl'Cllpondin (Iy. The kllers must be IIplu:ed !>O Iha'
there will lx no sagging of I ht' belt bel.ween them
56 HANOI.ING OF SOLIDS
'This ISPlicing varies hom about 5 ft for nafl'OW belts
down to 3 ft for the widest belts. The return idlers
are cylindri<ml rollers, spaced at greater intervals
than thOHI'! cun-ying the loaded belL The idlers may
be equipped with "nntifriction" (bull or roller) bear-
ings or ordinary bushed bearillgl>. Power require-
ments are considernbJy lower for I:I.Iltifriction bear-
ings, but original C06t.s are higher.
,
FlO. 57. l:mpty belt conveyor, showin& supportinc a.nd guid-
ing itl k!r pulleys. (Lint.RtlI Co.)
Belt conveyors may be drh"p.n from any point,
although t.he head or discharge end is the best from
the standpoint of stress ('ondition!! in the belt. The
driving power may be applied through 0. simple
bare steel pulley, a rubber lagged pulley, or a tandem
drive com.isting of two pulleys connected tQ the
motors through reducing gears.
Chongcs in loading, temperature, and humidity
affect the length of the belt., and some provision must
be made for keeping t.he belt from sagging and be-
coming loose on the driving pulleys. . The simplest
form of such "ta.ke-up" consista in mounting the
Shaft of the head or tail pulley in a bearing block
which may he moved back and forth. A s().{:alled
gravity take-up is sho ....'Il in Fig. 58. This take-up
consisu of a pulley mounted in a f rruncwork which
is free to slide up and down between I-beam guides.
The pulley and its framework are supported by the
belt between two return idlers. Weights nrc fas-
tened to the framework to control belt tCru!ions as
Rqllired. With very long conveyol1l it is often
nl'!OllSl;8,ry to remove ~tions of the belt. and repllU:e
t.hem as the Reu.:'lOn1! dmnge.
~lt ronveyoI'S mliY be loaded hy any .type of
f..ting d."vice already UetlCribed.
Unl00iiillrJ th e wnveyvr offers more of a problem
unless the loud is discha rged by gravity where the
belt passes II.round the head pulley. If discha.rge at
an. intennffiiatc point is required, one of tllrt.>e
methods may be followed.
I. The simplest method is to arrange the support-
ing idlers horizontally so that the belt runs f1a.t, and
to iDlltai! a scrape at an angle of 45 degrees acr088
the belt, at the point. of di~harge. The bad features
of thi,; method are incN!ll.<;eQ belt wear and the
tendp,ncy of the loud to spill over the sides of the
belt before the semper is reached.
2. The belt may be rUIl over groups of idlers set
obliquely w tip the belt !!O that the load spills over
the edge of the bE:lt. Tills dot:;;! not deliver the load
at onc definite spot but the method does have some
app\iCll.tions.
FlO. 58. Cmvity take-up pulley (or belt conveyor. (SltpIieM-
Acianuon Mf,. Co. ) "
3. The "tripper" shown in Fig. 59 is the" most
positive means of unloading at intermediate points.
The tripper runs on rails which aN! installed along
each side of the belt. It is equipped with two pulleys
over whieh the belt runs. The lower pulley is placed
below and behind the upper pulley 80 that the belt
ill doubled back, allowing the load to fall over the
upper pulley into a chute which may deliver the
load all on one side of the belt or on both sides. T he
tripper may be placed at any desired unloading
point, or it may be (~onstructed 1:10 that it will move
back alld furth , uistributing the load evenly in a
long storage bin. Th" Uiw. of & tripper increaHeS the
 BELT CONVEYORS 57

FlO. 59. Belt conveyor tripper that may be !lelf-propelled and revel1!ed, -Ioaa; tripper track f(W di&t.ributing diIeb&rIed material.
(StcpMv-Adameoa MI,. Co.)

power required to drive the conveyor, but this is 4.. Total (sum of 1, 2, and 3):
offset by the convenience and flexibility of the unit F(L + Lo)(O.03WS) F(L + Lo)T T OZ
in unloading the belt. hp-
900
+ 090
+990-
Capacitiu of belt conveyor8 are indicated in Tables
15 and 16 on p. 68. F(L + Lo)(T + O.03WS) + T .Z
PfJtO(T requirel'\".enU for beU CQnt>eyor8 involve a 090
number of variables and may be estimated by means
of empirical fomtllias such as the following. where bp = horsepower required.
L For empty belt conveyor (minimum value): F = friction factor, 0.05 for plain bearings,
0.03 for antifrict.ion bearings, depend.
F(,-L_+,-:L~.):-(O_.03_W_S
_ --,-) ing upon iWJtallation mailltena.nce.
he - 990 L = length of conveyor between tenninaJ
2. For material (excluding belt) conveyed hon- pulleys (ft).
IOntally: Lo .. 100 for plain be.rings, 150 for anti-
_F"([''--c+'-71~",)-=-
T frictioo bearings.
hp - - 990 S "" speed of belt (fpm).
T = maLeria! (tons/hr).
3. For eievllting material (excluding belt which
AZ = increase ill elevation of material (iL).
balancea itself): W - m~ (lb) of movin,; parb including helt
T.Z ond idlcNC per foot of dil;itmce between
hp _ - - (negative when travel is downward)
900 oenteu of terminal pulleys (both runs).
51 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
TABLE 16. MAXIMUM LUMP 81ZE AND SPEEffi TABLE. 1M. APPROXIMATE WElOHT8
FOR eoNVJ;'YOR
" BELTS OF OONVEYORS
M __ FliJi:ht con~yol'l

"".,
1
I- 4XIOto 6XI8 0.6 Ib/ ln. of width per runnin( foot

..
M lm"", ~J' SI>"I"do. rpm

.... ---- 81 ..., m,

0-
"-
A....
__ ,
......
N_
8 X 18 to 10 X 24
Helt oonVl:lY')nI
1.0 Ib/ in...f width roe" running foot
1.01b/;n. of width per n.lflni", foot

..... ,- ......
d
""hilll,

.
DIIi_ With FI,,"';',. A_ Abrasi"" Actu....l dinl(!r\l!i0Il611lui weightR are AVlr.ilab1e 11l mll.nUfllctUTens'
M.~ M.~
cataloguefr,
Io<m
"" ~.
...,.
M.~
""
..,'-
..
rlRlt
o.

.. ... -
..
Power requirement6 for tripper!! "",y be computed
, ,
"""
,.'"
,

'"
'" .. ...
..
'" .... ...
,
...
... -
0.11

-
0 . 14
0. 111

~
'.n
~

.00
~
=
=
n,
1~
Il.II follows .
bp = YS +ZT
where S - belt gpeed (fpm).
T - peak capacity (tonll/ hr).
.....
'" "
.. .... ."....., .. .....
0.78 ~
""
,, ,"

~ Y IUld Z are constants from following lauhJ.~

.... ...... ..... ..... ....

LOO

"" H 1. 48 "" Wldtlt of B,I" i .

..
M
""
""
Loo
IS ~ H M " U q U
0.0001 0.0030 ' . 00211.0lI2\l 1.0031' 0.0041 1. 0010 O.OOM O.OOU 0.0100
O.otW a.CIOIfi 0. 1IOiII 0. _ O.OCHO a. ~ 0.0010 0. 00&5 ' .001 O.omr

....
-_..
~ iDd"..L. """" materialo ... .,a1" ond ~ ."tb......., An interesting modification of the be1t conveyor
au'" ....
.......
t A _ _ I0<0I.... kIrido ... *. ~ - . ...d. ...d is the zipper conveyor which is essentially a. belt con-
t ,,1>< ...... 'lid..... wdo ....1eritJo .. lOOk<. -""'" ho"" ""*- &1'11'" veyor with the edgP.s tripped qether to fonn an
endless tube (Fig. 60). In Q?er&tion the tube is
TABLE 16. MAXIJ\1PM CA?ACtTIf)3' FOR closed after being loaded and is lipped open at the
CONVEYOR BELTS point of discharge, remaining open until the loading
point iB reached. Because the tube is flexible and
Mllx:mum Capacit.y with Materials of completely encloses the' material, it may travel .

"".
Width,
Cu Ydj
Hr 3t
JOO
Various Bulk Densi ti es. ton~/hrat l00fpm around corneN!! at any angle and in any plane.
Apron fXlnveyor, are similaT to belt conveyors in
I . that solid materials are cllITied in a moving trough,
Fpm 25 50
100 " I 1"1
lb/ Ft' Lb/ F't.' Lb/ Ft' l.b/ Fr' ! Lbi Ft'
I but the trough is fonned of articulating sections of
woOO or metaJ instead of a continuous flexible belt..
. 2:1.' 8 .. 24

., "
I
"'"
Apron conveyol'fl are frequently employed when the
material to be conveyed ill lumpy, abraaive, hot, or
" 31.1 10 21 31 42
otherwise injurious to flexible belts. Their weight

20

"ao
18 39.6

49 .3
72 ..
1l6.7
13

16
24
39
27

"
49
..
73
118
"
00
US
81

fI!)
147
restrict6 apron conveyors to relatively !hart hauls
and much lower speeds, but they are capable of
carrying much heavier loads than belt conveyors.
79 '58 237 The only discharge point is at the head end of the

.,
..
36 173 . 3
242 . 2
324.4
57
82
110
l11i
Ifoii

""
.72
24 7
330
, .
230
1 330
.,
'15
of!);;
000
conveyor.
Aproo conveyors may appear in several types of
con~truction, but the usual form, shown ill Fig. 51,

.
..." 422 .2
"'-'.3

..
142
. SO
I """'" "".
m
i
I " . ""
I
1
:;70

."'"
(:(Il).Sists of two endles.<! strands of roller chain whict>
arr ~(mOO(~ted hy dnnblf'-hrarl/'rl ~1 4\f' 1 paM. The
idea of the beadiDJI," iI! til maintuin a cfmtmuol1S
trough to prevent leakage in tran",il, tt.nd to prevent
Operating capaClt_ ()f flat belt eot'Ivuyul'tl an: taken llt
material from being wedged between the aprons
one-half of thO!!e Ii!rl.ed. Capacit ~ 01 incliDt.'<i oonveyol"$ IU'I.!
6 to 10 pe r ""nt m than lilllN!. Fo r mll.terial weif;htR a.nd when the load is being dischargoo at the head end
8pt....'c.IS ulll",' tlHm shuwn above, UI!O direet. proportion ror of the clJllvoyor. The !JoI'adiug also pl'Cve.lt~ nul.h..'-
thnnag.l <1Il.lculatioDS. rial from slipping backward when the conveyor is
 PER\lANF.Nl' INSTAI-I.A nONS FUR HANDLlNG SOLIDS
Jo'IO.OO . Druwing inoJl~l1ting the ~'>llli lructlon und opcl".ll ioll r:/1i llper encklllCd-hdt ronveyor-o!ievl!.tor.
FIG 61. Apron COIIVl!yor viewed f,..,m point
(CMin IkU Co.)
(Sl~- I\damf(ll\
Mf,. Co.)
jllltined. The head with the larger nliliw. is loca~d
on the leading side of the apron or Plln and rotates
about the bead with thc smaller radius, which is
located on t he rear edge of th.e apron just ahead.
Thc curvatu re of the beads is concentric with the
line of articulation of the ehain joints. Otherwise-it
would be impossible for the larger lJead to rotate
:smoothly around the smaller bead 00 the ad jacent
pan.
The contours of the aprons may bc varied until
thcy become a continuous serie; of bW.lkets pivotally
sllpported between two endles;; chiLins. This is a
very flexible type of conveyor and is known all thc
Puk carrier (Fig. 62). Thc buckets maintain their
('j\r'ry.ing po!!ition hy gravity and l$O may COllvey
mnll'rial- huri:wnLally, vcrti('ally, and again hori-
zuntally, or in any de:iired path in the !\arne vertical
plane. The buck.ets may be readily di~t:hargcd at
any JXJint by the tripping dcvi(~e indi(;ILtt'(i; calu,linl(
c( d i....h....ge. each bllckd, to t.unl thru ugh 90 fl<'gl~ and dump
ils luad.
60 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
FIo. 62. Peek eatrier .nd elevator fihowing the operat.ion at
the tripptlr (It point of di$Charge. (Link-BeU CQ.)
Bucket ekvalcra are used when the only direction
of travel required is vert,ienl. Three common types of
bucket elevators are illustratOO in Figs. 6:f, 64, and
65,
In the cenin'jugal~idarge type (Fig. 63), th~
buckets are bolted through the back onw a single
strand of chain or belt. The buckets Me loaded by
material flowing through a chute into the bllckets or
by scooping up the load under the foot wbeel. The
load is throl\'n out of the buckets by centrifugal
force as the buckets pass over the head or upper
wheel. In t he po.tih"ue-di3charge type (Fig. 64), the
buck"ts IU"t carried on two strands of chain which
are 8Ilubbed under the head whools and sfi'ord Il more
poeitive discharge. ContinuoUll.:distharge ~leootor"
(Fig. 65) are built with the buckets so close tocether
that each bucket discharges by gravity, with the
load flowing over the front of the preceding bucket
into the discharge chute. COlltinuous-discharge
bucket elevators operate at much slower 8peed~ t.han
the centrifu@;al-discharge types. Centrifugal-dis--
charge type!! are well adapted to light mat.erials snch
as grains, ashes, etc. Heavier and niore abrasive
materials must be handled in the continuou.s-di&-
charge types of elevators.

Flo. 63. Drawing'i11ua-
tratinll; & oentrifugttl-di8-
chArge bucket elentor.
The bucke\.6 ate alliubly
spaced on & chain or l.>elt
.... hich ie driven with suf
ficient ~peed to discll&rgo
the bo.''lketA over the
head wheel by CCntrifll-
Ral foroe. It. may be
U&i'J {or alm(.Jo!.t My ma-
terial tha~
i, di9Clut~
r~ly from t he buckets.
(CMi" /kit C'q.)
t
Fla. 64. Drawing illua-
tll!.ting the "poiYtive-
discharge" buclcet ele-
vator. The buckets II.m
"end-hunK" bet.WOOD two
st~18 01. dwn aDd are
inverted as they pw!S
Over the head sprockets
a.nd behind the idler
.... hocJs, thereby effeo-
tiV'eiy diaclt&rging mat&-
rial!. not ~1l handled by
oeDtm ugal <.fuc~ el&-
vatora. (C""",,, &ll Co.)
Flo. 66. Drawina illW!trating
the oontinuoWHiiechargl'l buck-
et eleVAtor. Buck~b a r e
mounted elOlle to one anoLhur
to fonn A oontinuOWl row of
bucke"'. High CApacity is o~
tained by the ~ numbe~ of
buckets &nd not by speed.
Theile elevators ma:' be in-
dined ~ well AS vertical, and
the~ cpc;"te MtiafACk>ril:r at
4.S or more ~ rrom the
boriaonlAl. 'MfA Bd# Co.)
 Wt:IGHT DETERMINATION 61'
The Cl~itie6 of apro!1, pan, and ' bueket oon WEIGHT DETERMINATJON
veyon and bucket elevaton vary from a. few tona
The OOIItrol of material as it .Rows through a plant
up to IWPut tQO tons/hr for material.e: ha.ving a
is essential for i!lOOounting, for"inteJ:plant records, or
density uf 50 Ib/cu ft. The capatity varies approxi-
for control of the operation or p~ Measuring
IIl.II.teo/ dil'!'l'ltly wjQl ~ denaitr of the lOad.
weight is an important methl In the selection of
The power reciW'ed fQr ~rivin8; these aproo and weighing equipment not only mU9t the process or
bucket COIlV~~ Pl3Y be estimated by tbe exP,re8- method of manufacture be coDsidered, but vari()U.!,
mODI
.. (GrQ88 turning eff9rt)(Bpeed, fpm) outBide !;Iogencies,
, .laws, and reKuIatioos. must fre.
pp - . quently be corurulted.
33,000 A scale is a device which measures the fon:e of
The l'fJISiatanoe \0 turning RI in pounds at the pitch gravity OD an unkll()wn mass-by balancing a known
radiul of the I:!eacf or driv~g sprockets may be ' force agaiD.l!t the ,unknown force. Except in small
ealr.uiatOO : scales the various elements of the scale reduce the
f(lr bucket elevators applied force: 80 that a relatively small balancing
force Dl&y be applied. '
R,-!tfL+C
If the balanciIm force is supplied by the force of
For hori!llootaJ apron ~ bue~t conveyors grayity on any mass, such as a weighbeam or pendu-
R, - '(M " W)(LJI,l 14m weights connected to a'dial, any change in the
gravitational field has, .... similar IUld proportiooal
For indi!led apron and bqeket conveyors
{
Ht - L(M + W)[(R, toe a) + Irin al + WL[(C08 aRI) - ain al
where At of mal-erial conveyed per foot
= mass (lb)
effect on the unkno",'U weight and .t he balancing
of conveyor or elevator.
weight, and the scale correctJy 'measures the un-
, W = mass (Ib) of chain and aprons or buck:eta
per foot (both runs).
known mass in any gravitational fi2Id. If the bal-
ancing foroo is supplied' by a spring, the scale does
L == length of conveyor or elevator from
not measure the unknown mass but ilie force 0&'
head abut to foot shsIt (ft).
gravity on the unknown mass which varies with the
1:~) + (0:)

-.
RI = (,rolling friction) ==
.t: _ 0:33 for metal on metal, not
= 0.20 for metal on metal, greaseg.
D = diameter of chain roller (in. ).
d '# diameter of blll!hing or pin upon
which roller turl'.S.
/1 coangle of inclination of conveyor or ele-
vator (degrees).
C - force (lb) rcqujred to drag the buckets
of a centrifug9.1 discharge elevator
through the material beiDg loaded.
It need not be included in oomputa-
tiotul when the elevator is loaded by a
feeding device. Even when uSed its
value must be estimated.
The turning n...;istanoo HI calculated in this man-
ner should be increased 10 per coot for friction of
head and foot shafts; and 15 per ce'nt for eaeq pair
clsear reductions to obtain t he gT068 turning effort.
local aooeleration of gravity.
Generally 8(laies and other weighing devices are
composed of three essential parts; the load-receiving
elemen~, the load-bearing members, and the indiCAt-
iDg element. The indicator may be a weighbeam, a
dial, or an automatic recorder. The selection of the
indicating device depends on the application, the
operating per8(lnnel, and the cost. of the ins~
tion.
Load-Reccriuili& Element
When an object is weighed it is usually nec:eesat)
to support the weight on an independent e1emeJl'
entirely supported by the load-bearing members
In nearly all large scales this indc~ndent elemen1
consists of 8. weigh bridge supporting various super
structures such as railroad tracb, a platform rOl
trucks, a hopper, bin, or tank perma.nenUy built or.
the weighbridge. On smaller scales the load-receiv-
ing element may be a IIJIl8iI platform or pan, or the
objeet may be bung directly on the lood-bearin,
62
Fill. Ma. CutllWtly Yiew of Iypicll j r:,il roo J h,,~ k ~.. l(!. i'our.......:t i"n I<Nlle, 4.... ""i~li nll: of Inu T &:I ~ nl m." n l.. vcn\. TIle I.N]
iIs ddi vcreo.l to the j",lie5t<>r h.\" lt1c lra"~vc"", IcYe. {'x , .,ndi ,,~ ou t at the " .w:llt of t he Jl',;l ure. (J-'aiTwmh, M"r.t u: Cu.)
clement. Variol1s types nf conveyors are frequently
platl'(i directly on the lood mcm\:lIm .
Lotl(J.B~!fIri"g Jl!embers
The irnvlwbearing members generally CUn!:!ist of
!!everal interconnected levers. In simple systems
only two levers may he required to carry t.he 10&1
and reduCfi the ballUl-cing force required. III heavy-
duty railroad sr.ales there may be as many a!i thirtt)en
or more levers (Fig. r..sa). Thp. lwul from the weigh-
bridge is transmitted through lillks to the mllin levers,
which reduce and transmit the lood to the end ex-
tension levers, \vhieh in turn t~allsm i t the load to the
transverse lever and fina lly to the indicating device.
The conncction between the wcighbridge and the
lever lJystem is important lot accurate weighing.
Only the vertical comJ)Qnents of the load must be
delivered to the levers. Any horizontal fo~ due
tn impact, temperature, ()t similar factnrs must be
r.iimiuo.ted. This is gene.rally accompliMcd by sus-
pension .Iinks) or by bnlll'J or rollen between the
bridge and the lever system. It ill also necCSSilry to
rest rab the weighbrKlgc from cxce&\ive violent dis-
pl.wcment. Variolls "checking" systems nrc used
to limit horizontal motion... These may be bumpers
HA:\DU NG OF SOUOS
buil t into the ",all:; uf lhc scale pit, or they may be
horizmltai rnemOerti between the weigh bridge and
the wulls or the l'cule pit .
P ivots and bearings of bardened tool steel arc used
in rnUl:!t scales 1,0 cnrry the load, as they are prac-
tically the only parts of the lever system t.ha~ are
suhject to wear or damage. They nre frequent ly
inspected and must be continuously protected from
corrosion. In ~ales tha i. are sUhjected to heavy
tI;;ug<l tJlf~y mu~t. be repiar;e.:l or resha rpcned period-
ically. f 'U:ture plate, arc lrequently utlCd in place
or
of the m9ft: conventional pivots knife edges. They
consist of relatively thi n plaWiJ of meW restrained
in a vertical position so t hat they are subjected to
nearly pure compression. The slight amount of
angula r movement is pro ...ided by the elasticity of
the metlll. Flexure plates are gcnernlly COt nd in the
largest ty.pes of sca1e:; but are also used in laboratory
and small capacity s(,IlIf!~.
lndicotillg Eknl flnl.~
The indicating element inc\udel:! the method of
appl ying a calibrated force \.0 ballUlcc the applied
load and m ust. indi(~ate by vlsUa.l or ut.her nlf~ans the
magnit ude of tile balalwing f!)l'Ce.
 WEICHT DETUOIINATION

' h l p~'m lllluill .Iinl" Ihl' Inad t.. balancec.1 by I"levat-

ing nnt' ur mm" pt'ndllium w('ighta. Although rather
complex in d esign pendulum dials are generally accu-
rate an d df'[><;,nclahle if properly installed and main-
taincd, ~pr ing-operatcJ. dials are ~impJel' in d~ign
all(1 muin tcnru}(!f!, hut not so accura te unlcr:!lS springs
Ot'f' !'Olmpcnfllltf"(1 for temperatllTe changes. They are
alSo'! !\\lIJjee t t o efror because of changes in grnYlta-
ti OlI/I.! f,m:e II it h change; in location .
.1uWllllllic rCCOrtJ('T1; may be separate nni l" or l\SS()-
r i11.1ed II'it h ri ther a dial or \\'cigh heam , ThE'Y ure
uS('(1 on railroad lSeales to aIlOl\- weighing or t he cars
as Iher ro ll lu:rU'S3 the scale withollt stopping. Helt
eOIl \'cyor !l(' al{'~ (F ig. U5b) eontinllollsly intcgrate the
w('ip;ht of materinl on the comp.yor with the speed of
travel (,f the Jx.lt. These aft> wiJcly used in miDcs,
po\\,f'r p hm t ~, or in industrial plants where larRc
(luuntitiC'S (If bulk material are ha.nd led on belts.
C onn'yu!' i:K'lIlcs an" the only slril!tly continuous
ol.ll'mtion in w{'igh ing .
A IIllmwlic balch controllera are of Rrcat importance
in the proccs industril"S wherever rat es of production
FlO. 660. Belt--ronveyor ,;calc. .\ "~ i i ... n of h..lt is ....~, .. )( ..... "d are high. They ma.y be uSt'd to proportion solids
by ~he lever system, and lbo, ..."iSM ;S l'Oll linuoo..Jy in ' t'gmlro ( Fig. l\,)c) , lielilids, or combinlltions or
hath. Speeial
with hell 8peetl . (M l'rritk S(QK .III,. ro. ) inllicators on I'mll'entiona! dial or j)t>ilffi !j('nles, such
11." photO('It>f'lt'ie devices, ma~' l)fl 1lst'(1 to operate
The weigh beam consists "f U ('It1i\)I'atC'd bar with a
mnvable poise. Thf' poi~e il; 1ll)~iti1)ne-d :.d ong the
beam ulltil the IoiHI on till' lel'l')' ~.r8tCIll i~ lmlnnt'eJ.
The position of tlle IJQise 1l1 ny thrll Ilfl !'on\"('rt cJ.
into the amoun t of load on th e 8('nle. The wc igh-
ocam is thc basis of mus t indira! ing l,lt'ment!l, and in
itself is widely used for scal~ of 1111 ~i7.CI:I. It. is fre-
quently associated with other indicat ing deviees,
being used for tare eomPf'.nsalioll, or as a sta.nd-by
unit in c~ flf failure of the other indicator.
/A'all! llIay he used on ull t.ypes of lever systems.
They are eaSy to ,read, requirc no manipulation on
the part of the operator, and indicate the result
rapidly, However, they seldom have more than 1000
graduations. around the periphery which limi :.s the
readahility of dials to >1000 uf their total capacity.
This limitation is overcomc using the dialw indicate
only t.hat part of the wl'igh t ()ver the weight balanced
hy drop weights applied to the lever system. Fur
exllmple, a 5(X)()..lh d ial with a minimum graduatinn
of.5 Ib mAy be u~ for loads it! excess of 5000 lb. An
added tW'igh t balalwing 5000 Ib it! addAd to the beam,
ant! the rllnj.,'tl of tht' dial iw.c)umel:l Will to IO,()(X) Ib FI<'. 1;;,1('. Tyllit':l1t IlO!.l.cJ,ing unit... Two '!:fr.. "~nt malt,""I,'
:n... pl'Ol~,ri i,,"ed hy weiKht in IIJ() weigll hnpprl1l, V'ilrui."..
without :mcrificing readability. AmdCa.j

batch eootrQ\Jer~ i\l~re, yftcn spedal autuma\ic
cont.rQUers KOVeTQ the en..tire prpcess.
~ P~ and"bagging ~le8 are ~pccialized forma
of bat;eh controllers, generally incorporated as inte-
gr;a.I'porUons of qthcr machinery. I The I'J08t. of f-!UeJ..jnc iii etltUn.-ted ~~ ,",oo/hr for .the t.ruek
C~ng . scoles for counting large quantities of
~l object. have ratio beams that allow rapid derer-
mination of !ID\lJlt w},en the klentical objects are osed
88 oounterbalancin wejgbts.
Electronic BCtJiu tp.a~ climina~ leven are becoming
increasingly im,pO"rtant in speeial wejghing _appJi~
tions IJUch..as large tanks and bins. Tbe load-bearing
element consists of a calibrated member with strain
pge8~ or 'other sensi.:ive ~evices a.ttacbed. The load
is m~red by tPe de~on j)f tbe column _88 ~e
l~ is applied.'fhe deflection ij! measured 'elec-
trically and through the use of servos is iDdieated
by. dial or automa.t-ic recorder.
Hydraulic scalea also form an increasingly im- i
portant type in which' the leve", of a eoov~nt.ional
scale a.re replaced by a hydraulic system, ba,l-
anCe8 the applied load .. The force or weight is indi .
c8~tedfby.. a ~i,Jor rec~er. Hydraulic scales have
been ~ul in small compact crane scales, wbere the
load on me hook of.. a "rane D).U8t be ,q~~f1nined. Th{:
accurate dead-weight tester foc measuring higb .p~ .
sure aDd calibrating p~re sages is a form of
hyaraulic scale.
BIBLIOGRA,PHY
1. CliAIN BEl.T Co., Catalot!: ~6 (1945), Milwaukee.
2. HAWLlGJ:, R. 8., M~ H~ a'l f.Ii'r
~. UlrIch 'a Book Store, AII-n Art-- (191 1).
:J. l,IIU.-Bt:l.T ~., Ca1.4ol ~
f,,? _.-
ctuc:aco.
iI
',~
.., .; ;.. -
j.'-'c-
..,, ,
HANDLlN.G ,OF SOhlDS ,
PROBl.E.I\IS
1. A J::Je of crude wlfur". t be moved from one plant
to another by dump 'ruck. 'J'rU8U IlIiITyinc 6' t().. each can
make 000 rowxI trip 6V1Iry_r, ~.e or "~lnc time..
and driver. A comtruetiol1 . ClGmpllllY will load the aulfw-
with II pII\\er ehovel at .,.40/w yd and suuantee loAding at
Ui 1oOM/hr but .nth a minimum eh!lr&e of 1160. The lrucb
may be.1oaded by ~ labor ,t." eo.t of 11.30/ hr per laborer.
(11) What ~ the rrw:imunl , volume of the pile for which
hAnd 1oa4iq would be n:KIlt ~t t
(6) Mitt" the _~. ~ to move 10 tons, 11'10 tons,
1000 ~!by too more et'lI)QOmloa1 methodt
2. ii()W~ ~ ~ ~ M!I required~to 100d a freight
car with 40 ~of ~ ~ iD. IOO-Ih I-cs if the
produd JJ1UIt. lie ~ UIO y,I by , hand t rifoli -wbich
a bAt:! per 'WiD7;~~M
canjes
~ :~~..
3. One ~red t.oll!~r qI~te -'- ....~~ be moftl!!
.,0
~u!'nl "distallC6 of tOO k; . ~~' ~~ of"il,.:b
of the three eliwiee 1iBud, _.nq ~a.tcuijJ.fe lhe~"fl" requi,m
to' opera~ \h!! a)'\ltf:rn. ~ ~be runallMt eonYe)'or that
..m do the job. > "
mat, (II) Screw eonve)'il'.
(b) Flight OOD7tl)'ilr.
"',c,
(el Belt conveyor.
.. 'For' the conditiON of problem 3, ospeeiIy the typl! of
conveyor an4 i$B .ue that 'Jill -reQuire tlU! minimum power.
6. A belt conveyor is rcquirtld to dell,.",. eru><hood Wmt>fltoDe
having a bulk. denaity ol75lb! eu ft at the",~ of ~ toBllAu".
The oonveyor d; to be 200 n bP.tween ~nterl Qf pulleys with
II. rile of 2'5 ft.. The largest lumpo! are 4 in. &Ild OOMtitute
15% of the total. TIle conveyor -.rill d1!.cbarce QVW lhe end..
FOf a bel~ ~ of 200 rpm, what ill !.be minimum width of
belt tbat can be U>Ied? Calculate the hmiW!PQwer fQr the drive
motor.
T,~
6. What is the ~ty of. rl.ight OOI1ve)'Of of 12 by 24 in.
tra~ling at ,100 rpm and handlin, the crW!hlld limestone of
I.roblem 6. '
7. A Bel"f!W ooo'Y'llyor is to be ;nsl&l\ed to convey 800 bushela
of whe.t per hour QVeI' . distance of 80 ft. Determine the
!lise (diameter), speed (revniutiOM per minute) aIM! honJ,r
.power requiremen\e for the u.t&Ilatioa.
"
 PART"

Fluids

THOUGH all, our activities arc completely surrounded by the fluid

X atmosphere, those operations previously considered in Part l can be

calculated and conducted as though ill the complete absence of
fluids. In the variOUs unit operations to be discussed fluids are involved_and
the properties of the fluids have an important influence on the operations,
particularly as they aff~ct the relative motion between solids and fluids.
 CHAPTE R

Properties of Fluids

F.NS'TY, specific gravity, Rnll other simihtt (force)(time}/ (length}2. TheI;e dimensions of vlflOOli-

D properties haye the !:lame Hignillcance for

fluids ~ fQr IK/lids, The definitions of th.~
properties are given in Chapter 2.
ity (p.) !luggeilt correctly that it m ay be eVliluated by
such meansaJ:\ timing the flow of a given mass of ftuid
through :. sta ndard apertul't: as well &8 by measuring
the resistance to motion of two parallel surfaoos.
VISCOSITY In the met ric system viscosity is defined a.~

-.
grams m ass/(cent imero r)(<:!CI.'OIld ) and the unit is
Visooeity i8 Il unique and rn08t important property
of all aetual Rum. It is 80fllewhat anaJogous to
resistance to shear in 801m The principal re&IIOIl

....yerDof_ A
for the difference in tlie How ch8[&Cteristics 0( IVater ReialNe wIocity .w
and of mol8l:lHeti is tha molasgefl has a much higher
villCOlJity than water. The analog;- to, shear fftlu:;t-
anoe in solids may be referred 1.<1 in establishing the
units of viscosity. Assume two parallel layers in the
flu id. a.g indicated in Fig. {if)(l, ('ACh hu.ving an area
of A SQuare cent imeters and with a diAtance of dy /
centimeters between them. One h~yer is oon.-;idered
stationary ; the other layer moves at a constant ,t I--------,y/
/'
velocity rela tive to the fi rst layer of dv centimeters
per seeond. A force of F dy nes is req ui red to main-
tain this relative velocity of the moving layer.
F or the general case, with II. number of layers,
-
Velocity, It

when the velocity v is any funr:tinn uf the diRtllnce y,

'bi
FlU. 66. (II) Two IIIY'~ of Auid in lamhlllr How; (II) velocity
&Ii indicated in Fig. H(jll, at '''Iy pnint of multi]lI\: IIIY\:1'!1 of fluid in I!l. miull r flow.
P dv
...... ... ~- ( I) I'a-Ilet! Il poi~. Thit\ ullit i!l Iat her huge for mOl>t
A d, appliea!i(ln!:!, a nd viscosities are frequen tly reported
where jJ. is a factor representing the characteristic of in centipoh;cs. One poise "" 100 centiPoises.
the fluid called th(' viscosity, which is the &lear In English uni ts, the dimeruions of vi.;oosil,y a re in
modulus for the Auld. ::;;u/ving for t he vi!lCOtlity pounds mass/ (feel.)(lICCOIIds). This unit has no name
P dy d(me) dll as yet, although it is widely used. To coovert rrom
, ~ - - - --- (2) poises to the Uritish viscosity unit, which may be ab-
Adr Adl.dv breviated as BVII, multiply by 3OA8/ 4S3.6 or 0,0072.
Vaatosity is thE' tim(' rat~ of dl:\II~ {If momentum per
Vi8CQ8ity in centipnilW>l X (6.72 X 1O -~ )
linitares. nnd VE'locity gradient. l t lul,iJ the nt't, dimen-
.itlll8 of m a&l/ (length)(time) or the dinlPnsions of - Viscosity in Arit.ish uni t I:'
67
.. Specific ~ty is
the ratio of the abeolute vi&-
C<J6ity in either poises or Hvu to the absolute ViSC08ity
of a sla.nciard fluid expressed in the same units and
taken at the same temperature.
Kintmahc MosilV is the absolute viscosity di-
vided by the density (p./p) and has the dimensions uf
(volume)j(lengtb)(time) . It it! freque!ltly deter-
minerl by meB6uring the time required for a specified
volume of fluid to flow thropgh a st.andard aperture
or tube under specified conditions (88 in the Say-
bolt visooeimeter). Tht! unit corresponding to
the poise is the stoke, having the dimensions of
, (centimetenl)2/ (geOOlId).
An ideal fluid is & hypotileticaJ fluid w"hich haa a
viscoe.ity 0: zero and interposes 00 resistance to
shear. -t\ll aetual fluids po88El8II vleooIrity. The
viscOflity of a liquid decreases and the viscosity of a
gM inCre&eei! as the temperature increases, t.be two
becoming identical at the critical point.
The viscosities for a few common fluids al'f! listed
in Table 17.
TABLE 17. VIsa>sITI~ OF SOME FLUJDS AND A
SLURRV
'i"~mperatu~. VWloaity,
Mate rial 'C eent.ipoWee
Water
20.2
4Q.'
"' ..
00.'
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
RELATIVE MOTIuN BE"J'WEEN
FLUIDS AND SOLIDS
There are many practical situationa in whieb reI..
t.ive motion exisU! between fluids and solid bound~
aries. In some cases these solid boundaries are at
rest wit.h rospect to the earth while the fluid is mov-
ing. In other C~ the fluid is more or leM at rest
while the solid boundaries move with respect to the
earth. Engineers encounter problems which fall
into either or both of these categoriee; 80 it is necelt-
sary to develop 8- generalized treatment for the rell!.-
tive mot.ioo between a Huid and a solid.
Geometric Similarity
The different shapes and BiIe8 ofBolidll are a1moet.
infinite in nUPlber. For convenience, solids may be
grouped according to their shape!. When every
lineM'dimension of a given member of a group OCCU1'8
in a definite or constant ratio to the cOlT'llHponding
linear dimension of any other inember of the group.
all members of that grm.:p are geometrically similar.
Geometric similarity is the property of having the
same shape and differing ooly in size and position.
The scale models of airplanes or railroads and the
corresponding fuU-ei.re article Me exceUent examples
of geometrically similar &ystema. Perfeot spbere&
1. 7921
1.0000
are all geometrically similar, as Me cubes, regula
t.etrahedron.8, and a h{l6t of other objects. Reo-
' .1156
0 ..... tangula.r parallelepipeds are not neceesarily geo.

tOO.O
.."""
0._
metrically timilar unless multiplying the length of
every edge of the lWl:l.1ler one by a constant factor
will yield the lengths of Ute colTC8JKlnding edges of
Glycerin 14.3
20.3 ...
1387 the larger one.

Dyntlmk SlmUcuity
Air
0.0175
Dynamic similarity is ~ property of having
'"'"
100
0 .0182
0.0195 motion of the same form and differing only in size
arid JXII4tion. It, therefore, also requirea' geometric
0 .0218
'.036 similarity. Two flow systems possess dynamic simi
Slul'f'ioe or Cl\,~ "'" lan'"J' it the streamlines of fluid flow, or the fluid
in Watl'lr (PartieiCft" AWrtlxilUltte Bulk flow pattern, of one system may be superimposed
.lJlJut .5 Microns), TeffipOll'. ViloooIity ..... directly upon the streamlines of the other system
% by weiht ...... 'C cenupoilBl with no change other tJ:J.an the equal magnification

20 I.. in all directions of one oC the systems. C0Q3ider the
20 1. 11 r~ passage of air past two spheres of different di~
10 20 i.~ ametel'5. If the velocity of the air id the same past

"
OJ '"
20
20
un
2. 7\1
both spheres and a cigarette is held in the air stream,
two d.ifterent Row patterns of the BIDoke around tbe
'.7
"
Seoe Apllffidix r"r .. JJi\io.oIw.l vi ..."""ity dlltll.
spheres are apparent. If the velocity past one of
the sphcl'ClI is varied, a particular velocity is found
 RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN FLUIDS AND cOLIDS
. at which the 8Illoke fl ow patterns appear to be sim-
ilar, If photographs are then made of the two smoke
patterns and the negative of the smaller system is
~laced in an enlarger, it is possible to adjust the
en~r 80 that a print OdD be made which wilJ be
identical to the print made from the negative of the
larger system. In some How pat-terns which oscillate
with time, it is necessary to take the pictu res at
col"1'ePpODding times.
It is apparent that fluKl How patterns cannot be
dynamically similar at points adjacent to solid
boundaries that are not geometrically similar. and
that geamdrn rimilaritv ia a pri11U requiBiIe far
dynamic rimilarily. If dynamic similarity exists
between two systems, the radii of curvature of the
flow lines or paths at corresponding points in the
two systems occur in a fixed ratio, regardless of the
path or point selected. At t.hese corresponding
sponding points in each of the l>imilar systems may
be expressed in terms of two forces, one normal to
the direction of motion (FlO)' and one tangential
to the motion (F ,) (Fig. 67).
The fluid is assllmed to be a continuous medium.
This assumption is valid except at very low pressures
where the mean free paths I;)et.woen the ffiolecu"lei
become large IUId the fluid no longer behaves as a-
eontinuous medium. The gravitational and elastk:
forces are abo aSsumed to be negligible in eomparison
with inertial and vislxlus fOreel!. These assumptions
are valid when there :11 no f~ 5urfat-e for wave
motion and the vclocitictl &.re con!>iderably 1e88 than
the velocity of sound in the fluid and lead to the
following relations.
8y~tt'm
I ,
8}'!<tem

points tl)e velocity ratios are constant, regardless of Any linear dimeru!ion chuuteriJin& the
whll.t particular point is selected; and the ratios of
the accelerations at eorresponding points are fixed
and independent of tbe poeition of the points se-
lected. The directions of the velocity and of the
S iOO of the S)'$wm
A Iinear dimel\.!!ion of the l!JtIali element
MM$ of the BmAli element
Radius 01 path of the snall element
Velority 01 the smAlJ element
L,
IL,
1m,

"(IL,)'
.." ,
r.,
.r.,

acceleration at corresponding points in dynamically Volume of the ~ma.ll element " ~

(1 l.s)1
similar systeJIUI are resp&:tively the same. Represemative an::& of the element (fLll t ('~!
Nonn&! fOl"ce acting on the elcrru,nt (P~h V'on
ReynoUh Number, The Criterion of Dynamic Tangential force acting on the elemenl (I',h W,n
Angle of resullant foroe on too clelnCnt

..
~
Similarity
Consider the motion or Row of fluid in two ge0-
Uemity of fluid in L givp.n II.)'8to!nl
Villco8ity of fluid in ci ~n ayltem
"" ~

metrically aimilar syatems, with the time-average "

velocity of the fluid constant at any given point. Because of geometrtc !iimilwily IJetwccn the lwo
The paths of the fluids in the two systems aresimiiar, systems,
and dynamic similarity is said to exist. The forces :. r-aL (3)
&cting upon small elements of the fluids at cone-
.Ll - b['2 and ~I ... ClI2
Path 01 element 01 IkIid
L,
dL, ... - dL,
L,
"
dVI",, - dv2
"
(F, I, 0/" - b MJ"J
L,
- - aL2
L,
L,
The normal force acting on element F,ft _ omv 2 / r.
If aL is substitul..ed for ,. and p(oL)3 for om
p(oL)~tfJ
F. - (4)
oL
- -L, _ The tangent force acting on clement from eo:lua-
t-ioo 2
FlU. tS1. 1)y,I><1I1 ....lly !I;Ulilnr tllI;,1 n"';;',,, wilhi n ct"l,meL- Jt .. do
F, = ~A - ... ~( OI,)- -
" roily llimib.r bounwrtcs.. dL dL
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The angle 8 of the resultant force can then be
expressed in tel'Tns of the tangent of the angle which
is the same for the two similar systems as
lan8 _ p.
_ _ p,("L, )J"1 2
P, 2 dill
aL,,,,(6Ld -
dL, .
P:I(aT'"2)a vt 2
_ --='-'=-"-:-
, d.,
a1'2J'2(61'l) d~
Sub6tituting (1Ir!1)2) dll2 for du" (I' I/ I"l) dL, for
(L.!Lt) 6L, for 6LIJ "nd simplifying,
In other words, when dynamic similarity exi",1.s in
t\\'O systems, the product of ally characteri.'!tie di-
tnCnsion, allY velocity, the density, and the reciprOC'ai
of the viSC08ity is the same for both systems when
these variables are chosen at oorresponding loca-
tiona. Therefore, these. variables (L, II, p, .1') in
themselves will determine the flow pattern in ge0.-
metrically similar sYstems.
The dimenaionless expression up/.I' is popularly
called the Reynolds number after Osborne Reyn-
olds,' who applied it to the problem of flow iruiide
pipes. The derivation, however, is absolutely gen-
eral for all systems involving relative motion
between fluids and solids except in the preeence of
appreciable pYitational or elastic effects. The
application to pipe flow is but one of many well.
applications. The criterion of dynamic similarity
will be found of great utility in all types of fluid flow
problems. It is significant only . when appl\ed to
geometrically similar !!yste:nK.
The UnitlBTMJI RemtGnce <If Ora8 La",
Consider the steady pas.sage of M isothermal fluid
past the lIOlid bollndaries of a given object. The
situation may be any system whl'TC the soIKi bound-
aries may he d~fined along with the ~xtent of & fluid
!Ooving relalive to thOlie houndaries, such M ' IUI in
finite extl'llt of air pa.':IIing a sphere Of a stream of
watef flowing in"'ide a piPE'.
If th~ IMllid boundariea! are considered to hfo moving
lind tht' fllIie! pn":t'Ilillft: tilt' IIoIIMI ill ,,'amlin! "t.ill, a
pruhlt'1II ufll'TI tllLt'uulltcn,,1 ill' I\lt'. Ic-terminnlion of
The bibl~phy lOt" thill chaplAlr IlllpCal"S on p . 71 .
the force necessary to keep the .eolid moving with
COl18tant velocity through the fluid. The effect of
the solid on the fluid will be to accelerate the flukl
c.r to produce momentum in the fluid . Newton's
Ia.w, that force is equal to tbe time rate of production
of momentum, may be applied to the fluid 8!1 follow!!.
d(mu) du dm
F' - - - "' m- +u - (7)
(5) dt dt dl
where P' - the force acting on the Hum.
m ,.. the mMij of the fluid.
d/~l'
u - the maximum velocity to which the lIojd
is liCCC1emtOO by the action of the
moving solid.
(6) I{ the IIOlid is moving \\itL a COrIHtant. velooity II,
it follows that the velocity of the fluid due to the
action Qr the IIOlid is a constant independent of time,
and equatiun 7 may be simplified to
dm
F' _ 1'_ (8)
dt
However, dmjdt h; the mlt,,;s of fluid being acted upon
per IInil of time and is proportional to a representa..
live area :1 of the solid and to the distance traveled
by the solid in uni t time, which is the ve10city of the
solid. Therefore, with p 88 the density of the fluid ,
J<" ,.." Pltvu
The velocity II of the &oIKi and the average velocity u
to which the fluid is aceelerated are related by a
factor which depends only upon the Row pattern
fOf geometrically similar syswlll8. This leads to the
equation
P' - f'pAIl (9)
where the fa.ctor f' is a function cl the Reynolds
number alone fOf all systems wbich are geometrically
similar. The resistance equation (9) is general for
all fluid-eolid systems at 110 steady state (with the
aMUmptions of a continl)um of constant properties
and negligihle gravitation IUId ela.stic effecta present) .
The resistance or drag equation as it is often called
ullually appears in the form
F' _ j'pAtI'
(10)
2
where une direction ia implied. This form of the
equatiun is uaed because a derivation involving
energy yields the tenn ,} / 2, and it hM been found
I.
PROBLEMS 71
.oonvenieai to U8e die aame type of' espreMion in the PROBLEMS
ftl8istanee term. FundamenteIIJ t.hie ~ no 1. If model of aubnwiDe -.6ftb u.s IeacLh 01 I",
dil5culty whataoever, for & (Ktot of 2 C&D. be in- protOtype it to be tated in .. wiDd \uImel '-'-l of in wat..
Cluded ill n.. term.r. what .11 Vl)1od~y ahould be ~ .nUl the model .. equlwJent
to .. IlUbmetpd.-peed of , mph fOl" u.., ptOtotypet
,
Ail' W.tor
BIBUOOBAPHY
~lMity, Ib/eu It 0.07& 'lI' 62.S
t Do-. R. A, aDd M. J, TIIOItPIII)H, rtt.fd M~iu, ViIooIIty, 1)8D~ 0.0175 O.G6
Mca-BiII Book Co. (l937). 2. If tbe length ill IlDDIIideredlbe characterilltie dirneMoa,
2. ~~. "An kperimcntal Inl'tlltiption of what ill tbe Reynoldl! numberfw tbe model. wbkh ilI4 ft Jonc1
u.e C!m....... D(I(IJ' whieh Dotennlnc Wbe\her Ihr! Motam
01 Waa. hJl be Di~ or Bin.UDQI, and of thtI I ... 01 3. If Ule .me ~'1' in eqllMioa 10 .. 1.2 lor Ad
lie i 1 _ in Parallel Channe","," pJril. Tnav. Ro,. &e. pIMeB a' hiah Reynokk "Ilm~. de\ermioe the Imce .,.n.t
u....}f.11.. VM-4I82 (1883). . a licnboard 16 h hicb and 30 n lone when. .. 5O-mph wiod ill
i io-. Hi:II"i~ Nwtu"" 1IIwJt.Ma fJ/ 1'laoidt, .Iobn ~ apilllJt it. '
WUq _ Son. (1g46), At. "hal. wiod 't\IIocity will !.bill furoe OD the lip be doubled!

.
., ".f ' ...

,.. '1 '

,.
;.,.
"
 CHAPTER

The Flow of Solids through Fluids

HE direction, upward or downward, of the of the fcathers, causes the water to wet the surface of

T {low of pW"tieles of solids through a fluid d~ the feathel'll, and the duck sinks.
pends upon the density of the solid relative to Conversely "flotation agents" may be added.
that of the fluid. This principle is the basis for the These are selectively adsorbed on one of the BOlidl:l
separatton of solid partic~ according to their densi- prestmt a nd enable these solids to adsorb, or cling
ties, an operation known as lK1Ming. If a fluid of 110 to, hubbies of air whi(lh give those solid particles an
dewity intermediate t.o the densitie;!! of the solids is elTective density less than that of the surrounding
available, the solid particles may be sorted by simply fluid, 88 the solid particle plus the adsorbed flotation
introducing them into a body of the fluid . The agent and air is the effective particle. Operations
particles of a density less t.han that of the fluid will of this kind are identified e.s flotation operations and
rist> or float, and the particles of a den8ity greater are of great indUl!trial importance in the sorting and
than that of the 6uKi will fall or sink. If no simple recovery of valuable minera ls and in many other.
fluid of the required density range is available, a separations.
"complex" fluid or s suspension of very fine (through Even if the particles of both solids to be separated
325 mesh) solid particles in a fluid having the desired are more dense than the fluid. 80 that they both flow
bulk density may be used in a manner similar to in the same direction, downward, when pla.ced in
that with a simple fluid having a density equal to the fluid, separation can be accomplished if the par-
the bulk density of the suspension. ticles flow through the fluid with different velocities.
ID8tea.d of a suspension 88 the means of obtaining For ~aw ple, " mixl ur(j ul galena (PbS) and silica
a fluid of the desired density, the surface charac- (8 iO,) rock are to be seJXlt8.tcd. The particles are
teristlea of the solid and t.he addition of material reduced to a uniform size of about 1 em. By u
adsorbed on the 8Urfacee may be um to cause one laboratory test it may be dc.t ennined, or by calcula-
material to float and the other material to sink tion it may be estimated, that galena particles of
independent of the density relationships of the simple l-cm size fall through quiet water at a velocity of
IIOliW! and fluid . We have all observed dust particles 13 fps 8lId that silica particles of the same size fall
floating on water, in.seet<! walking on water, 8lId with a velocity of 7 fps. Then if the mixed solids are
):>O$Sibly the demonstration of a. steel needle " float- introduced int-o a vert ical stream of waler rising with
ing" on tile surface of water. These phenomena are a velocity of less than 13 fps and greater thnn 7 fpi!
possible because of "surface tension" of the water the silica particlCll will be carried upward" and dis-
or the water not "wetting" the solid. If the dust charged. at the overflow, and the galena will .sink
particles or the insect were thoroughly wet., they through the rising fluid and discharge at the bottom.
would !!link, and it is only by placing a dry needle ThilS continuous prooess, oalled elutriatwn~ uses a
carefully on the surflWe that it can be made w float . . cyiioder with fluid Bowing upwa.rd at a. constant
A duck float<! on the water. But the addition of a known velocity. The solid may be introduced till
"weUing 8gt."Ilt" whit'h j... :uL..urhed on the surf!U'e such or a.'S a dispers;un ill the flUMl llw ,uZ& at tJw.
72
 ~IAXJi\IU:\1
largest part iel~ carried upward by the ri:iing fluid
(after Bowing for some time) is the size baying a
maximum settling velocity just less than the upward
velocity of the fluid.
Cla.!Jllf~ion is the tenn used to designate the
separation of solid particles on the basis of their
velocities of flow through fluid s. These velocities
depend upon the properties of the solid (density,
size, and shape), and the surface or interfacial con-
ditions between the solid and fluid. The relation-
ships hctwC!ln these variables are complex, and the
int..rffU'i&l conditions are generally unpredictable
without experimental determination, frequently mak-
ing ea.lculation impossible.
The experimental determination of the maximum
ve10city of settling of small particles can be made in
a simple manner with a deep beaker or, better,
a large graduate. The solid is dispersed in the fluid
in the graduate. The dispersion is allowed to stand
for a known time interval. The upper part of the
dispersion is then siphoned "off down to a chosen
level. All particles whOlie seWing rates are greater
than that settling rate which would carry the parti-
eles to the depth of liquid removed in the known
time interval will be at the lower depths and will
ntlt appear in the dispersion w:ithdrawn. If the
largest sille of particles in the decanted dispersion
is determined, the maximum velocity of that I>ize
of "article may be estimated by dividing the depth
of fluid decanted by the time interval.
MAXJ:\lUM VELOCITY
Where the shapes of the particle!! cau he defined
and surface- (!tmditions are of rginor importance 110
that the other variablCII preduminate in determining
the Bow characteristics, the rate6 of free scttling lllllY
be estimated with satisfactory results.
The basic theory of the flow of wHds through fluids
is derived {rom the concept of freely moving (or
falling) bodietl of cOllBtant mass under a constant
acceleration.
v= a~
where v represents the velocity of the body relative
to the initihl position, & is the time intel"V& after
starting from rest, under the constant p.cceleration o.
In the case of falling hodicli. the acceleration is
due to the force of gravity repreeentcd by the lIym-
hoi g. If no other foree ill 8(!ting on the body, g
may be substituted for 0 in the above equation.
VF.I.OCITY 73
TIlt' pl"l'tiCIICC of allY 8uid such as air \,Ir "'aler intro-
duce!; two additional forees, the buoyancy effed.
resulting from disp~acement of the 8u)d by the saM,
and the frictional re!!islilnoo from relative motion of
the solid and the fluid. Friction inereases with
increasing velocity untit the accelerating and resist-
ing forces are equal. Then the solid continues to
move (or fall) at a constant maximum velocity
(also called the terminal velocity) unless additional
forces upset the, balance.
If the following four assumptions are made, the
mathematical treatment is relatively simple.
I. The solid is a nonporous, incompressible spher-
ical particle.
2. The fluid is incompressible and of sufficient
extent to eliminate the effects of tlle confining wall,>.
3. The accelerating force is derived from a uniform
gravitational field.
4. The particle is freely moving, that is, other
particles are absent or, if present, do 1Iot lUliCt the
motion of the particle under consideration.
The force causing the particle to move may be
expressed in absolute units as the maM of the particle
times the acceleration. Since the forte is rell.lly a
swnmation of several forces the re.; ult.ent /orctl lend-
i"fJ to mouf. th" pnrtirh dmtmwaT'd is
F' - rna - 1719 - wg - FR.' (11)
where g _ acceleration due to gravity.
m "" mass of the solid particle.
to = mass of fluid displaced by the particle or
having the same volume 88 the particle.
mq - gravit.u.tional force on the particle.
1119 - buoyant fome on the particle.
I-'/t' - ff'Sisting force due to friction effects or
fC(luired to 8C(~ler!l.t.e ftuid being di..
plaoed.
The terms in equation 11 are readily evaluated
with the exception of the resisting force FR'. New-
ton 4 '" developed an expression for the resisting force,
already given, as follows.
N ""
- (f')A - -
2
(10)
For a ~ the representative area A may be Uae
projected &rCa TD7. j 4 and
, Tl)'lP'"
J.'R "'" (fD) - - (12)
8
T~e biblioiraphy for this <)ru..pter appeal'S on p. 88.
 THE FLOW OF SOUDS THROUGH FLUIDS
whl'l"f' fD i!:\ the frict,ion flWtor for thil!l "Pf"t'ific Ilppli- fluid becomes leeR important, beeomin& neglisiMe in
cation of eqUAtion 10. detemUninK the resistance wbeo the 80w condltiOll8
U this value of Fr/ is subatituted in equation 11, become C!lDlpletely turbulent.
the IIteruJy-tltiLte mflximum falling velocity may be: Por vi:otu (JIf lamino:r ftqw (Fig. 68-1), Btobe it
l:<Jmputru. --. showed that the force ~ the motion of a sphar-
teal partide is
d,
m - _mg _ wg_PI,' (110) (16)
dl
where D _ diameter of the ~pheril.J parttcie.
(lib) p ... viscosity of the fluid .
II - velocity of the particle relative to the
fluid.
(13)
F.quation I1b Cor a sphere ma.y then be written
of)'
(-
)a. of)'
P. - - - g(p, - P,) _ 3TDp&I
6 dt
By dividing both side!! of' t-he equation by TJ.:i3 P1 16

(14) --
dv
dt
(p, - P,)g
p,
18~v

At the maximum (or terminal) velocity v",," dl'J/ dt _ 0,

(14)

Equation 1.1 is frequently tenncd Newton'li iaw,

expl"ei8ing the maximum (or terminal) velocily Jot'
failing spheru in terms of a variable factor JD.
Solving e<luat.ion 14 for /D, the frictioo factor
4(P, - P,)gD
(15)
ID - 3v.'p,
The flow may be lamin&r or turbulent, as indicated
in FIg. 68 which MOWS photographs of the wake be-
hind a cylinder. Photograph 1 shows laminar How
linm with the 8uid flowing in layers Mound the
cylinder. In 2 a filmall eddy has formed directly
behind (to the right) of the cylinder, but the flow
is 8till predominantly laminar. All the rate of flow
is increased the eddy becomes larger and more com
plex 'M the ftow becomes more turbulent, as in
photographs 3, 4, 5, and 6. The flow lines around a
filling particle are similar to those shown for the
eylinder. If the particle is small the flow is more'
likely to be laminar (Fig. 68, photograph 1), and the
viscosity of the fluid iH an important factor in deter
mining resitltan~. 1 the particle is large, the flow
W mo~ likely to be turbulent IWd a.cwmpanied by
the formation of etldies and vortices in the fluid
bebind the moving particle. Thette eddiets introduce
large re$b!tanl'hl to flow ~ and the viaoosity of the
This form oS the equation is tJ'Ie UBUal version oS
Stokes' lAw, which is applicable to tbe fall (or rifle)
ol spberie&I particles of .. nooporous inoompreBRible
aolid in IIZl in~p1'eIIJible .fluid in laminar How.
U the value for "- ~ equatton 17 for laminar fimv
is substituted for "- In ~uation 15, tbe frich
faetor becomes
4(.-. - p,)gD 18p
iD - -'-'::---:""--- .,.,----'''-;-=
31.1.. p, (p. - p,)gIJ2
1
- 21 - - -24 - (18)
Dv..PJ Re
The expresSion ~I Dvp waa reCerred W by Newton 4
as the criterion of flow .. But it is U8ual1y referred to
as liRe or the reciprocal of the Reynolds number
because Osborne Reynolds rediscovered thill crite.
rion I and applied it to the flow of ftuids in pipes.
Whenever laminar flow prevaiilf, equation 18 may
be uaed directly, or the friction drag factor may be
expressed 118 a logarithmic f'quation
Do..
log (/J,) - log 24 - log--
- 1.. ", - IocRe
(10)
 MAXIMUM VELOCITY
Flo. 88. Flow 1;1ltlS 01 lIuid pa8lli.ng II. eyllnder.
1946, p. 40, Plah XIV.)
The frict.ion factor in lamina r flow ill then l-epre-
sent~1 by a straight llne with a slope of - I un
logarithmic coordinates when log J is plotted fl.'! a
function of log Re, lUI in Fig. 69 or Fig. 70. This con-
dition exists up to a Reynolds number, Ue, of abo ut
3 when the eddies or turbulence begin to have some
effect which incre~ 88 the values of Re becomc
greater.
In the turbulent jfqw region (He greater than
about 300 or 4(0), the value for the friction fa.cWr
becomes neMly constant, independent of Reynolds
number lUI indicated by the horizontal part of the
linea on Fig. G9. At II. Reynolds number of ILhuu t
200,000, the friction f!lttor decre~ IShllrply. Thill
ill explained by tho fluid forming immediately
behind t.he particle an eddy which travels with thc
particle, therlclby constituting a streamlined hody
composed of sphere and eddy.
If the fluid is water, laminar flow is usuallv en-
75
(Il urtleT Ro_, "Eh~rtlar) MAanica /If F'lu;/k," Jolut Wiky altd s-t,
cOUlltercd with spheres 01 must mineral!:> if the di-
I!.mctcr is les.'1 Ulan 50 microns, and turbulent flow iii
lUmally f'.lleOI.llltf!reU with sph"!res of I mm (1000
micnI") or more in diameter. Moot oi the s.itt):;
involved in commercial sod i m~nt.ation or classifica-
tion II.M in lhe range of 0.05 to 1 mm where t he values
of the friction factor In clln be best obtained. only
from the plot, }<'ig. 70.
As indicated in Fig. u9, the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow is rather indefinite, there being no
sharp break from the Irt.raight sloping line repre-
senting laminar flow (Ctluutioo 19) to the horizontal
line of completely turbulent flow where it) i~ pTa&-
litally constant. A part.icle always tends to move
in t.hat mlWner which offers the greatftlt resistlUlce.
In that region where the friction factor in turhulent.
fl ow is not significantly grilUowr than in laminar flow ,
any loc.u irregularit ies in r.onditions would tend to
causc a ehange in type of How and the flow would
 THE FWW OF SOU])S THROUGH FLl'IDS

1-
76

~ Crushed silica
~
...
1000
600
Cru$hed plena

.i .
200
....0::. '100
~I
~ OJ

20
I0
6 ,
4
2

,
I

.,
0

0. I
001 0.01 1. 2 4 6 10 100 1000 10,COO 10 10'
_ _" " " '''_ D ..,."
"&~,, umber, Blsed on Average reel! - . I'

Flfl.'69. Friction facior, or dmg coefficient, vel'5Wl Reynold!! number for crushed IIOlids and spherell flowing through fluids.'

" II
1000
600
400
200

oJ- - 0.125

1JI .. 0.220

6
4 "'''0.600
I- I I I
2
"iOft
.

02
0. I
I
6 . 'Ji'" 1.000

.001 '01 124610 100 1000 10,000 10' 10'

Reynolds Number, usirlj D,

FlO, 70. Friction factor, or dr~ coefficient, venIWI Reynolds number for p&rticlefi of different BllhericitiefJ.1I
 MAXl1\lUl\I VJ:o:LOCITY 77
be' expected to be unstable. Although there may be readily determined from the rlata in Table 18 if tJ-oe
such an unstable region in ~e CMe of an individual particles happen to conform to one of the regular,
particle, it is not evident in data obtained on a large shapes listed.
, number of particles which indicate the relationships
J shown in Figs. 69 and 70. TABLE 18. SPHERICITY A~D THB VALUB OF D.
RELATED TO SCREEN SlZl-:
of Particle SIui,.
The FJ!fJCt
The maximum velocity ".. of IPhtrictJl panick3 has ....... Sphm; city'"
0,
'0:;;
been determined for spheres of widely varying sizes Sphere 1.00 1.00
and densities through many different fluidll.l,l,"I!.11
The results oi these experimental data when plotted
Octshedron
Cube
0.847
0."" I.,.
o.9tI.S

on I Fig. -00 Of Fig. 70 determine the curve labeled

"spheres" oJ! - 1.00, which may be used with con-
"'"""
aX aX,,"
aX2aX2a
0.767
0.761
1.5<1<
o.n8-'I
~X2aX3a 0.725 1.127
fidence for sphtrical pl'.rticles uninfluenced by'lIpecial Cylindel"l!l
surface conditIOns.
The shape of the particle may be defined in terms
of thi sphericity f. , which is
.-a,
" - 21-
/I - 101-
0 . 874
0.800
O.fi91
t . l~
1.31
1.96
It - 20r 0."" 2 .~~12
Sw-{ace &rea of sphere havinf: same v91ume as particle
Burfaee &lM of particle
D' Q (1)
.-,
DieM
/I
II, _
r 1.33r

1 - r/iO
r/ 3
0.858
0.8Zl
0.594-
0.""
1.00
0 .90'J
0.630
0.422
-~- --
D, - ,,- r / 15 0.254 0.368
Multiply ecreen sile D.... by the factor indic.tI to pt
where n - the ratio of BpeCific 8Urfacee, the n of eon-ect value for D. to be ueed in the eqUlitione.
Fig. 17.
D.. v. ,;"
average screen ~se.
D. _ diameter of sphere having 8I:U1le volume
U the shape is not regular, ~ would be true for
a mutilated cube, the sphericity and the oorrect '
1108 particle (lor a spherical particle value fOf D. may be approximated ' by interpolating
D. _ D).
between tbe ~r basic ' crystal form and the
The above equation is derived M follows: IIphere, provided extreme care and judgment are
used. The actual shapetl of particles encountered in
Specific surface of pa.rticle
industrial operatiolUl can usually be eatimat.ed only
n - Specifie surfBQe of SPMnl of same diame\el'
by microscopic examination. The curves of Fig. 70
Surface of p&rticle are based on a "diameter" D., which is not the same
MUll of particle dimension as the aize of a particle determined by a
Swiaoe of ~ of _me diaDlilMr screen analysis (the average of the apertures of the
MUll of aphere of 1I&lOO diametef' cooliniog screen.s). The screen size approximateB
the second largest dimension of the particle. For
_ ('rO;'iN) ( ..D.....P~) example a prism a by 2a by 3a has the effective
'rD, ,v6 rD .... dimension 2a 88 its "size" in screen analysm, but
.--D"D,~ the diametef of a sphere having the same volume
(D.) is 1.127{2a) - 2.254a. A cube having an edge
~fore,

The value of D.
.--- D .... I
D,

u 1M ootWl kJ bt UMJd for D in all flow

~ wing tpltericitll. The friction. factor fD
may be estimated &8 a function of Reynolds number
as indicated by the family of curves plotted on Fig.
70, with the sphericity f. used 88 a. panuneter.lI The
I!Phericity '" and the val~ of D. to be I.I8ed may be
of a, which is also the efJeetive dimension in screen
analysis, has 1.240 as the diameter for a spbere of
the same volume (D.).
In Fig. .09, the curves labeled "cnlshed Ailiea" and
"enlshed galena" were plnltfld from experimental
data' covering sizes varying from 0.0008 kl 1.8 em,
with the siZE'! indicated by t.hl" screen analyl:lis &8 Lbo
diamf'!t-t.r Dn ". Thf' IU10ffil\lfl1IM l()('ll.tion 01 theee
curves retrults from the 1t$6 uf the dimeru!ioo obtainjld
 11 THE FWW OF SOUDS nlROUGH FLUIDS
by' screen &nalysis (D.~ instead of the diameter of occupied by the Buid. Therefore, the viscosity 01
the sphere of equal volume (D.). the fluid may be multiplied by a factor determined
'HoweVer, the curves plotted in Fig. 69 on the 68 a Junction of the volume fr&C:tion X:
basis of IICreen sizet (D .... ) !U'C convenient as they
may be used dirootJy for "cmshed galena," and
~iliea without computing the sphericity or Do_
--
".

'"
lOU2<l-.n

)'
This reiat.ion:mip tu.H heeD developed for t5pberieal.
Flocculat.wn
part.idel!.' Since the hulk density is also a funotion
When many part.ides are prceent. thflre h~ a I,end \If l.he riI:U1le volume rraction X and t he derulilw. of
t'_n~y for individual partkleit tu agglomerate into I.he 80Iid and fluid, tL eonvenMmt way of estimating
chl!lters or floos: Each floc then behaves milch 81> a t.he velocity of hindered IW!ttling i~ to apply the factor
Kingle particle of larger size and different shape thM F. to the velocity caleulated for free l!ettling. This
the individual particles constitilting the Roc. For factor p. is given 88 a function of the volwne frao-
Ihis rea&on the obgerved rate of settling is frequently tion of the fluid (X) in Fig. 71 and may be used !L8 a
many times greater tban that computed for the
tlJDall individual particle. F1occulatioo agenta which
increase the tendency to fonn BoCa are frequently
added to increase tbe speed with wbich a suspension
settles to produce a clear thUd. Dejocculating
agents which reduce the tendency to form 1\008 bave
the olJPOlllite effect.
Hindered Settlin.8
When many partkles are present there is mutuaJ
interference 'in the motion of particles, and the
velocity of motion or rate of set.tling is considerably
leM than that computed by the equations derived
on the assumption of free motion of the solid par.
ticles. The particle is actually settling through a
slurry or suspeosion of-particles in a. fluid rather than
lhroug)t the simple fluid itseU. Therefore, the bulk
densit.y of the slurry Ph .calculated by dividing the Volume Fraction of
lJl888 of the fluid and lIuspertded matter by the
FIG. 71. Settli", fac:t.or' F. for hindered II81.tling vcou<
volume occupied by the slurry, shoukl be used in- volume rra.et.ion of fluid in !!Iurry fOf BIJOheri.-al particl~ in
stead of the density, of the clear fluid In equation 17. t.millllf flow.'
- Likewise, the bulk vtscusity of the slurry I' ~, as ma.y
be determined experimentally, may be used instead multiplying factor ' in equation 17 for eetimating tht':
of the vifll"Ollit.y I' of the elear fluid. velocity of settling when many particles are preeent.
With thetle ~ubstitution!l equa.tion 17 beeomee (I'. - p, }gJJ2
fiN - F, (171/)
(p. - I'~)gD' 18",
"n - v_- 181'~
(l7a)
The value of F, M pven in Fig. 71 for viaoous
where'6 - bulk density of suspension. sedimentation or nonfloceulated spheres may be 0b-
. ~. _ bUlk yieeoeity of 8U8J)(>D8ion (Table 17 ). tained from the equation
fJH - hindered settling maximum velocity. X2
The bulk vieoos:ity ill frequently a function of tOO
P. ---- - liN
~u IOI. S2(1 X I

rate of shear in the C8Be of 8uspensione: and therefore If X is not. greater than 0.7, the following mmpie.-
an indefinite and indeterminate value in 80 far All relationship may ~ qsed:.
equation 17a is <loncemOO. HowevElr, the. inter-- lIH X,
fereDee C&UfIIld by the pn:tlell.t:e of many particles i~ F. _ - - 0.123-- -
a function of the volume fraction of the slurry (X) "-" 1- X
 TIlE GENERAL CASE
The eft'eet. of particle concentration on rate of IIl't.-.
tlin: is ~el'ftlt for angu~ particlee f..tian for sphert'S.
Apparently tlle angular ~ides ca:rry with them a
volum~ of iiq!lij:l which is proportional to the VOI!lmC
fA the lOti!! ' ~ .. flJnctip~ of particl~ IIhape and
degree of fIooculMjon. ThilJ liquid is rmt ad~)rhed
on the I!IOlid but simply held relatively stagnant by
t.tte anpIuitiM in the particles. The effect of thil!
I!Jt.apa.at liquid may be' incorporated by modifying
~ above equation i:IB follows.
'9
and
(fu) 1,
Thc' intR.l'1'Ie(lt;on of ,the straight line ,,{ ~Iul\t,il)n
22 when plotU!d on Fig, 69 ' IIr Fig, 70 \\ith thr.
proper linc giving fD as a. function (If Re ill f.h"
d&lired v"lu,. fur Reynolds numoo!' incorporating
thp value of ". ""limit is the required *1ll1t10n. 'I1w
value uf ". it! then computed directly from ,the value

, ',._ __II _ 0.123(1 + 4)2 ( x---

of Re, since D. P. and I/. are known.
.)'
, ...... I-X 1+0 Ewrcl.e. BJ a amiN pnndure dI'lin: &Iw: 'olIowi1Ic
~~tKm (23) aAd AhMt how i~ CIUl btl ~ 1<, ealeulatl! ~he
BiJIC of. pI&l1ick that. ....ill have" 9pl>ci.fiud maximum VBlncity
where tI _ volume of immobile liqui4 per Llni~ vol-
,-.
ume of solid.
(>3)
The value of a varies from aero for nonftoooulated
Iphcrce to unity or greater for bighJy ftoooulated con- Woll Effect on Free SettUng
oeqtratl !!U8peD8ioos. t If the huid is confined in a cylinder or otherwise
Altbou&h ftoecuIaUon inCtMIIM the rate in free 80 that it may not be regarded as infinite in ~t,
settlirac It ~ the rate in hiDdered eettJing. ow- the projected area of the falling partic~ decre&11e8 the
me to tJps lncluaiOll. of iI:nplobile uquiil with the 8Olid. effective croee eeeti(Jll.ll.] area of the confining veseel.
requiring too. fluid to move with a gre&ter ,veioeity
U. f!!/ f'riedoft Faetor than ir it w&e' infinite in extent, Thi! action baa
Whenever D, p, or'v... is not known, the solution of tbe effect 01' increasing the res'stance tending to
equation 14 ~ a trial-&lld-error procOOure be- decrease the maximum velocity tI... If e veM8l is
cauIe theee U!tmfI appear in both the friction factor
cylindrical, the following empirical "correction"
and tbe Reynolds number. When solving for v., factors by which the maximum velocity tI", ma.y be
the trial..a,nd-error procedure may b4! eliminated by "corrected" or multiplied have been uuggeeted to
meana of equation 22. take into account the w311 effect.
M the friction factor (equation liS) ill written in the For laminar flow 1
klprithmk: form

I.. Uii) - 100. .

, \
Jg(P. - p,)D
3Pi
- 21.. '. ~) (I -D.-D)""
For ,turbulent flow J
and the Reynolds number
" I,
log He - log -
~ , + log,_ (21)

where D - diameter of the spherical particle.

eliminating log tI... between these equatiofUl gives D~ - diameter of the vessel or container.

Eurciae. Dr.\\' eurvetI Mw1fing the value 01 the vdoei~y

rom!Ct.KKt faetorl for wall effect l1li fu!let.KlD 01 the ,.00 01
U... <1iamrt.-r of ttw. mnl&in".. '" I.... <1WnP~ of tIM< ~
an equation between J and Re in whk,h I/., doed nol; IlOlrti ..!r.

appear and which may be plottl on Fig, 70 1M a

straight line with a sU"pe of -2 p&88ing t.hrouy.. the 'nIE GENERAL CASE
pOOo" In the pl'f'viouR t.l'ffitment. t~ partiel., WAS COll-
l<illf'cloOO to he moviul!: ill Ulte dimeusion 1I111y, U(lWII~
"" - I .ml'd. Hut the motion of the particle m"y have a:-
.. TIIE ' Fl..OW OF SOLIDS THROUGH FLUIDS
horlsontal crn:nponent. fI.S well as a vertical. In such SlJperimposed on the other. and the equations may
cues, a bltlance of forces gives be in~ated independently.

dVl , One-VirneruiORGl Motion. in. Abaence of Cro.,'.

m- - -F 008(1 (24)
<It totionol Field
Although such mo~ion is not usually encountered,
dll. P.-PI
m- - WJ-- - P' sin a' (25) the consideration of horizontal or any one-dimen-
dt Po 8i~al motion alone is an important fltep in integmt,..
ing equation 26L.
where (If - ' angle between direction of motion and the
By substituting Re/JjDp for v and ~A in equation
horiz.on ~'8L
26 for the horiwntaJ or one-dimensional componEnt,
'. _ horizontal component of particle velocity.
v. _ vertical component of partic1r. velOcity d(He) ,.<.
COlI a ,.. Vii/V. - - - - - - -<It
ID(Re)' 2Dm
ain a - v.Jv.
,r _ 11,,2 + ",,s. which may be integrated between limits t ... 0 and
t ... t, and He - Reo at ~-O when V"Vo, and
Substituting from equation 10: ~.,. Re when v"'" 17.

--
dv.
<It
--
loPtAVIJ,.
2m
(26) ~4 t _
2Dm
i R

Re
.. d(Re)
ID(Re)t
de. _ g (Po - PI) _ fDPtAW .
i
(27) ~ d(Re) iR'~ d(Re)
dl ' P. 2m - Re ID(Re)' - RIO/b(Re)' (29)
Equatiom 26 and Xl are too complex to solve in where Re~ "" Re at any arbitrary reference base.
AMeral Conn here.... But for special cases solutions In Fig. 72 the vfilue of the followipg integra.l
are available.'
Few lominor jIqw, equations 26 and Z1 may be rXI~ d(Re)
Bimptified and integrated directly. lao JD(Rei
c C, is plotted sg:a.inst Re for spherical particles. In
ID - -He - -f),p
using Fig. 72, choose a value of v and compute the
corresponding value of Reynolds number Re.
C c, The right-hand side of equation 29 is evaluated by
UD)' - -(He),.
- - -DIlIIP,
- adding the respective integrals 88 determined from
c c, Fig. 72 wit4 due regard for the sign. The value of
(JD) . - (He), - Do .., the elapfledl time (') for the WOllen one-dimelUlional
velocity (II) can be .calculated directly. The time-
vlD - v.Un) . - V.UD ). diKtanoo relation is then readily obtainable by
graphical integratJon

I'-0-
For lamiMT /lot
,- vdt
-- -
mlo
dt
PtA(fD~A".2
2m
(26 L)
GraphUxll . inkgmtion is readil~' and accurately
,
dlf. _ 9(Po - P,) _ PrA(fD),p. .
(ZlL) accomplished by plotting the values of v as deter-
mbed as a function of t, a.e: indicated in Io'ig. 73u.
ell P. 2m
drawing a IImOOth curve throngh the points, and
J.:guatiOll8 26 and Z1/~. which apply only \..0 laminH.1' determining t.he area under the curve by .the follow-
flow ..how that the velocity or motion in one dime- ing procedure. . ..
IB independent. of the motion in a -direction Draw horisootal liDeS connecting the ordinates,
.,erpt'1KIieuJar to the first. motioo. 'J'h<>l'1'foro th(' ~11~h as linel' a~!, c-d, r-I, c1Al., I:I() tha.t the areA above
trajectory of ,t\1e particle will be that of one motion each horizontal linc and below the CUl"V'e equals the
 TW'()"DIMENSJONAL MOTION R

Reync.lds Hurnber, Re _ ~

...J X IOO " (Re)

fiG. n. " ..lUI'll eliot!: J~ f(Re)' Vl.'.-Iog (Re).

area below the horizont.a.l line and abO\~e the curve,

that i!l, the area la2 equals 2b3, and the a.rea 3M
equals t.he area 4d5, etc. With a. little care this can
be done quite accurately by eye. Tho area. of the
reclangle a,b,IO,O is then equal to the area. under the
curve 1,2,3,10,0 between thE same ordinates. Tbe
I8.IDe is tme for each rectangle so ronstructcd.
The .integral curve representing the value of the
integra!
-'
f.'-0
ma.y then be N'.adily dm\\1l
,dl

a,.<; indicated in ~'ig. 73b,

o 10 20
",
(0)
" ..
giving

as a {unction of t a,... follows. ,ok I---

Point .!to at t - 0 in Fig. 73b represents the distance
I,)r position of the particle at zero t ime (l - 0). The
Dk;.
.....
- - E

increase in distance 4 . between t ... 0 Ilnd t = 10 is V~- c~
represented by the area a,b,lO,O of Fig . 736. The.
-- A
distance s at I _ 10 is obtained by adding the
appropriate value o( 411 to II at t - 0, that is, layin,l!;
of AB on ltg. 73b numerically equa.l to .6.sl: : ~o
or &qual t{l area. a,b, lO,O on Fig. 730. Like ....i;;e, CD
o 10
" 30
(b)
, " .
equals the area c,d,20, IO, and EF equals the area J.'10. 73. Grapbic:al int"l[J"llt wn . (a ) The differenliai 0UlT
tJ,'JO,20, etc. A SIDoulh cun'c drawn through the It V\'f3\I!I t; (bJ tht: i"t.egral nlTVl', ' l'I:'nIU8l.
.. THE FWW oi-' SOUDS THROUGH FLuiDs
po~tII 80. B, l6 P, et.c., is t,ht' integra.! cur\'!' giving Hubtlt.il.u'l"ing the value!< of Re and.; all civtn above,
the value of for all Vallle!J of t inl'lnded.
In this way t.he posit ion in the horizontal direct.ton w.. - --
.---In f .. - ..) (37)
or dimension may be determined a.t any time. pCA \II.. ~II
Pur laminar /lovJ, equation 29 nu.y be integrated wb...
directi,y between limits t ... 0, t "" I, and II - 110,
11 - 0, since!D ... ei Re.

For ~ pGni.tk. in laminar jfhw, equation

t _ 2Dm In (R..) _ 2Dm In (~) (30) 37 reduces to "
C~ Re CpA II

For spherical particle!! in laminar floW ,!D - 2-I/ Re . - p,D'

- -In ('-
- -- ")
- (38)
1~ 11.. -11
(equat.ion ui); A _ ."n'j 4 : m _ "r[)/ II, and
is given by equatioil 17 for epheric.a.I particleil.
II",

. - P.D'
- - In ("')
- (31) Por eotftpl.ele4, turbulent JiJW, where fD ill ~almOllt
IS", 1/ eODBtant :
Pur completely turbulent nwlion, ,I)
is almOflt con- For downward motion, Positive valUf!8 of He and Reo.
stant, and equation 29 may be integrated directly to

t _ ~(~ _ 2)
~.
2Dm
__
2~
'_In [('- + ,)(.. - ")]
1/.. - "1/ + 110
(39)
(32) 11...
iDP.A 11 "0
For upward motion, negalive values 01 Re and Reo.
For spherical parlicin, 111 i~ ahout 0 .-1 and

t c:>! 3P.D (: _ 2) (33)

. . - - ,- w.-.[("1101/ -'+ )'"1
--,
2Dm.,;J;;i 11..
2

(40)
PI 11 110 where

~
One.Dimttn.donGl Motion in G,.,.ricotiof&al 2g{P. - PI)m
Field
,--
p,p.foA
For II. falling particle, equation Z1 becomes
or as given by equation 14 for spherical p&rticJes.
<Iv _ (P, - PI) _ JDP,A.,r (34) When a particle has an initial downward velocity.
equation 39 may be 1.1IIed directly. When the ~itia1
dt p, 2m
velocity is upward, equation 40 lIbould be "wted,
By substituting &",j Dp for II, during the B.BOent, and equation 39 applied there-
after to the deeoent with &to - o.
.... dl _ ."(lIe) (35) For further treatment of this pro:blem IUld for tw~
2Dm (29PI (P,
,
-PIlml)2) - ID(RI'l )
, dimeMiooal motion in centrifUgal fielda, the oriinaJ
p",A reference 2 should be eoosulted.
The gen"eraJ equations for motion of a partick in II
29',(9, - p,)m[)2 jtuiIl atrt.am undnprotng 3impk rotational motion. IU'&
4> "" , - ma.ximum value for ID(Re)'
A
p",
tor the falling partiele..under oonp;jdernt.ion.
Integra.ting between' limits
:--(';') [, -C:::)] -(Pif:'''') (41)

.....
2Dm
- f.~
a.. 4>
d(lIe)
fD(Re)2
(36) -dlld
e ""'~ [PtfDAII(VI -
- l--+
, 2m
III)] (42)

p()'r ~inar jWw, ID ,"" ei Re, and equation 36 can where u, - tancential velocity of the ftuid.
be integrated directly to IIi - tancential velocity of the parlicle.
'. _ nodi&! velocity at the ..........
' II _ V 11,2 +
(u, - 111)' - velocity of the par-
ticle relative to the 8uid

For ,pheri;al parmk. in laminar flQUI
(~)(U')'l -
2 I. By me~ of equation 17, cmnl>utc the nlll~imum v~luohy
dv, _ vJ [, _ IS."v;
(It r P. VI p.D
do,
dt
When the tangential velocity d the partiell' I'J j,;
about !:Qual w the tangential velocity of the fluid HI
alld V. il:l relatively smali, equation -4 1 may I~ rc-
duced to
2 2mut(P, - PI)
II, - - (43)
PIP./DAr
For spherical particles equation 43 becomes
u/(P. - PJ)[J2
'....
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. t'LUfClB, AlIUO W .... ~' waU F.f[eet. in the Fal linK-RaIi
Me~hod for ViscuAty," PA~ ~ 4()3..-406 (1933).
3. WPPUl, C. K,nd C.B. SHl:PKI:IIlI: "CAlculation of Parti-
cle ~Wries," Ind. &g. Chen., IS, 605 (May til4O).
2a. VON KARMAN , TKWOORE, and MAUJlIr: A, BlOT,
MatMnwtical UtlhotU in Enginetring, p. ISO, McGraw-
Hill Boo -::0. (11:140).
3. MONKO&, H . 5., "The F.nl liBh va. the Contil.ent&! SYII/.em
of Jigi" , -i.s plolc &...nllt Adv!Ull~t" 7'f"IlfU. Am.
l out. M iRing M d. ENp'., 11, 637-6.W (I888-1881I).
4 . NXWTt>N, I Il.lAC, M tJl.M/na1m Prinriplu 01 Na:t<NJl
Phil-.plill, Book II (Engli~h trans1atkm uf 1729).
6. PKIINOLET, V., "A I'~t.ude deli pr6paratinnH I~nique!!
dee minerBis, ou OlI IM!rienI'C'I! propf'-'I! 11. ~tfl,h\it 1& th60rie
dt.a ditfo!,...,nUl BYllti!nld W!litCH ou pot<>rible.," Ann. Mine.
II VI, 10, 379-4~ (1861).
O. RII:TNOWlll, OtIOO!tNS, "An Experimootal i"nvestiption
u( t be C"lreUllIIIt.Ii.,,_, which Del<lnnin" Wh"lher ~he
Molwo of Water 8111111 be Direct or tlin;OOllll, ...,,1 ul ~bc
I.w of ResilIlanoo in Panallcl ChlInnda," I'lli/. TrOIu.
Hey. &x. (Lmo(l",,), 114., ~ ( 1883).
7. RlCHABDI>, R. H ., and C. K Locu:, 7f~ IJI OU
Drt.ti1ll}, Fill:. M, p. 129, alG ed. , M cGnL\':-Hill Book
Co. (1940) .
8. R' cHARDS, It. H ., "Velocity of GaleD..II. and Quarb F ..1li1l,l
in Water," TmM. Alii. but. ,1,(;Rital} M d. Ji..g" ., 18, 210-
235 ( 1007).
9. Snll1ll01J1I, H, H., ''Tilt: Rllte of g", lill~nla~ion;.
Ifn,. C/v.m., 36, 6 18, 840, 901 (1944).
10. 8-roKIl8, G. G. , .val~irol awl PIlI/6iraJ Papu~,
( 1001). Tro,u/. C..ml,,~ /'/til. .0.;,,..., 9, 1'lI r! H, PI'.
MtJ (1851).
II . \If "I>I>I':!., H.\KOS, "Sumo Nel', &.~Ii",cnt ... ti"n .... 'n nllWl,'
,.ItV,,~.Ii, 'l8 1-2'JI ( 1~34 ) .
12. WAI>Of::L, HAJ:UIi", '~l'he u"'fficic" l u( K..w.I ..""" "" "
,"'ou ... lio" <lj l(..-y,,,,I,I.; ~'.Illlbt'r (or S"lids ,of \,,,ri,,u~
.--li",,,,,,,",,".1. I',..."u,,, ",J., 217, 159 .tYU (lI):N ).
PROBUUIS l\3
PROHLK\IS
(41L) at which PArticles "f ~lli"n (Si(~) O.oo.~ Gill ill tl inl llf)l~ r .... ill
{lOll t Iorou"h 'I";"'t ... ,,1 (''' :
(a ) W llI.!u I I., "IUIr), i",;o <lilute thai [,n, ...lIlilll/: I',,,v .. ik
(42[.) (to) Wh.lO tloe UUlN< roiL.., or w.. le.. t n ~i li.-.i it! 2,
2. With dau lrom Tablee J and 17, compute vaJOCII fUI"
F. fu. calcite Ilnd oompun: t llCiC valUe!! with lb.o1;c "il"<11 in
Fig. 71 for RpherieBI panici.eo.
3. Air it being dried by being bubbled (in very small
1mblok."II) through oonoon tl"ll.l<.'11 ~ulfuri" .. eitl (SIM~:ifi" "mvit.y,
1.84; vi.!lonMity, 15 ccntipoitu; l.t!mptlnLtul"f:!, 100 ' Fl. 1'h"
sul{uric acid tilt. a 2+-in. LD.U, Z-in . ID gb..'<I; tubo: 1(1 a depth
tor 6 in . lloe dry air 1Iix.Yl.: t he aeid is a t a press"", u( I Iltm
BAd ut IOU F. If the dry air rate ill 3.5 ..tm, whllt ill the
m.xill\um ;Iiamel-cr Qf II sulfuric acid IIprn)' dml'let ",hi.i.
might btl CIIorrieo.l. out of till, uPl'Ul"lI.tw! by entrui.ru\lot!nl .j"
(44)
the lIir etrearn.
4. A thin water 8uspellllion of 8I)il is p...,pare<! at 10 A.III.
At 1>0011, I. sample is drawn f1'OlD the Sl,Ispc,lI<ion. at a depth
of .5 em. What ill the 1:ugest pMt.iele probably removed b)' a
pipeUe at lhill d.,pth (5 em) i{ tile, slJn'ifie gravity of lhe toil
ia:l..M
S. It ill T\!(1l1ired to cb-ify kIl"IIIlI par"t'dC8 of clo.arc.... 1 which
may be 1188umed to be di!:lk~ or ~ 1i.r"kl'9 such t hat D. _ D. y.,
with a epeci.fie gravity of 0.8. The charomLl ill t" hi! a llowed
tt> fa ll freely through a vertical Lower &gain.st II. risin!j: current
01 air At 20 C ILll<l a~ID(AIpherie proo<llUru. ClLlculaw ~h"
minimum lSi..., of chlU"e:>lll ...bleh ...ill Beale to the hot\,Om of
the W...er if t l.e air is Mne: t hrou"h the 1.tI",,:er ...illo II. v~locity
of 10 'p!.
II. A 'Ili.l:lure of fiptleriea! ps.rt.ielo.1I 01 Hiliea ~ntaill8 JWU'-
ticl...'tI ttl.nciu" in t!i'e from 14 ll1I:!II.b to 20J mesh. Thillluixtun.'
is to be di vided into tw" frnetiol"lll by elutri&tion, utilizing
the upwArd velocity of o!. 8t1'(.'1I.1II of w&ler I'It M>"~' '001111:
throuji:h II. tuhe 4 in. in dia<nll:\tr.
fa, wt..t 'Iuantii.y. of ...lLt<l r, In ~\ooIl PI,r m iuute, ...iII
povwbly "" ,.....dc<.I to d ivi<J.., the mi. I.",,", "l ,.. ..i... "'I"ttl w
the a l",'1.ure o{ .. 4:;"'me"h _ ..1
(6) When I hl! waler Ro, ... Ihruu~h Ih" tuhl.' il$ 1.6 IQ"' ~
whllt ii! tho, ~ .. ,alle>lt size "f " ilk .. j-"ide which will pl""I.)6l1ly
aettie through t he sln,,,m1
7. CruHhed silica is tn 00 analy~"tl by c\utrill.lion, whh an
elutrn..tor ....IKIIle anslyzing zone u, fI, cy linder 3.5 ill. in diam-
eter. Waler a.t 55 F is Lo be .........1 .... the lIu lylil\i ftuid.
Wluot !aIel' ,,' Sow,,' that 1I".. ler, n>eA5Urod in pU ....UI jk'r
I nd. minu te:, .... ilI be ,u.~1)' tu give A sized frseliuu .. r lhe
crushed 6iiicr. C<I"""IJOnJin,; I" II., - 270 + -400 " -'W. fn".~
t :on ol>l.ainlilok. {rulll "l'yl... r ~huMla!"l1 !l<:n.~1~,1
,',""'\l,,
8. " fa\li n,c-I.... l1 vi.... 'J 1",rn(,,~ loy tilUi,,~ U,e f".U ,,'
a st...'tJl booJ.l ..ith " <.\i"IlIt,t.,. ,,( 0.2[, in. (d~I",it.y. 7.!l "m lC)
through the fluid. Oil .... 1;. "'" '!'I:.o<il.' i.. O.8S 1('" ,.,. ill ;1111,,..
,lu ......oJ illl" the ilk~.ru,,~" I" . n ,, ",wi h 11 blls " dill' al"' ,,{
10 ill. l.h"I\IKII tI ' .,,1. \\'1,,,, i.; u .. "i..."Ul!ily of lit, va i( all'
t i",... "f r.. 1t ... ti.3;; ",.,.~
 CHAPTER

Classification

S
EPARATlO-X of materials into two or mors be obtained from Table 18, p. 77, and used in
frHctions depending llpon their rates of flow equation 45. '
through fluids is called c/a8Bification. When Solving for the spherical settling ratio,
ttie different fa tts of How are used to separate mate-
rials of the same denl:lity according to their sites (and
D.4 _ (Ph - p) [(fD)A]
shape) , t he operatioll is known lUI sizing. SiJ.ing is a DB CP..-I - P) {fD)b
poss.iblc substitute tor screening. When materials
of the same equivalent size are separated according - (D..J' 0, (0",)8]
[ -- ~- --- ---
(D.... )8 (D.... )..-I Da
(45)
to their densities, the operation is called 80rli1l!'.
Under turbuknt C()nditio1IS, the value of in for each
Since it is impossible in actual operation to obtain a
solid is COTlBLant over the range of conditions in-
feed of absolutely uouann size, sizing is always in~
volved, and equation 45 may be readily solved. In
volved to a greater or JellS degree ill every sorting
many cases, as with particles of the same sphericity,
operation.
the values for in are the same for each material and
UD) 4/ UL )B - I .
"!!:QUAL FAUING" PARTICLES' Under laminar conditions, in varies inversely with
the Reynolds number Re, from Equation 18.
The effectl'- of size and delll!ity of particles can be
considered in combination to compute that l'aOM;e of 24, 1
sizes of a mixed food that can be sorted .... r separated In = - --
V", p D
aeoonling 1.0 density, This is done conveniently by
For all materials having tbe same maximu::n
the concept of the "equal falling" par liclc~, the sizes
velocity v'" in the same fluid in laminar flow! equa-
of pMtieles of the tIVO different materials to be S(jrtoo
tion 45 may be written.
whieh full through the fluid at equaJ. velocitie;;.
Prom etluat ion 14 , t.hc two different maleria ls, A
and B, will have t.he ~amfl maximum velocity t'", when -- D.t
DB
In the
(PR - p) Ds
(P A - p) D.4
re,jUlI
., D,)2 PH - P
( -Da - - -
P" - P
(46)

betv.. ccn l..rnilllU" an..~ completely turbulent

con'lition~, ,,00,,: ' ,Jany oouimeut&\ion problcll'llil occur, f
VlI.rieM lAS A Sll\Alif,t ne,ltlltive vo",,r of Ru. T he followi.ng
L-qu:ltiun, with 1111 eXpor>Cnt &...:lI ter ths n I but HIlI 1hBII 2 fOJ"
t h" 1),,,'0 ,, term, may he UIIO ''\ for Pflrticles (If the same
where P - ucn!fity o f fl uid , and s u b:>c riptfl A alid B
sphericity or w!;en LI~ valU6 for J may 00 repreSmled in
indicate propertie!! or condili(ms fu r mli.t.erial~ .1 terll"lll uf D ILlld v 811 the on ly v!l.rilLhles.
andB. (DM - (1)11 - 1
The ratio of the diameterS of spherical particlClS (l)1) )- - (I>.t _ 1>1 (47)
of the two d ifferen t ma terials DA I Ds having the ...hc!'e I min08 the slope ,,/. the "curVl!: for the corre-
Il _

same maximum settling ve,l ocity v.... may be called .pulldiIllt solid on Fiil. 70 OVl!:r the nwge cove~ by oper-
the qJ>uica/ aeUling ratio. The IlI.tio D/ D ..v, may atin, conditions.
84
 EQUIPMENT 3S
The ratio (D.v.)A/ (Duc)B, 88 obtained from equa- of the 8uspen.~ion Pb becomes the effective Jensit,y
Lion 45, may be called the MUiing ralio and represent.':! to be substit.uted for " in the equation. Similarly,
the ra~io bet ween the ~ maximum and minimum as the concentratiun of the muterial being separated
"screen diameters:' of pm:ticles that may exist in a builds up in the fluid , the hulk d en~i t.y of the "uid
bCfrened or sized rni.xt.ure ol, U~ rnatcri.a.b .1 and B. if approuchcs t he dell!:lity of the 801id m a terial and t he
a clean separation between these two materiall! is to selt.ling ratio inere:ll:ICs, giving a sh arper sorting of
be made by.cl. fication, using the fluid in ,quCI.tion. the t wo m aterials. This principle i,. lI :$Cd in hindered
A large sdtling ratio is dceirll.ble to JXlrwil. separ settling.
ration of material having wide Ilize limits. One way
EQUIP:\lENT
of &ccomplisbiDC-tthis i.s the use .of a fluid of high
detlllity. M the ~ity of the fluid approaches that The simplest form of c\lISSification equipment is
of one of the 901id materials the settling ratio ap- the 5O-rolled surface oolocity cla.~,~ifie r which, in. it3
Pl"OOCbfts infinity "od particles of any size rallge can elemental. form, consisti:I of. a tank pro vid ed witl)" an
be~_
_ . ~"'11 of I~gest partie],,) _
H the Size ratio 18
.... of smallest particle
equal to or less than the settling ratio, a complete
separation can be made.
The density of the auid may be Increased by add-
ing solutes such as' salt or calciu m chloride to water,
but this expedient introduces oorl"O$ion problems.
The effective density of the flu id may be increased
by suspending fine part.icles of a hcavy solid slIch
118 galena. in water, in which case the bulk d en~ it.y

-~;;:..
~~
 CLASSIFICATION
inlet and an outlet opposite each other at or near inlet and a solid outJet at dle bottom and a feeding
the top of the tank. The feed, corusisting of a pulp device and an overBow launder /a t tbe top (Fig. 75).
of Solids 8Ul:Ipended in water, enters with a relatively By adjusting the fate of flow of fluid (hydraulic '
high horizontal velocity. After it. enters the enlarged water) into the tube, any predetennined upward
er<ll'W section of t he tank, ita horizont.al velocity is velocity of the fluid may be obtained. The feed
decreased and gravity lendis to cause the solid enterillg the rising stream of fluid teoda to fall;
particles to sink. The path of each. particle is a particletl whOlJC termi nal velocities are greater than
resultant of the su,.f'aoe velocity in the horiwnt.a1
direction and the velocity of settling.
If the tank is provKled with perpendicular parti-
lions placed pormlLl to the direction of How, several
fradions of solids e&n be oolle(U!<i, particles having
the greatest settling velocity collecting behind the
partition nearest the feed inlet, and the exceedingly
fine or 5lowttling particles being carried out in
the overflo\v. F;quipment of this type is also fre-

quently used {or eeparatiilg or dewatering slurries or
suspensioIlll. ....... . ....
A commercial 8daptatiOQ-of the above surface flow
principle takes the form of the Spilzlrostm. in ita
original fo"fm, 8.9 used in !>re d~g (Fig. 74), it
consiata of II. series of connected ,wooden pyramidal
boxes of increasing size pla.ced in thc"""stre&m of the
pulp. The feed enters the smallest chamber and
overflows from the I~t. Each Kasten or chamber
is provWiOO with a sp.q,;ot at the point of discharge of
the solids; too spigot is extended upward in the
form of a gooseneck in order to reduce the hy~
static head. at th"! point of diecharge and hence the
velocity of the discharge.
Modern Spiukastens fr:equently consist of a series
of welded or riveted steel shee~ cones. They serve,
for example, to classify the polishing abrasive WIed
in polishing plate g[alII:! where the polishing abrasive
is recircula.ted and reclassified du ring t-he operation.
FIG. 75. Di~rarnm&tJc lepreeeut.. tion 0( 1e.bonltory f"",
All such ijurface velocity cllLSSifiers are limited W ~tttlinl dusifier.
sizing operations. They are not adapted for sepa-
ration of one minoral from another, and they have the velocity of the hydraulic water ~11 sink to the
the following di~~ vllntag('s. bott~ of the device; those whose',tenninai velocities
1. The fr.aclion~ nrc not sharply sorted. are less will overflow into the launder.
2. HelatiVf'ly lurge quantities of water are re- The feed to a free settling device may be dry, but
(juired. usually it is a "pulp" or suspension baving a solids
3. The fractionl:' withdra.wn from the spigots con- volume concentrl!.tion. of about 10 per cent. The
t.ain large amoun.a cl water required to prevent rate of feed must be 80 adjusted that the volume
plugging of the spigo~. concentration of the soJida in the suspension is not
Free Id/.lng chullijic, accomplish sharper sePIV over I or 2 per cent in the tube or analyzing column.
rations as they make \ll:Ie of the natural falling veloci- A free settler may be used 88 a si&ing device to
ties of the soI:iJ partie~ without tbe complicatioo sep/l.rah~ a given material into two size fractioll8, or
of the horiwn tal or surface velocity. A simple as Il lIOIling device w sepllrate twu or mo:e different
e..uulIlJle IIf a free )j('u ling ci&:silier ill a verl iedl tube ffill\erillill by virtue or the differenl'f!>! ill their dens.:-
called t ile lUutl.vitiug ',,[UIIIII (lrll\'id.:d wilh :t flui ..1 lit">!. TLetUlloUut or Huid required per too 01" ltOOd.tI
 EQUIPMENT ' 81
the height of the inner C<olle p.nd COIltrfll of th~
amount of hydraulic fluid rletennioes the velocity of
fluid in the space between the cones which functions
&8 the analyzing column.
The operating characteristics of a dO\lble-eone
dassifier are determined by the minimum C!"OdS-
sectioo&i area. of t,h.! annular space between cones.
From this minimum area A and the volumes of feed.
and hydraulic fiuid introduced per unit time, the
significant velocity of the anslyring column and the
volume fraction of solids Y can be oomput.ed, The
capacity of the classifier in tons of solid per hour
muy he estimated as follows~

Caplteity of dl!uble-cone c1iLS11ifier "" L8A Yvp.

--- """" I

Flc;. 76. Di"-lr;;.mmntic t"1lpre1lent~ti"n

lliaine by free lIl.'ttiilli.

treated it! large although considerably less than with

or elutri ~ tion or
w here A = minimum cr~ tional area (sq (t),

Y - volume concentmtion, - - - -- - .
v - velocity (fPl:!).
volume total

p. "" den~ity of &llids (lb/eu t).

volume solid

surface velooity classifiers. Thizs item may be a The double-cone classifie~, as well 118 the free set-
major consideration even when the fluid is water. tling eiutrial.or, is also operated with air or other
Many air classifiers are in service where the cost of fluid . Since air is much less viscous than water
operating them iii less than for competing methods a nd also much less deJll:le, the particles have much
IICch as screening. greater settling velocities, approximately one hun-
Elutriation is the name given a sizing classification dred times !\.ll great, in air than in water.
Ilperatiun conduc~ in a similar devil:fl of laboratory The GlJ"gro pllellmalic cl.aMijier (Fig. 78) , although
lIise for the purpose of determining the grain !lise di[,t- having the appearance of a cone clll8Sitier, operAtes
tribution in the range below the finest screen size. on a different principle. The dry w lid feed enters
By melW8 of a t1er)es of free settling tubell as ind}-
cated in Fig. 76, the weighed sample originally placed N,
in ilie first tube of smalle.,st diameter il! cl~ified int.o _____L.."."."'__,~AdjUStlblt
'\ iMer cone
fractionl! according to their settling vducitics. The
fractionl! are collected..in thP. successive tubes 11m.l
may be dried and weighed. Care mllst be taken
that the pu rticl~ are no t agglomerated but well
diiJpersed in the fluid if reliable results are to be
obtained.
The doubkame clmsifier (Fig. 77) con:;ists uf a
fixed external cone provided with s. source or Auid
(hrdruulic water) , a spigot at the tip, and a ~riph
era! overfiow launder around the open end. A con-
centric inner truncated cone is so :;upported that the
height of t!lis cone reiJ.~ive to the outer cone can be
u.djl,sted as uy u ho.ndwheel. ',t he feed flow s down
within the imler cone lind out of the opening lIogIloi u,;t
:~ ~IHe, The hyJ nwlic wttlf-r or lither .fluid ttnd I he
h"f'1.1 ttll' mix('1.J ill I.ht' viduity "f tue tmifte Itnd ri'll' ~'1I.1. 17. 1)iHtr;no,um"ti(" "'j!!"""""t~\.io!l "r dUIlLI&.~)1 1('
ill tllt~ !!lJl',"t.' t... ,,,,'11 tl,t! t W\I " Ollt::;. AJ,iU:!tllltlDt. "I" cL.!Isitw .
 CLASSIFICATION
through a hollow shaft and falls upon the rotating
feeder pla~ which distributes the particles across the
cylindrical classification section. The circulating
fan causes air to circulate upward and 'outward
throug}. the inner cylinder, carrying the fines into
tht; outer cone w)l.ere they setUe.out and are removed
from the botrom. The circulating air ret urns
.,
\
1<'10.78. Cut.away view of Gayoo pneumatic classifier. (Un-.v~nal Rood Madoinn-y C.j
through slots in the inner cylindrical section. The
oversize material settles down through t.he circulat.ing
air into the bottom of the inner cone and is separately
removed.
The rake clasgifier consists of a settling tank whose
bottom is pl~ at an incHDe' and in which are sus-
pended movahle rakes (Fig. 79). Feed in the form
of pulp or slurry enters continuously through a feed
launder placed about a third of the length of the
tank from tl16 l(>wer end. The lower or fine dis-
charF end is provided with an overllow liy over
which the fine material which does no~ settle flows
in a continuous stream, The coarser materiall3inks
to the bottom where the rakes gently move it wward
the upper or coarse discharge end. The upper end
'of the tank hl open and frequent.ly extends far enough
above the' water line to provide drainage space if a
drier coarse pulp is desired .
At the beginning of the stroke the rakes are
dropped t-o [he bottom and slowly drawn toward
the UIJPer end. Aftu movement of about a foot or
two the rakes arc lifted clcar of the floor ant! moved
parallel to thc bottom toward the fine discharge end.
At the completion of this part of their t.ravel the
rakes are dropped and the cycle is repeated. The
movement of the rakes stirs up the solids. The
heavier or fru;ter settling particles collect on the
bottom and un~ (:arried along with the upwa.rd
movement of the rak..:>. The. filler particles are
 I::QUU"'tI::NT

FIG. 79. CUtIlW:J.Y dl"lll';ing of:J. rake da!!Sifi,... (l:mrr Co.)

th rown a.bove the r8k~ and travel in suspeltsion
t.oward the fine discharge end.
Classifiers arc built with one or ml)re I3CtS of rll.kes
si d~ by side. For closer :;izing of the fines &. IIpray
of water may he added at. I.he fine d ischnrge end,
diluting the pulp and pt>rmill.ing the operation to
approach free settling ; or the fine (Ii:<charge may be
furt.her ela.ssifil.'<.i in s 00wl cWSljijU'r built. as an ex-
tension t.o the rJ;I.ke classifier (Fig. SO).
The CY088-flow or A kinlJ clauifU"r (Fig. 8t) jW'r forllLS
in much the &line manner rd~ the rake cla.~sihcr. It
eOll",i;;l,; of a. trough uf scmicylimlri('sl :Shape, set at
nn incline of about 2}i in.jft. Revolving within the
trough is a shaft carrying a helix. Feed is introduced
!Jolow the watf'r level. The ht>nvit'r solids sink ami
are "arril'ti li p the slope hy the hciix. TIlI'y are
di."lI"hlll"g('(i lit. the ttpfX'T rnll thrungh an op"lling in
tho bott.om of the trough abovo the water level.. The
fine materiul ovorHo\\"s at t.he lower end.
The l/arJi/Uje cowtlerC/trrcnl clamfwr IS Ii simila r
clevicc con .~isling of a ~lowly rcvoh-ing drum, tJl(~
inller surface~ of which earry IL helix. ;\iotjon ilS

FiG. SO. Bowl cJ:.o.!;l!ificr wurki"ll '''' uv"rrl"w of r"kc d"""ir~r. (I)."rr Co.)
90 <':LASSIHCATlON
Imparted through a trunnion, thereby eliminating
any submerged bearing.
Power nnd operating cosls on t hcsc classifiers arc
n'latively iow. A rake clas.'lifier 18 in. wide by 15 ft
long requires about 1.5 li p on light service, and 25 I1p
is sufficient fOT a elll&'ific r 16 fL wide and 30 ( t long.
The sizc or mesh of the &,puratiun point , i.e., the
largest size in thfl fines or overflow and the smallest
:size in tlle coarse frtLction, il:! cuntrolled by the
operating conditions. A finer separation point is
obtained by (1) greater dilution of the pulp, (2) lower
tilt of the tank, and (3) slower speed of the rakes.
For a fcod of constltnt quality the capacity of t.he
c1as.'iifier is decreased by those changes in operating
conditions whi~h givf\ a fmer separation point. For
this rca.',on other types of classifiers are generally
rmployod whf'n 'a line Sf'paral,ion point is ro-
(Illireci.
These sloping c1!L~i fif'f"loi have a prneti(:al advan-
tage since they elf'valt> tl,e oversize in the act nf
da.'I.'iifit'Ation, thpN'hy fl~IIlN ( l ly I'lim inating thi'
1lt'(.'t'!,ISity v a ~pm:I I,t! (Ievatvr \\"llcn udOd with a
mill in dOlOed cirouit operation.
For Clauifying Fine Material
T he bt>wI. da88ifier (Fig. SO) consists of a short
cylinder with a bot tom sloping toward the center.
The feed enters at the center through a loading well
and haffle- plate placed ju:;t below the surface of the
.Iiquid, direeting the fceJ radially oulwaro. The
tines overflow into !' launder !It the periphery of the
bowl. The oversize material is raked to the centcT
by the slowly rotating vanes and discharges in an
annular opening. When the classifier is operating
on the fines from a rake classifier, the uv~rsizf' from
the bowl is fed back to the rake classifier. The howl
classifier is designed for more dilute pulps than the
rake classifier. The large overflow permits the
handling of large quantitk'S of water with low
vclocitil!8 as required for the more slowly settling
small particles.
The spiral-uanc r./1VI8ijirr (Fig. R2) is a device
cons isting of a. cylindrical tank , a ~ntral ahart, and
spirnl or radial arms which sweep the bottom. Feed
is pllml)('(1 in :1>< II. )jlllrry. The ~()I idi!. ~f.t lc llnd Itrt'
:!-wel'L 1.0 !lIe center und removed conlinul)ol.llsly. Tile
fines overflow into a. launder as shown.
 JIGGINC
When it is desired to de-8iimtJ ~'. to remove very
fine part.icles sach as clay from the coarser sand
particles, the feed in the form of R suspension is fed
to the center of a.n inverted cone. The sand settles
out, and the water carrying the fine~ overflows into a
peripheral launder. The feed is supplied at a rapid
fate, and the vertical velocity of the water is rela-
F lO. 82. Spinll VAne el:t.llllifie.r a nd adjusta bJe.strokc diAphragm pump.
tively high anrl will carry in suspension moot of the
&.>lids of ?OO mesh and smaller.
These cones are generally of 6O-<Iegree a ngle, 9 to
10 ft in diameter at the top. T he sand is discharged
through a spigot at the bottom, either by manual ur
automatic means, depending on the type of device.
A typica.l cone will handle from 50 to 100 \.ons of
solids per 24 hT. The feed will contain about 90
j>Cr ccnt water, the spigot discharge 30 per cent, anJ
the overflow about 95 per cent.
On the basis of the same standards as in I'II:reenillK,
the effecti venes;; of JO;u ch Ii device can be alxmL 70
per cent, wi th recovery around 90 per cent.
JIGGINC
Jigging is a l'lJ:'M}Cial form uf himJf'red settling which
=onsists of stratification of the particles into layers
91
of different. densities by repeatedly affording a vcl'}
thick suspension of the mixed particles an oppor-
tu nity to settle or fall for short periodli of timc IIlld
tben removing the stratified layers.
In the clBSSification equipment mentioned above,
the maximum or te rminal velocity of the particle ii'l
the significant characteristic which determines the
( ~JlVU Eq uipmmt C".)
separalion of particles. If t he particles arc lll10wed
only very short settling periods, hey will never
develop the maximum velocity and the separation
is made on the basis of the initial settling: velocities
of the part icles. At the outset of settling the velocity
is extremely low and no resisting force due to friction
effccts has heen developed. Therefore, since FR' is
practically zero, equation 11 becomes
F' = ma - mg-ux) - O
a'" (,n - ,,)g = (" - ') u - (1-;:') g
-~;;- - ~,-.-
The initial acceleration a given a I'artir.le a l. t,he I;t,nrt
of settling dppend~ on j,hc force of gravity ami t.he
densi ties of the part.ide and of the pilIp 01' fluid. H
i8 independent of the size ur shnJXl of the particle.

92 CLASSIFICATION
This means that IIOrting of t wo materials. o.ocording
to density may be p088ible, almost regardless of tbf:
size distribution of the.material, if the settling periods
are of extremely short duration.
The relative acceleration or relative initial velocity
given particles of t\\'O different materials A and B
is 'obtained by dividing equation 48 for material A
by equation 48 for material B.
a,t ( p.t - P) PB
The difference between sorting on t,he basis of
initial velocity and on the basis of te rminal or maxi-
mum vcl.JCity is ind icated in Fig. 83, which shows ~
relative velocity of settling as a functioD of timefor
(lifTcrent particles. For example, a particle of ila.te
(curve 1) of the same shape and .size as a part~ of
'. " Time, I '.
rIG. 83. lWlstive eett ling vclocit iell of slale and 00&1 as Ii
funetion of time from the moment ""ttling ....u ~tarted.
eurveo t a nd 2 are ror particles 01 the flame sb e. Curve 3
is for smaller p8rtiel~ or
slat.!! which have tbe sarne terminal
tiettling velocity M the w.er ~i cles or -.I reprelll!D.t.ed by
curve 2. C)ll"VeII" a.n d 5 are fOf" II. still Ilmaller aile 01 particle.
coal (curre 2) will settle faster than the particle of
coai, owing w ita grea.ter deMity. A smaller particle
of slate may be select.ed (curve 3) which will have a
maximun. settling rate exD.CUy the same as t hat. of
Ihe larger particle 01 coal (cur ve 2). A still smaller
particle of slute (cu:-ve 4) will have 8 st.ill slower
~ Inaximum or terminal velocity. Coal of the same
!lize as the smallest slate particle will always settle
more slowly (curve.5) than the slate. Rut the initial
velocity or acceleration -of all slate pa.rtic~ ill greater
than that of the coal.
The dist.ance a partiele faUK in timc t equals the
integral! .- Iv dt, or the area under the eurve on
, 0
.Fig. 83 from t - 0 to t .. t. If the time is short.
such: as II , all slate particles will have settleo. a
greater dist&nce than all coal particles, and the
sized feed can be completely sorted or separated into
slate-free eoal in the tops or " fines" and cool-free
slate in the bottoms.
If the time of sorting or settling is allowed to
extend to ~, when the area under curves 2 and, 4'
(f II dt) are about equal, it is impossible to separate
the smallest slate particles (curve 4J from the largc:;t
coal particles {curve 2} 88 they are equal jigging,
that is. tney settle equal distances in the allowed
settling period: The ratio of the diameters of these
particles is called' the ftg(lin{} ratio and, similar to the
Itdtling ratio, indicates the maximum size ratio that
can be com.pletely sorted under the conditione indi-
catoo.. '
For ~ttLing periods greater than l3 tbe tenninal
velocity controls the separation, fUld it is impossible
w make an Cffec.\ive Eteparation between coal and
slate with the size diBtrih}ltion indicated for this
feed. The limit w the rangt of partide size that can
be 8Orti un~er these conditione is the settling ratio
g!ven by equation 45.
As iodicat.ed in Fig. 83 the jigging ratio varies
enOl'lllously with changes in the dura~ion of settling,
inc~ing approximately fourfold as the duration
n falns decreased from 0.50 to 0.10 sec, and more
" than tenfold as the duration is decreased from 0.5
to 0.0.5 sec. If jigging is practiced ona feed of a
wide size range, a very sbort settling time must be
used lor stratification.
Ji{Js are essentially tanks of rectangltW CTC88 sec-
!.ion, fitted with a &Cree., placed a short distance
below the. rim or~overflow ' in & horiwntal or slightly
sloping position. The screen or the water is given a
pulsating or "jigging" motion, which causes alter-
nate upwani and downward surgee of Ute fluid
through the screen 80 that the solid particle~ are
lifted free of the screen and allowed w settle for a
short time interval, then compact.ed on the screen in
layerl, in a series of oycles.
The feed, usually usa pulp, although it may be dry,
is introduced over the screen at one side and sub-
jected to a series of IIhort. set.Hing pt'riods as it movPli
across the screen w the overflow. The screen open-
ings are ap proximately twice the diamettlr of lhe .
largf':8t particle to be passed through thf' IlCn'lCn . A
 JIGGIN6
bedding .of larger particieg of de~ material is When jigging on the screen, the overfl.ow and t.he
usually built up on the screen in a few hours of oper- upper layer may be removed over a weir or dam
ation. If this bedding does ll'-,t develop naturally and the lower layer (or concentrate) t.hrough a gate
from the feed, bedding material should be added, or well on the screen. The proper removal of this
made of sired matetw too large to pasS
through the lower layer is esscntial for successf4l jigging and is
screen: and of a dei'tsit)" ~pproximating that of t.he frequently a difficult problem.. ~
heavy material to ,be con~entrated'in 'the !o;""er layer In hutch jigging or jig!!;ing t.hrough the screen, the
on the 'sCiieo~aoo 'in the hutch". Steel shot of twice Invcr layel"' is drawn through the screen into the
the ~~.thi; screen opening8 is frequently used hutch and removed therefrom. A bed is required on
for thi~ -purpoSe. the screen of particles of such size as to remain on the
Particles- of different sizes, of either the same or screen and support the light product., and the screen
different" densities', an not sett'", the same distance openings mUf!lt be coarse enough for ready passage
durin~' one of the 'short settling' periods. A coarse of heavy product.
parhc'Ie may remam suspended, or It may settle for Fixed-screen plunger jigs arc exemplified by the
only O.05~sec out of a cycle of 0.30 sec before it is Harz jig (Fig. 84). The jiWng motion is obtained
supporWd -by Bridging with other large particles by the plunger reciprocating in the compartment.
resting on the screen. A small particle may settle
for 0.20 see' during the same cycle, part of the time
on top of tbe\ hM ?!f.. eoarse material and part of the
time through ~ ~~tjces between the large par-
ticIes. This actIon, called consolidation /.rid;ling,
represents the settling of fine particles, whereas
coarse particles are self-supported and do not settle.
The settling of fine particles is much" slower during w,,'
consolidat.ion than 'during su~pension, hut the' effect
may be important if cont.inued for sufficiently long
time. It is observed not only in jigging but also in
stra~ification caused solely by lateral vibration
without vertical movement and has been called
"reverse classification." ! ...
In jigging, the first ~tratification occurs while the
bed is open (solids 8uspended) and is essentially
hindered settling all controlled by the initial velocl
'''' 0
"""""
ties or accelerations. ThilO tends to put the coarse Water leVilI Partition
heavy grains at the bottom and fine light grains at
the klp, with the coarse light and fine heavy grains "'''
Well
.1 I
in the middle. The second stratification occurs '"Ii"
Screen
while the bed. is tight (coarse solids self-supported
and not suspended) ana' is essent.ially consolidation
trickling, which tends to put the fine heavy grains
at the botklm and eOOl"se light grains at the wp
with tlie coarse heavy and fine light grains 'in the
middle. By proper control of the time allowed t.hese Hutth valve"
two actions !Itt almOst perfect'stratification according
to density can' be obtained." The 'products from a FIG. 84. Fixed-ereen plunger jig.
jig are usually, in order of position, (I) the overflow
of fine light material; (2) an upper layer above the The upper layer is discharged over a weir at t.he side
screert or"medium and coarse 'lighC m4ferial; (3) a opposite the feed: The lower layer flows into the
lower layer on the screen of medium and COllr5e heavy well on the screen and is withdrawn 'through the gate.
material; (4) hutch material of fin~ hoo.vy material. Such jigs may be constructed of wood, steel, or con-
The bibliography for this chapter &ppe:l1"5 on p. ':11. crete and are built With several compartments' in
 CLASSIFICATION
Valve

(,) (b)

F .IJ, S!i. Di"K... mmalic repre!!Cllbliull nt a Ii%OO-$Croo n dinphragm jill. (I~ EquipIMIII. Co.)

The adjw;tment between the WIIter vll ive and the openllion of t he diaphlUjtJl1 may be varied to pJovide dil'ferenl intenllitias 01
jigci ng Ill! inoJic:o.t'-".l in <I aoo II. I .. <I t he ovat~r vllive is ,.d jU9l.00 to ....ork against lhe diaphragm, giving a m il d aetion, and in
b the tu.ljWltm~1lt iIIlSUeh as to Il.(j(I the effoot of wllter fio";" to that of the dillphmgm.
All. shown in 11 the wa ter valve opelll! 118 the diaphragm begill8lo rise, and the lIow of WAter into the hutoh neutralize!! the
action of the dii\phmgm, provi ding a quil't jig bai. The ovater .....Ive clol!et< as t he diaphraa:m desoondB, givinc an upwaru fiow
through the bed.
With the tu.ljustrncnt indicated in II the w'lter "lIlve dl,llleS lIB the dia phl"llllil ri- . and wllter is d",.n into the hutch from
lhe jig bed. A.s the diaphmgm de'lOends, tbe water valve opell6 a nd the enterio,g ovater augment.!! ~he el'fe.::t, of the jig stroke 01
the dillphr.tj:m, increasiug the velocit y of water up.IIM through the jil bed.

lleries, the tailings or overflow of one compRrt.ment
passing as feed into t.he ne.xt compartment. The
am~! itude of jigging is greateit in the first cell and
least in the last, making a coocentra.te of heavy
nmterial in the first and middlings in the others.
Varial.jbns in the pulsion (upward flow ' of water
through screen) and suction (downward flow) ampli.
~udes 'are controlled by removing mawial through
the hutch valve or admitting extra or hydraulic
water to the hutch during pulsion or suction. In
hutch jigging the dense lower layer is drawn through
the screen and discharged through the hutch valve.
FixedKrun diaphragm jig. are similar to the
plunger jigs except t.ha.t the plunger is sea1eJ to the
frallle' by a rubber diaphragm which pl"event.B leabge
of water arou nd the plunger and gives more positive
pulsion and suction. The Denver mineral jig (Fig.
85) exemplifies this type and shows how the hydraulic
water may be autom8.ti('~ly cont.rolled.
Power requirements vary from about 0.1 to 0. 15
hp/ aq ft of &creen area, and capacities range from
about I to 4 tons/(aq ft)(24 hr).
Moooble acrem jig., &8 the name impli05, move the
screen in order to get the jigging acti()1l. The motion
is usually not only reciprocating up and down but
also fore :,....d aft, with greater acceleration on the
return stroke 80 M to cause the bed to move forward .
The Hancock jig has 8. capacity up to 300 to 600
tons/24 hr for a ~reen 25 ft by 4 ft 2 in., or aoou~
3 to 6 t(llUI/tq ft.
Heavy suspensions may be used in pla.ee of water
when jigging relatively c.oa.rse ~clea with all the
advantages of a high density fluid.
Air is also used in pneumatic jigs when a dry
 TABUNG
product is desired or the matelial cannot be tt1'a!cd
by warer without damage. The separation ill always
inferior, due to the lower density of the fiuid .
TABLING
The "panning" nf the gold miner to separare the
more dense gold from the less dense rock or gnngue
has de,,-eloped into the modem ~1I{J kWk. The
operation is the separation of two material:! of differ-
ent derulities by p8l!8ing dilute pulp over a table or
deck (Figs. 86a and 86b) inclined about 2 to 5 degrees
FIG. 860. Duplex di .. gonal-deck watiliillg table. (DrialQ' Conuntrolor Co.)
from the horizontal. It is given a reciprocating
horizonl3l motion or shake at the rale of ISO to
375 per minute, with a slow forward motion and a
fa.st return, causing the material kl move fonvard
in the same manner a.s for a movable screen jig.
The feed and water are supplied to a launder at
the right upper &ide of the deck. The surface of the
table is covered with canvas, wood, linoleum, cement,
or otherwise roughened, and usually provided with
grooves or deaLs kl form riffles which may be parallel
to the direction of table motion or at an angle therckl.
Cleats ~ to ~ in. wide Me fri" (0 to ~ in. high are
usually spaced >i to 2 in. apart, covering most of
the deek a.s shown.
The net movement of thc particles is the ('('sult.ant
of two foreC/:l applied kl them. Under the influence
of the tilt of the table and the velocity and thic.knelltl
of the film of water flowing over it, the partides of
solid tend to be wrulhed straight down the KI!/pc over
tbe lower edge but are irrllxlded in t1li.~ flow hy the
riffles UlL(l~r Ute influcnoo of !.tte jerkin!!; monon of
.5
the !look, the particles are impelled forward h~ri
zonl3lly (from right to left in Fig. 86).
Materials of low density have a greater tendency
to be carried in suspension downstream with the
water than do particles of higher densit.y which
tend to settle into the grooves or riffles and respond
to the motion of the table.
AB a result, the material of high dewity ~ravels
forward toward the left and is discharged over the
left edge or lower left comer of thtl table, and the
material of lower density overflows along the lower
margin of the table into suitable laundors.
Provision is made to alter the degree of tilt or the
deek. The drive bas a variable speed mechanism,
and the coupling t.<l the table provides a means of
incrcELlling or decreasing the length of the jerking
stroke from a fractional part of an inch to somewhat
ovcr 1 in.
Although tables are used for sorting materials from
about 6 mesh to 3O(l mesh, sepa.r:'.tions of particles
of below 48 mesh are usually mor" economically
accomplished by Rotation. Successful tabling is
dependent upon a wide difference in densities of the
minerals fed.
A small table about 15 in. by 30 in. will separate
from ~ to 2 tons of ijQlids in 24 hI'; a large table
about G ft by I.') ft will handle 15 to 00 tons of solids
in the same period of time. HOhlepower require-
men ~ are low, in t.he neighborhood of ~ to 2 hp per
table. Water requirementg vary from about 3 to
30 gpOt per table.
A dry taille opernt('ll by a blast of air pl\llHing
upward through an indinoo. perforated tahle or
 CLASSIFICATION
;,creen. The feed is introduced near t he top 01 (he
inclined table. The less dense particles are sup-
ported oy the nir above the ~urfacc of the tablp. and
flow down ward to discharge over the lower end.
The table is gi~'en an otosdlllLting motiou similar t.o
that described for Fig. ...8 which call~!I til(> mort.'
dense particles contacting the surface of the table
to move upward -and discharge over the higher
end of the table. Dry tables are used to remove
stones and other dense materials from light prod-
ucts such asSl'eds with capacities of % ton/hr
for tables about 1.!1 by 3 ft up -to 16 tons/ hI' for
taMes ~t 3~ by 7 ft. The power required is
about one hO~J:-owcr per ton per hour.
Dry tables nrc also used to remove a rtilative\y
large quantity of light material from a nerl AA pnxiud.
ELECfROSTATIC CLASSIFICATION
Small partic1~ of different 8'Jlids may be separated
on the basi ... of I.heir different l*ha"iur~ in nn electric
field. The>le 1Oe1P.!!live forces act. in such a mann~r
thllt lbe te;ulting mol ion cau!<CS n decrease in the
llnfl'ltV of Ih e system. The for<."(,'S are due either to
an f'lectric charge 011 the pa.rticle or to a dilTf'l"e nee
bet.ween the d i~l~ckiu coniltall t~ of t.he partide nnn
the surrounding medium.
Forces due lu an electric charge tHO parnHcI 1(, the
field . rorcc:s due to dilTerences in dielectric conlltnots
are pftnlllci to t he dirt:etion of maximum varilttion in
field intensity and are zero in uniform electric fields.
In conductance separawrs a conductive particle
!lcquires a r..harge by cominl!: into eont.nr-t with a
char.cd surface or screen. Forces ereated by such
chrges are relatively large and ea.sily produced.
Such r;ep"ratorS may be (:onstnlctoo a.'l 8hO\\'n in
Fig. 87.
A ig t1lf~ initial material, B the loss conductive, iLnd
(,' thc more conduct.ive. The devit'c8 in Figs. 870
and 87b arc repTfflented as having roll" beneath
hoppers. In somp CU$t'li these rolls are replru'fld hy
inclined chutcs. The attruding electrode, indicat.ed
a.~ hcing dlargcd negatively and of cylindrit!al form,
iR r;ometimp;; of nl hllr shape and polarity hut is
 PROBLEMS
ah\':J.}'s the opposite or the roll polarit}', In.;;te.tu.l of 11
d ividing edge to !lCpan.. te the ehar~'(j Hlid nn('h~
particle:;, the formcr may be collected ~IO'(:t i \'ely by _
adhesion to a surface, Simpk ehargi!tg hy conduct-
ance is iIIU.':itruted in a, Fig, 87, whereufi ill b addi-
tionAl churging hy ion:; rrum a pinpllint ell'drlKle i~
"hown. This cau'*lS_thc nonc,mdlletorll to auhere
more firmly to the rolk
In Fig. 87e mawrial i.~ movC'1 mt't.:IHlllilu.i!y frum
I to II on a Ha.L-surial'e, such a... a ~rOlilldt!d vihrl1.t ing
1!;;1)1e or a moving Ix-It., A ;;\lpcrim,~~J el~ t. rode
l'8UI!CI:I the mol'C tondueti ve mll.leria l to he IC\'ilaled
(oj ('J
Fl(;. R7. Uiugl'anul\a11<: n"retiCllla t io" ..r
a nd alTf!eh:d Ie;:,; uy t he mechanical move ment. With
proper tilting thitl more c onduct ive materia l is re-
mo \'OO at tIt.
The applied potcnt.ial in Fig. 8i c may be constant
!n ml1.KTJitude and polarity, CO(l;;tll.~lt in polarity but
intemlittentiy reduced to zero, or a lternating in
polarity . .Interruption and altcrm~tion of potential
cause ma.t.erial to be repeatedly IIJvit.at.oo fIJId re-
dpposi~l on the table and l'Psulta in tI. numhl'r of
succeAAive separation!:! durin g one pMlmge over ' the
table. The altemations and interruptions m~y a.lilO
besynchronir.cd with the table vibrat ions. The effcct
of t.hese repetitions i:>; to give higher select ivit.y and
hi p;her efficiency of separation. Tho ~Ieetivity of
the separator! just described rlelltl~Ja not only on
conductivity difTerenp,p;; of the cOnlltituenta but aIM
on differences in t.he densit.y, particle Si7,c, and par-
ticle shape.
Some separators or precipitators for the removal
of ~spentlcd solids (smokes) or liquid (mists) are
so constructed &II to cau~p the sUilpen ~ion to pass
through 0. &":teen charged with either positive or
negative polarity, which ehnfKeS t.he particles in t he
g8ll, and then through a ma7.fl of me tal bafHps
charged with the opposite polarity. The p.!irtides
are attracted to the platR.s from which they are
remlJ'ocd IlIJri<'"iitally. OIW typo< (l t"qllipmf'nt \If'(';<
It sluwly mo ving endles,..; dlUin of hltffle ~ wbidl :lrc
d ipped ill a liquid bath to clean the m. Such equip-
me nt is from 85 to 100 per cenl cffcctive in SE!pa.rating
the s,lIspended l)art icieS f runi Ihe gas .
Contact polential separator, act in mtl~h the same
way bill dilfer in t he method of charp;inl!; t. he solid
pUI't.idl~s. Thi!! ill d"n~ hy :<lII'{:f'Sf!iw) cont u.ct be-
tWl'i'n !.Il() par!ir:lf1K ami ;~ .~!lrft(,(:c of c1~ctri~ally
l:ondlldiv(\ nla1t'wi,,[ wl1o,",(' (onl:I.I'I 1)()t.~nli!l.1 liell
]1f't.wPf'n !he enntad pntenliab of the c (ln~litllent.
particl{,; tu be ~Iul.ra ted. Thc ~urfllce or plate is
po.:;iliw! to one l,mstil1tent and nC,l1;l1.tivc toward the
ot he r. The c/JRla~tif(g may be done by a llowing the
'-~
/
lJ
lH
(,'
.." ... loct.. "..., :;oo'paralo....
particle:; to How over tl.n inclined SlIrface which may
be vihrated.
Pyroelectric Pjfecl8 may "Iso be utilized in which the
heated material is fed onto a roll, the drop in tem-
perature after depo;;ition on the roll causing electric
polar'ization t() appear on some minernll!, such as
quartz, I which then adhere to the roll and may be
separuted as B in Fig. A7b.
Eloctrostntic method~ are not so widely used for
separating d ifferellt solidt; as the other methods
described . But tlley luwe proved effective in pre-
cipitating o r ijCpa rating fine partide:l from s uspen-
Rions in gases.
BIDLIOGRAPHY
I . Dn:f\, Ff\t:D 0., "The Scope for Rcvcl'!Ie Chl.9l1ifieation
loy Crowded Settling;' E"g. Min, J., 12'7, 1030-33 (1929).
2. FRAAS, .... , f.nd O. C. RA' 05T1JK, "F.ledl'Of!tatic Separation
of HotitllJ," Ind. Eng. Cllnn ., Ii, 600 (l940).
3. OVEAATIWM, G. A., U. S. PBtcnt 1,679,739--40 (AUi. 7,
1928) .
PROBLEMS
I. A mixtore of silka li nd ga lem. pMticb (u eruebt!d)
ranging in ei~ from 0 .0074 ~m I<> O.()6.!i2 dlI is Iw.p&I'a Ced by",
rising stream of I\'a te r a t OO~ F.
(0) Wbllt velocity of wlfl,tcr flow will givp an uneootaminat.eri
pm<iud of 1i:"It'DIlt
(I,) Wh,,( i~ the nl .. ~i,"um size ra"gu 0; this !,nxlo\Jt~
.. CLASS[FICATfON
(e) If benzellC (apecifie gno"ity 0.85, vW:oosity 0.65 ce nt!. The discharge from Ule crusher ie to be ~"'oed with 810
poiee) ia subetitut.ed lor d ie ...lIttr, how .viii this separation O.08-in. scrocn. llnd" both t he ovmtise snd UDUeI1!i~ f~
be~f . to
a.re be IICnt to lroo 9Cttli~ hydl'1l.uli!l e\ll89i.fierll.
(!l~ Thtimate the rated. hOl'9CpoI';er of the motor roquirod
2. A mi:o<turo d ~ru~hed l!:.. k~I\Illlhd Hilk./l flinging (t<>ln 28 to to tlrive ttoe" cru.~hcr.
200 mNh ill 10 be 8Il~rat.ed cleanly lind completely hy 1!oC~11- (h) Will t l", rmpor;cd serwwr anti clllSllification opcrati.."
iIll> aM dlll'Olifi.cat.ion. Calcub.tc the """~II aiM:!! !lilt! the
""WI" velocities (at :zoe C) fn t vertical cllUll'lificrs \.,hi"h will
clfce~ oomplctc I!eP&f1I.tion 0' tungsten oxide and silica! If
80, ""hat waler vdociti<J!l are required in the clait!Iiflers! H
accomj)lb!h t his l!epi'r .. tion . . 1'I<Jt. ~pecify SCl'I:!en aizcs and eL'.!!flifier conuiti{'llUl which. will.
3. tn the miniog of sllh&lcnl.c (Z,'.';), II part ieul:u- ennoom Slate aoo explain any MSUmpu.:m. lut are made.
eepante8 the ore IMJD .Lhe q\Ulrl a gangue by a hytll'1U.llie 6 . A 0081 oompt.lly wlM:Mlc rePutation h&e boon built UI'''f1 a
cl:aeeificalion 00 one Nile 'fl'lUltion in freo) IOIlttling ciasRifie.... ]"",-Mh ~Jean product plans to open .. new mine. All 00111
using an upward current velocity of water of 50 f"m. Suit- from the new mine is to be Wa.f!hed to eliminate froo IlJ!h.
able oonOllntraLKm ia ubtained fU! J.on,: II!! tho si.e rnngc is 'fbe mine-ron 00Il1 will be firl!t seroelM)(\ OWl' a 6-in. scr:.cn,
be!d \O~' in. by X .. in. It" propollCtllo tIP4II a heavy m..'tlium Mol the oversit.e will be pMIICtI to " <:l'\I!her ..nd eruahOO lu
I!IeparattoD. in oroer to obtain hirulcnxt .!!et11ing ooodilions. too following Mr.c ,malym.
The medium being oonsidcrod ill a 61urTy oontainin,; 6b per
ee~t by "-eight of finely ground magnetite. Magneti w may
be usumed to h&ve dePsity approximatinlt that of tho!
beavieT fOlTl'l8 01 hematit.e. MUlC Rur" c.,.bod
' (a;) What "ill be the maximum !lCTeen size that may be Size, in. % Coa~ %
UIled with the new rnuJium!
(b) Eetimale tIM! upward velocity of dense medium that
8boukl IJo: .-I.
St.a.\c and explain al\ &SiIWJIl>tioD8 made.
-.-,-. +6
+.
+,
+I
I.
I.

.,
20
I.
20
20
4. Soap ill to be I[rQund t.o produce !l Ci/&lt!l) IIOIIp pb .... oor - I +)4 20 40
which it a a::ranular produet "'ith a IlllOximum perm~bJe -~ 10 10
size of 14..--h. It ill proo;:eo!I!ICd in a 1\lI .... mer mill run in
eklaed circuit .,I'i~h a ,louble-ooM Itir clMeificr '1IIiol[ 0001 air. 'I'he crusher product is then blended IMck in ""ith the 6-in.
The analYling :zone of tIM- clBNlifier is the annular zone be- undersize and double-8Cmened to three eiJC8. The tW{) larr;er
toreen the <.IUter and inner ones ,,"[,ich have rna ~imum diam- sil()ll are 10 be I\'B.8hOO by meBIl.'! of hydl'1l.ulie clMaificatioo.,
d en of 48 in. and 36 in., ~tivcly. Tho " ir in t his ~me . 'hik the uodel'Oli-e from the fmeet acroon (1\"bicb baa M-in.
oontai.ne 0.2 per cent. of lIOiida hy volume. The dcnai t) of boleoo) ill JlW'Sed t.o .. filii.! ooal launder.
the _p is 1.3 linlms/ cc. . 1'1(lat-a"d-$ink tcStl\ on the /'0111 indica.w tluLt an average of
Ho,,' much air in ~ubic feet per miuu!!: U\~I, be 8uppUcd? !t~ 1"" oonl of the mine product ill co&l of 1.5 epecific gr.... vity
m lil(l' I('I', and ]5 per ~nt is free ash of 1.711pC>.,ilie II'l.Ivity or
5. A ao&d millin, rompany is installil\& " plant for II...
aepan.tiou 0' l.unp\cn o:ri\le (density 446 ]bf cu It) I.mll ,.
iM , ~ ,;"r. ThUll, "'ashill,; should be 00nA In tu!O~r all the
] .51!", vity or Hghter and eliminate the 1.7 or ocAvier.
mixtul'l:l of 15 per oont by "'eight sili~a and 85 per ccnt IU'II(- (II) In t,he uo uble lICreI!!nlng of the - 6-in. coal and ash, a
steu ,,:oiid,. Fif ty toM / day of tliiR mixtul'lJ (o.vCTagc ~ixn i~ M-i n. fine SCrt.'l ln has been "fIl'<!ificd. What &lould be the
2 in. Ih di&JIlll't,oCr) loll to be cr'l~h"d t o til(! following lICret:n !II!I'J~'" ~i:oc or I."" OOIU'IICI' IW!TOOII which will a llow oomplcl"
....".., C\i,.,inll.liOll uf '1'00 asb ill the hydl'lluli~, dMsi6er, at lit<, SIlme
Scrocn Ma&'< .. (hol,h I" .. "",h", tinlC permitting as larw & weight fI"l\Of,ion "" poI!I!ible ill the
SilW. in.
- 0.32
- 0 . 16
+ O. IU
+ 0 .08
, Fraction oxiuc and ~i1 i' :a)
~.2
0 .3
8.7
li . 7
medium .... ized highcr-pri<:eoJ ('00.1 product?
(10) If 300 to ... of mi f'll."-run ~ I a n: pruoo_>d I." hour.
hUll" much of ncb !Jl t he fin.'li l lln.", Ki~ l.rutlue<.8 a'ld (rw
- 0.08 + O.Ot 03 ~.5 IIIIh an.' I'rllduo:o....1 pcr hour!
-0,.04 + 0.02 0.'2 3.' Stll.tt: ,,"d t~ p"Ull 1I11l11!1lUI!l(ltlon~ mwc.
 {;IIAPTER

Flotation

LOTATIOX includes any operation in II'h i('h pl)!;l~ of the conditioning tank il:! to hring about. t.IIt'

F one solid is !Sepal'&t('(i from :mothcr by /louting

one of the m at or on the surfacc of a fluid . In
modern froth" flotation the solid partides aN' Ci)l\-
coating of Ilw solid to bfo flonlt"(i with th" prUIWr
flotation L"t'1IICl'Ll I. The flot:llitlll re'lb'l.'n~ is ft<u con-
tinll()u"ly 10 till' '~ llIdjlitJLlt' r . ~ 'Lffi t;,'nt t inll' Ilf'inp:
tinuously R!l:i1utoo in water np'.m which u. thit'k
layer of froth is maintained. llecnu,.;e of di!Tf'I,(>IlCCS- '
;n the surface propert ies, one solid more l'f".w:lily
adsorbs the wlLter pha..'Ie, bcc()m~ lSurroundt'l'i by
water, and sink8. The other solid more readily
adoorbs air and bf!com e>; at least \lll.ftially snn-ouode.:!
or covered hy 1ur. The ILverage or bulk dcnllity of
the solid and ad.wrhed air ImbbleR is ll':-;'~ than that
of water, and the whole mass of air and solid
Aoats to the :.urfa.cc . to fonn a minernl i7A).i froth
which continuously overflows the side of the W!s:;cl.
Becaultle separation by froth flotation depends upon
the surface characteristic!; of the materill.l,., it is
capable of !Separating materiaJs regard lC!SS of their
densities.
The equipment and operation~ fvr flota tion Wl~re
de\'elopcd in the mineral industriei!, and ove r 80 per
cent of mineral concentration is accompl i:!hct.l by-
this method. The operation ilS being extended into
other fields, such as separating the hull~ of wheat
from the kerne ls, print.er'~ ink from recla.imed news-
paper pulp a nd even potal:lsium chloride (KCI) from f lO. 8&. So'l:tioJUli drJ"'inll; ~h",,"inl( 01"',,, I""I ..r t"UlklittCl"'UI(
sodium chloride (NnCI). tlonk . (Ot~r Eq,, ;plIIfIIl CO'.j
BecaIUle of the import.a.nce of surface conditions
a.nd the necessity of the air bubbles !Supporting the ullowed to CU IL'lC complete "filming" of thl! solid hy
-;oIid in the froth, flotation is rerfomed on finely the n>agent. Soml' filming may be d one in the bill!
divided material, usually varying in ~ize from 20 mills when a portion of the reRgentl:! are Rdded the["('.
melih to under 200 mesh. The material, reduced by The overflow from the conditione.f is fed .to a
the ball mill or other fine crusher to the proper size Rotation cell terl"llE'd the rougher, whert' thl' first ur
nnd of the d~lIil"1 pulp del1:3ily, i" fed hI a condi rO\lgh scpnml.Loli by flotation is IIl.Ll!,'. Th(' mUh'l"ial
tioniliK tank (Fig. 88) \\'h ic h is esI:ICnlilllly a t~y lindrjenl /ltllLted off is cRlied the conccntrat" as it contuin" 1hI'
lW equipped with an efficien t agitator. The pur d esired mioeru.1. Thc other mater ial which lIink.~ ill

"
 100
the waler alii is remo.ved from the bottom is called
the tailings.
Since tbe tailings from the rougher may contain
8UlDe material desired in the concentrate, they are
, frequently treated in another cell called the scav
enger, as indicated in Fig. 89 under condit ions that
FLOTATION
The mineral concentrates are generally subjected
to sedimentation, filtration, and drying prior w
smelting. The tailings a.re fed to a tailing pond
where the solids settle out and the clear water is
cycled w the milling and flotation units.

...
favor the flotation of the maximum quantity of

mill
FLOTATION CELLS
A flotation unit or cell is the equipment. in which
the material is actually separll ted or floated from the
residual tailings. It consist5 essentially of a v~1
or tank provided with a feed at one end, an overflow
for froth removal, and a discharge for tailing5 at t.he
opposite end, with a pruvision for introducing air for
frot.h fonn alion and agitation. Pneumot~ cellA
depend upon eompreK.'Sed air for agitation , give a
relatively mild agitation, and produce a clean frotb
relatively free from gangue. In general, about 50
filtill
per cent longer contact time is provided in pneu-
matic machines, and the pulp must be fully condi-
tioned before flotation . Mechanical cell8 incorporate
a mechanical agitator that draws in air and beats it
into the pulp. Bei:ause of the more violent agitation
all......... that can be obtained with mechanical cells, they may
give more thorough flotation, and tailings more
1'1<.1 IN. J:!j"lple flow d~ showing eeparaLion by Botalion
ueing roucher, IICIlvenger, and cleaner (or finisheT) cells. nearly free from material desired in t.he concentrate,
but t.he concentrates then contain more gangue than
material desired in the concentrate even if a large those from cells with less violent agitation. At high
amount of tailings is alsO floated . The floated prod- altitudes auxiliary air under moderate presSure is
uct from the scavenger is returned or cycled to the frequently supplied to mechanical cells. Mechanical
rougher with fhe feed. The tailings from the cells have a greater capacitv for the same volume
scavenger are the final tailings. and also ' help condition the pulp, giving greater
The product floated from the rougher may contain capacity to t he conditioner.
more gangue than is desired. This may be reduced The Callow eeU is one of the oldest and simplest.
by feeding the overflow from the rougher to a third but is now practically obsolete (Fig. 90). It. consists
flotation cell called the cleaner, 1:10 operated &8 to
give the desired quality in the concentrate. Under
these conditions the tailings from the cleaner contain
material desired in the conCentrate and a.re cycled
with the feed w the first cell or rougher.
Under f$pecial conditions extra f5eavengcrs or
cleaners may be used in serie5.
If the oro contains several valuable minerals. a
process of consecutive or selective flotation (Fig. 98)
may be used to recove r the minerals separately. The
Fla. 00. Diapm repreeenting the I5i mple Callow ftot.lioa
feed from the first conditioner is treated ,,;th the .:en in aect.ion.
proper reagents to float one of the desired minerals,
leaving the others in the tailing! with Ihe gangue. of a t rough 24 to 36 in. wide and 18 to 22 in . high at.
These tailings are fed to a second conditioner and the overflow level, and as long as required. The feed
treated with the proper reagents for floating the enters at the high end, the tailings being removed
second cI{'~il"l.'d mineral. lrom t.he ,other. A " blanket," frequently several
 FLOTATION CELLS 101
layers of canyas fMUlned to square open-topped cast- sides of t.he trough into a launder. The feed enters
iron blanket frames or "palUJ," covers the bottom at one end of th.p. trough and receives successive
of the trough. ('.,ompressed air is admitted below treatment as it pru..'tCi:l along the trough. The non
the blanket to each frame by pipes projeding floatable particlelJ settle in the rela.tively qubt zone
thr.)ugb the solid bottom of the t rough. The small aiong the sloping sides of the lower part of the oell.
bubbles of air passing upward from the blanket in- The method of fceding and discharging the tailings
duce a mild agitat.ion and become adsorbed or at- is :;imilar to that ulled in the Callow ~ II .
tached to the j>Articlcg to he Hoated. The froth, The rur supply ig conI rtdled hy a mai n valve to the
uBUally maintained to It, depth of 8 to 10 in. in t he header, which may he di vided into section!! a.hout ..
tank or trough, overflows in to the concentrate ft long, each one having a.n individual valve that
launder surrounding the cell. can control anyone section. If the air supply ls
The air consumption ave rages 8 to 10 Cli ft/ (min)
(IIQ ft) at A pr6S8Ure of ahout 4 psi until the blanket
OOeor,lCS blinded when higher pressures may be
nfleded. Horizontal Clt,nvas blanket!! have the dis-
advantage of clogging due to sands and to precipi-
tates of calcium salts in the fibers of the cloth.
Carelessness in cleaning with a shovel may rip t.he
cloth . Neverthelesl>, Callow cells have been satis-
factory for many "res, especially those thatare easily
floated without great ugitu.tion.
The Cal/fJw...1 / (lC l lltush ('.ell, Fig. 91, carries a
hollow revolving rotor made from a steel tube about
9 in. in diameter and perforated with ~-in. holes.
Canvas or perforated rubber sheet is fastened to the
surface by means of steel bands. T wo scraper bars
made of 2in. angle iron are bolted the full lengtb oC
the rotor.
This machine does not. blind easily and can hand1e
heavy slurries with a wat.er-to-oolid ratio by wright decreased slightJy at the feed end or tbe tank, the
of 1: 1. These cell~ are usually made 10, 15, or 20 ft concentratE> can be made to overflow in large part
in length and 24, 30, or 36 in . wide, ret!peetivcly, but nPAr t.his end. Air is usually supplied at 2 psi at
larger ijizes Ujl to 30 ft long and 48 in. wide are the blower. For roughing operation.e, 75 to 100
availabk, provided With two rotors. cfm/ ft of tank length is used. For cleaning a lower
The '1uanti~y of air necessary tor: operation varies quantity .45 to 70 efm/ ft will hve a gentler action
from 4 to 8 cu Ct/ (minHsq ft of rotor surface) at less liable to raise gangue into the frot.h. The app rox-
2 to 2~ psi. A ~hp motor is generally capable
of turning the rotor at 10 to 15 rpm. TABI,E 19. POWER REQUIREMENTS OF LOW~
PRESSURE BLOWF:RS"
The "air-hll" cell is pneumatic but does not
employ a. blanket and is free from moving parts. Appro:dm.ltu Horaepower
It consists of a V-bottomed. trough divided into Ai. at PT1l$6YreI! of
Iklivered,
;!!lctions by vertical baffles, as shown in crvss section om 2"; 3 pili 4 psi 5";
III Fig. 92. Air is supplied from a heade; running 500 6 0.5 13.5 17 .5
:.he entire length of th~ trough to the air connections 1000 12 18.& 26 33
at the top of each a-II as shown. The air flows down
w the bottom of the vertical air pipe within about
6 in. of the bottom. The air bubbles carry some
>m
0000

"""
"'"
.
"
34
38

"
76
54
76
10/;
70

'"
135
..,
pulp upward through the perforated apron, thereby
agitating the slurry and fonning froth which is
0000
1000
58
70
63
"
120
13,
125
168
1110
100

...,'.
dcfJec!-ed by the do~ against. the sloping bafBes. 0100 96 16, 225
Ute froth ()v~rftow~ over the overflow li!)K along the The bihliosraPby for t loi <:I.......... -.:.. _ .... 0<' p . lOB.
102 F LOTA TlO~
imalc power required to dcliv(\r air at. titese ],,1\"
pre58UrC!:I i~ indictu<.'<l by the datil of T!lh!e 19.
The mechanically agitated machilllJ. (Fig. 93) con-
sists of A. square C!'08!1-Sf!clioned tank provided with
an impeller which violently agitMes the pulp,
effecting some cond itioning. T he rolation of the'
impeller suck!;' air downwaru through a sleeve sur-
roundi ng the impeller shaft and urenk15 it oJlP into
fine uubble:;. Figllre 94 shows !'he frot.h OVPl'Aow
ur1d adHal aPPclIrun<.:c of olle of th('.-;c ~~ll~ in opera-
lion. The feed enters at ono end of the battery ( )f
cells and pal1SC8 through the desired number of {.~II,.,
to tailings diS('harw':\1 the Ollpo;<ilf' f'nd.
Ai lull" phs,.un",. 1'1\\';. li"",,, abm"(' 8000 ft.,
a tieflua l e ,lir j.; sup plied ulI l,v h.\' 11id of a b lower.
T he Fuyervren I1Il1Chine (Fig. 96) features a rotor-
titatuT ...".;(!mbly for Il.git.ll.tiulI !tnJ aeration of the
pulp. The stator com.itit.:; of cylindrical spaeen;
mounted between two rinp;~ rigidly fasten6ld to the
tank. The rotor construction is 8imilar to that IJf
the stat.or, eXl-ep~ iM upper and lower bladed im-
pellers mounted within the rings. It i" suspended
on a short drive ghaft and fOla\e~ within the stator.
Tbll pulp enters directly i.lto the tank through a
suitahle opening. The pulp if; drawn by the im-
pelle! hlarlCti intn the ml.r)r. Rapid pulp displar:e-
ment create" n partial Vat;lIum whie:, causes air lo
enter into the rotor through the !;tanrlpipc. Thc air
is d ispcrst>d throl.ljl;h the pOll) in t he form of fine
hnhbll':l. In pll..;'...;1I1( 1"'\\\"1'1'11 the (ylillllri('t\1 "'I}:l{"crs
of the roto. nn,1 slat.n, the pulp_waler_nil' mixture
is high ly agitated, giving effective actation.
 ----'--1
J
-'1 ~:::

1
.,i

F lo. \r.\ Cr~tioool ro ..... lng of UK.' lknver mechll.ui",,1 flotat ion Jllilcl.tinc, intli..,.:;,,!> il.; pet ion. (l~lr: K~ J.'-J IInIl CQ.)

Ai; many lUI six muchine;; muy be combined into

one unit ha\'ing ;t common tank sep:}.ratc<i Ly suit-
able panilioll pi:UI'I5. In such a ('Me, the pulp flows
from one cell to another '~"ough opcrungs providcrl
in IIl1' pUI"lil ion p kt u'~; lit the end of the string is a
d i~whul"gc box. Thf" froth is removed from each uuit
hy 11 rot ntin~ .!'kimmer. The power requirements fc.r
1I1f':<t' mcchnn tcul mnchltle8 may be estimated hom
T:Lblc 20.

T.\HL J.: 20. Al' PHOX1:>. IATt: pO\n:1t HEQUIHEMENTH

FOlt MH'H .\!\IIC.\[. F'I.OTATlOr\ CELLS
J lur""lwwer c.:.uI!umed
pt.'full
Size, ~u It Ll1'u I... ' Flljl;pr)!:I~'Jl
iO

"" I. :l
1. 1
1 8- 2.0

"
40
2.'1
:.I . ~ ,
:I.:, 1.0
;;0 1.2 'J
70
,
""
"'1<'. !I I. 0<>0"'-. !lot" ti(>n m"d.i,,<, in aN "'n. (",.mY"
I?q!llpmn,/ c.. .'
,., FI.OTATION

FIG. 95. St.-<:tionai tlro"ing 0( Fagcrgron IIoWtiun IlWchine. (Weat_ M!ldtirwk Co. )

FLOTATION AGENTS balance of forees para1lel to surface of the IIOlid gives

1<10tl1tlOn depends upon the relative ad80rptioo "tS(I "" "(Sf., + "(I.() (COH 8)
or " wetting" of the solid surfaces by the fluid. This where"( "" interfacial tension "$ indicated.
in tum i~ controlled by ~urface O!" interfacial energy 8 ., contact an.ll;le.
of which interfacial tension is the inten ~ive f::.ctor.
Any surface lOuch as lhat between water and air The cont.act !:lngle may be dctcnnined by placing a
reSists extension and behaves exactly w; if it were in polished specimen of solid in the bottom of a flat~
tension. It is this intctfadal tension which tends to
make !'lnuil ffi!1f:1&l!! uf water in air take on a spherical Gn
~
GG~LoUquid
SL ... ~u.
shape or l)fll:omfl drf)r~, find ~mfLll masses of a ir in
sa
water t.ake on a spherical shape and become bubbles,
as the sphlJre hlUl the le&.'\t, swface per unit volume.
FIG. 96. Diagram ()f ~urflj.(.c
!.elISions involved in Ihree-ph8.lle
The inIRrfnciaJ tension Cdn be measured as the force oontao1.
resisting the ext.ension of the interface. Its J1!btivc
values may be determined by the angle fonned be- sided vessel, as indicated in Fig. 97. The ISUrface of
tween surfaces or interfaces when three or more the solid may be clean, or it may carry a film of
pha.o;es are in contact Itnd a.t equilibrium. adsorbed material, depending upon the conditions
In general the 6um.of the components of the int.er- it is desired to measure. The liquid to be investi-
facial tensiOI1!l equals zero If one of the phlijle8 is a. gated is poured into the v~ until the solid is at
IIlllid Im-.;(nlinjl; It rigid plant" !It:rrace, 8M- indicated least 1 in. undcr '.he liquid. A flat-endcd capillary
ill lo'ig. ~i, mId lht! vtlter iwu ph_ are ttuids, the hi introdm:ed I'CfI.II'ndicula rly uve r lIle :!Sol id, 11.nd
 FU)TATION AGENTS
air is cautiously blown through the capillary lIntil
the bubble inakes contact with the solid.
'If the solid is easily and completely wet.ted by the
liquid (lig. 97a), the liquid exists as s' skin between
the solid and air and there is: no point of contact of
the three phases. The angle formed by a tangent
at the apparent point of contact between the three
phases is zero.
If the surface of t.he solid is not complewly wetted,
the liquid is forced to recede to an equilibrium pot!i-
tion, as indieatOO in Fig. 97b, where the forces of the
",""
phase
.......
""'pbow
'.J
Flo. 97. Diagram repretlCnting contact an,l" between 8
liquid And Ii solid.' (a) Solid completdy Wilt. by liquid;
(b) I\(.lUd Il.u.rtially wet by liqui,l.
three interfaces are in balance. A tangent to the
gu-liquid interlace at this point forms !.he angie 8,
defined as the contact angle (always measured
through the more dense phase). The angle muy be
measured by projection of a magnified shadow of the
bubble on a screen.
In flotation a .><>lid p8J'ticle is attached to a bubble
in the same way sa the solid and bubble arc in con-
tact in Fig. 97. The only difference is that the solid
i.e extremely lImall and the air bubble is relatively
Iarr;e. The force of gravity and the agitation tend
to dislodge the solid particle from the bubble.. If
the contact angle is small, the liquid will advance
over the surface of the solid, and the surface fornes
holding the solid and bubble together are weak.
A large OOIltac.. angle means easy flotability. When
a lJOlid particle attaches itself to a bubble, there is a
loss in surface energy - 11E per unit area u[ Sllrf~ tT,
equal to the 1088 in aurface tension or
IlE .. 'Iso tMtSG + '18L f.qSl.. + "(w /lgL(]
/lgSL - -/luSG - tMtw
-OE
- - ., (-'Is.'. + "(LO - "(ao)
"SG
lO..,
Since
"(00 - "(SL + "(w(cO!! 8)
"(51.. - -raG - -"Yw{c(88)
-OE
- - - "tw(l - 0(88)
"SG
This loss in energy ( - tlE) is a IDC8.'lure 'of the
wcttability of the solid phase by the air and there-
fore an indication of t.he f1otability. It represents
the work required to separate the air from a unit
surface of sOlid.
CoIb.dors and promoter8 are reagents which are
adsorbed on t he surface of t he sOlid as very thin
films nnd which because of t heir properties thereby
increase the contact angle. The tenn promoter
is particularly applied to agents _forming fi lrrs
one molecule thick, such as sodium xanthate,
NaS(CS}OR, which is adsorbed on lead sulfide and
oriented with the xanthate radical (---8CS-)
toward the lead and the hydrocarbon part (R) out-
ward. This gives the surlace of the solid a char-
aeteristie appii->aching that of a hydrocarbon which
is not wetted by water. If t.he adsorbed matel'ial
fornu! films several molccuies thick it is called a
colleetor. Petroleum is an example of a true col-
lootor. It has the d iiW.Ivantage of making IL gl"'C'&8y
froth containing a st.icky mass of bubhles difficult
to break down in the sUbsequent sedimcntativn
operation, and in some C9J'AlS a t race of oil in the
concent rate is undesirable. Pine oil, generally
cla.'IFIed WI a frut~ing agent, also acts 8.<; a collect-or
and is not so sticky WI cresyJic aci.d and petroleum.
Thc more commun pl"lJmoters used if!. minp.ral flota.
tion are tllp. xantlliLtcs, the aerofioats, HS(PS) (OR)2,
and thiocarhanilide, HSC(NCeHt,)(X"IIC6 H 3 ) . The
quantity of these reagents used is about 0.05 to
0.15 Ib/ ton of solids treated. Somewhat larger quan-
tities of collectors, up to about lib/ tun, may be
used. The greater the length of the nonpolar or
hydrocarbon ptlrt of tbe molecule, the more the sur-
face approaches that of paraffin and tbe greater thl'
eonta.et. angle. The R group in the xanthates is
frequently the methyl or isoamyl group. In the
aeroffoats cresyJ or phenyl as well as the methyl
radical is frequently used and the hydrogen, H, may
be replaced by a metal.
F rothi1l{} agen18 are required to prevent coalescence
of air bubbles when they reaeh the surface of t he
water, thereby maintaining a pcJ"1'.lIrtent frotil . The
agent mus~ be sparingly soluble in water without
HJIl FLOTATION
apl'rt,t'i:lhle i'lilizalinn Hnd 1)(' 1U1"'lI'bfld in Ihl' ia lt'r-
f:u't' 11('11\'1'(>11 waif'!" IUlcl air I(,lltiing III n'C1U(~' HI('
surface It' nsion uf \\'stf:'r.. The heavy alcohols
( b('x~'l alcohol e 6 H 130H) possess these properties.
If two air bubbles ct)llidc, the "skins" (interfaces
I;tJllt:lining water and alcohol) stretch but do not
!Jrt. ak ann tlw bubbk'l> do not conlCt>Ce, because at
A Rouaher
B~~
c. ae.oer
Conditioner
k-t'tnr!lr prnmol{'r). ThE'Y n:'acl. 1\;l h the tjurfare of
Ih(' ,<ulill. E'iltiPr iI.v (' llI'm i('Il I I~' lion or hy adsorption,
10 change the chal'l\der of the lIurface of one or more
of the solids, thereby preventing the adsorption of
the collector or promoter on the solid. The addition
of eopper sllUatc (CuSO~) act ivate; the surface of
zinc 8ulfide (ZOS) 80 that the latter is readily 800ted
if a small quantity of copper sulfate (CuSO() is
added in the conditioning tank. This may be due
to the formation of copper suillde (CuS) or perhaps
metallic copper (eu) on the surface of the zinc
sulfide (ZnS).
The acidity or pH of the water is an important
fact or controlling ur modifying the ease of filming,
and in many easeg flotation is possible only within a
narrow range of pH, Fl)r t-his reason sodium
hydro:,;ide (NaOIl) or hydrated lime (Ca(OHh)
ma.y act as either activatoI1l or depressants, depend-
ing upon condit ions. Sodium I;yanide (NaeN) is a
depressant for iron sulfide (FeS 2 ) if the laUer is
present with lead sulfide (P bS). Hut, after the PbS
is floated, an increase in concentration of xanthal.e
will floot the FeS:t.
&:.m tok:. The ~Dt pI'O&1Wll for the Opcnal.i<ID Q/
Fill:. 9R '" indi CAted .. follows where the num bers correspond
to the numbered ~trealIll! in Fig. 98.
L 1'0 gliadin" cireuit
NatCOt 2.. .( Ib/ ton of eoIidil
t~""
:x..nthate (oon,~tor) 0 . 06-<1.15 Ib/ ton
"2. 1'0 PbS conditioner (5-15 min)
:-laCN (depreIIIIEfJ FeSt) O,I-(),.( Ib/ ton
ZnSO~ (depreseea Zn8) 0,3- 1.2 Ib/ ton

Ff'S. concentrale 3. To rb.<; rougher, L/ S _ 2 .. 11/ 1 to \.1i/ 1 (t.hiek pulp)

FIIi, 98, ,,'!ow , li"I':f'J m of llelllCLivc flotation fur rt',',wNing Cresylic .. cid {frothed O.. 02--0.16Ibft,on
f'b,'-I, z~q. And F<'8t. Xantw..tA! (oolleetor) O.02-(), IOlb/ ton
4. To znS nooditiooer (5-15 min)
the point or contact strel.ching of the film 1illows
water molecules t.o come into the interface, increW:ling CuS0 4 (a.ctiVllte8 znS) 0 . 5-2,0 Ib / ton
C.(OH), (depree!!el FeSt) 1-4.0Ib/ ton
the surface tension ILt that point.. Alcohols !.lelow
amyl are too soluble, and those above octyl are too 5, To znS rougher, "U 8.()-9..o
insoluble to make satisfactory frothing agents. Pine oil or ~l'(!IIyli~ AL-id (frother) 0.M-() . t 5 tb/ ton
Cresylic acid produces an unsatisfactory brittle Xantw..te (ooUeetor) 0.10-0.20 Ib/ ton
froth unlCllil used with a trace of petroleum. Pine Naaeroftoot (ooU ector) (ifnocell'l"ry) O.02-O. IOlb/ ton
oil, a mixture of compounds, and eucalyptus oil are If it '" tlo:siretlw 1!'.,~UI'll FeSt. uw..lly unw .. nLetl . N ..!CO:. mUll~
good frothing agentt! requiring no additions. About be U IM:d to ..."'" the pi t. Anuther cycle is then ruquin;tl .no.!
0.05 to 0,3 Ib of frothing agent is uJOed per ton of t hem is IUld,!tl
solids treated . G. T" Fe.% ,:<>"uitilln"r
Modifyinfj agenl& ma.y he used to "activate" (Ir to N ..rC<h (JIU ,,,,"1,,,1 ) 0.5-2.0 Ib/ ton
" deprt'!llll" the ~ption of the filming agent (1;01- x.""t,h,.I .. (....It...<"I.or) 0.05-0. 15 tb/tao
 CALCULATIONS FOR A, FLOTATION PROCESS 107
~MIJlU su ch a.s sodiulIl .. iiicat<'. !\I..Hum ml't3- _Y'I'Jl!il"r t'('lb wi~h " 'Iurn "r II'R'<t'ng,-r ''9fIl'ftlt.rat~ to tJ.e
phosphate, or soluble starch may he actctE'li Id)t'n nlUgMr .
neee&eary toO break up agglomc~tion8 of minerul and 1..abol-lOtury findings indicII.l\, t hll\. if wRi~lid8 I"IItio
L/S - 2, and the contact time i~ 8 min in the rouaher, and
gangue. In such caseS the mineral becomes coated L/S - 4 fOf 15 min in scavenger, with mechanieally 65itated
\\'ith a slime of silicates and becomes unfloatable. mll(lhine.s 01 the Denver type, tbe following oompoeit>ona will
tJe found (or the Vari0U8 product8.
CALCULA~TlONS FOR A FLOTATION PbS s;o,
Feed, Q 10% 00%
PROCESS Concentrate, 6
TIle faetori:'-'-t;OntroIling II. tiota.!ion process are cOln-
plicatfm ' and noi readily susceptible of calculation.
Rougher tailings, r-
SoavCD(eI" concomtraw, d
'"
2
11
20
98
89
fjlllli tailings, t 0.' 99.'
Sufficient data to serve a.s a guide in the computa-
Tho; dcnsitieti ..r PbS and SlOt lin! 1.!"; Mtl 2.65 m/ ce, ~
tions may be obtained. by laboratory tests on stand-
tiv",ly.
ardi&ed laboratory equipment, either at the plant. or
in SQ-CAlied "ore-testing Iaboralorie!!" conducted Solu tion .
comrneMially by equipment and chemical companies. A . Com lht/.cllion of dewm " J ufl lolilU.
When the best combination of operating condi- In feed ; PbS: 10 &rams - 1 .33 ee
tions haa been decided upon, the following pertinent SiD,: !lO illam8 .. 34,00 cc
data will be obtainable for each flotatidn1unit. 3,5".33 ee
1. Densities of both minerals,
L 100
Avcrage ", IMI~y,. .. 35.33
2. Pulp density of the material in the flotation - 2.83 prniI/ cc "" 176,5 111/ <:\1 It
cell, expressed either as the volume f~tioll of solid,
or as 1./S, the \\'ater-VHIoiids ratio by weight. S imiIMly , " .. 5.5 grainIs/ cc co 30 lb/ cu ft
' . .. 2.682 gra.rm;/ cc co 167.31b/ cu f t
3. The oompo&\iOll of the feed and of the prod- ,,~ - 2.8M gl"ll.lllll/ cc co 178 Ib/~... ft
ucts. P. - 2.679 gI'\l.JIlI'I/ oc ... 167 lb/cu It
4. The reagen"bJ and quantities of reagents to be
B. CompwuliO'll oj 1M mUM oj prollil.cU by maunu! l.cUOl,ICt.
utted, determined by experiment in each indi\idual
problem. Onnlll lJa.laInCCi ba.sis: 100 lb of nd foecd
S. Too contact time, usually expressed as too a - b + e- IOO
average time in minutes thal the puJp is in the flota- b _ 100 -
tion eell.
6. The type of flotation cell, mechanical or Q .. nOO - t} + t
pneumatic, in which the laboratory test WIlB con- All overall P\.I.~ balllJlOO :
ducted. "'.
(0 .1)(100) .. (0.8)(100 - t ) + (O.OOw_)
To these data mwt b:i added:
7, The desired"eapacity, ususlly expl'e:llted in tuns 10 .. 80 - n,s,. + O.~
per hour or tons per 24 hr of 90lids to be htUl(Ued. 0.7'.1;'"... - 70
8. The type of flotation equipment to be 11IJCd, e _ 88.1 II.> b .. II.~ It.
" lit!
"'' rom this information, one may compute :
:. 't he capacity of the cell banks and the number
of individual machines req uired. PbS b.hu~w "n.H.lntl t he 8CtI.vellJtt'r:
2. If pneumatic equipment is used, the amount of '" e _ d+e
compressed air required and the borsepoI\'er for the
comjJressors. (O.02)(,/ + 88. 1) - (0.1I)(d) + (0.005)(88. 1)
3. If met:hanicul equipment is 1l9llCI, til" h/)~ 11.02<1 + 1.702 .. 0 .11" +o,44Qa
power 1l!<luired. 1I.0000J .. 1.3115
1I1t". lr .. ljv~ E"'''lnpl~. It if! Ue.<irod to nmoVllf ),*,1 from d .. 14.57 II) ".d c .. 102.67 III
lin ore ~"'" llOjning 10 FJIlf co'nlletid !IIlifide (Pb.'-I) lind Lloc lJ.lIOnt'Ol . '(0.8)(11.9)
lll1>UlneU to lx, miiCII, 500 wlUlof ore being tfl!.lltcU IV 24./lr day, y...,w .. "i"0 , 1)(l00) .. 95.2%
It ~ ...l.un...J Ih,,~ tho: l... n~fltr&t<l truru IL ";nlille l'l! l! i~ of
_VWiIe I>Urity ... u~ Lilt: l.ooilinVII lin: to be n;treIOl-tU in Purity tJl Nncefll r& Le '" !It%
 108 FWTATION
C. COIrIputation o/l4nk WIlu"",.. D. Coml'\d<diDn of n!lm1w o/~.
Rovaber \auk mUll. bokl. and d.:llid.: AaHume Denver No. 24 macioinot .. hich have 50 cu ft ut
.o/ume ami nJquire 4.2 hp per o:t.," t.u ope!ate.
100
II" 100 lb 178.5 '.. 0 ,5650 cu It For rouaher I: W - 4.82 Uee S OC)U.and21 IIp

14.67 For _venger I : W - 15. 13 Uee 16 ccUs an.:J 67. 2 hi)

d .. 14.671b 178 .. 0.0818 eu ft
~lb o:&i68 eu n olllOlliM Total 21 OllUa and 88 . 2 lop

The average deMity PM for this mixture of (I an~ d .. 178.8 Air-Lift Ma.ehinc. l1li manufaetured by tbe SOUth ...(lStcm
Ib/ cu ft, ..... ith LIS .. 2/ 1. 114.67 Ib of BOUd feed require Enginoering Co. have .. standArd ~_ 'etional t.reIL or
m .141b or 3.675 cu It of ..aloer. 9.% 8Q ft Ind , o.l'ing to the gentler action. UllUa.lly I'/lquim
t.bout 50 per cent longer OODtact time for operatioo.
Volume fractioll of 801ids in pulp .. 0.6468 .. 0.14.92
. 0.6468 + 3.615 241 X 1.5 _ 36.7 rt Iooc
For rouper II :
Capacity per 1 cu It of rou&her lank volume: 9.85
, X 0.1492 X 176.8 X 60 X 24 752 X 1.5
For _venser II : .. - 114.2 ft long, prefert.bly
9.
"'" X 8
.. 2.378 toIIlI per 24 hr IkilidB handled
brolum down into '"0
uni t.!!

The buiB for all computations waa 100 Ib of net feed; if The amount of ~r required may be &I!I!IlIIIOCI to be 75 cImJft
!.he ooL feed is 500 tons/24 hr, the rou&ber lank muat bandle In ~ and 100 cfmJ ft in _venger iLt 2 psi.
114.57
100 X 500 .. 572.8S I.ons/24 hr. Air for rouaber: 75 X 86.7 - 2 , 750 elm
Air for _venger: 100 X 114.1 _ 11 . 410 elm
Required capaeity for hAnk of rougher oe1lB:
14 . 160 elm
572.86
2:378 .. 241 eu it of tank voIUIXIe The powtz for the air com~ m...y be mad from Tahiti 19.

Scavenaer oolla:
102.67 . BIBLIOGRAPHY
c .. 102.67Ib - .. 0 .613 cu It of IIOhdt
167.3
1. #'lotati(m lftda, Grea~ W(!fttem Division, Dow Cbemieal
410.68 Co., Sau Franeilco.
at LIS .. " HtO .. 4.10.681b OJ" - , I .. 6.690 cu ft of water 2. GAUlIIN, A. M ., PWWion, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1932) .
6 .1
a G.!.llDIK, A. M ., Principla of Mirurnl ~, McGraw_'
Hill Book Co. (1939).
4. RAlIOKr., PHILIl'. PloI4lWfl P/(Jn.! ~, Mining Publica-
t.ioooI Ltd., Lor.doo (1939) .
c.r-city f .... 1 au It of _V. '''IIl'' tank : G. RAUI'I'OH, OLI n a C., "FIotatinn and AQ:lonvrate Con-
oentration of Non-Metltllic MillO,.... "" .. (I . :So Bu.r. Minn
I X 0.0841 X 167.3 X flO X U &pl.. IIWUl. 30m (1938).
UIO X 16 6. WAJU[, I. W. and A. B. Cox, Tnma. A .... lfUl. Mi,ai...
.. 0.682 tuna fIOlid6 handJed/ 24 hr Md. Hn.gn. 111, 245 (1934).
",. _..:. 102.67
.........-...ty required .. """"iOO X 500 .. 513.35 tons/24. hr

VoI.wne of \auk requi~ for _venaeI' ~

513.35
----752cuft
0.682
 PROBLEMS ' 119
1. Ground Iud ore la to be conoentrated by allinglf. flotation 2. For a IkItation operation, ~h as that in )ow.
89, the
_na: 1.6 oaof reacen t lit!" ton of - . 11le feed, concentrate.
aDd tailinp have the foUowiltC compollitioOll by ....eight on
net feed is 1000 tonII/24 hr to the~. From tM folio'll'
iog dIo.ta, oompu .... the eapacity aoo number of flotation cells
dry bMiB: in each llRit and the poo ..~ t eomumlion.
F.... eo-...... Tailinp,
~I- %
%
,.
% %
,.'" CuB
PbS
z"s
c.oo,
a;o,
..
30
20
,
3
0 .'
27.3
57 .9
Food
Tailing!! fmm ~
ltoop'f conoenlrale
'"
I)!l
III ...,
2
I
10 13.9
Tailinp frum _vcnt;er
.,
11'.1.6 0.'
Water '- fed to the cell a t the rate of 1100 gal/ton of dry
CODOentrate with 90% of the ..... ater lelwing ...ith the tailinp
and 1.0% 'IIith the concentrate. Calculate:
s.-..wnto.er CO<l~nlrat(l
Tailing:s from t leAnet
Finlll eutlecn1.rute '"I ..
20

(0) lot . . of wei. ooneentrate produced per hour when 8perifie Water_I .... ("()ntaet
10 toIlS of ore are fed to the cell V"'" 24 hr. Gno.Vlty S..lid Ratios Tim... , min
(II) Total water required in pounds per hour.
(e) The fraction of lead in 01"11. in tailings.
SiOt
CuB
265
' .00
Rougher
Seavengtr
2/1
4/1
Rough!'!
&avenger

12
(cO !lAtio of liquid to IIOlid hy volume in l'lOIloootrate. B", 1.0 C'OODC!' 0/1 Cleanl!l' 10
(~) Ratio 01 liquid to.olld by YOI_ io IaiJiDcII. Conditionct' 8

(It) Vie Denver No. 24 celli! ....hoIe cubill eapo.city is 50

cu hand 1Oih,*, po .....,., oonsumpl ion ill . 2 hp per cell.
(lJ) Vie Air-Lift 11e whoell cl'Of!I'HeCtic>ra1 :uea up tn
Iroth overf!o" is 9.86 Iq It and compute tho !eRst" of the
trougb& aud air roquired a\ 3 pai.

I
 CHAPTER
10
Sedimentation
HE separation of n suspension into a
T natant. clear fluid and a rather clrnse slurry
containing a higher concent ration of wlid is
called sedimentation. Commercial sedimentation of
water suspelU!ions i5 eo,nducted as ' a cont inuous
process in "thickeners" or
large tanks which receive
the suspension or dilute slurry at the center or side,
permit the O\'crflow of supernatant liquid, and p ..o-
duoe a sludge from the bottom of the tank.
LABORATORY BATCII SJ::D1l\I ..:NTATION
Before the continuous operation is considered, a
general conception of the operation may be gaineci
from simple batch sedimentation, illustrated hy sus-
pending some liM;Y divided solid in water in a
grAduated cylinder nnd allowing the contents of the
cylinder to stand undisturbed. The time ratc of
decrease in height of the visible interface between
supernatant. clear liquid and slurry containing the
particles is the "sedimentation rate." This smsll-
Ke8.1e experiment must be cunducted at s un.ifonn
temperature to Hvoid movement. of fluid or convec-
tion due to density differences resulting from differ-
encefl in temperature. The oheerved height. of the
interface is plotted as a functi on of time in Fig. 99,
which also indicates the prrogress of the sedimentation
in t.he cylinder.
At t.hc start. of a hakh sed imentation the concen-
tration t'lf !;()Iids ~ Hniform throughout the cylinder.
Soon after the pnl(.'CIOij begin:;, all the particleil of
suspended solid fall through the Huid at their maxi~
mum velocities v'" Ilnder the existing conditions uf
hindf'I"'t.Lseu,ling. Fur II. c1Ol!ely liiZl.'(1 So,)liil, all pur-
ticl<'S full at ahout the 'lSI\me velol.'it,y and a "harp
line of demarcation is observed between the supcr-
SU~)I" natant clellr liquid (zone A) and the slurry (zone B)
8l:I the process ('.ontinues. In a slurry containing ,
part icles of different sizes, including very fine solids,
the larger particles will settle faster, the line of
demarcation is not sharp, and the supernatant IiquKi
may be haty or milky. In either case, the part icles
near the bottom of t.he container begin to pile up
on the boHom, building up the concentrated sludge.
(zone D) as indicated in Fig. 99. There may not
be a well-defined interface separating zones B and D,
bill, in all cases the concentrated sludge builds up as
the ;,edimentation proceeds. So It'lng as the two
interfaces are relatively far apart, the solid part icles
in zone B continue to fal: at their con~tant mf'ximum
velocitleJ and no change in sedimentation rate is
observed since thc density or concentration of the
solids in the suspension near the upper interface
remains constant.
The concentratit'lns of r;oncs B Bnd D arc al~)
plotted in Fig. 99. Zone B maintains a conllt.ant
composition until the interface between wnes A and
B app~es the interface between zones B and [).
As the upper interface approaches the sludge build-
ing up on the bottom of the container, the density
and viscosity of the suspension surrounding the fall-
ing particles increB8e, with a corresponding decrease
in settling velocity. This velocity eontinues to
decrease during a so-alled transition period, after
which the slurry appears uniform M It heavy sludge
(rone D ) , the settling zone n havinJC disappe!:LrOO.
The sec:limentation Pf( 1CeIi!> frum then on eonsisU!
only of the continuation of the slow compaction of
the solid in zone D Durintz; this compaction of the
,,!tIllite the Auld may l)(l C()llllidereti to be flowing
through a porous bed of decreasing penncability.
An ultimate height of the suspension is reached
no
 LAHURATORY BATCH SEl)J~IJ<:~TATION III
which represents the maximum compaction of the of particles or simply inerease the effective siR by
solid when surrounded by the given fluid. the additiona.l matl>rial aruorbed. Apparently som('
EqU&t.ions 14, 17, or 17H, when prnperly inter- ..'Inch act ion was caused by the nlLCConal in the tes'-'!
p~'etoo , 'Ising bulk.. density and bulk viscosity for reported in Tahle 21 . In vicw of th e complex natuI'C
hindered seuling, may serve to exprel;8 tile rate of set-. of scdimeni.at.ion, rcliubl{' 1lllculationll ca n be madf'

:Ii; Crt/iut
POIl'lt -'"'--
, ,"
,m !:-:' I :Ill

Time, min
/

tling of particles in sedimentation. But ~ther varia- onl.r whf'n ha..~ un nut\mJ m('tururcment l!- ur fhe rate
ble& are frequently of great importance. Small par- of ~imentaliun under cart-fully controlled cundi-
ticles m&y be di!lPflnsed or agglomcralcd intu larger tions.
particles. The effective size and ooo.sity of the par-
TAHLE 21. 1:'X I'EII[ :\lt-:NTA t , 8~; ])Ji\l~:NT.<\TtON
tides may aJso be affected by adsorption of or from
the fluid. These changes in the effective size (D) and 1)a'a on pulp "lInlain.["1; 7.44 1)I~r l'Ilnt, <If C,,~ ()( "n av..n...,
uen!iity (P.) may change the sedimentation rate by a sUI! ,.s:I,jma"~1 t.O II<: al)lR,Lt .~ mil-rolll! in di.'!.mo."~r and 2.26
I'Bm8/ ee dcMity in n,o at 20 C.
relatively large factor. For example, Table 21
repGd.s the observed data on two batch sediments- HI~jlht nf In Wrf/I.CC, em
tion3 nm on slurries of the same material uf the same
Time, min "'~
WMN
0. 1% NMCOIlIII
Freshly A.. rlt~1
concentril.tion and starting from the !!arne height.
0 30.8~ 30.88
The only difference is the addition of a amall amount
01 \\"cHing agent t.o the second test,.
4 21J." 27 .21
8 29 . 10 21 .!\.~
'11lr. pret<en(',e of t.he I!-mall amoun t. of na.('('onal had 12 2l! .>' Iii . R!;
II prullullnt'('ll I'ff~t, nn the vel,~il,y of settling, in- 16 Z7 . .'"4) 11. '111
27 ..... . 2\1 IZ.1l7
1'l'f'IlIling the nilll I)f lit!diment.atiun during t.he fin;t 37 23 .34 12 .2a
third of Ih(' d;~t nlu.."Il and retarding the rate during
compll(linn as wt'll a.'" pn>wnling d oec compaction. "n 20.3<
16 . 48
11 .-18
II .42
IO. H
9 .\12 .
'I'h,' t<In't' 1i " il'A ..f l h, .Ir.\' l'I<>lill (1:41' . id, ~ ii< ill~uffi .. jt'nl '02
!}.Iln
infurlllatioll 'I, J cllrmiliC ~It lillg \'docitil'l:l. :\d-
sorptiun on the par' id~ may Ctl.1I1!e agglomerution
"'
'SI ,.'"
o.iJS
!1 .62
W. 13
8."
Il2 SJo;Ull\IENTA'rtUN
Ell.....,.. From th<! datIL of Table 21, prepare .. plot ~ereiee, C<lmp6l1!l tM pb!erved oooetant-ra.te aettliD,
ahowifll the velocity of eettling In centimetel"l )X:f minute vdocitieB reported in Filt. IOQ with ma.ximum 8e1tlin&: veloci\\M
.. a function of the "fraction l!Ieuled" (t he di~.noe ... ttled estima.1.ed by equ&tion 14 or eqU&uon 17, ulling the bulk
at the indicated time dividod by the diatance uJt;mately density of the Bluny for the density of the lluid, &nd tM
RUled). bulk vi8oo8ity of the slurry (or tho v\eeoo!ity vi the fluid.
Fraction IleUlood .. -
z. -
--Z AIeo, Ol>mpanl t'-e velodtiee with ""'-1118 ealeulated with the
Z. - Z.. facw F. from Joig. 71 .
when! Zo - initi~l hei~t.
Z .. height!l.t t.he indi~.a"~ time. The results of sedimentation of identical ~l\ll"ries
Z., .. ullimal~ hciPlt 11k. infinile time. from two initial heighl:.& are given in TabJr 22.
The m9ul18 of sedimentation of slurries of four These data indicate that the constant rate of sedi-
different concentrations of fhc same ('alcillm car- mentation a t. t.he beginning is the same independent.
bonate are plotted in Fig. tOO, each from the same of the height and also that, the rates of settling are
the same at the same fraction settled.
.,
32
:~
The ela.psed timerequiredto obtain a given r~
tion settled is proportional to initial height. too
;~'"
'", II'
26 :'\>, TABLE 22. SEDIMENTATION OF IDF..NT1CAL
SLt'RRIES FROM- DIFFERENT HEIGHTS
2
;1\\-1
22
'''is'i> Data on 2.91 weigh t % Caco, in PU"' water; particle ,ille
20 about 5 mierons.
>...
~I 8 Height of Interf_. em
't~ Time (I), min T.., B
I~
6 TEilltA.
0 48.33 22.00
2 46.17 2:0.63
I2
0 {>'t~ 43.22
40.31
17 . 86
t.~.O I

, ~-:a::~ "'"" 37 .5 ' 12 .28

~~
M.a.'i !1 . 63
12 31.72 7.&1

2
- l.ss~ Caco, "
16
28.7!1
26.21
6 .1;2

0
o 20 40
Time, mill
80 100 IZO 10)_ ,.
21 19.30
lfi.oW
4.57
' .05
3C 13 . 5.'> 3.28
flO. 100. Height of int"rf,,~~ ,Jurin!! hitch .... Um~n l "tJon.
"'"'
77
10. !l2
7.61
ll.21
H"
2.41
original height of slurry. The more dcnoo slurries
settle at a slower rate, .indica! ing the mutual inter
102

f>.23
'.40
,,.
'ferene... of particles:n mOldered settling and the devia
tions to be expected fmm settling rates enimated Exen:i.... Plot t he rate of !leUli"" for I.eIIUI A a nd B
from the behavior of individual particles in free of Table 22 .... a funct ion of the fraction eett.ll'd.
settling.
The inilial constant. rate ill dearly evident in
It has beeP suggctltcd ~ that equat.ion 17 for lami
e8.cb of t.he cu rves of
Fig. 100. Elurries of very low lIAr flow coidd be used to compute the rate of sedi
mentation as follows.
concentration may scUie wit.h a velocity approxi-
mately that of free settling for the first few minutes, dZ klJ2(P. - P6)
but a slower ra te is usuall y t.o be expe(:ted. v. '" - ,- "'"
df ~b
The t.ransit.ion from the initial constant rate of
settling of a KluTTY of the 'properties of the feed Rearranging and intep;rll.ting

J:' "
(original eorustant rate) to tlie compression or thick-
('Ring of the pulp takes pllt.cc rapidly and is followed - -- -- dZ _ k 1)2t (17))
hy t.he ~lativr.ly slo\\" cOlnJlTl..~i()n \X'1'iod, ua indi- z. P, - P~

('lIt!<! in Fi~. Of! lwd 100. 'fh .. l>ihli"l-(r"l'h.l" r""ll,;~ ,h"I,1o'1" nl)I ~':"'" ,," I>. 120.

wMl'e Pi - bulk density of slurry.
"'. - bulk viscosity of slurry.
" - 8. factor whose vsJue depends upon con-
centration ollloli<J fUld other proper- -
ties of the systemll. In Hlokes equa-
tion (I7), k - g/ 18, a oonst.ant.
nus equation may be integrated over various
limits 01 t.imf:.. If integrated over the CQIllItant rate
period, the value of k so found may be used for
compUting eed:mentation from other heightt! over
the COIllItant rate pericxl as the properties of the
8USpeIllIion remain constant during this interval.
'!be equation may also be used to estimate changes
to be expected from varying the particle diameter
D, the densities P. and Pb , and the bulk viscosity "'b.
But if the integration is conducted over the time
interval corresponding to the whole process the value
of A: 80 found will be of no value as it does not corre-
spond to the properties of the l:IUsperu!ion at any
time and ma.y not be used for any other calculation.
E~ereI.e. Usin( the data f.". tEl!t B, Table 2'2, for the
!!edimenlAtion of c..ClOJ, OOll.8truct a curve of hcidlt VCl'SW!
time for the _ fIIurry fIl:ullil& from an initial heigh t of
-tS.33 ern and compare ... ith data rcport.cd for ~t.1;
I. Assuming equ.aJ eettlins: veJoeit;e. at e(jual fr&cl.iowr;
l!etlled.
2. Jntepatma equ.a.tion 170 OVIY' roostant rate period only
to find .1:, ADd oompuuD( Z .. a fo.uaction of time (I).
3. Inlllgalin equation In over the toLid time interval
and ueina the vt.Iue of ,I; I!IO delermino,d in equation 170 for
. oomputin&; Z M a funelion of t ( not &ood pRdice).
EQUIPMENT
SiMpk btJkh ttling tanka have been and still are
wKiely used. These operate in the manner deacribed
~=>.- 'T hid! sludae dilduo,..
Fill. 101. Sectional .-liacrammlltic drawing of ........ pL;puou. thicktraer.
Il3
for the small-~e laboratory graduate. The tank
is filled, and the slurry is allowed to settle for the
desired time. The thickened material may be re-
moved through a valw in the blllloffi of the lank, or
the cl!t.rilied iIOlutioo Inlly lie withdrawn, either by
lowering a swing siphon or by the su~ve opening
of draw-oll' connections, starting with the uppermost..
When the decanted solution begins to show the
presence of sludge or thc sludge level is expolllld, the
decantation is stop~.
ContinUQUII udimenliltion is conducted in inverted
CODes, or in cylindrle!U or rectangular tanks or vessels
equipped with slowly revolving rakes for moving the
thickened sludge to the cent.ral discharge (Fig. 101).
In iurge concrete tanks the mechanism for moving
the rakes may be so constructed that the rake arms
_are automatically raiAed to lift tbe rakes off the
bottom when subjected to an overload, as might be
caused by tl.n interruption to the discharge, and
automatically lowered again to the normal operating
condition when the overload is passed. The feed is
introduced through a feed. well at the top cen.ter of
the COIle or cylinder. The slurry settlp.8 directly
below the feed well , forming a sludge which is
withdrawn from the bottom. The clear Huid BoW8
to the periphery and is withdrawn by overflowing a
circumferential weir.
-.
A tray thickener is an ill8tallation of ODe tbickener
directly above another, which may be operated
independently on the same or different feeds. or in
A fil.U:r thickt:nl't', as the name implies, is the com-
bination of a fi lter and a thickener. 1be feed is
introduCM into the tank. The solution is withdrawn
through a submerged filtering mediwn or cloth. The
114 SIillL\lENTATION
9Oi.lds that collect on the filtering medium IIIl'
periodically removed by mechanical scraperg or by
low pre88Ure air or water on the rever8e side of the
filter. 1bey settle to t.he hottom where they are
removed lUI II. tlludge.
CONTINUO US SEDIMENTATION
'The operation of COIltinuous gedi.m.entation tanks
or tAickenn. depends upon tbe same ch&racteristics
of the slurry 81!1 indicated for batch sedimentation.
The differeneee between continuOlls and batch opera-
tiOWl are indicated by the concentration of the solids
a~ different heights in the thickener.
Tbe operation of batch sedimentation st&rt8 with a
column of slurry bavinK uniform concentration, as
indicated by the long dashed line ~, representing
..
zero time in Fig. 102. Shortly thereafter, the inter-
, ~ j-o,
5 process is a region where the d ids are present at
0
" proaches that of free settling. Immediately below
5
" Figure 103,' run I, indicates the concentration of
0
o " 100
" r-:::: ~ " 1'\
200 300
Concentration, . .~/1iIM
Jo'ICl. too. Concentmtion as a fum:tiun ul !>dltht, at vur;oW!
lime inlervuis in batch eo:dimenlation,'
fuce settles to a level indicated by the line lit with
the com:entration throughout the settling slurry
prlictically identical with that of the original except
at the bottom of the column where the ptl.~ticles are
accumulating to fonn the sludge. The process con-
tinues R.\I indicated by the' curves l:z and t3, with the
upper interface 'settling and the lower interface
rilling until it merges with the upper interface. 'Phe
single interface representing the level of the compac\.-
ing sludge having the concentration diflt ribution
IIhown by the curve ~ I.hen ~tt le:l slowly during final
comp~on of the sludge.
In a continuous thickeller, such !iX that illdi(~att'tl
in Fig. 101 , lIlt' feed enle~ through Ihe 1~'l"ltral fet'(i
\\"(,11 and is introduced about I to 3 ft below the 8Ur-
fut(, uf the liquid in a m!lnner 10 ereate a minimum
of dillt urbance. The entering fluid flows downward
with the suspended solids in the feed well, then
Nidially outwanJ from tJ1C center and upward to th::
overflow. The lIuspended solids ~nd to settle down
through the liquid wh ich is relatively stagnant, al-
though actuaJly moving II10wly radially and upward
and rising from the compacting sludge. The sludge
is compressed or Uiickened in the lower part of the
cylindricaJ tank and is moved toward the bottom
center by slowly rotating rakes. The action of the!le
rakes in pushing t.he sludge to the outlet is to com-
p~ or thicken the sludge to a greater extent than
ill accom plished in 8imple or batch sedimentation.
A major tlifTerem:e between the OOlltinUOIlli and
batch sedimentations is the com.,1ete absence of any
zone B of the same composition as the feed, unless
such conditions are approximated directly below the
feed well when the horizonta.! interface bet ween the
clear fluid and sludge is well below the bottom of the
feed well. UDder these cooditiOnfJ the feed IIlurry
appears to settle in a cylindrical column directly
below the feed well. When the feed rate is not
excessive and a properly clarified effluent is produced,
the upper or clarification zone in the continuous
such a low concentration that the mechanism ap-
this clear zone is the zone of sludge compaction.
calcium carbonate as a functioo of height in a con-
tinuous thickener which was producing a well-
clarified overflow. The high clarification zone pro-
vided plenty of distance for the free settling therein
to produce a clear solution overflow.
When t.he feed rate was increased (same composj
tion of feed) by a moderate amount with the unde r-
flow rate (withdrawal of sludge) maintained approx-
imately constlint, t.here was 8. slight increase in the
height of the compres;ion or thickening zone with
the overflow remaining clear.t
When the feed ru te \\"38 still furt her inereased to
1.<l2 times that of run I, a definite interface or line
indicating .a sharp increase in concentration rose
slowly from the top of the compn::sllion zone toward
th' overflow. After tlll~ dllYIi Ihi~ interface l"f'A.Chetl
th~ approximute level of the <I\'erflow which t h,,
1.I('(llmt" doudy , wit h lilt" Iolu",ntral.i"n uist ributetl
'l."' iudktl.ll'Il uy run 11 in Fit(. H):! . With .the thitk-
+:llI~r opcratiul!!: in this 101111111::1". giving Il doudy O\t'r-
 CONTJNUOUS SEDIMENTATION
flow containing 4.6 gm of calcium r.nrOOnll.te pel'
liter, from 8. feed containing .J.5 gIll of calcium car-
bonate per liter, \-he appro)o;imate constant composi-
tion indicated by the almost verticnl line of run II
Willi abou t 70 gIn per liter. Under th~ conditions
the concentmtion-verslls-height curve hM much the
same appeur.mce as that for tl in Fig. 102 reprc::!Cnt-
ing batch eo:I.imentatiOIL. However, t.he practically
constant concentration in the eontinuous sedimenta-
tiqn is not the same M that of the feed.
After continuollll flUlning without further change
in cOlll:entration distribution, the cont.inuous lhick-
emir Wa.!! s'nut down and the hatch rate of seJi~cn
tation of the sltspensicn ill the thickener IVa." deter-
mined. The rate of settling W88 eonshUlt but
l!OmeI\~hat letil:l than the rate oilsen'oo in thfJ batch
t!ettling of the foed slurry. This is to be expected as
the concentration of solids in the suspension was
higher in the thickener than in the feed. On the
other hand, the rate of batch llCdimentation of the
feed slurry was always leN thBn the rate of free
!:Ieltling in the clarification zone when the contin\lOU~
j,hickener was operating to produce a clear overflow
(nm I) .
The capacity f!.f continuous thickeners or sedi
mentation equipment is buood on their ability to
perronn two functions:. to clarify the liquid overflow
by the elimination of slIllpended solids, and to
thicken the sludge or underflow by the elimination
of liquid. The area of the sedimentation equipment
controls the time allowed for settling p.articles out of
the-liquid for a giVen rate of feed of liquid aod is
important in determining the clarification capacity.
Th~ depth of the thicy.;.ner controls the time allowed
for thickeriing tile sludge for II. given ra te of feed of
solid and is importan t in determinipg the thickening
cupacity.
The clarification capacity of the thickener is deter-
mined by the settling rate of the suspended solids,
This rate may be estimated from the rate of settling
of thc UppIlf interface in a hatch sedimentation test.
By a material balance, 'the total quantity of fluid
in H.e reed is equal to the sum of the fluid removed
as a clear overflow plus the fluid in the thick sludge
removed from the bottom. The vertical velocity of
the fluid at any height. in the thickcner is equal to
the volume or fluid passin~ upward at that level
dividw by the aTCa of thp th ickener. For s lI eces;d'1I1
clarification, lhe >leltlilljl; velocit.y of the part.icles
(or of the uppet interface ill the luoorutory batch
~mentation aL the pulp deusity exi~tillK at any
lIS
level in the continUOIlS classifier) must be somewhat
gr('aler than the I'erlicalvelocity of the fluid at that
level. If the settling velocity is less than the upward
ftu id veloci ty, the particles will pass out in the over-
flow and there will be little clarification. If t.ht:
sett ling velocity e<1\lItl~ the upward fluid velocity,
the partidc:; will neither' rise nOf fall and the con-
centration of solidij in the clarification zone will
increase, therehy rcrlucing the settling velocity until
"
-
"""'......
,
Cb,ifation lOtle A
"'wI _~u nU
,
,
/RunD
0
, R,,, I -:t .-
Con!ptft5ion moe D
0
o
R.1le acti~nl
100 200
~ 300
,-
Concentration. ~/itet "'"
PIO. I03. Coooentration &Sa func lion o:lbeigbt in oon ~inU()W;
aedimen14tion. ~hQw ing ll~ effect. 01 f-.l I'1I.te. Run II _
rnlio with feed rat~ equal to 1.{2 time!! that 0( run 1.1
the particles are carried out in the overflow as
indicated. TIlerefore the !:!ettling velocity of par-
ticlCl:l must be suffieiently greater than the upward
fiuid velocity to prt:vent any increase in OOIloontrttr
tion in the clarification zone.
Usually the constant rate of settling observed in It
balch sedimentation test of the fMd slurry may be
uS(,'(]. us a reasonably conservative value tor the set-
t-liog rate in tbe Ie$:! eoocentraterl clarification zone
for purposes of design. But under some OODdition8
at a luwer level in the thickener where the concen-
tration of solids is so high as to greatly retard the
rate of settling, the upward velocity of the fluid may
exceed the ra te of settling of solids, even when thill
condition is not encountered in the upper zone, with
rel!\Ilts!lS indicated in Fig. 103, run II. In making
ck~ign C1li('uiatiollJl it ill therefore lIecCHSary to con-
116
sider the rs.tes of settling at different concentrations
IlIld the corresponding verti('.al velocity uf the water
or fluid to be certain that the area of the thickener
is adequate (or satisfactory clarification.
When th~ feed rate to 9. continuous thickener
exceeds the maximwn which the thickener ean
handle and produce a clear overllow, the solid par-
licles are unable to settle down out of the normal
clarification zone and tlwrefore build up a higher
concentration therein. This causes hindered set,..
t1ing, with a. corresponding decrease in the rate of
sedimentation belolV that observed for the feed
SEDIMENTATION
t he constant rate of settlin~ of hatch !!ediments.'i"nll
of murriet! of increa.sing L'OI\eentn..tioos.
Example . . A feed cont.inin, 6 Ib of w.ter per pound 0(
I!Olids i5 w be thickened to a ooncentration COTTClJJlUndina; to
1.12 Ib of "",ater per pound of aoIkis "ith t he produetlon of a
clear overftow. TeI!Iu should be m&de on slurries eontainin&
hi&hcr eonocntlatioM thaD that of the feed to be ocrtain that
thl! velocity of ~ttliD& ia paloer than the upward Bow of
fluid at &II COIIccntratKlnl nonnalIy encountered in t he thieken-
ing of the required feed. In thiIJ _ the following five eon
oemra.tions of the IIOlida to be thickened ....ere teIIted in bateh
sedimentation "-ith the result. indicated in columna I and 4.'
2
,
C"lculated

I",r",~,~v1~~~~~~""'~~
...~~-;:r~=l Minimum
.5 60 A_
~.
1 I" M~ Fluid
Required
for Clear
il30 Run IV,,:, l~ .L ''''' "'" Re.tio, R isi ng Overflow,

~20 r-- Fluid

to
"'.
Pound
Calcuhlted Obl!e rved
Fluid Ratl' of
Fooding
I Ton of
Settling, Solids per
j,o Run I i', l'\. \ Solids,
L/S
Solidi<,
Ib
RisinL
eu ft ;br "/I>< 24 hr, aq ft
8 ,I--t-
, 100 200 300
Conctfltr.tion, grams/liter
400 ..' .00'"
6.00

3 .61
4.8.
3 . 72
2 . 88
2 . 39
6.'
' .96
3 .85
3.19
2 . 180
1. 190
0."'"
0 . 758
' .0
4 . 16
. 31
4.22
FlO. 104. Concenll'tltion aa .. function of height in continuous
3:00 1.88 2.61 0.000 4 . 18
llediment .. tion, showinl the effPet of underflow rate (rate 01
sludge I't:mov..J. The rILle of 8lud~ rernov/Ll decreued from The &roll of 4.31 aq ft/ kln of IIOlids i, the COl'J'e(lt mi nimum
run I to run V.' area to be U$Cd for design purpoees and not 3.0 tq ft/ ton III
caleulaWd from .lIedimcntation tdt of the feed.
slurry. This condition leads to the concentration
distribution indicated in Fig. tOO, run II, which The above data clearly indicate the need of check
shows an in.'ldequate' clarification of the overflow. ing the calculated area against all concentratiOI1l to
The feed rate which iU!lt fails to initiate this hindered be encountered anywhere in the tank, including not
/!eWing is the limiting clarification capacity of the only the clarification zone but also the Lhickening
thickener as it is the maximum feed rate at which zone.
the 8I.ab.. _nded solid can reach the compression zone. A1though the above tests and ('~culations indicate
that all area of 4.3 1- sq it/ kin or solid3 .is adequate
Eaerebe.
to produce a clear overflow with an underflow ol
$ho,.. th. t lim foilOVo'illl relaliorurhip m&y be uaed to eeti- 1.12 Ib of water per pound ol solids fOl' feeds con-
m&te ~IM: required area of clarifier
taining up k, at least 6.00 lb of water per pound of
A_Q (F-D) solids, it must not be assumed that this area is
,R satisfactory for all feeda regardless of water content.
where.A. _ ft) required to thicken t he diecharge
&rea (tq At high water contents the fate of settling is more

.-.
tlurry to consisleney of D.
D - p&rta fluid to one p&rt IIOlids by weight in under-

F - p&rta fluid to ope p&rt aOOd8 by Inligh t io feed .

Q - rtUII!II of ....lid. treated per unh of time Ob/ hr).
R _ rate of 8I!ttlin, of pulp of conei8teney F (rt/hr).
" - deruity of fluid (Ib/ cu ft).
It ill ofteil desirable to check the estimated crOBS-
deC tional area of the thickener by calculations for
different concentrations, using as the rate of Bettling
nearly independent of water content and may not
increase eo rapidly with the water to be removed
as in the relatively concentrated slurries used in t his
example.
The thicktning capacitv may be illustfated. by con-
sidering the effect of varying the underflow rale WI
indicated in Fig. IOV The overflow from all runl'!
shown was praetically clear. The thickness or depth
of the compression or thickening :wne increased Il.II
 CONTINUOUS SEDIMENTATION 117
t.h~ underflow rate was decreased, as indicated, and The s-hape of this compressiun eur\'e indicates It
the concentration of the underflow increased with gradual decrease in rate of settling all time increases
increasing depth of the thickening zone, at least for and may be represented by the equation J
a comrt.ant rate of feed. dZ
The curves indicating concentration as a funct-ion - di-k(Z -Z.) (50)
of depth in lhe compression zone in Fig. 104 are ,
substantially vertical . displacements of each other, where Z ""' height of the compression zone at time I.
and similar in shape to those for batch aedimenta~ Z '" = height of the compression zone nt. infinite
tion (compare 13 of Fig. 102 \\ith r of Fig. 104). The t.ime.
action of the rakes appears to be effedive in breaking t - a eonstan t for a particula r sed imentation
up a semirigid structure and the accompanying sysWm.
channels in the concentrated sludge. This action
If batch tests are available with t he illitial ~lurry at
extends for about 3 to 4 in. abvve the top of the
its critical concentration (or critical dilu tion), tlwn
rlikes and is important in producing a more concen-
a plot of In (Z - Z .. ) vemus t should give a str[light
trated underflow.
line with slope equal to -k. I ntegration of CQ ~ul t ion
Thc concent ra tion of the underflow or sludge from
50 gives
a. cont.inuous thickener depends on the depth of
the thickening or compression zone and the time
that the oolids are in this zpne. The total height or
0'
f dZ
Z - Z..
... In (Z - Z",)] Z .. -kt] '
z. 0

depth of the thir.kenerdepends in large measure on

In (Z - Z",) .. - kJ. + In (Z~ - Z,,) (51)
the required depth or time in the eompre9l:!ion zone.
The required h<ight of lhe COntprtSMon zone mAY be where Ze is the height of the compression tone at its
estimated from data obtain.cd on a bateh ~imenta critical conoentratio~ (in thi~ c.~ Z< = Zu). Z ..
tion under the following condi\.ions. may be obtained by experiment or by trial ami Crrot
Consider a batf.:h sediment.ation ~tarting wit.h a to mnke this plot a strtlight line.
slurry at it-!! entical CV11ccn/ratitm, that ill, t-he slurry 1.0
z;- .Z... . z.- z",
.,
has an initial concentrat ion equal t.o the concentra- o
tion of tile top layer of the compression zone (D ) -:!" - ....
o
during 'the period of constant, rate settling. The o.5 , Z'r
Z,-
sedimentation curve will st.art at, the criticnl point
(nOrmally a point of time between the constant rate
;: 0
, ,
settling period and the compression period) a nd will
tf
, 0
, f\ / ' Slrai&hl l'f\e IS
obtained ,f !.light
COll~!jt only of a compression curve, with all particles "::-0.2 " \ pos~ co.-re<:~ -
in compression for the same pe.riod of time. The oJ, to Z oo IS ,ppll~ d
time requited in this batch experiment for 11- slurry
to pass from this '8tat~ uf critical concentration to
!:!
01 0 I\.
the desired underflow conccntratjo~ may be IAken 0.06
as the retelltio'l time for solids il!. a cootinuous
thickener. Tl ti ~ Wi8umes that the col)Centration of
solids at the uuttom of the compression zone of a
continuous thickener at any time is the same as the
006
0.05
o
" "
Time. min
.. 80

average c:olicent. ration of the compression zone in FlO. 105. Plot itIu"rrll ring th,.' eXlr:.polnri<\!I of "", lim" nll.ri-ull
curve from data of Ta ble 2'2 I., obtain lImot for Critil-&! ~"Un'
the batch test. d~ribed above at a time equal to the C('nlrali-o...
retent-ion time of the solids in the continuous thick~
ener. In other words, the concentration at the bot- If the available bateh test.s al"e on an initial ~Iurry
tom of t.he thickener is a function unly of the t ime of concentration lese than the c;it.ical, during the set..-
thickening. tling period the oompression zone will be formin g.
This retentio n t ime can be obtained from a single and at the time corresponding t o the critical point
batch tC!!t, irrespective of thickness of sludge, simply (when the two interfaces meet) the ave rage concen~
by observing the hf'ighl. of the oompm:l!lion zone as a tration of the compression zone will be greater than
(llllct ion of time. the critical concentration sin('R. it will be c:om~
118 SEDIMENTATION
of layers that hllve been in compression for varying
lengths of time. A suggested method c.l obtaining
the t ime required to paas from the critical CODoon-
tru.t.ion or critical dilution (LIS). to any desired
underflow cOIl<.:e ntration ' is to extrnpoillte the com-
pm;sion curve uack from the critical point to zero
time and then locate the time when the upper inter-
face (between the supernAt.ant liquid and t he seWing
slurry) is Ilt a height Zo' halfway between the initial
slurry hei~ht Zo and the extrapolated zero-time
compre&sion-wne height Zo' (Fig. 1(5). Thill time
t. reprerents, in effect, the time when all the solids
were at their critical dilution and went into com-
pression. Acttl4l1y, part we nt into compression
sooner and parllater. The extrapolation back to the
time axis !>bould be made on iogarithmic-arithmetic
plot as the line is then nearly straight, or with the aid
of equation 50. With this value of t e , the retention
time is obtained as t - I., where t is tbe time when
the s()lid ~ have reached the desired underflow con
centration.
The dctennination of the necessary volume for the
compressinn wne of the continuous thickener may be
obtained from a considerat.ion of the time each layer
of solids has been in compression.
The vuhmlf' V requirt'd for the compression, zone
in the contillllout! th kk!'l1cr is equal to the sum of
th(' v"llIme occupic<i hy the solids plus the volume
occupied by the asso('iaHxl fluids.
v _ Q(! - I,) + ('LQ dt (.2)
p. JIo SP,
where V .. volume of the compression zone.
Q .. rna&! of solids fed per unit time.
t - t. "" retention time.
L =- m ass of liquid in compression zone.
S = ma.'>8 of solids in compression wne.
This calculation is based on the assumption that
the time required to thicken the sludge to the desired
concentration is independent. of the tbieknCl:l8 of
. the sludge in the compressirn zone.
By assuming a constant mea:-. value for LIS so that
equat.ion 52 may be integrated with LIS const.ant,
'.hc following approximate relaliornohip is obtained.
V - Q(t - t,) [~p. + ~P, ("-)
S &VI
1' " (~')
where (!~)
,", ,,It
- avcrap:e mMS ratio of ftui d to I'IOlid
in the thickening zone from top
to bottom.
Rather than apply equation 53 to the whole sedi
mentat.ion zone, more reliable results may be ob.-
tained by divid ing HIe compression zone in parts and
assum.ing average conditions over each part as sug
gested by Coe and Clevenger. I For thickening of
the sludge corresponding to the previous ~xample
(p. 116) the observed dat.il. frum a batch thickening
operation were as follows .
CoMiliteney F1uid-to-Solhl, futio
Timeol Average <)V~ tlx
Thickening, hr Determ!ned I ndicated Period
,,
o
i: ro;i~ 1. 70
1.59:1\ l.47
9 1.36 : 1\
1.276
1.20 :1
""
1.16
1.12:1
In order to produce a thickened sludge of. 1.12: 1
fluid to solida, 19 hr of thickening retention time is
indicated. Since an areA of 4.3 1 sq ft is required per
ton of solid:; per 24 hr (previous calculation, p. 116),
the solids per square foot in the thickening zone for
1 br of retention are calculated as 2000/ (24 X 4.31)
- 19.4 lb. For 19 hr of retention, 19.4 X 19 or
368 lb of solids will be in the thickening zone covering
an area of 1 SCI ft. From the above data a total of
Ig hr of retention is the sum of 5 hr of retention of
each of the pulp coosilltencies averaging US, 1.275,
and 1.47, and a 4-hr supply of a pulp averaging 1.7
in consistency. The solids per oubic foot in ,'he above
pulps are calculated or dctennined as 43.2 Ib,
37.6Ib, 33.7 I:", and 30 lb, respe<:tively. '!'he depth
of each class of pulp ill then calculated as
hOllTS X 19.4
or 2.23 ft, 2.57 ft,
pounds solids per cubic foot'
2.87 ft, and 2.58 ft, respectively , making & total
depth 01 10.25 ft.
This method may indicate thick compression
zones &8 it is based on the average concentration of
the thickened sludge rather than the concen tration
a.t the bottom of the sludge. Also, an increase in
concentration of the iSludge is brought about by the
action of the rakes. These facwTl:I probably more
than compensate for the turbu'.mce introduced by
the rakes. 1n some cascs it may be ~ssihlc to esti-
mate the desirt.>d com.'entra.t ion just abon the zone
of rake action by making proper allowan;~ for the
etTen of the mkCfl.
 SEPARATION FROM GASES
The total depth of the thickener may be estimated
by adding to the estimated thickness of the com-
pression zone the following allowances.
For the pit.eh of the bottom 1-2 ft
For eto~ capacity to cover illtenuptiona or
ir~gul&ritiell ill di8eh&r~ 1-2 ft
For eubn>ergence of feed 1-3 ft
This makes a total depth of thickener about 3 to 7 ft
greater than the total compn:lSijion lUoe including
both the zone of rake action and the SODe of thicken-
ing by simple settling as estimated:
There is usually an economic balance involved in
determining the total depth of the thickener, which
involves consideration of the C08t of the equipment,
intereilt on capital represented by the material re-
tained ill thickener, and desired sludge concentra-
tion. If the solids are valuable, filtration is likely
to prove more economical.
SEPARATION FRO'. GASES
Equipment for the separation of suspended solids
(or liquidll) from gases may be divided into two
general classes: (I) those which work "dry," acting
on the slIlIpension as received, and (2) those which
work "wet," using an additional fluid , usually \\-ater,
to facilitate the separation.
The mOf!t common type of separator is a filJer
which passes the gas and re~ins the solids on a bed
which may be cleared or discarded periodically. A
mat of gl888 fibers,-~Iluloee, or metal mounted in a
light .frame is used in a.ir..oonditioning and home
heat-ing systems, the mat being easily replaced with
a fresh filter when the old one oea.ses to operate
effeCtively. The mat of fibers is frequently wet with
a nonvolatile oil to assist in retaining the dust
particles. In industrJ a battery of cloth bags is
often used, the bags being mounted in groups on
independent frames whieh can be vibrated at inter-
val~, shaking the accumulation of solid:J into a dis-
chanl;e hopper from which they may be re-used or
discarded. Some systems have groupe of bags
mounted in compartmenl.'J constructed to permit
scavenging air to be blown backwards through the
bags for cleaning.
A dlut collector is essentially a simple enla~ment
in a pipe line which reduces the velocity enough to
permit the solids to settle out in the enlargement. It
119
is similar to the !!IUrface velocity c1assifier (Chap-
ter 8).
A cyclom!ep(JT'll1.or (Fig. 106) is a vertical cylinder
wlth the inlet stream introduced tangentilllly near
the top, giving the suspension a spinning motion
the cylinder. The centrifugal force acting on Ue
particles tends to throw them roldially (equation 44)
to the sides of the cylinder as they spiral downward
''''''I -
Go.
! I J_ _
-r-r I
'=~'=i=~'=l
'T
,, ,, ....
I I Access
, , ,
L ___ ..I
FlO.
....-,
106. Dir,gramm.i.tic drawinc of cyclolH! lII!pa.rator.
to a conical bottom where they are removed. A
damper may be used to increase the velocity Il, of
the entering stream. The clarified gas leaves t he
cyclone through a pipe extending down into the
oenter of the cylinder and passes upward and 'out of
the cyclone. A modification in this unit is the
"shave-off," a slit in the cylinder placed ne-ar the
top, one full tum from the inlet, which removes the
fine particles im'mediately without letting them
spiral down below the level of the gas exhaust to the
cone where they might be re.entrained and carried
out in the discharging gas..
A cyclone is quite effective on large particles,
removing 99 per cent of the solids coar:ter than 30
microns. Finer particles are only partially removed,
with less than 50 per cent of Ih08e I:lfl'UI.!ler than 5
microns being retained in the separator.
A cyclone may be inverted, the suspension entering, .'
120 SEDI~IENTATION
near the bottom and the clean gas being removed
from the top of the interior through 8. pipe extending
through the bottom. The effectiveness o! the in-
verted cyclone separator when working dry is geD-
erally poorer than the normal cyclone desclibed
above. This construction is convenient, however,
when water is sprayed int<! the cyclone. The sug..
pension passes upwam through the spray, and the
soJid5 are trapped in the liquid drople ts as well as
thrown out along the walls. The sludge is removed
from the bottom and may be recovered or dis-
carded.
lVrt uparator, utilize impingement actit)1l in com-
bination with water spra)'l:l or sheets. A bajJfe-pW1
tcrubber is primarily a tQwer with cross plate5 set
one above the other and with perforations staggered
to force the gas stream to change direction in its
upward path. Water flows .down the tower and
across the plates, and the gas stream must pass
through successive sheets of water and impinge upon
wet platcs. The solids are retained in the liquid and
washed down and out. of the wwer.
A ro!ary-,tprayer scrubber is often used before the
baffle-plate IICrubber to remove the coarser particles
when the ga8 is heavily laden with solids. A rotating
spray creates a dem;e fog across the tower through
which the gas p8S8e8, the liquid and IIOlid being col-
lected and u8ually recirculated through the same
sprayer when several sprays are used in succession.
Liquid droplets in suspension in gases may be
removed by cyclone separators, by electrical pre-
cipitators, or by simple impingement baffles. Such
devices are frequently built into wet separawrs as
the IMt stage through which the gas passes, thus
removinp; any liquid picked up in the wet stages.
Ekdricalprrcipitation of entrained solid or li<!'clid
particles consists in mainta ining a high unidirec-
tional differenre in potential between two electrodes
and passing the gas between t t - electrodes. One
of the electrodes, the diRCha~ electrode, is of small
cross ~tion, !IIlch as a wil"(', edge or point., to make a
high electncal field at. ils surfare nece;;sary for ionis-
ing the gas. The other e:ieclrode, the collecting
electrode, hall 1f'8S or no cu rvature and servCll to
collect or precipitate most of the separated dis-
persoids. The ions formffi near the discharge elec-
trode are carried throilgh the gM to the collecting
t:-lectrod.e at velocities of the order of 100 fps. When
the gas between the electrodes carries susJ)('nded
particles, (he ions attach themselves to the pl!.rt idc~
which then become charged and are attracted to t.he
collecting eledrode, The velocity of these particles
is much less than t.hat of the ions of the gas.
In the ordinuy one-stagc method, corona dis-
charge is maintained, giving a high-intensity pre-
cipitating field which exerts a pressure on the
precipitated material, thus preventing re<iispersion,
It alw causes some chemical activity !Ouch as pro-
duction of ozone and nitric a.r.id in air.
The tW()-fitage method USI'S corona-fonning elec-
lrodes in the first stage only to form tbe necessary
gas ions for charging the dispersoids. The second
stage has nondischarging prccipitating t'l~tr"Je&
opposing the collecting electrodes between which is
maintained a corona-free electric ficld for precipi-
tating Ihe partirlM ionized in the first chamber.
The precipit alion or collection efficipncy of an
electrical pr~ipilator is a function of the time that
the lI;as remains in t he active field and can be made
to approach 100 J)('r cent if desired. But the size
and cost of the e<ll1ipmcnt. usually places an economic
limit at. abe)u! 90 II) !)9 J)('T N'nl.
For any ~iven disJ.l(n;oifl of unifonn size and char-
acter in a ~ivrn prf:'eipitatoT, the precipitation
efficiency (ell) is n'lat('d to thf' time / (~ond>!) that
the gM remuinfol in the activr field of the precipitator
by the equation
log ~ l - rfT) = t log K = tEC
where K _ the ~u-c'ull('fl plwipitation constant,
w!llall~' 0.0.'5 \0 0.50.
E _ the vtlltnllt'.
C - a conslnnt.
IUDL10GRAPHY
1. ("..oE, H . ~ , '1Il<l (:. H . rLl:n:)iGt:lI, TraM. Alii. 1M/..
~fi"i"9 Mr!. E"gr., 66, 3fj./i (1! IHiJ.
2. CoMIO/GII, K W ., 10,11. r."IJ. ('M ...., 32, (lI';a (:\"'y 1~).
3. RoI":~ E. J ., "!1l;'-k<>TIillj(-.\ rl Or St-icnre?" MiPliFif
El1{Ji'-""IJ, 1, til ( :\Innh l!I-I!lJ.
4. R..1BtNSON, C. fi, '",I. Ellu. C~' m .. 18, 8(j!) (1!l'l6).
5. ScHMIDT, W. A ., " ",\ K .\N"':'''''));, f!lerl. Eng., liT, 332
(1038).
PRUULF.\lS
1. Compull' I.he nrCfI 1"Ci1uil"l.'<i Q( II thi ckener to hsn<lle
20 t<ln~fhr "I slurry (Tnoll' 22), prooJudng II clellr overflow
and an undcrll",," or ~ludlt~ amt!l.inint( 20 pcr cent by weight
of IIOlirb. A..umr. that I.he (l\)1\il~nt rale of ""ttlint( in the
balch eedimenlation is the rat.c of setlling in lhe clarifie.lion
K<)fIl' 01 the coDtmlM)UlllhM:kener.
2. Ulling the fbi .. 01 TlIoht., 22 lind II. deMity If\!" water of
62.35 Ib / ro it wilh II ~perific II:Tllvity of 2.7l for e.en..
 PROBLEMS 121
eetifl16te the area and dept h of a thickener to treat 4000 Ib Specify the dimensioN!. of the W\k to haodIe tbe ooooitiom
of lk>Iidt per llUUr in lI. f ... ~1 eonlll.iliil\i 33.3 p6rt.I of '/I'ate, pet" stipulated, MSuming a feed COIlClentratlon limi!&r W that
I part. of CII.Co" ddivcrinlll !!, c\e!!', overflow and Rn underflow uiICdiu the bBtch test. H~'l \, 'A1J ,
containing 3 PfUU of water per 1 p.!.rt of C&CO"
4. Two Dorr thickeroefll Iln! t.o be WJed ill pI"f!pa..,.c pit,.
3. A ,,;et slurry of mix to 00 bunll....1 to make cement is to {roe milk 01 lime from 50 !OlllS of bum ira8Bt<ine pel' hOUT.
be t hic kened to 60 pe.- .:ent eolids in a conventional thlckPoner The unsJllked lime Rnniy!cs W! folloW$.
at the rate of 50 tons/ hr of dry ..... Iid~. A butch lIellimcntarK.tu
tcst made under Ilppropritt.' e l:.t:.,r..tory .... nditions pve the Material "'-f __ % ~~
foU"....;ng resul l.ll.
Cir,wuat.., lkmliug, enD 91.5 100% - 200 mesh
Time, hr ml V,>lUUlO SlOt I 0.01
0 l()17 AlAfGrit
F"o, 1.'
1.01
100% +200 meab

92'
-
0,25 ,
~. ().6 >ltl , , 81.5, " \
" 0 . 75
1
700 "
000
:ntet and recycle
milk of lime to Innn II. milk 01 lime lI\I.~ pelllli?1l oonta,ning
16 PI'f cent by wcighL oC lime I!Olio.l8 (exclusive of griLl. Tbt-
1.2.''; '28
BI;lkiuK ill CUfried out in the finL elru.sifier with the overflow
;th ';o90j,;,(l 11.7.5 120
.')8"'
"
"
II. ' .0
4 .71>
6.750
'"
330
310
all the pit "'1
h(lyill~'" ol:>x;OIum ~ 01200 me&h. 'rtic under&.. cro,n,~
U -lb of mapension per pound
JlUIIi'OIS tn tile &&cond ~ where it is dU':!t.ed "I": rniJk.M
or
~

1 liuUJ,.IIW!IJCRllion oolltaini1)lF 2 ~r ~ntor lime IIOIidl. Th,

"
:II
280
251
oyc,fi,,"" ,,( thw. unit is u8IitI'lIII recycle ~llik of lime, while the

.,
28 em
220 .,
1111.... 'r60\, is discm.lcd; containMI/i 1.6 Ib or !lUSpension pet
'p<JUfld Afl(rit . '. '. '
Drn,.- iI ft"'i" ~hL..!t (,;r the prot'"f!I!I~ ' ilxlielifllll re.t.e a and'
'"CiradUllte height _ 35 em '0' ~090 mL .000IOCnlmliu.,. of :til ""'Illl,lil. .
, Dry ",>lids in 10'" - Z36 l(r.lDl.... {el) C.,..kulntc the perc.:)"'a,;"!' ....r liu,,' I<..t. ~
SJ,II!dfic gruvity of ~ ry 1I01ir.la - 2.09. (b) Specify the dlWJlOwr a.nu rkl'th of ,the t ...o'clasaifiers. ,
.. ".
~ :1
,. "

t.' h" ). ilJt; tT

, r ,j~
... ,'
..,' ..,
, 1
,. .'
'" r
 CHAPTER
II
Transportation of Fluids 1 - Pipes and Fittings
ATERIAL is frequently stored and handled
M in Ihe fluid stati!o The fluids in most
process engineering problems cannot be
handled in open channel1:l but req ui re closed ducts.
In ancient times these ducts were hollowed iop', and
later they were made of sections of wood or of
pottery. The development of iron brought about
the manufact ure of CUlt-iron and wroughlriron pipe
and permitted some standaldization of dimensions
of pipes and fittings.
Any stnlctur31 .material now employed in the
engirteering profession is used for pipe in applica-
tions where its peculiar advantages are most valu-
able. Gb.ss, ceramic, steel, nickel, lead, rubber,
brass, copper, concrete, and asbestos pipes are
encountered in many processing pianta, and wood is
still found in many large installations. The methods
of joining sections are generally similar for all
materials. The principal methods involve threadoo,
bell-and-spigot, Ranged, and welded connections and
fittings.
THREADEO CONNECflONS
T hreaded pipe is mOl!t ('ommonly encoun~~red in
industry because practico.lly all small si.ws of pipe
are joined hy this method , '\Yhether fab ricated of
steel, wrought iron, east iron, brass, or plastic. This
s)'atem is simple berause the outside diameters of
the pipe are kept constant with &. tolerance of
H ,,-in. ovcrsi7.e and ~2 -in. undersize, and the inside
diametcI"l'l of fittings are kept within the same limits,
regardless of material. Typical standard dimcllBions
of pipe joined by seren' threadis are given in Table 23.
The tolerance for the wa1l thickneBl! of the different
materialll varies but is usually 12.5 per cent. Pipe
122
larger than 12 in. is rarely threaded, and the ouuide
diameter corresponds to the nominal pipe size,
Standard lellgths of pipe are from 16 to 22 ft.
Sud pipe is made by longitudinal shaping of hot
steel strips with the butt or lap joints welded to-
gether by pressure in the mar:bine.
Steel pipe W&8 originally cl..assed in three thick-
nesses for different operating preesures, standard,
extra.-strong (or extra-heavy), and double-extra--
strong. These three classes are now obsolete; and
thicknesses follow a set fonnula, expressed 11.8 the
"schedule number" as estbblisheC by the American
Standards Aa8oci&.tion. Ten schedule numbers are
in current use : 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, SO, 100, 120, 140,
and 160, t he figures being the approximate value of
the expression,
P
1000 -
S
where P z: internal working pressure (psi).
S ., allowable fiber stress (psi) for the par-
ticular alloy under the conditions of
use.
For example, the schedule number of ordinary
steel pipe having an allowable fiber stress of 10,000
psi for use at A. working pressure of 350 psi would be
1(0) X (350/ 10,(00) or 35. This would be the
pro~r schedule for welded joint" and steel fittings
but not for threaded connections aDd cast-iron or
maUeahle-iron fittingi'!. In ,rllCtice, sch('(i\lle 40
would be used for welded construction and schedu l~
SO (about twice the computed value) for iron fittinil;s.
The higher schedule is required because of weak-
ncsaes in the thMads and iron fittings.
For 0.11 pipe sir.es below 10 in., schedule-40 pipe
i, identical with the fonner "standard" pipe, and
 THREADED CONNECTIONS 123
TABLE 23. DIMENSIONS OF THREADED PIPE

l ........-C.rbun Slrel Pipe (ASA 836.10)

BTU." nml Copper
Casl-
l 'ill" (A8T~1 1I~2
NOIll- Ou, Underground Iron and n~3 ),
innl ~id"
Tllieklle8>l, [n.
IMide Tran8vene Intenuil Water Pipe Pille
Thkknc"", in.
Pi!M' 1)[,11.,- Dillmcl Qf, in. Area., IKj in. (AWWA 7A .4), (ASA
Si:w, elCf, TbicktlC$ll, .'1.40.5),
in. in.
&"";
40
.. Ie
I
".,~,. Ule 110
&1",,1-
uk, 40
Sched-
,k 80 .,
Schedule Schedul"
80
in. Thiek-
I"If!II'I, in.
SI Mnda1"<.1
btra
Sl roll!!
--
r
II 0 .40.\ 0 .008 1 0 ,09S 0.269 0 . 215 0 .1I56!l 0._ 0.008 0 .002 0 . 100
,
li. O. .'HO I 0 .088 , O . II !~ 030< U" 0 . 1().t 1 0 .0716 0 .088 0 .082 0 . 123
0 .615 ' O.O!II 1 0 . 12l> 0 . 1113 0 . 423 O. HIOO 0 . 1405 o.om o.ono 0 . 127
li O.S1O I 0 . 10\1 0 . 1-17 0 .(;22 0 . 5-1(, 0.3030 0.23-11 0.10\1 0 . 107 O . I~U

, .'~ 1,000
I. 31.5
: 0.113 0 . 154
0.133 0.179
0.824
l .o-tU
0 . 742
0.957
0.5333
0.8639
0.4324
0.71U3
0 . 113
0.133
0.1l4
0 . 12(\
0.157
0.882
'M 1. f>tl0 0. 140 O. !!I I
I."" I.'"
1.278 1.4.95 I.m 0.140 0.187 0 . 146 0. 1114
,
lli 1.900
2.375
0 . 145 0.200
0 . 154 . 0.21S
1. 610
1.939
2 .067
2.03tJ
3.356
I. 767
,.""
4.238
0 . 14.5
O. IM
6.m5
0 . 211
O. 1.50
0 . 150
...J3
0 . 221
'li 2. S76 0.203 0.276 2 .469 2 . 323 4.'" 0.203 0 . 24\ 0 . IS7 0.280

~l in ~laJI:

3 3.500 0 .216 0 .300 3.' " ' .900 7."" 6 . 605 0 . 125 0.300 0 .2<3 0 . 21~ 0.'"
3li


........,.
.000 0 .226
0 .237
0 .258
0.318
0 .337
0.375
3. M8
4 .0"..!G
5 .(H7
3364
3. 826
" . 813
0 .888
12 .73
20.01
8 .8IJ\
II .:10
IS. 1\1
J.l25
O . I~
0 . 1511
0 .318
0 .337
0 .375
0 . 2tH
0 . 328
' .2!.0
0 .2ro
0.200
0 .32\
0.34\
0.375
6.625 0.280 0.4lt2 0.' " .5 . 761 28.89 26.07 0 . 188 0.432 0 . 378 0 . 250 0 .437

to
8.62.5
10.7.50
0.322
0.3115
0.500
0.593
7.081
10 .020
::1 ".03
78.85
45 .00
7I .S!
0 . 188
0 . 188
0.500
0.500
0. 438
0.438
0. 312
0 .'"
O.Mtl
0.500
". I ~2.700 0 .400 0.687 1I.038 11 . 376 Ill. 93 101.64 0 . 188 0.000 0,438 0 . 375

schedule 80 is idf'ntieal with the fonner "extra-
strung" pipe. 'l'hcre is DO equivalent 8Ched~.J1e
number for "doul>k.~xlra~trong" pipe, and. sched-
ule-loo pipe iR the only other weight in which
pipe I!mallf'r than", in. may be obtained.
Fittings for sltoci pipe systems are usually of gray
cast iron or m~II('",bic iron.
For m/)dr:l"II.i.p.iy high pressure, up to about fiOOO
pili, stainlc!;li-.'!tCl'i tubing may be used with threaded
forgcd-I:lteel fittings of heavy walls. Fur higher
pres!!tl~. part icularly at high temperatuTC8, alloy
steels and I:lpet'iul l.'Ompression fitti n ~ and needle
valves arc nJ(luired, as iUustTlltoo in Fig. I~.
Ccut-iron pipe is Dot threaded gcne ndly, but it
may be in some 1:l1Jl.'(!inl applications, particularly 00
high-presiJllre water mains. When threaded, the
dimensions are alm~t the same .as th()8e for steel
pipe, t.he thi,1kness being different ir.. some cases.
Fittings BI"C of grl'y ClI.st iron or mullE!able iron.
CMt-iron pipe is made in t;.' \mi mulds Hf eilhc!r
baked or green sand, or it may be c~t l.'f.ntrifugally .
Centrifug'.ll ea:sting is 1Jl.'Coming mure p ....,)ular, <'>Ipt'-
cially by mr>an ~ of metal muldll lined with a sprayed
refractory materiaL
IVrouglr!-irVlI Tripe IS made of iron made by me-
chanical puddling, or of a low-('arl.Jon steel made by
the ByeNl prtlr':Cll.~ in which slag is added to molt.en
iron, foll owed l.Jy refining ill a Bessemer converter.
It is elaimed to have superior resistance to corrosion
and is used particularly in some hot-\\"nt(' 1" piping and
underground installations. The dimensions are prae-
tica.lly ideutical \\; th those of low""1:arbon ~teel pipe.
Fittinp arc usually east iron.
BrG3' pipe and copper pipe are empioyed where
grel\ter registancc to corrosion is desired. Fabrica-
tion is similnr to that of steel pipe, nnel dimC'nsio~l~
arc t>imilnr. Sysklms of hmss or copper pipc' 1"mall.\
include IJr/1.1:i8 or copper fittinb'l:l.
124 T RA NSPORT ATIO:\' Of FLli lD5-PIPES AND FITTI:\,CS
to a nother fixed point , a /Inion ....'rve:; as a conr 'tOl.
T he two halves of tIl!' IIniO!) ma~' be tighten the,
pi pe ~{'ct ions indepcm\t'n l \y, und the fi nal connect ion
madc by t igh tcning Iht' bonnet of ti ll.' Hilion. If size
reduction is dC!;ired at a InppcJ conzH('tion, 11 rcdllc-
'~'1g bUlfhillg is the !Simplrs t lininI/:. :\ simuhn neous
change ill direction and !'Ollnf'('t ion to u I upped outlet
may be made by u sln ( I (, IJ>I)U' illn-in g male thrcad~
on onc end and female thn>ad", un L:U' other. The
end of n pipt may Ix- closed II il h a cap, and an open-
ing in a pif'('e of cqu\)J menl ma y bc (IOSHI by n p\up;
or, bct t4'r,:1 ('ap pcd nippil'.
~l:iny other special fillings arc normally anlilable
on dcm lUld and ca n soh'I' almost lilly piping problem.

VA LVrs
Flow i~ eontrollrd by v ~ll vp~ . Gule vah"'8 RTf!
shown in Fig. \OS. The b urrier to flo\\" is a di~k - or
"'('(\p;e-!>hupp(i dam sl idillil nt. righ t ltng\('s to the
direction of flow and scnling tightly in the vllive

nrn NGS
Sfoctions of t hn'atlt>(1 pipe lITe joined t~ctller by
fittings suth us illll~tr:\t('d in F ig. 107. Couplings
join s\lecc,;.~ivc ~l n), i ght, lc ngths of p ipe with no
chan!!;c in (iin:,('li un (J1' ~ilC, When th e ~i7.c i~ to be
rt.'d uccJ 01' (,lllal'ged, 1\ rrd!(cillg coupliTlg is llsed.
,rhen thc dirf'diol\ ill to be ch anged, an I'lbow,
eitlLl'r ljI)..{i(gree or ..\5-t.icgree, is avnillible; a lLtl if
hot ll uin'('liml and size atc changed, a (Hiuell/O elbow
iii in oroer, I k>caw~ of t he mechanical difficully of
cutting IIharp IIm'ads on IIhu r l pieces of pipe, nipple8
arc mlul(' fit the fact ur y in H series o f st a ndard lcn gth~
fro m aoout. four pipe d ilunele rs in lcn!l;th t.o ci()l;l;
ni p ph-s, whose thr('atI~ merge from each ellli of the
sect ion.
If more t ha n ~wo branches of pi ping nrc t o be
conncctf'(1 at the i>llmc point, Iccs and CT08!ICS a rc
IISf"1I. They may he !)hlainoo wit h a ny rca..'It.ma ble
1!l)Jubination of ~iz~ of the openings. Since most
pi ping must, be iJrokt' ll at inter valfi for ma int cnance
and since ~talldard pipe thread s a re tight-hand, t nu'$
ma k ing it i ml)O.~:;iblc to use r igh t-ha nd fitting.> 1' 1". 1080. Seetional vi ew or Kille vlllv,, 'wilh nunrising spindle.
c)Cciusi"f'ly in cOIH\t'C'\inJl; pipe fro m one fi)Ced poin t (J ettkilll IJrooo,)
 VALVES 12:5
body, When part ially OPt-'Il, thi:; type of valve
exhibits a Cr(',;I't'nt.shal)("(i opt' ning for flo\\' \\'h idl
ch:mgcs in area extremely rapidly wit h slight a(lju"t
ment of thc vah'c handle, thus making thi~ tylX' of
vake rather undesirable for partial-How control
although quite 6uitab\n fol' ordinary open-nnd-shut
control. Jn the largt'r " i 7.('!S t hc J isk may swing

F,,-,. 10':1. lJuUurfly v.. lvu. (R-S Product. Corp.)

Fu}, 10~ ~, St"tionat vic\\' "r w.le valvE' \\'ilhri~ing ~rindl"

ami outside set"", and yoke. (Jrnki~ lJ'-/)II.)

ralher than slide into pllwe, as indicated in Fig. 109

iIlu~trating the butterfly valve.
The g[(J1~ va/lie, so called because of the bulbous
shape of the valve body, i" shown in Fig. 110. This
falve direct:; the fluid up or dOlVn through a circular
opening;n the central partition, which may be scaled
either by fOl'cin~ a-Nlplal'cable composition-fiber disk
down upon a flat St!at or by inserting a tapered
metallic plug into a conical seat, thc plug and the
seat hcing of diffe~nt Luper hI fumi~h a line contact
for the sen!. The plug-type va.lve 'is emellent for
partial-flow control. This valve may be made with FlO. 110, Seetioll/l.l vi ..", of globe v:ilve wi th ril'>ing spindle.
a slende~ tapering needle seating ill a SIllaU orifice (Jc'.J.:i~ B,......)
126 TRANSPORTATION CF FLUIDS-PIPES AND FITTINGS
(il:i\Jed in the va.lv(" body. Such a valve is termed a
needle valve (fig. Ill ).
!loth gale and globe valves vary widely in details
of coustraction. The slem or spindle moves outWlI.rd
(Fig. 108b or Fig. 110) or simply rotate~ without
changing its oosition (Fig. 10&) as the valve is
opened. The screw threads on the stem or 8pindle
arc either il}side (F ig. lDBa or Fig. llO) or outsid::!
(Fi~. 10gb) the space under pressure. The seaLs are

Flo. 112. Quick-openi", &lobe valve (.eelional view)

(JmJ;,'.., Br.... )

FlO. Ill. r\ecJl, mlvlI (lIIJCl iono.\ vie",). (Jellki!18 BrM.)

~placeahl(" or pennanent. The valve i~ opened or

ciUl:!C<l by $!veml turns of the handle, or it may be
opcratLd in one stroke of a lever handle (quick.
opening type), Fig. 112.
For simple opewflnd-shut. control, plug cocJu (Fig.
113) arc economical. Inserted into the flow "assage ,
is a tapered plllg through which an opening is cast
or llt-illoo. A 9O-degr-cc turn of the plug will open
or c1uoe the passage. Such valves may be made t.o
a.ccomrrodatc three ur four piping connections and
direct flow through the different pipes. Bya.pplieatior..
of prCl!ure to the heavy gre:u;c lubricant, the grease
is forced through the lubricant grooves t.o the bottom
of the plu!!,. thereby lirti~g the plug free from its_to FlO. 113. Cutaway vie .... or PI'" cock. (WalIllOl'lA Co.)
 ,.
WELDED CONNECfIONS 127

BELJ...AND-SPIGOT CONNECTIONS stanrlard dimensions for various materials are given

in Table 21-
Bell-and-spigot connected pipe handles more fluid Some typical bell-and--spigot joint.! are shown in
than any other connect ion since it is the most. Fig. 11-1. These joints are usually calked with oak1..ll
praclicru type of Joint in large pipe sizes when pipes and lead, but the meehanical joint is becoming more
lire made or material,. other than sleei. Some
popular because of the tighter joint , simplicity of
installation, and greater lat itude of angular displace-
T.-\ULE 24. D IM"~ N SJ ONS OF BEJ.! ... AND-SPIGQT
PIP!:: ment. and expansion. These joinlS may be " locked,"
,
--......
"ith a groove in the s pigot which prevents puJling
c
0001-1_ !\po ('_ _ ~y!lt ..... ~.......,..
apart of the joint, " roU-on," wi lh a rubber gasket
-- --~ Pi ... \ UT1I-CIS.cU )
tightened with a bolted ring, or "llCrewed-JI:land,"
,- ........ ,
I'ipo (C)(AWW.!.
with a ring gla.nd drawn up agninst the gasket when
....
'"
ro
...... screwed into threads in the hell.

-.....-.
("IU. CA(I.!.
,-.....
... --.-
,,"- ::\Isteriab fur pipe joined in this manner are
A: I.tl
T\kt,_. .,," (W.
Dia<oot .... ioo
i .,
S~oaI-:
loti ...

,... usually cast iron, clay, or ooncrete, although glass,

i., Thi...
1011...-'.1.. _iL
Mi....M...
"i. i .
plMtic, and ccmcnt-asbcstos are occasionally em-
-- - - - - -
...
.. O .11-O. ~
MH. ~ ~ I . ... 1. 13 O.-fI. U
- - --- ployed. Cast-iron pipe is furnished in lengths of
12 to 20 ft, and other materials runge in length from
6tol5 f t.



UH.
0. _.t7
7.01- 1.44
. 75
'.IHI.M
O. lH.1MI
l.1a
1.76 Fillill{J! of the 8llme material as t hc piIX' are similar
O. l i 1.7~ in type and fun ction to thOl5C for thrcadPd pipe.
"" 11 . 10
11. 211
O. JO-.O.'"
O . ~ ... o. ~
11 . 10-12.00
13. 7$-11.1\
O.M-II."
l.ro-o.'" "" 1.1~
Ui
Typical item ... are shown in Fig. 11 5.
"" 1~.lI!I
If. tO
o . *-O. ~
O.U-O.I' 0. "" 1.73 I 'uivt'! are almOBt al\\'ays of thc gat~ or butterfly

..
~ " lUG
21

11 . 74
o .~.n
o.....&!
0.74-1.. 1:
G.ff.... .,
O.

r,
.W

I " ~
2(I.Q-2I. "

St . ~.U
I.-U,

'. (11)-1 .
!.IO-'.:&8
."
,..
Ul

' .71
types .

.
WELDED CONNECTIONS

.

17."
44.:10
" " .M
lUI - I .
1.11_1. 11
1. 11--1
'.M
'.n
to. 7HI." I . TS-I. el

." S. 1$

u
The modem trend for pipe in sizes above 2 in . is

I I
I . ....U.
toward more weldt><! ~onnCC I iunl;. Xo threading,
1. ,.1.65 '.00
.. .. .
calking, or OOJt.ing is needetl , and no Kus ket s are re-

AWWA Standard AViNA Stari~rd AGA Stend.rd AGA Slalld.rd

(HlP. Preuute) (For Ctmtnt)

FlO. 114. Se<:tMlnaI d ....,,;np Of v:ariouB bell-aoo-flpigot joi nt ll.

128 TRANSPORTATlON OF FLUIDS-PIPES AND FiTTINGS

90" ~ar" Elba.

Bell aIlf1 SoiJot
''''..,d,
Y Branch
."""'"
8eII and Spiaot
......,
.45' Oecree ElboW
Bell and Spifot

D U
en..
FICl. lIS. Sectional dnl."';'ngs of ~ypi C/l.I bell-arul.-spigot fitting;,.

Flo. It6. Typicellitt.inp fOf butt-welded IirQ. (WolUlO'l"Ch Co.)

 FLANGED CONNEC110NS
Quired when the system is fused into an unbroken line within the hult circle, or the full-fuce ga.~ kd , which
of material. Pipe ends need no treatment other than extends to the outer edge of the fl ange anci is pundloo
scarfing (beveiing), and very few fittings are required for bolt holCij.
if the welder shapes the necessnry pieces from pipe Flanges may be threntled or Iycltlcd to the {'ntis of
sections. the pipe, in which cu..~e the' comprc;;.;ion fnce is a!wayil
Steel is the usual material for welded piping sys- on t he flange . When thrf'fldetl or weldet1 flanges are
tems, with scheduled pfpe for low-pressure work not pract.ical, as in high-~ilicon cast iron, ~, or

. . . . nclf....... Full fact

FIG. 117. Typieal hngecl tointa (eeclion.1 dnt .... ing>! ).

(under lOOG psi) and seamless tubell for higher prClT sheet metal, the flange iii sl imJCd over t he pipe and
sures. Gas welding was univcn>al for some time. but tbc fla red or enlarged end .. of the Pil.IC provide thf'
electric-arc welding ill incfl'Mingly popuillr. compres.<;ion {1tC(l.
Fittings and valves are of stefll and :~re of two
types, bult-weld ami socket-weld. The butt -weld
fittings are of the aame dimeneion as the pipp, and
the socket-weld fi tt ings .ha...oe enlarged end" similar
to threaded fittings, but the pipe slips intQ place and
is fillet-welded. Typienl fittings are ~ilOwn in Fig.
116.
Hrau and tupper pipe are joined in socket-weld
systems, usually known as "streamlined" piping.
The joints are brazed or soldered. _
Plastic pipe, if thehn~C, is
~a;;ily welded
with eie(;tric l((jt'pla~ . The ends are heated to the
softening ~iit,~tbeh-)Oiried and allowed to cool,
making a strong fUfl~on iO'int.....
Fittines of the tlimpler
types are available for butt:.welding.

FLANGED CONNECfIONS FIG. liSa. Droller ooupii"i (800liDI1JI.I dn\";oa:). (Drn_

lndut!riu.)
F1anged connections are used on larger sizes and
higher pressures of viping service where the lines
mUflt be disassembled frequently for maintenan(.'e or
inspection, on larger valve bonnets, and on pipes
being eonnected to equipment. Formerly, steel pipe
in size8 over 3 in. was always connected with flanges
(threaded onto the pipe), but welded connections
have replaced such connections in most new eon-
atruction and in old as m!l.intenancc require8 replace-
ment. 'The various methods of fAcing the flanges are
indicated in Fig. n7. The plain or full-face flange FlO. IISb. Viet.aulic ODUplill(. (Vida,"ic Coonpanll
. ill widely used wiUI Cither the rinK gasket, entirely A~.)
 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-PIPES AND FlTI'INGS
''''
-, "

FiG. 119. Comp ression fi ttings for t ubing (I!eCti.onai drawi ng!l). I n the fitting ehow n at the left.,." corn pl'I!IJIIkn ring le
pI. ted over the tu be as $hOlm . When t he ap is t igh tened, the compression ri ng is preaed against t he eeat llDti beoom"" wedged
api pst the lube, m-.king a t ight joint. If the ;oi nt ie broken, Il new compre!llion rin,; IIhould be woed 1.0 insure . tip,
joint. In t he t,,o fittin,;9 allOwn at the right the t ubing must be fll\nred or spru.d by a llpecia! tool to the form indicated.
Ko com prcllIIion ring is required.

Ga8keu may'be made of a wide range of materials long and adequate clearance is provided between the
from paper to steel. For PI"ell;Ure8 up to abou t 500 ends of the pipe. The Victaulic coupling requi res
psi, impregnated aIlbestos is common. Rubber is that a groovc be Cllt around the pipe and depends
satisfactory over a wide range of pressures at low upon fluid pressure {(It compressing the gllSket.
temperatures. Lead, copper, aluminum, stl-d, &Ild Com:prus1fJ11 fitting! are widely \ lscd for small-sized
combinations of these with asbestQs or paper are tubing at both low and high pressure. These are
used for h jglu~ r pressures. The holding power of con venient and efficient, particula.rly if the connec-
gaskets depends upon their compression. F or a tion is to be broken. Figure 119 shows typical fit-
tight cl08ure it is necessary that the' gasket be de- tings of this type.
fonned so as t o seal all irregularities in the faces of High-pressure fi ttings for pressures greater than
the flanges. F or high operating pressures the com~ 0000 psi are illustrated in Fig. 120.
pression faces of the fl anges are decreased in area to
increase the comprCSl!ion of the gasket. without in~
creasing the bolt tcnsions.
In iIome designs, such as the male-and-(emale
closure in which the gasket is supported on the out-
side, the pressure of the confined fluid tends t o com-
press the gasket indepe nden t of bolt tension. In F lO. 120. Special Bt.eel fittinp and valwe for bi,h presaure
some special closures for high-p reMure oPeratiQllS, (aeetional dl1lwlng). 'The cone may bo t hreaded on the tubing
the pre8SUNl of the confined fluid alone is depended wit.h II. left-hand thread I!O tha.t it will not be t urned 011 the
upon to compress the gasket, and the closure may t ubina u t he threaded gland i$ turned in ib! righ t-hand threadB
to tighten the joint.
be assem bled with the hands and becomes tigh t only
after high flnid pres&lre is applied.
Flanged closures are particularly important for BIBLIOGRAPHY
closing openings in veI\Sels and connecting piping to 1. A MIe RICAN GAe A S$OCIATION, New York, Standards.
vessels. 2. AMt: Il.lCAN Socn :," J'OR TE8TINO MA"I:EIU AU., Phila.-
Othel IlptCial typa of tQupling, or sleeves are widely delphia, Standard ..
used. Figure 118 iliustrates two types. The D resser 3. A 3oI ll.I CA." S rANDARDS Assoc.'1ATtON, Ne.... York, Standanb.
coupling requires no 8peeial preparntion of the pipe 4. A MERICAN W ATE'R WORM AS!IOCIATION, New York.
Standards.
other than deaning and comprCSI:IC8 the gasket by 5. JENIUNS BROIl., New York, C atalogs.
boI.t tension. This tyt>e of coupling may also be used 6. R-S I'Bonu crs CoItP., Philade1phit., ClI.talop.
as an expansion joint. when the sleeve is sufficiently 7. W AI.WORTH Co., New York , Cat.a\ogB.
 CHAPTER

12

Transportation of Fluids 2 - Energy R elations

HE energy balance is a most imporl anl con- inerea:se in velocity (or tlCeei('ralion) of I fps !':Iel!

T sidr ra l iun in maki nl!; engillt.'t;! ring clli(' uillt ium. , I!Ccond. T hi.; unit is 1 pUllllJ ul. If :l. mn!<6 of I 11>
Tn makir.g 11 balance of energy it is eSl5Cnt ial at mean 8('"3 l('vel :l.t -IS dcgn't", lati tude i ~ J.l1ow('I 1 to
that all energy factors- be cxprel!!ed in the same units fal l u;.dc r the influence of gr:.wit y, its lIocclerul iOli
if the calculations are to be correct. 1f energy ab- will be 32. 17 ft per second per !!CConU. T he force
!!Orbed as heat is mea.smoo in Rtll, and pressure is exerted by gravit y on 1 II.> mallS at sea level ~32. 17
determined in pounds force per square inch with pounda1!) is called " lib force. " It is uL-oo called the
volume in gallons, and kinetic effects are calculated "weight" of the mass of l ib a t sea levcl.
with mass in pounds mass and vclod ty in feet per T he use of the same teno pound to repre;cnt mass
second, the different energy terms must be all and force is frequently confusing. The inclusion of a
converted to the same nnits before a balance can be pound weight is always confw;ing.
made. These units may be either foot-pounds or For example, a mass of 100 Ib under the influence
Btu, for cx.o.mple. The relationship of 1 Btu being of gravity at sea levr.l exclls a force (ma) of
equivalent to 778 ft-lb arid the application at' this 100 X 32. 17 - 3217 poundals Qr 3217/ 32. 17 _ 100
conversion factor generally offers no difficulty. But Ib force ; it is also said to "weigh" 100 lb. 1f this
confusion frequen tly arises when pounds mass and same mass is carried to a high elevation where the
pounds force appear in the same equation. aeeelerat ion due to gra\'ily is 30 f t per ~ond per
second, it exert s a force of 3000 .potmdals or
3000/ 32.17 = 93.25 il) fOI"!'!'. If the matS of 100 lb
Di!'IENSIC"NS AND UNI TS
is now "wcigh<!J " on a sprinlt ""ale (:" lihmt l'~ 1 for
The relationshi p between force and mass may be use at sen. level, its \1C'igll ( (pOllnd hrl'c) I,ill be
p.xpteAAed by Kc\\'ton's Inw: force _eq\lals thc time 93.25 lb. Hut. if a beam hlllmwc i~ u :;lld with stancl-
rate of inc rease of momentu m. a rd " weights" hung on t he l J('llm , t he 100-lh n mss
will "weigh" 100 lb , as this 1.\']"Ie of balanct' compurcs
d(mv)
r--- <it
(7) forces, which are propor t iona l to mass a nd C<llmi for
equal masSes.
T herefore the term weight a.~ di8t inct from mass
Force htu! the dimcnsions (mass)(veiocity) / (time),
will [lot be used in t his le:-t because it is indefi nite
(m){L/ t)/ t, or (mass)(wngth)/ (t ime)2, mL/ f ,
and confusing.
where m _ mas!! in any units, In enginllCring praeti(:(' the uni t (of force is us ua lly
L _ a lin";H distance in any uni ts. I Ib force, and, if the uni t nf m:~ is to be I Ib mass,
t _ ti me in any unit!'!_ n ('ol\vcrsion fac t or mns! Ill) included to con\('rt
p Olln ds fo rc~ to p n1!n ~al ~ ILS foll uw8.
In English units m a.~ is usually expi'esscd in
pounds, Ipnglh in feet, and time in seconds. Then d(mv)
p' "'" g.F - - - (i)
the unit of force is that which gives 1 1b mllS::' an <it
131
132 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
where 1-" - fOfce in absolute un its (as poundals).
F - force in engineering uni ts (as pounds
force).
gc - conversion factor (32.17 poundaIs per
pound in English unit!:!).
Usually the mass is com!tant, and equation 7 may
be written
fieF = rna
where a _ acceleration or dv/ dt.
111e choice of ma.'>S, length, and time I/JI funda-
mental dimensions I("ads to the absolute units for
force (pounclal:s) and to the IISC of t h~ cunversion
fa('tor g. as indi('atro ul)()ve.
Fn'qu('ntiy force, length, Ilnd time arc chosen as
fUTltlumcntai dimensions. In this system , mass has
lilt' thm (' ll il;un~ of (forpe)(time)2/ {Icngth) or Ft 2 jL.
mass. The dimensions of g. may be determined from
equations 7b, 7e, or 7d and are mL/ 12 F.
When heat effects are included, an additional
dirnelll!ion, temperature T, must be added, making
four fundamental dimen:>ions necessary to define
the quantities ordinarily encountered in engineering
operations. But the four climemlions chosen ma.y be
almost any eombination t hat is motlt convenient at
(7b)
the moment, provided they are all independent. l-or
example, as iI1~trated in Table 25, ma.&l, lengtl) ,
time, and temperature ; 0 1" force, lel'tgth, t ime, fUld
ikmperature ; or energy, force~ time and Icmpe ...... ture
may be selected al! the fol.r fundlUDcntal dimensiolls
to express the units and relal.iollships between the
various quantities l i~ted.
TABLE 2-5. DIMENE-IIONS OF VARIOUS QUANTITI&s

-_.
IN THRF,F. SYSTE:US OF DIMENSIONS
This unit of mass is called a 8lug when force is ex-
S,.."'m I ,h',,,,rn II sr"""" III
prtSl;e(i in pounds force, length in fcct , and time in
secondtl. The coTlvcn;ion facto r g. iI> then a mwti ........., Fo,,,,. I'
r....n.; .... ,.1.
I
For.... I"
F"~Q", 11
plying factor to convert slUg:> mass into pounds mass. n ...... ' T i . ,, ~, Time,'
Quantlty T ......... ~r T ............ (~ ... r T.... p.,..... ~. r
Rewriting equation 7b T ..... pon. ...... (1') r T r
F-~a-m'a (7,)
Ti.- (,I)
I_ ~ ~.~ ... D.LI
, , 8/'
g<
Ma. ( . )
F _ (I')
..LI' ,
1','/ 1.
,"'''
where F - force (Ib). ....., U"
V~I<><i17 (I)
.,11/,'
"'.
TO

"'".
II/ PI
m - mass (lb).
m' .. n::'8SS (slugs),
A ..........", (00)
Dena ly (,,)
L/ r'
...11.'
L
I"I.'/L'
Il/ I"r'
"" / E'
P,,-ure (I") ./U' Pil.' I"'/ B'
mfg. _ mass (slugs). I!url'oe tenolon (y) oj.' FlO I"'/ Il

The acceleration instead of the mass may be

M_ftow,.", ( W)
M . . . .<Jo,,;t)' (0\
V....,..t.. W
oj.
oj"-
. /U
PIll.
hlV
PIl L'
,...,,"
"'/ 11
I"'t/ ~
divided by the' conversion factQr 9.. In this case the II..t .."...; . y" .1.'/ ,,1' 1'1./ 1' BIT
unit of acceleration is a' when mass and force each !!pM'" hNt Ie) 1.'/ ,'1' L'I ,'T 6I/ 1"I.'r
n...ru...J --.1",,11,,
have the same units, such as pounds. The numerical ll oilY (. ) .. W,'T 1"/ 11' '1,T

-...
R.o .. oI hN . ...,..,...
value of a' -is frequently referred to as the number of w,
gees at sea level where the numerical value of g is Co.lllcioont
......... {Io)
..1.'/ "
"",,'T
''''.
'1UT
BI'

equal to 9. " ' IlIT

F""m~ = m'l
g<
where F .., fon.-e (lb).
m - ffiM!! (lb).
a' _ acceleration (gees).
a/ 9 ... acceleration (gees).
Any systcm of fundamcntal dimensions, mass-
length-ti~e or' force-length-time, or other lIystem,
may be used separately or mixed togetner and are so
found in the technical literature. The conversion
factor (I. converts the unit ll oorre!lponding to a
system including force as a func.lllmenta1 dimension
to the units corresponding to a system including
To ..,,,,,.,r,
tho dl <n<1Ulon. of
(7d) 8)'riem II " .,..",m', rn"I,ip!y by k _ _ 1./,"
s,v.",ru III ...... "'''' II, multlply by J (_ I"L/ Ifl with tho appropriate
e'l>OO.n ~ (from +2 to _4)
The conversion factor 'Ie has been discussed and
applied in t.he conversion of pound!! force (F)
(system II) into pounda1s (mL/ t'" (8Y8tem I) by
equation 7b. Pounds mass and poundals force, or
grams mass and dynes force, are the absolute units
usually derived from the fundamental dimension8
of 8ystem l.
Pounds force and slugs mass conform to the units
u8ually derived from the fundamental diml:nsion8 of
8ystem II.
 TilE FWW EQUATION
The use of pounds force ami pounds mlt.~<;, a.o; i~
common in engineering practice, represents the
simultaneous use of systems I and 11, and the con-
version fact{)f g. must be used either to multiply
the units of force or to divide the uni ts of m~,
When eD3rgy is expressed in foot-pounds, the con-
version factor J becomes unity for systems II and
111. When foree is in pounds, length in fee t, and
energy in Btu the conversioll factor J becomes 778
ft-lb/Rtu and must be used either to multiply the
energy expressed in Bh~ or to di vide the force ex-
133
sent t. he addi tion of a quantity of fluid into the flow
syster:l , in two steps. The fir~t step includes the
quantity of fluid by embracing it within the Bow
system without moving the fluid. It involves th'l
addition of t he int.ernal eller&) V, and the ~nt'.rlO'
of motion and position of the added fluid to Ie
e n e rgy o f the fl ow system. The second step invlJlvC!:l
the movement. of the quant.ity of fluid illt;. t he BOI\
Fluid
~ ..
Flo" system to riiht of otrtlc.Iol

11 - pros....,e ot bo,,,,doty 01
pressed in pouncL~. point 1
If any four fundamental independent dimem;.ions V, .........". oj fI..., Ie> 1>0 Jdded
a1~1
are \I~ , as indiclitetl by any one system of d imen- v,. .. - . r _ . ; ".. Ill
bI_a1l111it1t l
sions, no conversion factor is neces&iry. If any addi-
tional dimen~ion is intrcx:l.uced, the ft'IIult is the
equivalent of \Ising an additional system of dimen-
sions for each ~ueh addit.ional dimension int.roduced,
Step 1
and a conversion rador mUBt be included for each
fju;d 10 be odded Ie> flow
such additional dimension beyond the four funda- syUam is l""ki<Ied 'll'itflill tlOw
oyotom 1<> ..... 01 ...,. - . TlIIo
mental dimensiuns of a single system. _ lbo irrtoriuI_1b' U, MIl

THE FLOW EQUATION .....

tho _ponyioc
_ _ .........._10_01

The energy relationships of a fluid or other mate--

rial flowing t hrough equipment, plant, (IT piping may
be obtained by an energy balance. EIlt!rgy is carried St.,2
with the flnwing fluid and also is transrerred from fluid has ...,."Iroo:a.- ..
the fluid to the surroundings, or vice versa. _in"""'_
flow ""'"'"
_
bJ bIinIto"""""
ritN 01
.. IiRo t., ocIditol 01 ~
1. Encl"KY canied .,.-ith the fluid includes: P, V, 10 flow ~
A. The internal enprg)' U, indudin!!: all energy ""hieh is
the peculiar property of the fluid, rugnrdlt)"" of' its
relative l<><:ation or motion.
F!o. 121. Diagram illu~t.T".lting the incl}i.sion of Pre88'1t()
B. The energy carried by the fluid bcCilU,"" of ite condition
energy in a fluw ~Yl!lern.
of flo.... 01" poeition:
(1) FJleJ"gy of motion or kinetic "nerlO': 7IIy/ 2 in
,Ilystem . This is done by fo rcing the qu nntity of
absolute uniU!, or ..11;'129. 1in "n!{ineering Pl'1lcti"",
g. - 32.17 Ib I1\IIoSS It/ Il; foroo (eec){III,e). and the added fluid against the p~ure of the .fluid aJreudy
energy of zMtion ill mr!2 (32. 17) in foot.. poundsl. in the flow syst.em and the addition of the em rgy
where m ill the m&ll'!l of material ul}(j,:r cno,,;derM ion, PI VI to ti}e flow system.
and" is the velocity of that IIm!.!)ria! rcillti~c to
$Orne "statioDtlry" rd"rt",,~,. 2, En~!'gy traMferred lx,t"'een A fluid or flystem iI, flow IIInd
(2) Energy of pnIIition or potenti:fl! c!~,rltY: ",gZ in it~ ~\!rroundings is of two kiuds:

IIhl!olute units, ?I" "'iJZ / fi. (mgZ / 32. 17 in foot ..
pounds), where Z is the height o f the rna811 '" above
the refcn:noe plane, and 9 is. the aceelcl"lltion due to
gnt.viLHtional fol'OO.
(3) Energy of pn:8llUr1! PV carried by the material
beca.u~ of its introduction int.o or exlt from flow
under prcIiIIUra, whel"(." P is the absolut.e pressure
e"erted by the mfltcriai, and V ill thij volume of the
mAterial.
The neCC8Sit.y of including the term P V may I"*.
i~d iealed by the diagrams of Fig. 121 , which re pro-
A. HeM q lIb80rbed by the fIowinx material from the 8Ur-
wundinpduring flow (Fig. 122) bet ween points . and 2.
B. Work ID done by the flowing rnateria1 on the 8UrTOUnd-
lnp durin, fl.Jw bct"'een points 1 a.nd 2. Thi, i8
frequently called shaft work w. to distln~i!lh it from
the "" ork done by a Btatiooary batch of mal(:riaJ riOt
flowin~ thl'Ough a syatem or not trs.mferred from one
state to IIInother.
An energy balance around a fiow system, lIuch as
betwccn pui ... ts 1 and 2 in Fig. 121 and the .mrrouno-
in g::s, assumi ng D O accumula~ion of muterial l}r ('nerR"
 r
134 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS

Heal Exchanger
, r-..", I
P ( -dV) ., increase in internal energy due to
compres..<riGn effecLl! between states
or point.~ I and 2.
Point I
r'Y dll - inc~ufle
i,l internal energy due tl?
r-: Z,
surface effer.t.~ between states 1 and

!D_"~
I

Z, "'m, -w 2.
" I where "f - FiUrfncc tCIl8ion of the material.
it _ ~ lIrr8CC area of the material.
\22. Diagram iIIu.,Ir:.t"ng" flo.. ~)"~tem between pointe
.11).
I 8",1 2.. r1 }.l,j drnd. - increase in internal energy due to
chemical effects or ('hanges in com-
iii !l!ly point in till'" sysle,n, expressed in unilJ! eon- ponent or substance A , between
"i"tent with sy:st~m II or fundamental dimensioIIB, is states I and 2.
giyen br the equation

C2 + --
2g.
mll2 2 mgZ2
+ - g, - + P2 V 2
t:.(PV) - r
The energy term 6.(P ~) is a complete differential

PdV +
Combining equations 54, 55, and 56 (inc!uding sur-
t"V dP (56)

By definition

nd
face and c1lllmical effects in the etc. term),

f1
T dS+ tJ.(~ nw')+ (mgz) +
2gc ge
r 1
V dP

_ q _ tD
+ etc.
(57)

+ Jo ( - ",) +' (moz)

I "- - .+ ~(PV)
Jo e
2 110 fl.
,
In any process the increase in internal energy due
_q_tD (54) to heat effects ~ T dB is equal to the sum of the
Since by definition
heat absorbed from the surroundings and all other
t:.H"" t:.U+ t:.PV energy disaipaterl into hcat effects within the systef'l
t hen due to irrevctllibilities such sa overcoming friction
ilH + ~. (~ mil) + (mgZ) _q_ to
.r
(Ma) occurring in t he process,
2 gc fl.
The inetea.'ie in intem.a.1 energy is the sum of the TdS - q + (ltD) (68)
increases due to all changes considered as taking
place in the material in flow, including heat effects, where ltD _ "lost work," energy that cc"ld have
compression effects, surface effects, a.nd chemical done work but WUl! dissipated in irre-
effects.

tJ.U - r r
TdS + P (-dV) + ~i"Ydll
versibilities \yithin the fluwing mate-
rial.
equations 57 and 58 are cumbined and re-

r
I{

+ J'A. dm" + t J'B dmB + etc. (55)

""""oed,

f 'VdP + .(m") + . (~.gz) + ",.

I 2flc 9c
where T '"' ab60lute temperature of the material.

r I
S = aiJs.<liute entropy of the material.
T dS - increase in internal ener'r due
. neat effects between states 1 and 2
or points 1 and 2 in the Bow system.
~ f~ V +f +f +
I
dP
- -w -

1111)

,(I<
dv mg d!.
Igc
etc.

- -w - (lw)
(lw) (59)

(59tl)
 THE FLOW l;QUATION
These equations (54 through 59a) contain no limiting
w;."umptiotui other than DO accumul atiQn of material
in tile unit and are unrcstrkted in application to
material flowing or transferred from state 1 to
s\ ale 2. It is ma inly a matter of convenience as to
which e<luutions arc: used.
,Vith reference to equation 54a, tJ.11 is a complete
difi't'rcnti al, and its value depends only upon the
initial 'and rmal states of the flowing material, being
independent of t.he path followed by the Aowing
mat.eriul. This is an important advantage in the use
.... of equation Mo. llecau!;e there is no term specifi-
cally representing friction and other irrcvel"5ible
lOil.'ll'll in equation 54a, there may be Some confusion
in handling friction losses with this equation unlp.ss
it. is remembered that the friction losses must occur
either within the flowing material, or without in the
surruundings.
If the rrictio<! Ioeee8 a nti other ineve rsibi lil ieos are regarded
IlII ooeu mng within the fIo.... ing materi&l, t hey &re ineluded in
tJ.H ill the term J:!T dB, whh,h u. included in tJ.H Ill! pa.rt of
l!.U. but ~hey an! not includoo in cil"'>1"'" or q.
If the l rictiuo 100<."""'1 a re ",~r&..-d "" o:urriOI': ou tside t he
flowing matcrill..l in the ~ulTOUndillg:s, t hey arc i ..c1uded in w
sin ee the enerlO' leaVC8 the lIo.... ing mlLw rilli "" work which
is diaU Pfoted into ht."II.l clIL"C11I in the SWTUIIndingll. In t his
~ frictional k:Jeec:s ~ not included in il.H or q. If tllCSO
heat elf,~u. in the turTOUnd inp caW!'ed by friction "-~ are
ab:!!urUcd in the lIo.... inl> material &.'j q, lhj ~ UllCrgy ill .. gain in
tlK: ..ystem and iuclud",,1 in tJ./f . In thUs case th., friction 1\11iSe6
aro &l9o included in q a nd VI, Cf'nCl~li llg out or the5c t wo !.eons
bee&. ... ., of t be difl'en:nee in ~ign, Tbe",(un! t hey might beller
be in cluded only in l!.ll for !limplieity in C/l.lculati()n.
Equation 59 is applieable whethe r or not tl.''mt is
tran!d"crred. It is completely independent of q, but
it has u tenn, lw, specifically representing friction
losses und irroversibili ties, all of which must be
included in this tenn. This elimina tes any doubt
as to where to ind udc fri ction los.'lCs, but it requires
that all frictkm IO~l! anti other irreversibilitics be
evahmtcd, or that t he e xa(~t path followed by the
incomplete diffClrt!ntiaIs,
on the other side of the equation.
~uch as r
Bowing matel-lul be known in order to evaluate the
V dP, appearing
r
Frietion 106.'le! are a form of energy tronsfer
represented by the term lw in equutions 59 and 59a
(incl uded in T dB in equations 00 a nd 57). This
point of view h:l in harmony with the hasic idea of a
135
:-es:istance foree, asthe product of force tim~ distanee
is energy, and, if fluid i~ moving against a m;i~tin g
foree , ' there is always un energy t.enn, III), involVl'(!
wld ~h is directly proportional to the ("('!lis ting fo''
In particula r eases it is desirable to recognize J,e
peculiar properties of the material flowing as a m~an8
of simplifying the calculations. For example, a
liquid flowing thro\lgh a pipe II ill usually be f ree
<)( ehemical changes, surracc effects, etc., and equa-
tion 59 may be rewri tten as 59b.
- - w - (lwl (59b)
Writing equation 59b for JJ. uni t ma.ss of matel ial,
tJ.J 9 -
J 1
2-
VdP +-+- ~Z
2ge flc
- -w- lw (59<)
If the flow is also approximately isotherma.l and t he
fl uid is almost incompressible, us ale m(l$t liljuids,
t.he volume of a unit mlUlS may be assumed to be
constant und equation 50c may be further simplified
to
-M' + -0 ("')- + -lJ.Z
9
,. -11;" - lw (60)
p 2g. 90
Equation 60 is limited to tl. material of appro.'(im~tdy
constant densi ty and is frequently referred to tI.S
Bcrnoulli'~ equation when w and ftC are wro.
If eqUation no i ~ divided by glo" and pi, the spe-
cific weight, is substituted for p(glo.),
oP 0"
-;;- + 2; + ~Z - -to -;
(g,) - lw_(g,)
-; (00a)
The dimensions of the indi vidual enellO' terms in
equat ion 60a are energy per un it weight of fluid,
such as foot-pounds per Pound (or fcet) , or grllm-
cent imetef'li per gram (or centimeters), In this fonn
(equation GOa) the. terms havo the dim ension~ (If
length WI of a column of fluid. For this reason these
tenns arc frequently referred to 8.8 " head ," such as
feet or centimeter:> of the fluid. This common
terminology, with prcssure head for the term
(t.l'/P' ), velocity head for the term (lJ.v~/ 2g), and
stat ic head for ~ ~Z) , must be ap plied " 'ilh caution
~ it is frequently and erroncou~ly applied to the
terms of equation 60.
 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
FRICTION LOSSES 'The factor f depends only upon the Reynolds
number if goometric similarity cxist..fl. This requires
As indicated, the use of equa.tion 59 or 00 requires
the same value for the ratio of length to diameter
a knowledge of t-he frictionallosses,.lw, which e&nDot
(DI D) for the different systems, and cxactly similar
be accurately dctermined except by actual experi-
surfaces as mtly ~ e)(p~ by the ratio .1DJ
ment, as wa.s also true in determining the frictional
wht:re t repTe!lents the height or depth of the eleva.-
resistance to the motion of solKl particles through
tions or depressions in the !lUrface. Under these
fluids.
conditions, '; (T>vpl ll) may be lrubstituted for f in
'l1Ie Aow through pipes is a particular example equation 63, giving
cor the relative motion of. solids and Huids, and
U~ general etluo.lion ,0 for the resisting force,
F' - (f'pAtlJ)/2, may be applied. 'The area A, in
C<luu.tion 10, is any area representative of the solid.
For a pipe filled with fluid this area is logically taken
IUS the insidc surface arca of the pipe (If DL). Dl.\lENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The frictional force exerted by the pipe against If the friction fact.or J in equation 63 were not
the fluid in the pi'pc is known to dcpend only upon the Heyrlolds number
in geometrically similar systems, estimation of
P' .}'p1rDLVl
values for f would appear as difficl1l t as estimation
2 of values for Iw in equation 5nc or equation 60.
The energy required to ov~rcorr:e this frictIOnal force Where all the significant variables are recognized
in moving the fluid in the pipe a. distance equal to but the exact relat.ionship between t.hem is nOl
a/., is the product F' aL. This quantity of energy known, becaIDIC of the difficulty of integrating the
would push out of the pipe a quantity of fluid repre- differential equations or for other reasons, consider-
sentoo by the volume '1fJ)2 dL14, or the m8.S..'l of able help- in indicating ways of correlating experi-
Auid P'1fTP 81.14. Therefore, the ellergy required to mental data to obtain an empirical relation between
overtorne friction (or dissipated as friction 10SI!e8) the variahles may be obtained by means of dimen-
per unit m a.':lS of fluid discharged from (or entering) siona] anuiysis. This is a procedure by which the
the pipe ilf known variables are arranged in a number ...f dimen~'
- 1P'.L 2J'W sionlel:;s combinations or groups. The fund:unental
lw/ ... - - - (61) equation may be expressed in tenns of these groups
P7:Fr aL D rather than in terms of the individual variable<!.
where hO/ is the energy in absolute units dissipated 'l'1l.e resulting equation will be simpler, as the number
as frictiun per unit fTULSIj of fluid . of dimensionless groupe will be less Umn the num-
ber of variables, generally by the number of dimen-
lw/ - g.J.wJ lliollll employed.
'The essential principles of dimensional Imwysis
Substituting fur 'iW in equation 60 witli the assump-
are three in number.l .
tion of no change in velocity, no change in elevation
,and no work done by the fluid, the pressure drop due' I. Each and everyone of the physkal QuaRtities
or measurements may be expressed as a product of
to friction ( -tlP/) is ubtained in the form of the
the powers of a very few fundtUllental dimensions
Fanning equation
(see Table 25).
2j'pLv 2
- tlP/ - - - (62) 2. Equations of physical quantities arc homo-
D geneous in the net dimensiOll8 of all additivIJ tenus.
All terms added together must have the same dimen
In engineering practi~ the frictiun loss is UlIIl811y
sions when expressed in terms of the fundamental
written for energy in foot-pounw force per pound
dimelllliollll selected.
m""",
--
1111/ ., -
fL o'l
2g~D
- -
f' N
- - dL
, 2gcD
(Ga)
3. Any general relation between physic:U Quan-
tities can be expre8l:lCd in a gcnemlizcd ma.-mer inde-
pendent'or sny particular unit~ to in vol. ~ only the
wheref '"" 4/,. The bihli..... phy for thi$ eh5ptu apl*''' on p. 146.

 DIMEl"TSIONAL ANALYSIS
dimensionless products of all the physica.! variahles
and the necessary dimensiona.! conversion oonstants.
This principle folloll"s from the others and known
as Buckingham's "pi t heorem." I t is the key to
dimensiona.! analysis.
Th e erwryy dissipated in overooming friction is some
function of the pruperties of the flowing fluid and
the confining pipe and their relative motion. The
signifiC3J\t properties of the pipe may be its length D,
its internal diameter D, and the roughness or depth
of its surface irregularities f. The properties of the
fluid are its mass m, its density p, and its viscU'ity 1'.
The relative motion between the fluid and pipe is
the fluid velocity v. Therefore the energy dist'lipa1R<i
in overcoming friction is some function uf all these
variables or
(lw)/ = IPI CL, D , e, m, p, 1', v)
For'a given point cundition the unknown function,
equation 65, may be written in exponential form.
where th dimensionless eocffiei~nt z and all the
exponents a.re of given values only at. t.he point
condition. If the condition is changed in any way,
as by changing the velocity, z and all the exponents
may change. Equation 66 is ~imply another way
of writing equation 65. It. is definitely not to be
inferrd that the true relation between the variables
is exponential.
Application of the first principle by substitution of
the fUlldamcnt al dimensions of sYlltem I, Table 25,
in equaoion 66 gives
mL' _ ,L"'L'm' (",)' (m)" (~)'
t
2 D3 ~t t
By application of the second principle, the net
dimension of the product on the right side must be
the same as on t.he left, mD21t 2 , and the summation
of the exponents of each fundamental. dimension on
the right is equal to the exponent of that dimension
on the left, as follows.
Form l _ d+e+n
ForD 2-a+b+c-3e-n+r
Fort - 2 - -n - r
Here are three equations and seven variabies or un-
knowns. The energy dissipated.as friction is direct.ly
proportional to the mass of fluid transported, and d
i~ therefore unity. This leaves six unknowns for
137
three equations. If the three equations are inde-
pendent, they may then be solved in terms of three
is arbitrarily .thosen variables,.such as b, c, and , giving
e "" - n
a = 2 - b - c - 3 +n - 2 +n = -b - c -
If t.hese values are subEtituted for a, e, and r in the
exponents of equatiun 66,
Clw)/ = zD- I, - C- HLbtcmp-n,.."v2 - ..
The groups int{l which these variables will he
assembled in the functional relation are inditat.ed by
the exponents. The variables are assemblP.d accord-
ing to the appearance of ew;h letter in the exponent
to assnre dimensional homogeneity. l'or ('A)nven~
ience the groups are usuully made dimensionless as
(65)
follows.
All variables' i1ftving a numerical exponent yield
the dimensionless group (lw)/ /mv 2
(66) All variables having the exponent b yield the
dimensionless group DID.
All variables having the exponent c yield the
dimensionless group tiD.
All variables having the exponent 11 'yield the
dimensiunless group 1'1 Dvp.
These dimensionless groups constitute a functiOn of
some descript.ion to express the interrelation of
variables
If exponents other than b, c, and n ha.d been
(57) ch~n for retentiun in the establishment of dimen-
sional homogeneity, a different set of dimensionless
groups would have resulted. Intermultiplication of
the dimensionless groups to yield different dimension-
less groups is permissible. In this way some other,
function of different dimensionless groups may be
obtained which may be more convenient than the
first. '
The best choice of exponents for ret.P-lltion, or the
manner of intermultiplicatiori t() yield the m()Bt.
convenient groups, depends on the use to be made of
them. The form of equation 68 is readily adaptccl
to the computation of friction loss for known veloci-
ties. But in thilS form the evaluation of the velocity
which will result from known dime~sions and fric-
tion loss (lw), is ell:tremely complex, except by a
tria1-and-error solution. This may be'" avoided by 3.
138 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
more convenient fun ction established by eliminating
velocity from all ~roups except one, by simply
dividing car,h side of equation 68 by V(lw)// rm?; f - (lw),D'Zg, - - - - - 4>&
giving
l::f -.. [(~),(i'(1J,pV(;')/I""')] (69)
vrw;;
- , - .,. IPa
,[(L)
D' (')
D (DpV%
" )]
Thi-i is all the information that can be obtained
from the application of dimcm.ional analysis to this
prohlem. The nature of the function <1>2 or <I>~ L<; nut
i~d icated in any way. The analysil'l simply slales
that a function exists between thef\e various dimen-
'sioniess groupS, however complicated it may be,
provided all the significant phY8ica.l quantit,ic!; have
been included. 'rhis is an important guide h) the
procedure of determining the function empirically
from experimental data. For example, a series of
measnrements of the frict ion energy (Iw)/ taken
under conditiona of conatant 1~/ D and constant fl D
must yield a single function when (/w)!' 1m,} is plOtted
against the Rp,ynvlds numOOr DpVl 1'_ All experi-
ment al points lic on I.he same curve, regardless of the
Velocity, densii.y, viscusity, or mass of the nuid. If
t-he experimenln( ()Oints do not lie nn a single curve
within the experimen hll error, one or more !rigllificant
pbYEical quanti ties or measurements were omitted
in writ illj!; U.e fiN'O t, equat io n n.'i.
Equa tion ('18 may he writte n as follows, with e nergy
given in foot-pounds (or gram-4:cntimctcrs).
Equat.ion 70, derived frp m dimcnsional _ analY~~' 1
gives fully M much .information as equation 64, de-
rivffi from a tll(>()!eti~9.l consideration of balancing
forces and the principle. of dynamic 8imilari~y. In
either equation , experimental data arc required 1.0
detR.rmine thc r('lation b!:ltwcc.n friction energy and
the physkai quantities.
In' the de.rivati(!n of e<]lIation tH. the frictio~
encrgy was U:S.!:iumro If! vary <,lirt'ltly with the length
of pipe, nnd J.., ac~()nl ingly (\pPf"a~ a.s t he first power.
1 tt,e !>arne MlOumplil)l"I il:l made in e<llIati un 70, it.
fo!lows !.Imt I~/ J) al'lx'ar:- M thc first powe r, as t his
is Ihe only d iml.' n:;ionJ{'SS KfOUP euntllinin;r; the qmm-
ti.t.y D. This assumption 113." been IVllnd valid lor
all values of LI D gree.t ~ r ,than about SO. Therefore
;-;;',02g, [(')
-
(OP')]
- (71)
mL,} Li? D II-
The accu rate I!Stim3lion of th e friction energy
from correia! io n of experimental data has been a
goal of e ngineers for many years. Early work
neglected the cl.araeter of pipe surface, omi tt ing the
ratio fl D. The data. could not be correlated, par-
liculerly at high values of the Reynold s number,
unlil this variahle was properly included.
Figure 125 shows graphieall" the solution tQ equa-
tion 71, Qbtained by plotting the experimf'ntal data..
This correlation i8 in eonl;ir.t ent. units and may be
used with any set of consistent unit!S, English,
metric, Qr otherwise. Similar plots arc found in the
literature in which other friction fll(:tors are plotted
as a functi(,n of the Reynolds number. Care must
be t.aken to avoid confll:;ion, Il!> the same name lind
symhol are used for various multiples of 1 as plott.ed
in Fig. L25. For example,!, of C(luntion 62 is plotted
as 1 in the Chenn&ll Engineer.,' Handbook. FJse-
where 112g, will be found plotted lUI f.
Figure 125 I:Ihows t\ I:Itraight solid line, f = 64/ Re,
represcntin~ thc laminar flow region whic h extends
UI) to a Reynulds n llmher of 2000. In laminar flow
Uh~ fluid moves onl y in Ihe direction of flow , as indi-
cata! in Fig. 123. 'nle insidfl surface of the pipe is
l.artOOar flow Turbulent flow
effectively stI"l'allilincci by th(~ Huid flowing next to
the pipe wall, and th~ ('(llIghn('''~ of the pipe has little
effect upon tht' r('~i!\tan<:l' In How, which is df'tf'r-
mined laq~~'I.v hy the prop('Tlir'l'j r)f the fluid, par-
.
ticularly the vis'r",ity. Tltr' loca.l vt'kl('ity of the
fluid varil'!! ar'ro!li-ll th(' pipe d iI Lml'tl'r from zero lit lhc
In & .....ti()11 5 or Ih" ( 'Jv", i,.,/I f:"lJi,.~,." II(JNII>OOk (ft""
printi!lIU ' 1' "r ~"l, .... ),m 112 i~ , 1,'1<iJl;"a,,~d by ,hI) symbol J.
In &~t iou 20 " r II,, "-II1ll" volu l1ll', ,,. 1-I2I>, .r or '~I' ...lion 71
is , !,,,;jJ(":u.~..-l h:v ' llI' ~~'ml",1 J, .."tI .Iw M""I I' ..... ~ lt i~ made
IhMI Ih,' 1,10\' giv, ... vahll.'" r"r I, lI-h hough Ihe "lOt aciual1y
giv('S ""I..."!! fut J' - 114.
 FRI CTION LOSSES
wall to the maximum in the center, lUI indicated in
Fig. 124.
1.s the Reynolds number is increased above 2000,
as by increasing tho quantity of fluid fl owing, t-he
friction factor will foll ow thil:\ s t raight line into the
dotted region only if the fl ow remains laminar. But
near this point, Re "" 20)(), ' eddies and turbulence
may develop in the core of the s tream, which has
the greatest velocity. Theile eddies d issipate more
energy and increase the rridion looses. Since the
eddies are local t his increased fri ction loss is local,
tending to decrease t he local velocity (decrease He),
and the flow may again beoome laminar. But the
II ,",w
! lent flow the vdod\y is n('ilhrl" lincnr n)l" con.<;!ant
~ the volume of fiuid pnssin.u; n givl:n point . or <li;;.-
il
FI(l. 124.
Lotll Vtlocil)' 01 FlUId
(P ...... , 10 A." 01 I'\rItJ
Rehlt ive vdodty distribulion in laminar &nd
turbulcl1~ Sow.
local decrease in velocity CU\l!'.efl eor-respondirig local
incretl&lS in velocity _el!IC here, with format-i on of
other eddies. This fegioo- of incipient- turbulence,
from Re - 2000 to about -:WOO, is t herefore unstable
and is &0 indicated on F ig. 125 by the sbaded area
above the dotted line.
As tJ.,e Reynolds number ill increased to values
a~ve 4Q(K), the turbulent Row ing core becomes well
developed and ifhe velocity distribut.ion across a
diamet.er of Ole pipe be(omcs s imilar to that indi-
cRtcd in Fig. 124 . The .propepiCl> of the fluid flOW
have Ie!;!! effect upon t.he flow conditions than in
.trictly JRminar flo\\', n.nrUhfl roughne!!8 becomes of
significance, pnrticulu.rly if it is sufficient. toO affect
the turbulent core in the central part of the stream.
Friction 10S8l.'8 arc atubiliwd and can be computed.
ThCllC eondition!:l are rep!'flOlented by the transition
zone on Fig. 125.
A small twig or other float.ing obiett to&'leC1 into
a river or s mall !:Itream nlllning -rapidly, as in flood,
offcrs an exccllent opportunity toO sec the laminar
flow in the }Slowly Ilowinp: wilter ncxt to the shure and
the turbulent flow in mid .. lrenm.
As the Heynold.. numher i... in<-rf'fL..-'(1 fm1l1er, t he
turbult'nt. flowing core e )( ]Ia nd .~ at th(' ('xpen::;e of th(
13.
laminar flowing annulus until th(' .turbulent flowing
core occnpies the entire erOfiil 5C(;tion of the pipe
right down 10 the proluber!l.n(Ocs which make up the
roughne!>.'S. In the completely turbulent region .t1!t
roughness of t be pipe is the most importan t con-
siderat ion, and the properties of the fluid, viscosity
and density, can be neglected in estima ting frict ion
1"",,_
In Fig. 126 the rf'lative TOughness 4 for vftrious
pip.:s hM been plotted as:\ function of pipe diaml:ter
for different types of pil)t!.
The linear vcloc.ity of Ihe tvtJII Ollid flvwing
through a pipe duel! not huW' a definite \'lI.lue. Tn
laminar Aow the velocity is linear bUI \'l).l"i1'$ greatly
with di~tnm-e arr(1SS thf' pipe (Fig. 12t ). In turbu-
3(!ross the pipe diameter. Tn ma king the (~(lITelation
of Fig. 125, the velocity v \\"n~ lIetC'Trniiwd by dividing
charged from the flow , systC'm JX'I" second by the
crOS8--l>CCtional area A ()f the pipe. Thi" i~ frequently
rcf('rft'd_10 uS the avprage velocit.y and dco;ly;nuted
by a diff('ft'n r ljymbol. III i!Cjnntions 54 and 59, the
velocity ,, 'i~ the :u:tual lincnr \'c1ocity of the fluid.
..
If the ;i\'~rage " dlll'iiy i .. usctl fo r v ,n the tcnn
reprcl:>Cntin)/; k iru~tic. enf'l"gy, 111',212g~, the result- may
be in erro r. In laminar fl.ow the totAl kinetic energy
is more d o&>ly rt'prc!:len ted by ,m,ll g. (wit.houtrthe 2)
when using the a ve rage v(ll t>ci ~y for v. But under
turbulent conditions the U\eroge velocity compu ted
in tbis manf\Cr giVe:< tLpprQximn.lely the currect rct!ult
in t.he exp~on mv'12{h.
. In laminar flow when! - (}t/ HE', equation 63 may
be- \\~ittcn
_ , -6P, 32Lv.ll
lw, .... - -- - -
p g,D'p
0'
:l2Lt,.II '
-tlP, . - (63L)
9,D 2
which is known as Poiscuille's equation.s
The frictiOn 100000s computed from Fig. 12:) are for
straight pipe of circular cross ~etion. Tn t.he past,
variou.<; formula8 have ~n propOI!(.'(l for e;;(im!lting
the frietiun 10l>8C8 through bends, fitt ings, ~tc. But
the simplcdt prxedurc i ~ to conside r elleh lining or
valvc WI t."tluiv!llc nt to u length of st raight pipe ' 118
indiCa!I...1 in Fig. 127. This reduce nil pipes, valves,
and tittinJF;ll to a common del"l.,minMor, l.!i juivalent
len!!:1 h Ilf pilW uf t hE' same relaliw) roughness, for
IlUl"Pt)o;L'S or computing friction IQ&;('!>.
 t

,.
;l

I%I~
Q.

'", '
N

" _I"
~
I
Z
i'l
.-..
0.004
.il
0.002
~
5
~

i
0.02 0.001 ~
0.0008 -m
0.0006 a:
0.0004
0.015
0.0002 ~

~
0.0001
0.000,05

0.009
0.008

10( X 10 3 .. I Iii X 10 4,
,
_ 1- X 10 5, ~
,
1_
~ X 107. "
.,
~
0.000,01
Z
'"
D,p
Reynolds Number Re = ~
FlO. 125. Friction faowr III! a function of Reynold!! numoor with remtivc roughness 8.!! 8. psrameter.'
fRICTION WSSES

,~
I
~
~

~

,5 ~
o

~o
li 'C
8. .; .:!
,
is: - !
" 0
1<2 mANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERCY RELATIONS
Sin.ilar equivalent lengths could be preeented for
welded' fittings, but the valves, contractions, aDd
expansions would furnish the same lengths as thoSe
givl'n in Fig. 127. Welded elbows are usually long-
radius or short-radius, and equivalent lengths in pipe
diameters a.re as follows for 4s.degrce, OO-degree,
and l8O-degree elbows of both radii.
Equivalent Length
. Weklin~ Elbow In Pipe Di!l.melcl'lll
45-degrce 1Ql\t;-i-adius '.8
~short.-mdill!l 8.'
00-degrPe IOllg-radiLIII 9.'
9O-de~ &hort-ra.di\lS 12 . .5
18IkIcgroe Ionli-radiut 12. 1
l~cJ!l:rw sbort-radiUII 16.8
The energy dissipated by "9, fluid emerging from a.
pipe into a vessel Of space of large cross-sectional area
cannot be computod. a{'cnrateiy. In ' no event will
this loss exceed the kinetic energy posi!C88Cd by the
fl.u~ at the exit of the pipe. This kinetic energy may
be taken 88 the maximum p(BSible lOllS.
When the conduit through which the material is
1t00ving is of a. cross section other than circular, the
use of the lIimple diameter D in the Reynoldg number
and friction factor is no longer poI!8ible. However,
if the volume of flowing material in a specified length
of conduit' V is divided by the wetted surface for the
eame length of conduit 11:: a linear dimension is
obtained ' which may be usea
as D/4 in connection
with Fig. 125 for estimating friction 106SeII for fluids
flolVing in annuJi, and, for lack of a better correlation,
for other conduits,' whether running fuJI Or not. This
use of 8Uch a linear ~imeD8iOD is not COtUIistent \\ith
the prineiple of dynaniic similarity but is a sa'tisf~
tory proCedure for other :iha~.
For a cylinariciil';-oonduit I'W'Ining (uli, this liniar
in which 1/ 0, or fJ/ V2g,JJlIJJ,/ L is prt!8l'lllt.ed &8 a
function. of Re-vj, or (Dp/ /J.)V2gc D&/I'L. This
18t~r term is frequently called the lU.rm1in number.
Figure 128 is exactly equivalent to Fig. 125 but is
more convewent in solving for the quantity of fluid
flowing for a known or chosen friction loss. The
friction 1088 !W, may be expressed 8B the product
(-lJ.P,)/p, if (- dP/) is the decrease in pressure due
to friction losses in pounds force per square foot
8JId P is the density of the flowing fluid in pounds
IDiI88 per cubic foot.
lUuUrathe EUD1p1e. Determine the rate ~ Row of
lIJI.turaJ. pa <,,"hleh rr \;r be _met! In be methane, e l I.)
flo,,illJ!: through a et(,(,j pipe 12 in. in diJI.m'~ I~r lind 3 milCOI
long at 70 f, if tbe p~ure d,-"CI" ~ fmlll 7.~ to 00 psi.
The. vieco:lAity of methane at 70 e F is 0.011 '''lItiJllli8e, IUld
the d~~ty e.t 70 Jo' and .t the sverage l'" '88ure 1.18. peU.s
0.218 Ib/ell !t.
Solution, trcatinli: the gIi3 as .. n jnmrrt" nos.o;ihlu fluhl with
tim av~'t'AKC J.I/'Opertit.'8 .... given in the ~(II!'~ment of the
eumpll
For. l2.i n .t,..,l pipe, tim value for ~hc l'I'Ia(h" rou&hlle88,
.I D, it liekrmin.'tl from FiKo 126 l1.li O.OOOt~. -
The n1ue of ftc Vi -
{I>p/ I')V2g,IJI.tlJI L DUly be deter.
mined at an a",,'I'Ilgl' pn'WUre 0168 jlIIi.
D .. 12 in. or 12/ 12 ... 1 flo
p ... 0.2181b ma.... /ou ft.
I' ... 0.011 rcntipoisc or (0.0] 1)(0,000672)
- 0.00000739 Bvu.
, . ... 32.17 ft,...lb lll.UI/(lb foroll}(eee}(_).
~I ... 15(144)1O;218 ... 9!JOO ft-lb fotee/ lb II'IMI..
L ... a rnilN or 3(5280) ... 15,840 h~
~

dimension reduc~ to the diameltr of the condUit: ~:

'." "~.,,,
.., . ..
4V
<I.. ..
trD')(l)
- ",!," 4 - - -- -D
4 'ffD ... 187,000.
,
Figure .l 28 ;1:1 a plot ~ of the friction factor accord. From Fla- 128, for '-ID ... 0.00015 .aDd Rf! Vi ... 187,000,
ing to equu.liun 1m, with the 85SUmptiOO6 involved in l/Yt ... 8.55, aDd
equation 71, of.
IIVt 8.55 8M
..... r==L -1 13,840 ... VO 0249 ... 64. fpa
,,~ \l2(32. I7)(I)(9'..'JO)

'I'hI! rate of flow is I'A ... 54( ... / 4) ... 42.7 d , at aD averap
pI'CI:IftUre of 68 prj uYI a temperat.uro nf 70 }o'. Thb cone-
Bponda 1.0 236 lltandard cu ft/&ec as tneaIIUl'fld at 14.7 ~
and 60 F.
 FRICTION LOSSF.5 . Ii '43
ll.

,
~.
J?':: p +$!
::--
,'01
,j.' (2 '''-~ --. V
V- I--- l$!
, til
u,
~
rm~
II b'

,!d.
:,
II
,.'"
/ I iI
/ , , I II
X 10 1
... ., .I. , :, . :~. , , ','"
,
. 1
, ,
~vr.. P,t-V2,. ~5
F:II1. 128. Friction factor /!oS & function of the KII.rJruin number.

Weymouth's EqutJtionJor CaHB where, - compressibility factor to ' correct for de-
Ueing equations 59a IlDd G3 in d i!'ierential (onn, parture from ideal gas behavior (see thf'
assumi:lg horiwnLal flow, no chcmical effects, tUld Appendix).
no work done. for a uni t mllM of material flowing R - ideal gas constant.
M - molecular weight.
vdv f~dL
VdP+~+ -- -O (72)
g. .J> 2ri.D Substituting from the above equatioDA in equation 72
Since and multiplying by 2uc/t? gives
vw Zg.,A2MPdP 2dfJ fdL
II - --
A
W',RT
+ - -+ -D -0
II
(73)

where lV '"" mtulS rate of flow,

A - cl'OHS--geCtionai afro of flow, If (2 dv)/ v ieneglected Rnd Z, T , a,ndf are a88umed to
be COD8t.a.nt, equation 73 may be integrated
for actual gll8CS
, V., -RT
J,fP
(74)
..
, TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
If Q _ the number of standard cubic feet flowing per
hour-measured at. To and Po
M _ 29 (sp.:gr.) where (sp. gr.) .. specific gravity
of gas referred to air, each at atmospheric
or low pressure where , is approximately
equal to 1
L ,is in miles
D is in inches
Pis in.pounds per sqUare inch absolute
T, [(Pl~
Q - 3.22-
-
P'i)~ l" (75)
Po (sp. gr.) TI./z
T, / . and l' are avct'8g{: values.'
Pre''',re Drop Aero" Tube Banb
The frictional losses ~omp&nyin,ll; the flow of
fluids 'across tube banks are related to the turbulence
establiBhed by the arrangement uf the tubes. The
variables with greah!st influence ure the fluid veloc-
ity, the fluid dcru;ity, and the number of rows of
tubes. Fluid viscosity, tube slZC, shape, and arrange-
nw.nt are ~ificant but. of lees influence. Elliptic&l
tubes mounted with the major axis parallel to the
direetioo of How &cross tbe bank may result in less
rriction at.. the same Reynolds number than cylindri-
oalFor
"'_
turbulent flow of fluids across cylindrical
tubes, the following empirical equation corresponds
to equation 62 if only the three variables, fluid
velocity, fluid density, and number of rows of tubes,
lJ"e considered important.
(- .o.P,) = ~8(N, p, ' l'mn', n (76)
wl\ero N - number of rows of tubes.
ma.ximum linear vehJClly or ve10city at
1'...... _
the minimum cr()8lj ~tion .
p _ ftuid density.
f 0= fri ction factor dependent ypon the Reyn-
olds number of fluid flowing and tbe
arrangement of tubes.
, u ' J eliminated by substituting in terms of V. This is
For turbulent flow aerOlSs the usual tube arrange-
menta, equation 76 has been evaluated as
O.047NG 1.1,,0.2
( -1M') _ ~" " (n)
/ PDo..
wi,ere D. _ distan('.e hetwet'n tubes in Il. lram,-ver.;c
row (ft.).
GIN$ _ masi velocity, [Ib mass/(eq ft,)(sec)].
~ _ fluid villCosity, [Ib mll.<;H/ (rt)(~) l.
p _ fluid density, (lb mASS/ CO ft.) .
p _ lb force/sq ft.
The value of the constant (O.O-t7) is an a.verage for
conventional arrangemcnts and is not. applicable to
unusual arrungements or fluid conditions.
Cmnpreuible Fluids (Moderate Velodtiea)
Substituting from equation 63 fOT iW in equat.ion 69c
gives
J'VdP + { 'd'- +0-,Z
I I gc g.
- -w-{~
ZucD I
(78)
In ordt:r to solve equation 78, the integrals llIust
be evaluated. If the fluid is at low preAAure, it may
follow tho ideal gas rclation.ship (PV ... RTIM),
and the integral can be readily evaluated for iso-
thermal flow as (RT/ M) In (P2/ Pd. In 'any case
the properties of the fluid may be represented by
theequntion pV ... z( RT/ M ), in which z is the com-
pressibility factor dependent UJlon the nuture of the
gas and its temperuture nnd p ~re. For small
changes .in pressure the value for z may be tL'l8Umoo
to be constant. For more precise valUe!! it may be
conven ient to evaluate the thermodynamic function
t:.P ':" J
V dP + J
Ji dm + etc. for isothermal condi-
tions.
The right-hand integral in equation 78 can be
integrated directly only if f,r is known as a function
of I,. Since this information is not available. a
solution of the problem is freqllently obt.aillcd by
stepwi&e calculations in which C<llIation 78 is applied
to 8uCCC68ive short sections &l that average values
of V and \I may be used for each section without
significant error.
In another method of solution the variable v is
readily done by substituting oV for v, where G is
thc maS!! velocity and is a constant for a pi~ of
uniform crOl:lK ~tion. Making this substitution in
e(!\mtion 78,
' { n' V dV gZ
JVdP+ - - - +0 -
I I gc Yc
(79)
 ZERO VELOCITY 14S
lIIuatr.. th.e .ample. DI.'ttrmiM t.M pre!!8ure dTOfJ To evalU&(e the equaLlen :
acoomp&nyiIII tbe 6011' of natural p.tI (which may be ILIlSUrned
Moleeulac ni!;hl .. 16.
to be mcthanc:) a t 70~ F lhrot1jlh a horizont.-J _ I pipe 12 in.
in diAmet...... and 3 nules long. T he pIIJ enten \he pipe at Quan ti ty !\owin, ~ 23& standard CI.I ft / 8eC.
75 " g, &rid at .. raw of 23fl st''''nda~ ell ft./aec (mlWll.ll"'eCl at
Sioro lib-mole .. 879 at.t.ndtJd ell h und.,. Li>eBe ""ndil::!'lIla,
14.7 psia arod 60- F). The visrosity of methane a t 7O~ F
"4
ie 0.011 oen tipcMe, and the oompn.1iIIibi lity factor, ~ ..
PVM/ N.T, ~y be .....uned oonstan~ atO.!l!I5..
SoIutton. If toq,ut io", 79 is applied to th io! pmhlem, the
~ indudi"". &Z and !.& arc each equal to sero. S in<"e G
M_ flo..,,,, ...

M_ ~Iocity _ -
I.
_I'
X 16 ... 10Ib/ _ .

... 12.7 Ib/ <Ilee)(eq h).

ie tlOMtant., the lteyooldl! number is I'lON)tant, t he friction

factor ill oonsunt., and equat'on 711 may he writ ten 11.8 follows.
I' .. om 1 ."ntipoiee
alt.erdividinc hy ~ a ud lett ing L ('(lualln.. lellgth of the pipe. .. 0.000007311 nvu.
1 x 12.7
rdP .. _fW' _ J t r;tdV Re ... 0.0000073\1 ... 1.72 XIG'.
J! 1'" 2g,D ! {1, V

./ D roc 12-in. iron pipe _ 0.00015 (Fill:, (26).

SubRtitliting ~(RT/PM ) for V. a nd a\lllum ing ~ t o be oonotant
and the lu t t erm (velocit y ef(~Ilt.8) t o be negligible. I" 0.0136 (Fi,. 125).
- - - -
.If
-zRT J' 'dP
1
I - - lUi'
- -
'JgD.
N .. [(75 + 14.7)(144)]
,
-
[ (0.0136)(15,840)( 12.7)1]
(32.17) (1) )(
[ (0.995)(1544)(530)]
16 .

(2'-) (N - PI~ .. _ fW Pit - (167 X 10') - {54.S X 10'}.

,RT 2 2g,D P, .. "';112.2 X 10' .. 10,550 Ib/ IKJ. rt &lldUluw ur 78.2 pIIia or 58.5 pBig.

The difle~n~ in the dO'll'l"IIItream ~"' 8J!I ocroputed in

thill example oompared with lhe 8l&t.ecl dOWDetre&m preIISUI1l
Pit _ Pit - (lUi')
- -
fI,D
('RT)
- -
M in t.he pr\'viOUll mIIImplo'l itt due to el'f'Uf'IJ introduced into the
p",vious e:umple by treatment "of methlWe'" a.n im:ompl1il!l!.i-
ble fluid.

High Columns of Compreasible Fluid (Zero f'elocity)

A stationary verticaJ column of eompmlSible fluid Converting equation 82 into the exponential fmm,
has zero velocity. Equation 78 then becomes solv ing fo r P a, and subtracting PI from each side
gives the common " atmO$pheric" fonnula. J.I for
[V dP +.0. e"j "=' 0 (SO) rela.ting pre88Ure and elevation.
M (ZI-ZIl
If the column is nigh, there may be considerable P 2 - PI - P1(e oRr - 1) (83)
variation in the specific volume of the gas V with Equation 83, employing an average compressibility
height Z or pressure P. If actual data are available factor and temperature, gives remits for pressure
for the 3pecific volume, a. graphical integration of gradients in natural-gt\& weils comparable to the
V dP may be madc to obtain the limit P2 of the results from equation SO, employing an aver. value
integrnl. If the specific volume is expressed by the for the specific volume. Integrating equation 80 for
gas Ia.ws, equation 80 becomes constant volume at tUl average pressure such as
p. ~ p, + M'/ 2
f I
tRTdP
- -
PM
"
- (ZI - Z2)-
gc
(81 )
(84)
At sea levelg is numerically equal to the conversion 0'
eoostant g., and, if the compressibility Jactor z apd
temperature T may he ll.l!I:iumed to be constant along s1P [ 1 -
29 (&p. gr.) (Z I -
--'-;;:-=:-::-:-:;,-;;;-~
Z2) J
the column , equation 81 may be in t~ted. (2 X J54-1)zT

'RTf
- - -dP - -
,RT- In (P,)
- ... ZI - Z2 (8'I) - [
29 (sp. gr.) (Z I - 2 2) ]
P, (""')
AI ! P M PI . J64&.~T
146 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELAJ.1QNS
BIBUQGRAPHY
I. BIUDOMAIf, P. W., l)imerui9nal .o4"o:Il""-, Yale UniV1ll"8ily
Press (1946).
2. CRAIn:: Go.w:PA~IT, Teck. Paper' 409, Chie..Jl:o, TIL (May
'" 1942).
8. VON I{,bud.N, T., Noch. ae...
W .... OIllIIIl,..Il, Pochflr uppt!. I.
1,58-76 (19:1) . Translilled in U. S. NOI. AdtUory Comm.
Aero. Td . Mtmfl81J.
4.. MooDT, L. P., Trarnr. Am. Soc. Me"'l. gil,,..., 66, 671-684
(1Q44).
5. Puav, J. H. (editor), CMmiml E"uiflH.r, lIaltdbook, 3rU
ed., p. 382. MeG,...HiU I!ook 0>. (1050).
I. PoIIiBUI LLr; J., M~moira da Sam"u tlra~, Vol. 9,
p. 4.33 (1846).
7. RAWLINS, E. L., and M. A. 8cIlELL!I~IU)T, U. S. BUT.
MiMI Monograph 7 (1936).
8. R1A1IA., )1. J., ami D. L. ((An, ,1m. ' oW. Mini", Md.
E..,.... TuA. Pub. 1814, Pdrol~I"'1 TedtrwlOfiIl C'hrch
1945).
9. WBTllIOUTIl, T. R., TraM. Am. SO('. " .M~~A. Enpr ., 3ft,
185-231 (1912). (The compn.'j'!/!il>ility bdar hM been
introduced in the derive.t lon in Ihill tex, .)
PROBLEMS
. 1. A town deriVl'lll il6 "'ater supply from a Jake ne&rhy,
pumpin& i\ up l.o a Blandpipc on the highellt hill. The intake
to ,he "ystem ill 10 ft bclow the lake ~urflU)f;, the inlet to the
pump ill l~ r, Ilooye the Jalu: flUrfaae, amJ the water It:vcl in
the wwer i8 kept constant 3]0 fl above the pump dillcharge.
The frietitln Ioas is 140 f, lh /lh of wAl(!r through the 0000 ft
cI. 4-in. pipe .... Ilich incllJdea the wta! equivale nt length 01 all
pitinK from lake to water tower.
If the !?'Imp capacity it 6QOO gph and the 't\&~,.."...mp !let
ill 85 per cent efficient, what "'puld be the hourly pumping
_t, if elcetrie power ill- I oc'n t per ki]owatt.haur'?
2. What is the _, at. ~ rent per kil""'attnoor to pump
oil ..ith a speeifie p;n.vil,. 00/ 60 or o .s.; /lnd a vi-";Iy of
JO cenlipoi.ees thruul!h a lo.in.lioc, 3O.mik", I/Jnll:~ T1K' avprall
'efficiency of I,he pump nnd l1>()tor is 00 l)O,~r cront, the pil~) linc
i~ h()rizont~l, a.n<l the raw of flow iii SOO IJlll/hT (42 gu.l / hhl).
30 A 90 per .... nl by weight ""Julion or methyl akohOl in
waleI' is \0 \.ov pump(,d ftum a ~Io~ tank 10 :l ptOCilI<III
departrnentthmugh!\ Hti". "landaI'd ilXJU 1,;~ . I450 ft lung.
Too 1i~ ' '''mtl'iM 15 I~pdard elbow~, 5 gate vaivc@, 6 Wes
Bt r";ght throuxh, and 4 t OO"! thruugh a Bide outlet. The
I'''''''''''' c nd o! t he lim: 1011'11 have a ~ure of 8 J)8ijl; and ill
22 fl above the st.""KJ! tank. T he tempen.ulrn of the line
can be \.&ken Ilt .ro" F '"' the IowU'!lt, it, ,dll poMihly a ttai n,
and the fin ........ i1l1 be nLlto.! III 20 II:pm. but it may be over-
loaded by 60 po:r <'\ml. ll!l.'lumillK no per cent pt:IlT.p cftkicncy,
uk-wale tht: " .. I put n.'fjuirc<1 by the cit.'CtOc mowr 10 be
UI!ted for I.hit d uty . ,
4. A vertical pipe 100 ft in "lelllU! ill canyin,; oil down ... anI
Ilt ~he rale 01952 &pm. The ~re Ill. tbe wp ill a\ln08pberie
and a~ the bottom is 16 p8i&. The pipe ill HR. 8Chedute.40
~teel pipe. The 'o il hall a denaity of 0.85 Jl:ram / ce and & . . .
ooeity of 8 cent,ipoieee. .
(a) 11 the oil is to be piped botUontaHy in the IWIIe slat
pipe from the foo~ of the vertical llei:t ion, bo'tI. far I'al1 it be
~nt without requirin& a pump, ";'th the oil disehal"llting at
atmOllpheric pre!l!urel
(b) If the pipe line ill to be ruo. at an angle dU1\'n to the ,arne
level. how fa.r lrom the ha.se of the original vertical pipe will
bt: the end 01 tlte pipe, with Bow a~ the 8llme I'll.... lind d .
eharr;ing at altno:JSpherie JXalSUre"
5. A tank 3 It ID and 12 It high filled with l\'fI,ter_at OS o F
ill to be emptied through a vertiCAl Iin. standllord'l.i]>(', 2 It
long, connected W the tank bott.om. How long a ti~ is
""Iuired lor the level w drop from 12 tu 2 fl.?
6. W.. ter is flowing at a rate 0180 gpm through 50 ft of an
annulf.r condc.Iit mad9 of ~in. and I~in. schedulc40 8t..el
pipe. What is the Pre!llllll'(l drop (in pound!! per Iql1llre inch)
in the 60 ft? Aaume, AI! average propertit.... a density of
62.3 Ib/ eu '\ and a viaooai~y of 0.88 rent ipoiBe.
7. A liquid with an efff!<ltive avefRge density of 0.8 gr&m /CC
and an effectiV1l aV1l~ viaooIlity of 0.8 aenti po~ is to be
pumped Ihrouch .. atraight, 8mooth, copper heat exchanger
.of annular ~ aeetion at. a li near velocity of 10 fps. 'I'hII
O\I~r diameter 01 the irlner Wall of t he &IlIlulus is exactly 1 in.;
the Inner diameter ef the outer wal l of t~ annul"" ill exactly
l }oi in. The lellf;th of the exchanger i~ 20 ft. What is the
drop in pTClll!ure (in pounds per aqullre inch) from, friction
within the annul",,?
8. Water;" relalood in .. small muuntain laktlwbol!e 8t1rlaoe
is 280 it above the inlet w tho turbines in & power houee.
SurvcYOI'II have laid out the beet line location for the piping
By&tem to bring the water down to I.he pov.'e r OOIllle, the route
beinll: 3100 It Jon&.
WhM is the minimum standard diameter of pipe ..hiclt
may be used in \he line 110 that. the natuml fin,,' wi!! I.e 1000
gpm and the pressure At the turbine nozz\"" v.iH be 100 psig.
The normal wllter terripera.ture los 4(}' I".
9. One of """"cal pwDpII at. a plant for reoowry of bromine
from _ "...... ter if; \.() haVe & capacity of 50,000 gpm. The - .
water hIlS Ii epecifie gravity of 1.03 lind a wmpcrlltul'e of
65 ' f . The water Ia pumped throuah a pipe line 420 yd 10"1
to a to"'er wlKlf!e top ill 60 ft above sea level.
(0) What HUe pipe \\"OuIU you rcwmmend!
(0) What p"l&lUf'C ~'ould the pump be required 10 devek.[I!
(e) With an overall efficiency of 70 per cent, .... bat SllOUkl
be the hornepowcr uf the elce!,ri" mo tor?
10. A st.&.tldaro 2oill. pipe ill conveying 'HI oil of """"'I'
Bp..-cilic jl;T&viti of 0 .850 at a rate of 20 1WfI.. At & ""rtai n
poin t in the line the 8t.lic p~re iI; 4;; 1"'ig. foi!li!l1ltte the
stalic pressuro at a point in the \ino wbid, i~ 200 ft of pipe
further along in the direction of flu .. and which il! 50 fL low" ..
in c!ovation. The uil hill! II vi9coI!ity of 20 .,;,n tipoiBeB at the
temperature of no"".
 PROBLEMS
11. A water main it to be laid from the pJ"ellent pumping
Bation in a email community to .. DeW BUbdivision. The
estimated future population of the IllIbdivisioD is 1500 per-
110M, eaen of wb()lll. will uee .." a~ of 40 gal of water
per day, witb the IJIaXimum nt.e of 4 gplt. The pipe ill to
be aurt. iron, bel!-.nd-spigot. jowL.
'The subdivision IieB on the erest of II. lo..... hill ..... boI!e f!U.IIlID.it.
ill 75 ft aboft the pumping mtion, a nd t he_Ie of the pipe
line ill 13,!iOO ft lon, to the aummit.
'The pump delivu. ,he lnaXimum of 100 ",m at a "bead"
of 145 ft.-Ib forw/lb 1n$I!II.
If the pre.ure at ,he aununit mud be 25 pm,; under the
muimum BoW" 1lIo1e, what aile pipe is required'
12. The ef&dency of a pipe line it defined lIB the ratio of
the quantity of Buid actually delivered to t he quantity which
147
globe valV\llll, A in line fl"'Qm the tee 1.0 tank M, and 8 in line
from the tee ttl tl.r\k N. All valves are wide open IlXcept
eithe!" II or 8, one of ..... hicb ~ tbrottleo.J to gi"YlJ the ra\.ell of
80... of 50 gpm ttl tank M tmd 00 gptn to tank N. The water
level in tank T ia 30 ft abo~ t he pump inlet, and tbe lewis
in tanks M and N ~ each 8 h above the pump inJct..
(..) What is the bOl1lepower requirement of the pUmp!
(0) Wbich valve, A or B, ill t hrottled? What ie: the .,...
sure drop due to friclion acroea the tbrottJin& .... lve in poundB
per 9q1W1l inch?
14. Carbon dioxide ill forced through a 2-in. ecbeduJ&..8J
~teel pipe liM with a PI"efl>IIUre of 600 pilia. 'The pipe line ill
.2llO ft in leni;th. The readin, on the flowmeter at tbein1et
of the pOpe line is ~,OOO Standard cu ft per bour (60- F,
1 atm).

p--
would be delivered by a BlUooth pipe line of the llame length If the fiow ill iIIothermeJ at 95' F, "'hat pll)lllUre will ba
and inside diameter, worldn& with the 8IIrne inlet and outlet read on the gage at the dlachMge end of the line?

(a) A I.Jvel eectlon of a natural gll>lline tm.rumIi~ 8,500,(0) PROPERTIES OF CARRON DIOXIDE AT 90 F
ell ft/br. The inlet preesure is 831 ptiig, and the outlet pr.:s-
suro ill 636 peig. The !lection conlli~1.8 of 97 mile!! of pipe
with an oute.ide diameter of 24 in. and a wall tbicknell5 of
0.25 iii. The barometric pll)lllUre is 14 p!!Iia, and the temper-..
....
Presilure,

14 . 7
Dcrurity,
Ib/eu ft
0. 111
Visoosity,
ccDtipo~

0.0150
0
ture of the gll.$ in the line ill 40 . ' . The meMured fiow rate is 300 2.45 0.0100
expreMed in tennII of a cubic foot, defined as the qU&lltity of 400 3.39

....
0.0165
gas which occupill8 a cubic foot nnder the p~ of 14.9
500 4 .41\ 0 .0170
paia Ilt .. tempera.tul"l! of 00 ' f. T he vi8coeity of t he g&II at
600 0.0174
.0. F and 700 pBia is 2.8 X iO- T (Ib fon::oe) (sec)/(II<!. ft) . (Note
that these uni", of viBculity are tho!te of system TI of Table 25.
700 1." 0.0171
Vi8COllity in (lb III&-'S)/(rt) (lICe) may be obu..ined by multi
plyinl, by IIe-) TIle speeific ,""vit y I1lfe.1n.'<.i to air ill 0 .69 at. 15. A natural~ wel l 7.500 It deep hN a Pl"llMUte at tbe
low pl"e&llUJ"e. The ID.I.SII of a cubic foot of t bc g&II at P psia B:ufaoe of t"'" ground of 2600 pea. TIle pi! ha.s a specib
e"ceede the _ calwlated from the ideal gas law by gravity tefemld to air of 0.744, tbe a"ftra&"ll temperaturf: in
0.OOOI8P. What is the efficiency of I hiB pi pe-line section' U>e "'"ell is 1~- F. and the oompre.ibility factor for the pi!
(b) Two li-. a 2O-i.rI. (actual inl!ide d iameter, 19.5 iD.) at the mean oontiit.ioOll is 0.82. Compu~ the PftI!SI,lre at the
and a 2'2-in. (aetual iMide diameter, 21.~ in.) are in parallel bottom of the weU, ~ the staled aver. value for the
fM .. difttance of 41 miles. The t ..o tov.t ber tl"lUl!Ill.il 7 mH compnlllll.ibility (equation 83) a.od usm& 1.0 aven.p ...alue for
lion eu It/ hr, ea.leulated to a bMc preilIJUn! of 16.4 poM. and !.he speci6e volume.
.. base t.empellloture of tiO F. 11Ie inlet JlI"'!!l8Uft! ill 550 pei&
and the ba.romct.er ill 14 ptlia. TM! specific gravity of the gas 16. 'I'hfI main S}'IIU!m, tank 1, ocmtainB ...a~r ct 50- F IIlId
at low f!~"r1l ill 0.6S, and 11.8 viscOllity is 2.5 X 10-7 11HIee/ remainB &t coMtant \evel. The water dlsch&rJI:C8 through line
II<!. ft .. t 500 pilia and 40 F, 40" F l>cmg the flo..ing temper..... A to tee B. Tank 2 oontair.. 40 per cent 8ucroee IIOlution
lure of the gN. The w~i&bt of a cubic fool of the gas a t P p8ia
ex0eed8 th.6 weight calculated from the ideal PI la.,. by
O.()(1022P. The 2().in. line hN an efficiency of 92 per 00llt, a.nd
the efficiency oC the 22-in. line is S8 per O(lnt. The lines are
level. What ill the outlet Pre88ure'
r
50'
- T nk

Jt:- pipe,
equivaltnt
Itnjlth _ 50'
13. WII.~r at 60 F ill pumped from t.an.k T to t.a.nks M
and N. The Line from tank T to the pump inlet ill 3-in.
IIChOOuJe.40 pipe, with nn equivalent Je~h Of 200 ft. The
line from the pump di.scha.rge W the tee ",here the line brancOOl!!l
Equivaltnt lenil/l
from link 1 to
B
2 pipe, equiYaitlnt
Itl"l&lh from tee to
1so'
ill aIIIO 3-in. IIChedU\e-40 pipe, witb aD equivalent length of
100 ft. 'The line from the tee to tank M ;" 1 h-io. schOOule-4O
pipe, ",ith an equivalent !eDith of 600 ft.. The line from the
tee B - 500' discharae - 200'
DatumplaM _ _ _ _
L
tee to ta.nk N is 2-m. ilCOOdule-40 pipe, ... it h lUI equivalent
\en&th nl600 ft..
"""''''
at rue F and di8c1w'"l'llOl to t.ee 8. At B the _ter and INCI"OIIe
The equivalent 1e1'gt.h8 &II giVlln rio not include four gale nWc and t hen paII:I till a d iluted eolution ou~ ur line at C. If
n.lvea, aile hetweoo tank T anti t.he JNIlIp, ol)e bet ..-ren t he t he vcloc.~ty of t he eolution in the pipe at Cil lO fps. wbat ill
pump and tbe tee, and one eacb at tanka M and N; and t ...,> the co~nt"lion of the diluted IIOllition? What. ill beipt Z1
'41 TRANSPORTATION OF ~F..NERGY RELATIONS
Vl8C08ITY AlIID DENSITY OF 8l!CR06E SOLUTIONS 18. An iMUlt.w f\lnllUle GOI....une. 10 '-/br 0l1W.ural
AT M OP pa which for thit purpoee may be _...:I kI be methane.
The pi' II burned oomplctely 'lritb 20 per oent _ air.
""'-
%
10
Vi&cIOIJity,
cenl ipoa
"8
.....
Den,hy,

.. 04
/~
20
40
2.68
9.8
1.'"
1.178
17. A erude-oi1 pipe line is carrying 0000 bbl (42 gal eaeh)
GI ___ oil daily thn:lqh 71 mileII 01 anp. pipe, 12 in. lD.
ThiI capacity is no..- insufficil!Jlt to mee t Ilia con&umers'
nIQIlitement.&. AcoordinIY. a ...,..tiel braneh of the same
_ . a\elldina f{N" one-tbird of \be total diatan08, is to be
added. How mueh has the capncity of the pipe line been
ine~ by the addition of the parallel br.neh if !.be line
II ~I tbroucbout.. the oil baa I. 1peCi.6e ~"rity of 0.111 aod
a ville<mty &t flowing temperatllJ"e of 500 ocntipoilJca. and the
..me pMMUI"e ill maintained at the iDIe~ to tho pipe line?
The pr'fII!ISW'eof the Ilue peeIJ leavilll: \.he (utnaQe and etltel'inc
the chimney ill 1.0 in. of water below atmoepherie ~
T~ chimney Ie .~i6ed to be of welded .weI plate. 11 ft :D.
If the &ver. temperature in the chimney ill 500 F, \.he
atmoepheric t.t~1'l!I.ture .ia 70 F, and the prouure is lU,
IJIiI, bow t&11 a chimney ia raquiredt
19. Water Is pumped t hrough .. lin. ecbedu.\e-40 irQn pipe
and a strainer 10 a 'Ptay nonle to be UIIed u pa.tt oil. humidI-
fier. When spraying into the atmoapbere ..nth 00 pelS preII8Ure
at the pump, the flow rate ..... found to be 200 IJ)fn. What
flow rate ill e.~ted ""hen the noule tliech:t.rp into .. humidi-
fier opera\O..~ at 30 pili" if the prel!!lUre &.I. pump it maiutallled
at 96 psia; and the flo", rate of t he nou.le is related to the ~
IIUJ'e drop &CI"OIIB the ooule Ai!! follo .....1
, 10 15 2'0 30 .,
eo 100 1~ 140 176 200

 CHAPTER

13

Measurement of Flow of Fluids

FLOWM ETE~ is a device for metl.'lu~ment

A
volume. The metering consists of mechanically
of the quantity of fluid flowing per unit time,
counting the number .of aegmenlil pel" lUlit of time.
as in ~ubic feet per minute or pounds per The t hree common types of displacement meten; for
second, or of the veiOl'ity ('If flow, U8 in feet per liquid Bows are osciJIatingpiston, nutating...lisk, and
""""d. multiple-piston meters. For gas flow8 the two com-
Whatever the con~tructiOll., a flowmeter is often mon types are the "wet" or bucket-type meters and
calibrated by diverting the entire stream of fluid the "dry" or diaphragm meters.
from ita usual channel into a receiver arranged to Most of the pumpa described in Chapter J.1 can be
pennit accurate measurement of flow by weight or operated in reverse as {lowmeters, especially ,the
volume during II. mC88ured interval of time. A' rotary pumps which need no valves. The main
liquid may flow into a "weigh tank" mounted on shaft is col/nected to a. register, and the mo.vilij!; parts
8C81es or into a tank calibrated kI indicate volume are ma.de of hard rubber or other lightweight mate-
a.s a function of liquid depth. A g8l:I may flow moo a rial when these designs serve as met.eN.
" gas holder," an inverted tank float ing in water Of
oil imide a larger tank. In a !!eIi8e, aU flowmeters Oscillating.Piston Mel.el'
are alwa)'ll calibrated in this way, for even a standard Figure 129 wows tbe measuring ehamber of an
calibration meter must be checked by this method. oscillating-piston flowmeter, with the piston at four
equidistant positions during one revolution. All
fluid enters through the inlet port and pa.sses around
DlSPLACE.!'IENT FLOWl\IETERS
the annular space between the outer and inner rings
A di!>placement meter measures the entire etl'cam of to the outlet port. Part of the fluid traveL! this
fluid by dividing the streo.m into segments of known distance in the space between the piston and the

FIG. 129. "nw! opera.tion of the Ol'Icina\inl!!:-pi~ton meter . .4, inlet pori ; B. an!II,llllr meuuring tbAmller reoeivilll!;: fluid ;
C, hollow pifrt.on; D, d~ph.rapu; 8 , OUllet port; F, a nnuw IItc:1l1uring elwnber tllisc:bllrpnc flwd; P, spiDtlle; fl , roHer.
n... o..t .... ri,'4t Us Ihe WIlli of the easing. The inner ri~ OOnOOftlrie w h t he OUll>!' ri ng. ill oovered by the piaten and appsn.
only &oil 1ilIor1. while art joiN"" tbc iDllCr c:nd .. the diaplmocm in vi""", 2 And 4. (Nq/l ..rw Mder Co..)

'"
ISO .\IEASURK,\IENT OF FW W OF FLUIDS
of .1I. spinning top 80S the top reaches the end of ib
action.
Sud! meten'! fl.rc widely ul!Cd in water supply lina:"
of mooernte llllM'city.

M"Itiple-Pi:JLon Mdcr
Figure t31 sho\\"", a mliltipll~piston meter wi ll,
five pistons and eylindf'rs mounted in a circle and
COllnected 10 a nut:'lU';g plate or "wobble-plate."
The !luiJ ente,-,; aut! le~l.\'t!iI the top of euch cylinder
through u rtJt<~1')' valve. T he nuil! ente r>:! the cyliJ.-
den; from thO! rhamber ali imlicllteU by the solid
arrows and leavel! the cyliuJ cl"l! thruugh the rotary
\'!lln', flowing into II. centml veltic"l pu.:;..-;age M indi-
cated by tile .Jotted arrow,., The rotmy. valve
COlltroh the fluw ~o thttt the "i,.tun,. afC acting in
:;lIccc~ion around tim circlo. One pi:-;ton, at full
withdrawal from tho valve, ie changing from ililet
ro {Jutlet while its neighbo!' Oil olle side is still
being pushed down by enl.l!ring fluid IUld the ncigh-
001' on tho oj.hpr side is being pushed up by the
F la. 100. Cut"''''lLy dmwing olnut.nting-dil!k meter. (Neptllrle lIuUl.ting pl:J.~ un the bQttAllI'I and is discharging
M thr Co. ) Huid. The c()nnC(!ting rods are (If !!Ueh a length
thnt the plate on the botkom wobbles around i~
outer ring, and pnrt movCII through the Rp3.CC be- centrnl heariug in un action similar to that of the
tweeD the wall of the hollow pi.'ltoll and the inner nutating...Jisk m eter. The rolury valve at the top
ring. The pi~ton is guidf'd by t he sl)indle which is driven from the plate nnd is synchrollired with it.
follows the circular rmth I.Iet\l"~ll the imler ring and
the centrol roller. All extcru;ioll of the spindle
through t he cove r or the measuring chamber actu-
ates the first of n series or gC!fLIlI Irhiclt record OIl a
dial the total I'o!umc of fluid pa~1 by the meter
since it was set at :001'0.

N Uluti,l g -l)j,.k Meter

The mcu.::mring d lumht!r of a Iliitating-disk m~'ter
i ~ roughly cylindl'ical, with II dillphragm extending
radially from one side of the cllumber wall to the
~pheri ca.l ocnring in the ccnt.cr, al:! in the chambel' of
the ()S()illllt i ng~pi>.\t.on meter. As IlCCn in Fig. 130, a
disk, slotted for the diaphrAgm, extend!! from the
center of the spherical bearing at right anglos to a
!;hart spindle extending up to the gear tra.in. Thc
top and bottom of the mea."lIring chllmber are (:oni-
cal, }Xlinting in t{)ward the center ami forming a line
oonl!t.ct with the dh.k, AJ;, the ftuid entcl"l! t.he spa<.'C
Letween the d isk a nd the chamber wall, it fol'C<'8 the
d isk a hf'a.d "f it in a llul3t ing, or wobbling, motioo. Flf". 13 1. Cu Laway view or wobhl""'l)llte jlislOO mek r.
The m o t ju ll IiC t l lt~ tlisk ~l'Id spindle is similar to that (80u.u, Inc. )
 DISPLACEMENT FWW~(ETERS I5l
The !,pindle on the rotary valve drivt1; Ih{. fir.. L IInil
in the gear train of the indicating ~echanillm.

Wet-lest Met.er
The bucket-type wet-tesl meltr (Fig. 132) jo IlSfllI
principally for test.ing :lond iaborat,(wy, measurement..
The main body of tlle metcr contains a cylindrical
rotor made as four buckets, each 'occupying one
(uadrant of the cylinder. Each bucket. receives
through a slot ::: t he axi;; of the rotor and dischaq!:eo!
through ~ narrow stot. paralic! to the lLXis on Ihe ou ter
t'dge of the rot.lr. 111e rotor is immersed in. wilier
to r.level just above the axil!. The gas beillg metered
is introduced int() the hollow axis and bubbles into
the bucket at the right through the inlet slot. The
trapped gas lifts the bucket lintil the diOlChargc ",lot
e.nerges from the water, At that inshw t. the parti-
tion between buckets passes the opening in ~hc
bollow a.'(is and shift:; the inlet flow U! the IIClx l
bllcket on the rotor. T h\! gas washed out (If tbe
rotor leavell the (!U!oC tl."'Ough the opeLing at the top.
The shaft of the rotor dri ves a gell.r truin indiCllfinJ;

io'lG. I33. 1::""(>Ii)(led vi.'wuf .lilIj)hta,o{m K'",,,,e lur. (PiU.burgh

Equilllbk MtI ... I nrMirm (!j Uod..,,.,U .11/V. Co.)

the volume of gas passing thrOligh the metcr at the

\1le3.!Iured temperature and 1)~I rc.

Diaphragm Meter
The working mechanism of u "dry" or diaphragm
gas meler is shown in Fig. 133. The two circulur
diaphragms and diaphrsgtn pans (Fig. 134) are sus-
pended from thc valve plate and ha.ng down into
the pro..sure.tq;ht CMll. The gas enters first the
space t\.bove the valve plate !lnd is admitted through
one side of one of the D-~ide valvel! to either the
space between a diaph ragm and its pun or between
a .diaphragm und the C3.l:I(!. The diaphragm8 move
in and out in a "breathing" hetion, being p.I.~hed by
gas entering on one ~ide and pushing g;~ Olil on the
other s!ue. The dio;chnz'ged AIlS leave~ t.hrough the
valve and I.he di5(~hargc port cast into the yalve
152
plalC', The motiun tlr tilt' tliaphragm, th rough t he
flag ::ums, operates {he \,tl.ive gear and drives the
index ~Iulft which Rct Il UH'S t il{' rq!;il'! lflr,

CURRE.'~T FLUW:\IE'nms
A currl~nt. mctl'r mCll.~ur('S tho v('l!lc:it.y of flow,
not the quantity of flow , and I>! no t pObitive in its
action, If 0. displacement met~r :;hould (,'Cas<'
operating the tot.&l flow wo uld be "hSltucteJ, but if
a. current meter s\l()uld cease opera.ting HIe flow would
lit! hindered only sligh tly. If inscrtPd ;n u c1{1t1t'(1
,'onduit the dials of a current mete r may be cilli-
bratcd in u:rm~ of quurllitiC5.
\ The three oornmo.n t.yIX'8 of current meters I1te
propeller, cup, and hot-wire mete~, The 1881 lyJX'
is suitable only for mew;uremt'nt of ,ll;1~ flow, but. the
first two type! ure u~1 wit h uny fluid.

}'w, l~, T'''MV''r.' vi""" of ,ji"pil1':'lICtn IC"S u",Io'., ( l'ill~

b".g>\ !'qlljlabk Melt'. !Ji<ili..... ~f Rod_II Mfg. Co.i
 l:URRf;NT .'LOWI\1ETKS
Propelbtr Met.er
Some form of propeller, or !;Crew, placed in a
st,ream of fluid will rotate as t he passing fluid acts
on t.he hLw.cs. As the density of t.he fluid decrc9J!Cl:l,
the miL<!S, or inertia, of the propeller ano t he friction
mlU:lt der.fC8&', Mince the available ffl\crgy for opera-
tion of the meier is rcduC('d. The propeller is geared
to the recominll; ur indieating device included in the
meter.
A modified propeller meter, ~mel imes ('ailed a
"vclooity" or "inferential" meter, if! &'Cn in Fi~ . 135.
The entf'ring fhlld passes i1w"ngh onp of lW<J st rainer.:!
and coml'S into contact wilh one of two propclleffi
The propellel1! ure of opP()io!itc "hand," one th rell.(led
to the lefl. and theot.her to the ri~h1 , and are atta(:hed
to the same s pindle. The s pindle extends t hrongh
the upper eage into the enclosed gear bO\);\in,,; and
drives the indicating device.
FIG. 135. CUta..... ay view of propeller meter. (NtpCUM
MdQCo.
Compound Meters. A eurrent meter is most
accurate at high fJllantit iM of fl ow, ",nd a. displace-
men t mc t.cr i)o; ol)ernhlc only at low rales of flow.
Therefore, metering of flows t hat vary greatly cannot
00 done aceura.tely with only one of these type. A
compound meter eonsi$ts o( OJIe of each type of meter
constructed to permit. operation of ~n.ch II.t il::l OIJt i-
m,um ,range. Figure 136 shows a compound meter
153
made up of a. propeller meter IUld 8. nutating-disk
meter. F\OIl' is into the casing of the propeUer
metcr, but at low rales thc fiuid bypasses into the
nntating-disk meter. :tf the rate inereasrs until t he
pressure difference across the d isk meter ill high, the
wcighted val\!(' lS liHed, e100ng off t he dill k meter
and direcl.ing t.he flow- through the propeller meter.
Cup M.cur
The whirling CliPI' of the weatherman's anemom-
eter (Fig. 137) a rc the commoneilt. ex:unple of the eltp
flowmeter. The fluid striking t.he concave siele of the
cup exerts a. greater forte than t.he flui(l striking the
convex side of the opposite cup, resulting in easy
rotation of the cup assembly. T he central shaft
drives the gear train which teUs the velocit y of flow.
If the device is made smaller and more rugged and
is enclosed in a. housing so that the ftuKl strikes the
cups in a jet, the instrument !!Crve8 as a liquid meter.
/lQL. Wire Anenlomeler
A hot-wire anemometer reliC!> upon the r"'te at.
which the fl owing strcam absorbs energy supplied
hy the primu.ry elem~nt of the n eter. A rt'S;stanoo
wire pl!u~( in n flowing IItreuffi illid supplied wit b
electrical energy at a constant volt age gives tip heat
 MEASUREMENT OF FWW OF FLUIDS
t..> the stream. As the rate of flow of fluid inCre88ll8,
beat is absorbed mOl'll rapidly by the stre1UD., and,
if the temperature of the wire is 1.0 be held COll8tant,
tho elect.rical cnrrent must il:icrelt.'*l. An ammeter
placed in the elect.rical cirmit wilt vary in reading
M the ra,l e of flow e~llIillgea, Ilnd its dial may be
n'!exlifierl to n:oad dired.ly the '\fclocit,y of flow.
Anothcr VI'n.; iOll uf t.he hotwirc anemometer
operates wil h a c;onstant voltage and amperage on
the wire. AIS t hI' rale of fio\\- varies, the temperature
of the wire vMies, and the rate of fl ow may be
measured by the va riation in electrical remstance of
the wi re.
J\lANOi\TETUt
If a duct is filled wit.h fluid alld no flow OC'curs
through the duct., t.he flow equation SOl: reduces to
equation 80. If t.hc fluid is incomprClOSible
t1P g
., -+-.iZ = O
p g,
g
IlP - P: - PI ~ -p!-,iZ - p- (ZI - Z:) (85)
g, g,
When the local Recderalion of gravit.y g is numeri-
cally equal to the conversion constant ge, as is the
ease at RCa level, p' may be us ed as a specific: weight
numerically equal to the density. The dimensiolli!
of p' are pounds force per cubic foot.
If the duct is vertical and open at the top to the
atmospiwlre, PI et"luals atm()$pherie p~ure and t1P
equals t-he gage pressure corresponding to p~. iden
lificd by t he symbol P2'.
IV = P'(ZI - Z,) (86)
I '~ tlat,ion 86 indi~ates that the p~lIre ahuve I at.m
at the bou.um of the dtlCt may be measured in terms
of the beight of liquid above that point.
Consider t he vertical duct wit.h the top open to
the atmosphere and with the lower end open to a
d uel. eftrryinf!; fluid in flow . The prefli:lure in the
fl(lwing fluid al. 1he junc tion will IMIBlai n a column
/If water extending above the levclof t he junction,
the force exerted by the column of Auid of height. t1Z
on a unit l\I'ea at t-he bottom heing equal to the
pressure P:' above I atm. This height is a difference
in vertical elevation and is-independent of the length
or angle or inclination of th() duct., if the duct remains
fill~1 with fluid.
The nonfto wing fluid need not be identical \\-ith
the flo\\ing flu id . A nonflowing fluid of high de nsi ty
may reduce.the.height of the column to a. convenient-
length if the pre88Ure is high. All.erna'!,ively, a
fluid of lower density may be used to increaSe the
height of the column and increase the accuracy uf
meaSIIMment. Inst rumcnU! made ;'0 mmu:;lIre pres.
sure diffel'ences in t his way are cal\(,.j manometers.
)'1 anometc~ alw!l.Ys measure differenoos in pres--
sure hy halancing ~tat i c "legs" or columns of fluid ,
_z,
c_ ZI_
-
'3 . . .
FIG. 138. Dillgt&m illusln.t.iIll!: the general Ilppli eatioo of a
manolDl!t.cr.
but a la rge number of widely varying design!! e mbody
t his principle. Figure 138 showtl the generw (~ase ~
of a manometer containing a liquid, C, denser than
and immiscible with two other fluids, A and fl, being
used t() measure t.he difference in pressure between
point I in fluid A and point II in fluid B. PoinU!
I and il are a~ different elevatiQRB. The application
of Cf"\IUl.t,ion R5 to this system by successive addition
of inc:rements of the colupms of fluids gives :
AP - P u - PI
- -P'B(Z. - Z2) - P'B(Z2 - 2 1)
- P'c(ZI - Z , ) .- P',4(Z2 - .23)
I1P = -P'B (Z. - Z2} + (p'e - p'8ht.>2 - 2 1)
- P'A(Z~ - Z~) (87)
where is t h'" :>.pecifi l" \\1.'ight of f1'lid A .
p' .-I
P'IIill t-he specific weight of fluid R.
p'c is the specific weight of metering fluid C.
PI is the pressure at the point of connection
of ont' mano meter leg to the body of fluid A .
Ptl is the pressure at the point of connectiun
of the other manomfoter leg tu the body of
flllid R.
 Pll'OT TUllE
1 t,he HuidlS A ami 8 Bre identical and legs I
l)lId II are connected at the stUIle elevlLtion, equation
87 reduce!! to
!J.l' = PIT - 111 - (P'e - P'B)(7. 2 - Zl)
An "inverled" manometer, using a. mete rin g fluid
(,f lilwer density than the fluid whose p~urc is being
measured, may be t reated in a similar mtmner.
If the differenlial reading or t he manome ter iK 1.00
Elmall for satisfactory meRllllrcmcnt the inst.rument
may he tilted from the \'ertieal, in whillh IlMe t\ ~mall
\'ertieal different.ial will p;ive a much larger differen-
tial whE'.D measured alonp; the sloping legl:!.
H one leg of the munometer i:l made large iu e.ross
ecetion in comparuoon wit-h the other. Ihe level of
the meiering flu id in t he large leg will remain suiJ.-
st.ant.ially constant. and the prct;l3ure difference can
be read as the lev el in the small leg alone referred to
the constant level in the large leg. This arrlUlp;cffient
may be used in either a vertical or an inclined
manometer.
Another method of increasing the reading of the
manometer for a s mall pm>SUre difference is indicated
in Fig. 139 in which two manometer Ouids, Band C,
are used. If the rlen.:ily of the fluid C is only slight-ly
p"~B
c If the two tnbes I\I"Il COlnnccif'd to oppo,;itc
Flo. 139. Dillgnlill inUIIlr:tlling" two-fluid mlll\llffiP.U>.r.
greater than t ha.t of fluid B, a small differf'.ncc
between the p~ures PI and PII, which causes a
IJffiIl.Il difference between the level of the A- B inter-
face in the two legs, will cause a relatively large
difference in the level of the B--C interface in the
two legs of the manomeUlr.
Stili another method of increasing the sensitivity
of t-h~ mannm~ter of Fig. 139 is to make the connect-
ing loop II! t.tlhing long and flat wrtlSS tho bottom at
the posit~on Zo and 10 reduce the qllantity of fluid
C -to a bubble which moves along the hqrizoiltat
section. The small dii'f('rence in level of the A -B
interfll.f~ in the enlu.rgod I!CCtions, corresponding t.o
the prest!1I1"e ,lilTeronfe Ill' - I'll - PI, il:l mll.gnified
ISS
by II rela tively Jarp;e horizontal ditlplRct.lment of the
bubble. The magniulde of the horizontal displace-
ment depends on the relative cl"OSS-SeCtional areas
of t he enlarged lleCtion and the connecting tube.
(88)
f'ITOl' TURF.
If a t uhe lli placed within a fluwing I:Ilrcam ltIJ that
il l:1 8:>.:itl is al right angles to the direction 'If flow past
the opcn end of the tube, t.he pressure in the stagnant
fluid jlls!' within the mou t h of the tube will be the
AAme as the pressure in the fluid fiowing past the
tube. If another tube is placed wit.h its a.xiJ parallel
to the direction of flow the flowing fluid will tend
to enter this second tube with 8 velocity VI_ I: the
dischtl.rge eod of this tube is cl(J8(l({, as by one side
of t he mll.nomcter, the vel.neity of the fluid in this
tune 1:2 becomes zero, hut thc velocity of the fluid
in the main stream continues at Vl: Under these
conditions application of equation 5Ue show8 that
oJ'
f VdP - - - 2g,
8inoo the velocity jll.~t. inllitlc the tube, U" is lert),
,.'
. f V (/1> "" .:..:.....
2g,
(8n)
whf't(", t.hc l<ni>oleript 1 r!'fer~ 10 1\-
the tu be. H the pl"~lIr(' c11111) is smull, V2 may IJe
pOlint jll .~t. u!lt,.:ide
t.aJcen Ill> cquBI to V I> a nd
P
P : - / ' 1- - " ' (90)
2[fe
~id('S
of a manometer, a prNISHIl) ditfel"f'Jl('C will hi' jn(.Ii-
cated upon it as a difference in level tl till' intl'i'faw;
in the lwO legs. This p ressUIl) difference ~ Ih ,; from
transformation of lhe kinet ic energy of the nuid and
by equation 90 can be elCpre8SE'd iI. units of Vf>!odt:r.
An inst.rument has been devi!:!ed Ivhich incorpo-
rates both t.hese tubes into a single unit, known as a
pitot tube, Fig. 140. The t.wo tubes are arranged
concentrir,ally and t.he annular 8pa~ sealed at thc
end . . The arrangement of t.wo tulJe!> is poin ted
upfltrtam, !I() that the flow ing !;Ircam impingf\8 di-
rectly llpon t.he inner. tube bllt (:annot How int~1 the
outer tube. Small holes are d rilled in the walls of the
outer tube a short distance back from the ti~ , admit-
ting the fluid into that tuhe bllt not permitting
impingement (If the flowing stream. Thus thl'! inner
tlllx> lransmits to the manometer ho1h the pressure
156 MEASUREMENT OF FWW OF FLUIDS
and tbe presSure equivalent to .t he kinetic energy of
the Howing fluid, whereas the outer tube transmits
only the pf'e'JSure. The manometer thus indicates
oo1y the velocity of flOIV, which pennits calculation
of the QU!U1t.ity flowing per unit area. at the point of
t~e primary element of a flowmeter. For example,
Fig. 141 shows a COnstriction with a smooth tapering
inlet and a smooth tapering outlet, known lUI a
venturi tube. If this tube is mounted horiwntally

r:: :.::. .:2. . .-~_

metlSUremenL.
The pitot tube measures only the loca1 velocity
at point. 1 in the stream ; therefore it. can be UBed to
explore t.he local velocity gradient in a duct C8J'rying
...... "..,.,."J
....
a fluid . . The " t-raverse" obtained by messurement FIG. 141. Sectional diq:ram of vent llri tube.
of the loe&1 velocity at several points aeroB.'! the
in a pipe line, there is no difference in elevation,
no work is done, and the operation is adiabatic.
Equation 54 thcn reduces to equation 91 when

...
-2
Din!ction applied between points 1 and 2 as in Fig. 141.
" (m,,)
OU + O(PV) ; _0 (91)

Also
2"
v - -IV __
G
(92)
pA p

where W - mass rate of flow per second.

-
To 0I'Ie side
of m.l>OI1ltltr
A - cross-sectional area of flow.
G - mMS velocity, or mass per geOOnd per
unit area.
Jo:qllation 91 may he written for 1 ib mM6 :

flU + fl(PV) _ W' ( _ ' _ _ _ ' _ ) (93)

Flo. 140. SeeOO",,1 tli.gram or pilot tul.e. 2gc p,'A,'
1':'14.,'
diameter of the duct furnishctI data for calculation where U and V are the specific internal energy and
of the average velocity of flow based on the entire spef'j fic volume, respectively.
er~etion&l area of the duct.. If the Reynolds Solving equr..tion 93 lor W,
number (computed ....ith the average vdocity) is
above 50,000, the ratio of the average velocity to the
local velocity at the center of a circular duct is 0.81,
w-
and a single reading from the J)itot tube inserted at
the center may be used to calculate the average

Jp,2!,2 - P22~2'
velocity. 2<,(-0)
In applying equation 00 to actual pitot tubes, a - (94)
coefficient C i!; frequently neeessary

" -J
,
C
2Q~(P2 - PI)
p
(!lOa)
where 11 is the enthalpy per pound mMII.
If the flowing fluid is incompressible or the p1'eS-
sure difference is 80 small that .I.he density is almost.
The value of C for a given instrumcnt jg detcnnined constant, then
by calibration.
2g<p'lA,'(t.R)
IT'- (96)
VENTURI l\IETER (..4,2/ A I 2) _ 1
If too ftuid to be measured is nt/wing inside a closed This relation is qui te useful when the- entbalpy of
conduit, a COIlstrictioo in the chan nel will serve as the Howing fluid can be evaluated at points I and 2.

\

When the entbalpies cannot be evaluated, equa-
tion 60 may be applied without assuming adiabatic
OOOruLiOM. If I1Z - 0 and '0 ... 0,
6P 6(11)' _
- + - -- -ltD
p 20<
Substituting equation 92 in equation 9{1 and solving
for W,
The irrevcrsibilities (including fri ction I ~) lw
can be expreillK.'d as a fraction of the pre;!dure differ-
ence I1P or
This equat io n enabl~ Ihe calculation of th e (!IUU1-
tit.y of fluid Howing in pounds per second, if the
density of the Huid and the crol:!!Hleetion al area of
the tube arE! known a t points 1 and 2 and the pf'e!:l-
sure difference between points 1 and. 2 is measured.
Sil).ce venturi tubes are difficult and expensive to
manufacture, they are made by specialists. Usually
the tapering entrance has an interior total angle of
25 degrees and the tapering exit has a.n interior
sngle of 7 degrees. For such an inst rument the value
of the coefficient. C is 0.98 if the Reynolds number is
greater than lO,lXXl.
FWW NOZZLE
Because of the aize and exr.en&c of a ve nturi tube,
a smaller device called a flow nozzle (Fig. 142) is
often used as t he primary element uf
a fluwmeter. The diverging exit of
the venturi is omitted frum this de-
viee, 8ll.d the converging e ntrance is
altercdto a more rounc.led form.
;\1any different shapes of the con-
ve rging entll:Ulce of noulC!l!l are lUIlXi
FlO. 142. CI"OI!;$o in order to reduce the friel-ion I ~
aeet ionaldia but. experiment has shown that the
liram 01 a 6011' shape of one quadrant. of an ellipse
flOU1e ,
(as seen in longitudinal sectiun) is
mos t f\Q.tisfactory. F.quat.ion 99 applies to the Aow
ORJF1C": 15.
nozide, but the vo.l.ue of the coeffi cient C will vllry
from 0.70 to 0,98, de pending on the shape of the
nozzle, its le ngt h, ~d its relative d iameter,
(96) ORU' [CE
As eomp:ued to the venturi tube or the flo\\" nozide,
the orifice (Figs. \-13 and l..j..j) i8 a Iliml.llf' mecha-
Ilr-
! '
I
.
q :1 =11
(98)
1 o 2 3
FIG. 143. C"_",,,,!iunlll diaJ(mm of a MhaTJH":d~ orlflee
(99) indicating approxiTlllite flow liJle!l and p~~.
nillm, A ~imple flat plate with a central opening
made \\ith ordinary louis will suffice. if an accurately
machines! orifice plate is not. available.
The contraction of a s tream Howing through an.
orifice is quite pro nounced. The point of minimum
cross section is one or two diameters dow1ll!tream
from the orifice plate. This point is known as the
"vena eontracta" and is indicated in Fig. 1-13 by Ihe
point 2, This point corresponds to the point 2 in
the venturi tu be and the flow nozzle and is the point
at which the pressure is U8l..IRUy mea;jured just down-
stream from the metering element, t hus obtaining the
maximum difference in prl'8!lure, as shown in Fig. li3.
The cross-scet.ional area at pOint 2 ~ importan t
in flow equatioll8 such a;j equations 9S IIo nd 99, bUI
the CfOS!rseetional 8n!a of the vena
contracts is quite difficult to de ter-
mine wilh accuracy. This area may '
be expressed, huwever, as a fraction
of the area of the orifice opening. l' .,
which is CSHily detennined. If A 2 in
equa.tion 99 is replaced by . C".-I o
where A . is the cross-sectiunal lU"('1t
of the orifi ce opening, and the (' 0- F' G. t. (;,......
...., ioll.. tJ i&tI;rulll
efficienb are combined tu a new or" rollud-4!d,..d
coefficient C., then orim..,.
' ( 100)
 ,.e...,i_. l'ihow t hat Hilil ('(Illation 102 ml\~' he writt.:n
At II-={A.ilA:~1)
('. - c A~ Vi" (4I A I'J
(\04)
An alternative r~plution. in icrrus of the pipe ar"lL jl;
TIIe!;e l"Quations penuit calcu lutioD of the qU3n
lity or velocity of fluid Rowing though an orifice
pittt! ill II 9ipe, pro\'idrd Ih.e dimem;iOll8 of the
By I:urubining l.c lulltionl! 101 and 92, II rdation for s~tem arc known, th e pressure diffcrcnl~ between

the vducity may hI' tlt IOt,loped.
For circula r pipe:.. the cl"OSS-St'(:lional iI~S arc
prolJllrtional to I he !lilllnre8 of the dl",metcn;. There-
fore , P.<.jull.tiun ]00 mny be written
puillts I and 2 is mf!~ured , a.nd Ihe cucfficienl of the
orilil~ is known.
The friction losses are relatoo tu the neyuuld~
fi\lmber. lliereforo the values of thE; coefficlcnt C.
may be cxpres..'l('(. as a function of the Reynolds
number And of the diameter ratio of t he ('rifiee &-fId
pipe, as ~hown by the light lines in Fig. US. For
vnhlC8 of the Rcyn'olds number thruugh the orifice
greater tilll,n 30,000, the cooffir,icnt is approximl:l.tely
0.61 for all ratlOll of the diameters of t.he orifice and
the pipe, provided the t.FIpl'l, or manometer con net'

Illl
r
11
P\ . ':"~
r

V
i7
/ 1\
~
,

1/ II
vtw~ ,
~ l"--L\
::::;-
~
1-'" r

/
V

10 ,. 40 60 00 10' It 10' 10
Reynold$ "umber th'OUBh o.-lIIel D,;: '"
FlU. 14::;. V"rI"tio'IOf discharge coef"1Ci~lIt with Rey.wid.r u\lf\lIK,r fu. ~h"rl'""l... I,or;c<J unlic.",, ' '''H I rul:lIL~I.erS,'
11", bil.>iiocmllloy for thi!! chapter appeal"ll 00 1'. Ina.
 ORIFleE 159
tioos, 1l.1:e ont'-half pipe diameter dO\\1lstream and Ttl(' If',~r may <:ontrol an electrical or ('fJmpl~~I~
up!ltream from the orifice, and the orifice opening hag air ~.\'I:'t("m whiclt will control thl" flo\\" alitomElti~
sharp edges. The Reynolds number through the cally.
orifice is usually grea.ter than 30,000. Therefore Orifice met.ers tll'e widely used for mf'-1ISnrin,l1; ga....
0.61 is a. rea.'IOnliliiy oonsll:l.nt. val ue for I.he coefficient flow wht-'re it is customary to express the ((,!lult in
of a shaT'p-e(lgf!d. orifice.
If the orifice is not sh.:l.tp-edged but. rounded at
the uptStrcam fll(,,e (Fij.!;. 114), the coefficient of di8-
charge C. ha.~ a value vllrying from 0.70 to 0.88,
depending on the degree of ('\lrvaturc and the size
of the opening. This increa.<;ed eocfficienl. results
from tI .;, approoch of tbe null. cnntracta to the
orifiOf' opening in size.
For any particular orifice in II. particulnr "meler
run" (length of pipe containing the orifice), cquu.tiull
1m may be wri tten
lV = KA . V;( - fl.P ) ( 105)

where K is a function of pipe and orifice diamcter;;,

of the mechanical selling of the m("ler run , of I-he
pressure connections, and or the Reynolds number
of the fluid . .
Thc vulue of VI (D. 4//)1 4) is vcry ckJSe to
unity, being O.\)fl825 if the diameter ratio f)~/ J)l
(orifice diamelt-r to pipe diamcler) is I\.'i lu.rge as 0.5.
Since the diameter ratio is usually ll"AA than 0.5, t his
far-tor is frequently omitted in orifice equations such
a.s eqnations 100 and 103, but not equations 101,
102, or 104.
The location uf lhe orifice ill the piping system
affects the cocRi~if'nt. of dischafJl;e sharply if turbu-
lence is cst~bl.ished in a way to modify the general
How lines through the orificc. The oritice should be
at leMt 50 pipe diameters downstream and 10 pipe
diamctcT'd upstream from any fitting or valve. If
tbis is impossible a bundle of tui.;es or a strlUghtcning
vane may be inserted ahead of the orifice, the ratio
of length to clj"met~r of the channels in t he bundle-- FlU. 146. Ph:ml,QItl ilIu.lrnlion of iIl11i "tI:ation of orifice ill
being 50 or more. tlow system with mllnomet"r USt-...t to meIlllUre diff"n"~ in
A typicu.l installation of an orifIce iutt lillo carrying prePISUre "~"'>IlII utifi,,.,. (Hruum In..t ....menl Co.)
!Iteam, with !l. manometer-type indicating instrument
oonnected across it, is shown in Fig. l-W. The oon- Ijt,undanl cubic feet (usually as measured at 60 0 F
densers OO!lvcrt the steam to liquid water and main- and 14.65 psia) per day, or per houT, rather tJU~fl in '
taill the linee full of wate r to the same lovd. i\1er- pounds mass per second. TIle pre&<;uro drop
cury in t.he manometer carries a float up lind down (Pt - P~) i8 frequently expressed in inches of water
in the float clillmher, actuati ng 1\ lev~r which pro- or inche8 of mercury as measurOO by a manometer.
trude~ into the mechanism of the indicator. The Making these changes in equation 103 and substi
indicator may be a direct-reading dial or a recorder t.utilig l/V = MJ'/ zRT for p gives U1e flow rate in
which makCl:l a oont.inuous inkl record !If Lhe pres- !ltundtlrtl cubic fect per hour 88 mcasureU at T. ill
/<1Il'C differt:nce (or rate of HoII' ill lilly d~ircd ullits). dCJI;I'CC!I Rankine and p . in psf'tl.
160 ?tIEASUREIUENT OF FLOW 0.' FUl1J)S

l<iO'l\' rate - The error tiUof'. In )1ft':<l<l.11"('. nuiation rnu,y br

C.A. (t.RT_)
AlP. (
3600 1 2g~Jl P(h h,) . (62.4)
>"';(1-- IJ}/ D 4):RT 12
1 -
reduced by t.uking pains to have the pressure lines
leading to the meter of equal coefficient.!! of discharge
I for inflow and outflow and the capacity in the line!';
(100) and meter the same on each side of the mcreury or
water column.
where (hi - h,) .. = pres,mre drop exprcsHe<l in
The error due to velocity variation ennllul 1..(.
inches of water.
Assuming z, is unity and omitting the fartor eliminated hy any meter constnlclion now availabl(.
It varies with rnllIlY factors, and 1hc best plan is to
(l - n:/D I 4 ), ('(Ination 100 run)' he simplified to
reduce the varil,tion to a minim\lm as there i" no
S~ndard cubic feet per hour satisfactory manner of making prcpcr corrections.
The appro,;imate error causal by pnlll8tioll in the
_ 2,588,1)5OC..A .. T. /(11, - h,) ..P, (107)
,ciocity a.~ n>purlro by Hodgson ~ i" indicated in
p. 'J MtT, Fip;. 147 a.~ a funCliufjuf the pnJ{luct:
When the pressure drop throngh .Ihe orifice is not
greater than 0.2 of the absolute up:stl'eam pressure C( - llP)F
(P,IPI is not less than 0.8), the error introduced by p VW-
using P2 for P in equation 100 dc)!!s not exceed 1
per cent~ Since this error is in the p<lI!it j\'C dh'ectiou, where C = tht': volume capacity in the line (ell ft)
it tends to compensate for the lIimplifictltion in~ Ilf't \\et>n the source of pulsation P u.nd
~rporated in equa,tior 107. the meter.
(-llP) _ Ihe pr~ure drop (psf) hetwef!n the en-
" .. '-(ion. trance to the capacity C a n' 1 thf' !lide _ .
Serious errors may he introdu ~1 hy pulsating of t.he orilirr or ven turi mete r whicll i>l
How, as exists in liRe!> oonn("t~lro to jl;lUC f'ompn',I.'!OI'S. fUr1hro;t fwm thl' sC)urcc of pulsatiun.
F - thl' rl~ lul.nt.y uf pul_tiun IX'r 'C,)nd .
/' - al:)I.oIUl e Prf'>;!<urt'" (Pli).
V - gpccific volulll(' of fluid (eu fi l l!) .
W - mIlS!! raIl' of flow (Ih/>:ICC).

As indicated by a study of Fig. 147, the lu.r!l;c error

10 I!;! 20
f'en:en" Error 01 Mtkt'
25 30 35
FlU. 147. TOO appfoximate fJ""'M~ CITOl in "rifino nwlt"f.
rmding 110010 ,KaLoPtiOIl&"
The8e erl'On) are cau>:tetl hy the differentil1l manom-
eter, or other recording device, across the orifice,
indicating approximately the arithmetic mean
differential pressure, whereas the flow vu.rie~ with
the mean square root of the diffe rential preSllure.
The result is that the recorded diff.erentia.l pres~ure is
too grea~ for the aetual flow, cau~in!l; tll{I meter to
read high. Thill ill true even if th~ ImUlometer taps
are throttled 110 that. the indicated differentia] pm;-
sure appeans rel\SOl\ahly COI,..~UUlt.
'J'he;te e rrol"ll may be ~1lltltl.~ 1 L.y l)ulSll.tilinM f'ithf"r
ill the f01"l1l of pret!o:lure wavt>rl tru-vt'ling throu'gh Ule
fluid with tlle velocity of IItlwKl, III' by pulsatiull>I in
the flow of the fluid it.....elf.
due to pulllA.tion in velocity fTf'<luentiy found in gas
\lnCl! leading to or from compressors can often be
40
reduced to a negligible fact.or (under 3 per cent) hy
increasing the enpACity (If the line betwt!en the meter
and t he source of pul:i.atil.Jn a.ruJ incrca.'sing the vn..~
sure drop between the !lI.Jurce tlf puilsa.t itlll UJld th~
far side of the meter.
For this reason, small orifices, which have larger
pressure drope, are affected less by vploeity pul:5&-
tions than large orifices with 8maller pressure drops.
A high frequency F in pulsation also introduces
less error than a low frequency. A single compre.sor
giving a low frequency of pU\!lat.ion will CI1\1I18 a
greater error than a battery of eompTellllOnl giving a
high frequency. .
In making IUl installation t.o rt'tlll~ ~rrors due tr
pulsat.ion, tho t'".AJ>tU.!it.y sllould I~ iUSf'rlcd hetwf'etl
Ute 1IlX1J'Ce or pultlat.illn ILIl!1 lit!' Illt'h'rinK poillt. Ir
the meter itMlf d()t~ not offer (o;ufficien\. rtll:lhnancl',
an additional throttling devit~ may be Ilddoo.
 AREA METERS 161
Frictbn Losses
As might he expected, the Increase in velocity and
decre:\.'re in pressure at the vena contracta is tem-
r-orary, ~xcept for the frictiun losses between point I
and a downstream point, 3, chosen where the main
~tream of flow fills the pipe completely. This
"eOf~rgy loss" is a function of tpe ratiu of t.he orifice
and pipe diameters and is expressed as a ratio of the
permanent p.-essure loss between points 1 and 3 and
the kmporary pressure drop between points 1 and 2,
as in Fig. 148 for sharp-dged orifices.

'O~
coO.B
o.9
1.0

- ......
'-.,
B ~
.t" ~
07
.
~!! O. 6
::~
.s~.::I 0.5
'\
rio
-.
0_
.4
1\
~ l5 0.3

'"
, 02
t ~.
< 0.1.

o. 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R r OIifito Diomel'"
a 10, Pipo lliom_

FIG 148. Permanent cn,,'lO' 10"" in slwrp-edged orifice.

'rhe pennanent 10&"1 in a venturi tube is about one-

tenth_ of the pre;;sure difference between points 1
and 2.
AREA METERS
The venturi tube, flow nozzle, and orifice plate
~re known as "head" meters. Such meters indicate
the quantity of flow by a change in pressure or head,
the area of the constriction' remaining constant.
Inspection of equation 99 shows that the quantity
of flow varies as the square root of the pressure differ-
ence when the area is constant. When operated
over a wide range of flow ral,e,;, such an instrument is
inaccurate at the low rates of flow. A flowmeter
which operates under a ,constant pressure difference
but with a constriction of variable area is known as
un "iut'a" meter. The quantity of fluid flowing per
unit o[ lime varies directly with the w'Cu, in such all
instrument.
FIG. 149. Soo~iollSldrawing ehowing oonstruction of rotam-
eter. (Fischer and Purlu Co.)
RutAluleters
The rotamet-er, Fig. 149, consjsts of a tapered tube,
usually glass, rigidly held in place between top and
bottom blocks and enclosing a small float. The fluid
to be metered enters through the boLtom block and
flows upward through the tube, leaving through the
top b!ock. In its ptu!8age upward through the tube,
it lifts the float from the bottom stop to some point
up in the glass tube. Th"l float serves as a source of
eon8tant pressure difference, the amount being varied
by varying the mass of the Ioat. The variable area.
results from the taper in the glass tube which causes
the annular spaN', through which the fluid must.
1101'1, to incI"Cu.8e in size as the float is raised to a
higher point in the tube.
 '62 MEASURF.:"F:~T OF FLOW (W fLu ms
The lu~ in a. rotameter may have a straight or r\ormall y the ratio (.4.../141 )2 is quite Sfflllil a nd

~:
curved taper, and the mte of flow can be etched, in
appropriate uni ts, on a di vided seale a101lg the tube. the term (I - :) approoehCH a ' Rluc of 1.0 and
The flOats ~rc mmaJly "made uf brass, stainless steel, is not induded in the C(llIation, Icaving
aluminum, or nickel, although any special material!;
may be used. The end blocks of the mt.amctcr may , J2rIP(Pf-=-P) r,
be made ,of any pipe material, ~uch M steel, cast iron, W - (',/(Ao
AI
porcelain, \ead,-or hard rubber.
In_the smaller rotameters the I float s usually ride. The coeffidcnt of d il:lCharge C R is similar to its

freely. bl.it in larger sizes the float may hl~ve a hule counterpart for orifices C~ in that it. is sensitive to
drille<J through the center a.nd slide up and down a viscosity and to the flow lines through the constric-
center poI:It. GlfI.StI beetls may he molded Mlung the tion. The heavy Lines in Fig. US show valllCl> or the
sides of the tulle, or the tube may be irregular in coefficient CN as a function of Rcynoldl:l number
Cro6II section, thus eliminating the need fur the cen-
through the annular s pace D,.voP/ Jj, where n"
tral post. The floats may have an ('.xtension arm, is the equivalent diameter of ..he annular opening
either up or down, beyond the norlllal eXltHit uf the (n. - Ih) for cirr.lIlar tube and float.
end block.- SI)ch an cxtensiorl arm, extending PiBton-(ll1d-Sleel."6 MelerB
thrQl,lg~ the center of a coil, can vltory the inductance
Another device, :Fig. \50, US('S a cylindrical sleeve
of that coil and thus control ll.uj(Jmat.ie valves or in a. vertical tube with t\ slot or orifice in the side of
remot e recorders. For high-prr$ur~ \vurk the glass
tube may bEt replaced by a metal W!)e, and an exten-
&ion float used fur the reading of lhe instrument.
The equalioll for flow of fluid through an orifice,
eqllit~QI"I 100, ca.n be applied t.o fluw through a.
I"Qta~ter. The area of too orilke .4 . is now the
area of the annular opening betwccn the largest
CroBl! section of the float and the wall of the tube at
any point. The area of the pipe AI is now the cross-
sectional area oJ the rotameter tube just below the
float . The pressure difference ( - t1P) can be ex-
p~ from a force balance acrosa the float. The
downwlI.rtI force exerted by the fl oat, the weight of
the flua.t less the buoyant thrust upward, if; hll.!anood
by the Pn'!SSu ~ difference acT068 the float times the
crOes-lleCtiunaJ aN'fL of the float :

V,(p,- P)! "" A,(-41')

g,

where Vi =- vulume of the flnal..

P, - dem;it.y of the float .
. A, ... maximum cruss.-seclional area of the
. float. ,.
Then
Vf{P, - P)g
(-'P) - -- - -
_ AJ1l'c
and, wb!o.titul.iug in equation 100,

Flo. 100. So:etiunal dno.wi,1X ~howiHg """~t.ralt!On of fli~t,)"

Rnd ~ll'<.)ye meter. (Brow. ("II-,!runult! Cd.)
 rROBLE-,'S 163

the tube, A piston !;lides in the eylindcr wilh a d .......strcll.ln 01 the eoNltrie1.ion "",,!.aillll "'Ilter with li _
filled witb oi!. The mannmctcr ru..s a ditrvential reading 00
cI06C fit'l&gainst the \\'ulk AIS the fluid enters the the . rater of 300 mrn. What is the' lullS ill IJ~II'e ae"1fIII tlw:
bottom or the sleeve, the piston is lirted until enough OOIlIItriction in foot-pOundl! per poo..:nd of oil1 I n prounda per
orifice is uncovered for the ftuid to escape, A variIY square incht
tion in the rate of flow cauiit!S " variation in the 5. The l1lII,I\IlIoott:r in problem '" WM broken and .....1lI 11)0
level at which the piston will float in the strea.m, pls.co....J. by anothe r manomctcr hll.YinK too uI'Ilrca.m leg lnadc
providing a method of measuring t.he rate of flow hy of E}-mm gi&M tubinJr: and tho! downstream kl!; ulA<kl of 8-mm
reading the loca.tion of the pi~ton , The parts are !11M'! tubi ng . Wnen "" oil ill flowing, the menw.U8 i~ 21 ' cm
usually metal, and the piston carries an extension "bove the bottom of tM IJIlI.nometer and 40 em beto. the t"I'
of the manometer. \\'h....t i8 the maximum decn''''''' In p..-ure
arm which indicates the location of the float by in 11<1"00'" Ilf!r "'11J.&t"e ineh whieh can be meMUred? If the
visual observation or by variation in the inductancp- connect""", to the Iep am ren:rsOO, what ill \tie p.;nnia8ihlc
of a coil surrounding the ann, docrea8e ill j>I9IIUre?
6. In order w tktcnnine the quantity of air no..-in th ... >Ugh
nIBLlOGRAPHY a cirou la.r dud .,h... iotemal diamew r ill 20 in., piWI tuoo
readinp .....ere taken alnng diameten; at right floglefl to ead!.
1. AMI!:IU C,l.1f S<x:u:,rY OP :\1,;cHANICA L i<;l'IGll'Ir.t.1II!, Special other in a ernB8 lIedion of the duet. The data arc pn:.enntcd
C;,romhtoo on Fluid Mcwl'S, Flllid Mekrl, l'tlrlf I, I, and in the table below.
3, New York (1931-1937). The air was Rowin; at &0 absolute ]JTtlllSure of m mm or
2. F\QWIU!llt, INC., Fort Wayne, Ind., CatalOlPl' mercury and &t a tempe ....ture of 250' F. Tho pitot tube
3. BMOw" INIlTIUJIIIIl:NT Co., Divil!ion ill ~Iinneapoli&-Hooey coefficient ..... "" 0.118.
weUltegull\tor Cn., Phil&delphia, Pa., Catalop. (al C"leulatc the TMe of fl.ow of the " ir in cubic foot per
4.' I !lC HCII ANO PORTZR Co., Hatboro, Pa., Cat.alop. Section millut.c, meMUred .. t 760 mm and 00 F.
9S-A (1I1m. (b) c..ustruet a PI"" r.bowinf!: the Vll.tiAtion of the rMin
6. HOOOllON, J . L. , Trani. A .... Soc.. M It. Engr." 61 : of local velocit)' t.o cent ral velocity ,.-it.h the ol iituroec from
f'SI'-5142, ~ (1929). th<l renter 0' the duct..
6. Nw:l'Tu,u: ~I ETl:R Co., New York, Cat.alop.
7 . PtTnIlUROH F.q I:ITAIIJ..,!; DI VIIIIOH, itoc:k ....'CU ~H&- 0. . rrunt 1.()CII.linn,
Pitt.sburgh, Pa.. , c..tal~. in. 'rom Pilot Tube Readinc,
8. TuvJ:, C. I . and R. K SPBEN ]o;I-C, l/U1r umtnt.., 6, 201 - 206 OOR t ~r ()f duct in. of ...."ter
(N()v . 1933). fl. 7S O. HIS
9.00 0.800
PROBLEMS 8.00 1.40
7 .00 1.00
A aharp-eodged orifi"" metcr ill meMurinJr: Jr:NI fin ... uitd<)r
' .00 2.t17
lIuch "nnditionll tlut.t the relative I>reetlUl"e drop ill ~mall
(Re - about 10,0(0). What. wouk! he the qUlilnt ilatiYe dr~
3.00 3. 27
on the readi nlC nf the IDCrcury manometer Utij~1 t () indiCll.te 0 .00 3.67
3 .00 3.38
,he orinc.e differential of (0) iocreMinlC the !.e'nl'".... lure of
2.8 1
the pol frolll 70 to IOO~ F, (b) an inereMe in ~y of '.00
7 .00 2 . 10
1.5 t i,,--, (c) doubling the moIec:ulat ......,ight. AeInome each
8 .00 1.56
ehange can oxeur independently nf an)' uthe.... The pi!
Y'OIUI1"lC at Illl.lIdlllrd OOnditioollll is to be 1\.000000rnOO. Cf>llIItant
9. 00 0 .891
9 . 75 0.210
in all CIII!CII.
9. 7S 0.205
2. Spl~ify thol orifire . diameter for meMuring 100,1))) 9.00 0.""
Btandard OU ft (at 00 F and 1 atm) pcr hQur of propane, 8.00 1.48
flowing throuJr:h iI, pipe 12 in. in diameter at a l>I"<.:gsure of 7.00 2.92
10 peI.g II.lId SO ' F. The !:eading acl"Oll8 the orifice should not '.00 2.73
be murn theon 5 in. of mercury. 3.00 3.3'l
3.31
3. Calculllte t ile flow of oil in pllone per millutc through a
u ndard shu~ orifice ~in. in diameler. The cham-
!:: '
7 .00
2 .7:i
1.95
ben lo the o rilioe. are four time!! the orifioc diameter. The 8 .00 1.4{i,
oil hall a SllO(:ifie I[n.vity of 0..8.'; and a ~ty nf I I eenti-
'.00 9 .""
poi8cI. The p~\l re drop ~ t he orifiee ill rneN<ured b)' a 0 .0
9.75
II1ICnrury manQOleteT 1oMt.ed. unJerneath the o rifice meter.
The rewint( on the R'ahom"'!"r i~ 9 ill. 7. Air is no""'ing ~I>tout;l, a 12-in. rilTuw.r duc!. A pit... l. tube
4. Oil of " I...."'iliu g .... vity O.81!J i.~ flo"'iuK t],rouKh :I. pipe i:I ill8erted inw the duct "t the oouter poiut of th$ . , ..... IIL.
with .. CQn"trictio " . A m:lIlomet"r wit.h tllp!< ul"'t.l"tlam "nd The temperlltul'(l nf the .. ir i~ 110 f", ""d the prellllUI'E! is 1 alln
... MEASUREMENT OF FWW OF FLUIDS
IlheoiUle. The pitot tube manometer ill an oil-.... ter type. The It) Readin, on a mercury manometer meuurinc the drop
oil, specific p~ly 0.835, ill .bow the ..... ter. epeci6c sravity IICfOIIIIII Z.~in. diameter ~ged ori6ee.
O.9!l8, anJ contained in ,.,latiniy iar&e reeervoirs eom pared (d) Po~' requirementa for the orifioe.
1.0 the ~ube , When the manometer reading is 2 in., what ill the 14. A 0.75-in . orifi()ll it installed in a vertical standard 2-i.a.
ft,o .., of .ir in cubic feet per minute at d uet ound itions? pi pe to meNUre Ute upward I\ow of benaene. WiUt the lead
8. Water ill t\o,,;ng in a horisont&1 pipe. b~h up on a lin"" ~uppoeedly filled with benzene and with mP.!'eury in the
mano~eter, the r... llo.ing reading!! were obtllirnxl.
mountain (g _ Z8 ft / fII.!<:'). An orifice with .. mereury rna-.
nometer is U!IOO toO meMure the flow. The manometer reading Rate, ~,".nometer
Po 4.00 ill. What, ill the pJ'ell8ure drop (-4P) in pnun<ii! per gpm reading, in .
IIqlUlre ineh t)t'lrTeflp:mding w thi!< readinJl:? 30 .52.56
9. Water III SOOF ill Ho,,-ir\li thmu,.;h 3-in. M,lw!<iUJ...40 pipe IS 13 .51
at I. ...111 of 150 pm. . 6 2.10
(0) If A sTandard sharp-ed,ed ori~ I '~ in. in diameter Af~ calibration '1' ... completed and the meter placed in
ill iMenf(\ in the line, .... hat ...ookl 00 the ",aninI{ on II. merrury llervloe it bappeJ?td !.bilL Bow .."" Bt.opped temporarily , and
manometer connected I'oCI<ll'I'I the mificf!? the manomc~ pve a ~;'" of 0.69 in. &II if a small quan
<bl H a venluri meier 'A;lh " th ....... ' 1 ~~ in. in dia.mo!l.er tity of ben&ene ...... flowing. The pl'l.'8<Ure at the uptltrellm
...-ere ueed iMlead of the orifiee, ".. hat " '"uld the manometer oonnec:tion of the manometec .,."" .l()
psia throughout calibra-

""'"
it ) What 'l"Oukl be the reading on caeh iJll!trument if,
il1ll-' of ,uter, an oil "'ere 8("'-;lIg through the pipe at the
tion a nd the te mpnrary _tion. Bleedin, bcnune out or
the do ...~tream vertical lead line to the manometer d ;";IOIleIl
an air pocket, which WAS entirely du.pl&ced li nd the meter
"me rate, t.he oil having a deTlllit.y of 0 .800 gm/~ and a Mltored to 8trvice. Whlt j" the pl'el!ent corr('C t calibration?
~ty "f 1.30 "" utipuises7
16. A pump it tkliVt:ring oil from tank A 1o.t&nk B through
10. A 2-i n. &eh."lule-J.O piP<' line carritla ..ater at 70 0 c. t~ pipinll; .yeteRlshown in the figure, 4-in. pipe frum tllnk .-t
A tl~geJ urifioo O.on in. in o.lWroet er) llervt'll a.~ the to PURlI} WId 3-in. pipe from pump 10 tank B.
prinlU)' denwmt of a fIu"'meter. The _~ element ilia
,...ereury.....ler manumeter I'I.~ t'KO branehes have a differ-
er.oe in le~1 of 22 i n. lit nl&Xlmum flo ....
The nWlllOlneter ill to be inverted a nd \IIlIed .. an air-l'Iatl.!r

....
nWlllOtnete r, maintaini..,; the 22-in. d ifferential at manmum
-
What nel'l orifire diameter ill needed?

II . Natural JtM ooneisting of practically pure mtlth.sne

fIol'I' Ihl'OU8h II. long stmight l()..in. BChedulc4(l ~Ieel pipe in
l'I'bich ill iTlllerled & IIqtl8re-cdged orifice 2.50 in. ill diameter,
l'Iith ph!ellUre tapti 5.0 in. from the orifioe plate.
JIMI .oovu tM orifice thl- pi! ill til SO F II.nU 6.0 ,lSi.
A The oil lit Ihll pumping leml",""lure hIlS a .pecilie gravity
dift'el'll!nliorJ~adilll mtt.nf)meler ioclioed al &n anile of 15 of 0.765 and II ~ty of 1.70 oe ntipoisea.
UegTtft l'Iith the horizontal, attached aCl'08ll the orifice, reaib If the JI'Imp hM. meeha.niett.l eflicif!DCJ of 60 per cent., find
6.18 in. of l'Ialer. the ool'8tpO'Wer required to pump U'" oil
Whal is the .~t rate of flo. of p i through t his line!
16. Water at SS- F is 801'1;", ~hrougb the .yatem ehown
12. A Un. IIChL....!ule-l ~teet pipe is eanyi", hnt .ater at in the figure. All ieDtM of pipe are for st.fai&ht pipe only.
rate t 01 b ' varying from 50 t o 150 gprn , II.nd a eh~ Both globo .,.IYftl are 1'Ii<1c open.
orifioe pia,,; .... ilh fl8~ tapti ill being tilled tn meter it. The Ne,;lectina: \oeaeoI ;n the too and II.IIIUming cY>ostant level!!
uptllTta Ill p~u"" ill 2 p8ig, and the uf'lltl'ell.m temperature in the tank!!, find the !\ow rnto tan ks A a mI B.
ill 160 0 F.
At flow raleti of tOO gpm and over, however, the m.anome(er
IICtONI the Ori6Dfl berornes unreadable becawoe the bot l'Iater
.r'.
f1Mt.t.-. into npor at the vena ooolrllet.a, UIIing the prertent
orifice plate.
What ei. onfiec op!!nm,; should he U8I'd t6 r-Vf'nt ~his7

13. Oil wilh a derl3ity of SS Ib/ cu f~ and a Yieooai(y of

48.6 Ib/hr-ft is 1Iowi~ thnJUih a "t.andard &-tn. edledulMO
pipe at -I f])ll.
Calculate:
(Oil Reynt>lm n\lJllblor.
(IJ) I... wer noquinod fOf a S",miJ..,"pt' lilW' Ilk;". 6O]lf'f ""nl
Orificto diWneItr _ 2.25
MtmIry differential- 9.92'"
,.
" ...,rall .:f!kionl".v. B I
 PROBLEMS .M
17. Water .. t 70" F . (62.3 lb/eu ft, O.!J82 centipoise) ig C. The line from A to the pump is 3-m. pipe, and the 1'1!-
flowing in .. horiaontal 2-in. ~hedule-40 8tffl pipe at a rutl! m!!.inder ill 2-in. piptl, . 11 IlChedul .. 40.
of 200 gprn. Five m.a.nQme\er tap!! are located .. lonll: the pipe, The two valVt:ll at the tee lin: pte val V4:'1ej &II utbm! ant
..t fi...i.n. mtervals. An open~nd vertital ......ter- mll.nomi:t~'I" globe valve!!.. The elbows and tee are IltAndard.
on \be dowru;tl'eam tap (No . 5) gives .. _Ie noading of 6 in. What;. the hOl"l'l@power to be dp.liveroed by tb.e pump!
What U\l the readinp in inch\'JI and in pound!'! per lKjUlI.ffl
ineh gage of:
(n) A !imilar manometer at the up!!tI"e&m tap (Xn. 1)~
{b) A I5illlpk merewy U-tube ~Dometo>r OOIllW'''U-o boo-
tw""n tape I and .!
(e) An inverted U-lube UIling air l1.li thl! I!"I>OU<\ fluid ~'!ll- ..
IIffted bet..oeen tap" 1 and 51
(d) A manometer us.i.ng an immiMibh, Buk! with " deru;i~y
v/65.2 Ihl en h eonneCtl betwoon ""JIll :2 alld 3?

18. Th~ "Y~\.em sho .... n in the figure i~ carrying wal~r !!.t-
00 F from tflnk A to tuuk B ",ud through tho liu<~ leading to

"

'.>

'H

,.

',. \j."
 CHAPTER
14
Pumping and Compressing
MACHINE that does work on a. Rowing Ruid
A is called a pump, blower, compressor, etc. The
quantity of work iB represented by the symool
- w in the flow equations.
:i.\'lachines that remove work from the Rowing
f1uKl , 117, are known as engines. turbines, water wheels,
windmills, etc.
All pumps, blowers, or compressor!! are rated in
termB of four char&.Cteristics.
1. Capacity, the quantity of Ruid discharged per
unit time.
2. incrUJU in preuure, frequently reported for
pumps as htM. Head is the energy supplied to the
fluid per unit weight and is obtained by dividing the
increa.'le in pres.<;ure by thc fluid specific weight.
3. PO'UJt:r, the energy consumed by the machine
per unit t-ime.
4. E~, the energy supplied to the fluid
divided by the energy supplied to the machine.
The effect of most pumping devicE'S is. to increase
the pressure of the fluid . Rut some deliver the fluid
with an increase in kinetic ene rgy or an increase in
elevation.
The majority of aU pumps, blowers, and com-
pressors may be classified as reciprocating, rotary,
or centrifugal. Reciprocating and rotary pumps do
not permit free Row of fluid through the pump
except fo!' leak-e.gtl past eiose-fitting parts, and are
called " positive displacement" pumps.
RF.CIPROCATING PU~IPS AND
COMPRESSORS
Reciprocating pumps develop a higher pft'!l8Ure
by the direct ILCtion of a pil:ltoll or plunger on the
Ruid oonfjned ill a cylinder, forcing t he high-pressme
'"
fl uid through the discharge valves. The piston or
plunger may be actuated directly by IL steam-d ri ven
piston or by a rotating crankshaft through a CfOBl>.
head.
Steam-Driven Pi!!itoll J'um!l. Figure t5L
sho\'o'S a horizontal steam-drivcn double-acting pump.
The operation of such a pump may be e.wlained in
connection with Fig. 152. All valves are shown
closed ill the drawing. As the liquid piston moves
to the right, the high pressure exerted by th~ liquid
in the space ahead of the piston liftl! the right.hano
discharge valve, allo,\;ng the liquid to escape into
the discharge chamber. This motion of the pj ~ton
relieves the pressure on the liquid behind the
piston. The pressure of the liquid feed then lift"
the left-hand suction valve, ILnd feed liquid entel1l
the cylinder.
As. the pil'lton reaches the end of its stroke, it
actuates the valve rod, moving the slide valve in the
steam chest, reversing t.he direction of motion of
tbe piston. If (mly one set of valves is provided.
opening into the space on only one side of the piston,
the pump would he single-acting and would discharge
only when stroking in one direction . The force of
sleam pushing the $ieam !>iston drives the pump.
The steam piston may be cont.roUed by the simple
slide valve shown in Fig. 152 or by a steam-actuatOO.
valve ge-ar as shown in Fig. 153. In either ease l08t
motion is provided in the adjlUltmcnt of the push
rod 110 that the valve moves only liS the piston
approaches the end of its stroke and then so as to
admit steam ahead of the advancing steam piston
to act 88 a cushion to prevent the piston from ham-
mering the cylinder head. Sucb pumps use steam
at full pressure throughout the stroke and allow no
l:Iignificant expansion of steam ill the cylinder.
 Rt;CIPROCATI:\G PF\IPS A:\D LO\IPRF.SSORS 167

CosI'IiorI'tam
10< regu!atin.
leni/:h of strolle

...

..-
Box-type
Slum

Dislon

L ,.,,", ifoo Cflt.:lle

F .... In2. &ctionfl,l view of SltnnHlriven reeipl'OOIIliuIC l>IImp. (It' ..rlhing/,,,, P'"" p MId .Ilnchinall C..rp.)
168 PU.\IPING AND COMPRESSING
The pistro comes to a iull stop at the end of each .side ~ timed thllt at r.nidstroke of one piston steam
stroke. The resulting pulsations in flow and pres- is admitted ahead of the other piston. This adjust-
tlure arc reduced by the air chamber on lhe discharge ment provides thal one piston is in mid8troke
line (Fig. 151 ). The air trapped in this chamber delivering at its maximum rate when the ol her
19 oompre&!cd during thll peak delivery verioos o~ piston is at, the end of its stroke and not delivering.
v~ ..... St.", Stuf. AII.m.r~ St.. ", Valve - FI,t F4C' Slid,
fing Bo., Screwed Sturn Ch,.t v.lv e -Alway. Ti<jlhl-C.nnot Wurto
Type, of Lib,.,1 tJI_: .. P,," Should., - Thi. V,lve I. Oper~I.'; By
O.pth the Adu.ti~ L f,om the Pislon Rod

V.Iv. Goe. Con.tr~ctiol\ I. Such

Au.iIi..-y Piston Rttod Thri' Pilto" Mud Compl.te tt. Ful
with S.!f.Adju.liIl9 Stroke 8401., H Cell R........
S....p R;"gl C.rn 6Iod I"" Adjuat._
Sturn Thtown Au. '''9 5troh - C./\ Be /
Stum Inlet .~
mary P;.to .. 10' Ch./\ged W!.iI. P""'t '
OP .... in9 M,;. I. i .. ~ t ;""
Slid, V.I._

Mo.
P""

O..p SIwff"1f\9 So. with ...II.d

Gland on 6-I....h 00_.1 C~
d., ..,.j l."9'" .nd Scrtw.d
GI.nd 01'1 S"".N $jul

Stum Clr.nde. Foot of

lib.,.1 iu _ PI.n.d
on a..Hom

the IlIunll anll exp:md .. sli~htJy Iluring the peritxb of
rcvf'noal, maintaining How of fluid .
The duplex piEtoll pump is e&\elll ;ally two sillgle~
piston pumps built into the IIIl.mc caatings with
common suction and discharge liquid chambers but
individual villv(s. 'Ill(' "t('um \' al\'I'~ for tint" side
are !:l.(:tllateti by lcvens un Ihe pi:;l.o11 n)(l of the other
The fll:'lull u.n l ,li-':\l:hul')(l: is mOl'fl ,,~(!udy and iii nl a
Ioigllflr avcn:lJl;C IJrt:Ii6urc thllll f<?r a si llglp-(lillt.on
pump.
These pumpa may be fwrictcd of any lIOi~ble
metal. Standard COllstrurtion is east iron,. with
hrollZl' \'ulv(':-I, llrollz(' liw'r rot' III!' liquid '('ylindl'l',
and !;tool liquid piston und piston rW . 'rhl'! liner
 RECIPROCATING PU\lPS .",NO (:tHIPRFSSURS
iH replaceable if solid pari ides in the lIuid
BOOrmg.
The fluid valves are generally disks, balls, or wing
valves. The disk valVE" (Fig. 152) is a flat disk of
rubber, bronze, or steel, seating on a flat scat, guid(,(}
by a stem screwed into the valve acat, and held
tighlly by a spring. 'l1le ball valve is a sphere of
rubber or met \I. seating in a spherical seat (of equal
or slightly smaller radius) by gravity, and held in
position by a metal cage. The wing ",uve (Fig.
154) is similar to the disk valve but hll.~ guides cast
FlO. 1M. Longilurtinlll ~ion of 5t~am .. triv.. n dupl~", plun~'r
into t.be di;;k and extending through the valve ;;cat.
It is prefcrred when tne valves do not operate in a
vertical pu;ition.
Th(' dimrllsio7UJ oj the cylilld(7"' of reciprucating
pumpg are usually expl"Clll>Cd in the atbrevill.tcd fonn
as 12 X 8 X 10, indicating, rrepeetively, the dmm
eter of the steam eylinder, the dill.mete ~ of the
"water" cylinder, and the length of the strukc in
inohes.
Steam-Driven Plunger Pump. Liquid piston>!
(Fig. 151 and 152) carry packing to reduce leakage
of liquid from the hi~hpressure Lo the luw-pr{'!!SUI"e
side of Ule pigton. Whcn this packing hecoml..'lI worn
or loose it can be lightened or replaced only by re-
moving the head of lllp. pump, thu~ putting the
pump (tul vf ~'I"viet'. III the plungt'1" pump the
Jolingl('-al'ting pillnger~ work through packin.c in the
hp-ads of the cylinder, using two outsid!" l)l\('.kings
instead of one (lutsidll and one im_idc I)uckin". Two
{'IUUll! oppo.mcd p!unger.; tl'ig. 1M) must Ue used t.u give
...
delivery corre>;ponding t.o a single double-fl~ling
piston, The br plungt'r iii Fill;. IS.} i~ driven by ruds
(shown broken) e:octending around 1he pump from
the erC&:!hcad.
j>lun~r pump8 ~arc IISP.1.I for hip;her delivery pres-
sures than pillton pumps of e<lual size. Wi th llutl!iide
packing any leakagt' i!; visilJle ',0 the operator. Thi~
8ml the greal('r ea.';(' of rf'p.'l.Cking re;;uits in much
i:x-tter maintenance and less leakaJl:e. Tlu!oo f8.(:tol";';
off:;ct the higher ini! iul co~l (If plunger pumps.
pump. (lrrn1hi"gI',,,, PHlftp ",.d J/IIr}n~ery C"rp.)
Plungel''; MId pumps are freqllently con,;tructed of
steel. and whell 8pcciul conditions mu~t be Ilwl
alloys and {'\'cn porcelain Illunp;l'rs are uSPd..
Thr 1"lJper IlC/ecti(J11 and Il/Ifi'llrllQ/u;e oj 'PIlchllg
is one of the major facturs in effieient pump opc ra~
Lion. Asbestos rope iml)l"t'gnatoo with oil and
graphite il:l widely u&..,j fl)1" plWking both 8leam and
fluid I:Ituffing boxes. For highcr tempera1urc,. and
when the Hnid acts as a solVf'nt for oil, metallie
parking is morc lmti;;farl.ury. 'flli;; packing is con-
::sirnctoo nf Ip.aci or aluminum fuil twi;;ted and form ... 1
into ~pli t rings. Such pa<:king i,; availaltlc with or
without g'rnpllite: For 8pcci!l.1 purpose,; other mate-
rials lIl'1! uscd, ~ueh as leathcr, rubber, and ropC8 of
variou,. fibers.
TIll". s l eum pi;;ton;; 'urc ('ltled by oil~lubriclI.ted
pi.;ton l"inl(~ ill.:ste:ul (If pll.lkiug. Because the stl'am
vapor is practically (n!t' from all suspended I!o.,lid>l,
the clearance.;;; betwl..'Cn pis t.un rings ami ('ylind!"r
 17'0 Pt;)IPING AND CO'IPRESSING
FIG. too. LooihJ<.linal8eCtion or Clllnk and flywheel romp.--:lt.
walls can be made very small and sealed with oil.
When pumping clean liquKi, the liqukl. pistons can
also be sea1ed by rings..
Power-Driven Reciprocating PUInVI!I. In t.1e
direct-acting pumps described, the steam-driven
piston is rigidly connected to the fluid piston or
plunger by a piston rod. A crankshaft and flywheel
dril'en by a motor Of engine is usually more eco-
nomical for large p umptl when more horsepower is
requi red. The flywbeeimnooths the operation of the
pump. The crankshaft permits power to be de-
livered through a i"uiating shaft, producing simple
. hannonic motion of the piston, and through the
}o'l<l. 100. ClItnway ... ~~ ... '" rih\.Jnn.tY[lll OO<n~r ... alW'.
( II'nrlltingiM Pu.... p nll~1 ;U..dti""Y ( ''''1'.)
{ Pm"~!lfM..m Pllml' aNd CO'"PlYuor Co. 1
connecting roo linkage controls the pump stroke.
It aLIso permits multiple fluid cylinders which increase
the discharge pressure IUld give leas deviation of too
flow rate.
R eeiprocating Compressors. Compres80i , for
g~, both direclracting &nd power-driven, may be
similar in constru(;tion to pumps for iiquili. The
lower inertia of gases pennits an increase in the speed
of compressors ovm that of pumps of similar physical
dimenmons. This places the steam-driven dimct:-
acting compressor at a disadvantage and increases
the desirability of power drive .
A double-acting crank.and-flywheel compressor is
shown in Fig. 155. It can be driven by any engine or
:notor-. The light valves (Fig. 156) of th' ribbon
type respond very quickly. The passage consists
of circular or straight slots.. The valves consist of
light metal strips in guide groovee. They are clO6Cd
by g88 movement or light springs and opened by
gas passing through them.
A double-acting compressor driven by a Vtype
tW<f-Cycle gu engine is shown in Fig.. 157. Four
pistons arc connected to the same connecting.rod
bearing on the cranbh&Jt, the two engine pi:ltons,
the compressor piston, and the scavenging piston for
air supply to the engine, (mounted on tbe cl'088head
in the compres~or linkage). Such compressors are
available with multi ple compressor cylinders, diljo-
Ilhqbg at different inst.tl.nl.8 in the cycle, reducing
 REf.lPROCATlXG PU31PS ANn C031PRESSORS lit

}'IU. 157. Cu[away vic\\' 0( C'ODII'n!fI8Or tliroct-driven by V-type inlcfflIll eoJllhUll!ion engine. (Coo~r-Bu_ (,'Of'p.)
 ,-
1-, PUMPING Ai'OD
FIG. tW. Cutn.way view 01 oompre.or ~yli Dder
the amplitude but increasing the number of pulsa-
tionlS per revolution.
The compressor cylinder shown in Fig. 157 is
designcO for dii~chllrge pressures up to 1000 psi.
Figure 158 show!\ a dotlblc-acting cylinder fOl' pres-
sures up to 2OCIO psi, utilizinp; the sa.me dC!!ign prin-
CO!\lPRESSI~G
fot p_res up to 4!JOO IJIli. (Coopv-RUM<mer Cltrp.)
ciplcs in a more rugged construction. For still
higher pres.,>urcs. forged-stoel conl;truction is used.
Figure 159 shows a double-acting -i5()O.psi cylinder,
and Fig. 100 a single-acting fiOClO-~i c:ylindcr.
A vacuum pump is identical with It low-pr~!lnre
compr{'88()r (compressinll: from les.., than atmospheric
 REClPROCATING PUMPS AND COl\1PRE.."iSORS
to ahJl08pherie pTC!:ISUre), -and they may be inter-
ehanged in !!Orne applications. The VMllum pump,
however, is foreed to handle larger volumes of gas
per unit time when on its del!igncd p~ure, l~nd it
has a larger ratio of pis ton diameter 10 s troke thlln
is usual for eompressors working in the! rCl!Bure
range from atmospheric pressure to 500 psi.
Ope,..ti~ Feature& of R eciproc(Jting Pumps
ond Compre"sor& '
'Ine reciprocating m llChines deliver a eun!jtunt
volume of fluid against a wide range of pres.~tlres,
el!pecially ' if power-driven, lIond can be built to
operate against high pressure;s. They are self-
priming for serviee ori liquids. The valves prevent
satisfactory operation on viScous liquids, and the
cloee elearunees cause maintenance problems, es-
pecially when pumping fluids containing suspended
solids. _
A relief valve and by-pass linea should be provided
to prevent damage to the pump caS!.ings upon in-
advertent dosing',of the shut-olT valvc in the dis-
charge line. ~1any pumps and compressors have
built-in by-pass lines and vah'e " unloadcrs," wh ich
holn open the suction valvr~ so long Wi a certain
pre!!lmre is exceeded il( Uu~ di:;cnarge fluid '; hambP.r.
Maintenance problems ILflcl the t ime nCl'<ierl for
valve action in pumps limit their speed of operation.
The recommended speeds for eoid liquids of kine~
.mat ie vi scosity le;s than 50 ecnlistQkes are given in
Fig. 161 for single and duplex steam-drivcn fLnd
single, ' duplr.l, 'and triplex power-d n vcn pumps.
T hese speeds should be rOOuoed for liqr.;ids of higher
visoosity, using 80 Per cent of the recommendoo
speeds for liquids "ivith kinematie ,v meosi tiffi of 400
centistokes.
The efficiency of reci procating pumps ILfld eom-
p~rs is properly the work done on t.he fluid
divided by the work done on the pump. For a pump
driven hy a.n eleetrie motor tbis definition of effi-
ciency i~ gcneraliy applied ~o !,he cpmbined motor
ruld pump, treated as a single unit, in which ~ t_he
overall cffieicncy is - the work done on the flu id
divided by the electrical energy supplied to the
motor.
This 1(>3(111 In Iht! attempl. In determitlt' thf: effi-
ciency of slcll.m-drivcn pumps by dividing the work
done on the fluid by thc""total energy ul)!o;()rbed ,"
which is sometimes misinterpretR.d as lhe eherRY of
t.he l'l tcam sllpplied OT 'Hguin ~ IhE~ dl'1'n:':W' in (,1If'l"liv
content. of the ~team !!.i> it. p3S.es thr(Hlgh the .<lteam
173
end. Such caleuiations may give i'ftIults varying
a1mOllt from zero to infinity.
It hall been customary to ~reat some of the indi-
vidual factors contributing to inefficiency as if they
were effieienciCl; themsel v~. For example, the steam
pressure required for a steam-driven direct-acting
pump may be computed as t hat presl!nr'e n~cssary
on the s team piston to c01mte rbalanee the dilieharge
pn$Qure of t.he fluid being pumped. The ratio of
.!Ii!
Fpm _ S~es ptr M<~ut. - Rpm
Fw. 161. U~.... 'mmell<k~l ~peeds rur recipru<:at~ng !Jump" rur
L~llrl liquids .... it h viSoUoli~il'S
k'NI thall 00 ceutistokf!ll. 1111/'
dm u/ic I MtilJ'le. ).
this computed pressure to the actual pressure re-
quired to o>perale tne pump at the rated deli very and
pressure is called the "51eam pressure ratio," or
sometimes the ":,stcam-end efficiency." This rat io
aot.ually indicates the sliding frietion of the pistoru;
and rod, the momentum changes to accelerate ,he
pistons and fluids, and thc "slip" or leakage of fluid
past the piston from the discharge side to the suction
sidc, all in a single lenn.
Another so-called efficiency is the "water-end" or
"volumetric" effictcncy, which is supposed to be the
actual leakage past the piston. This may be deter-
minoo by closing the shut.off valve on the discharge
of the pump, throttling the gt.eam l'.ltppiy lmlil the
t1beharge prt'Nlll re is just. rnainlainffi, and noling
lhe speed of t.he pisum. The volume of leakage per
unit of time is the product of the speed and the erOS&-
sectional area of the pist.Qn. Another method is to
nlCIl.t'Ilrf' the piston 1>1>reci tin der opt-rating (~ondi t i()llI:I
alld I;ompu le the volu me of fluid which should be
 PUMPING AND COMPRESSING
delivered if no leakage occurred. The pereentage of pump through tbe wction line is t rapped, carried
this volume which is actualJy delivered is caUed the around the outside by tbe gears, and diBchargcd.
"volumetric efficiency." Usually this volumetric One ~ is driyen by the driver, and the second gear
efficiency fails to agree with the watcr-end efficiency is driven by the first gear. In some pumpe very
computed for t he same speed as (piston displace- small boles are d rilled radially through the teeth of
ment leakage) + (piston displacement). A volu-
metric effici ency uf greater than 100 per cent (or &
negatiVe leakage) may be computed.
The momentum of the fluid being drawn in
through the suction valves is sometimes sufficient
to cause flow through the discharge viJVe8 while
the piston is reversing. The fluid thus discharged
is credited to tbe piston displacement and may be
sufficient tu exceed the leakage around the piston
during thc actuAl stroke, giving a vol\lmc " pumped'!
greater than the piston displacement in the same
time.
ROTARY PUMPS AND BWWERS
RAltary pumping equipment is restricted to that
part of the m tire field of pumps and compressors
which combines rotating movement of the working
parte with positive displacement.
The rotating parts move in relation to the ~ing
80 fL8 to create a space which first enlarges, drawing
FIG. 163. onaway Yiew of intemal sear pump. (Faif'baftb,
M_ alldCc>.)
in the fluid in the suction line, is sealed, and then
reduces in volume, forcing the fluid through the the idler gear, opening into a groove in the idler
discharge port at the nect!888.ry higher pressure. shaft which discharges back into the suction side of
Valves are not used in rotary pumps. Small clear- the pump. If fluid is trapped and compressed by
ances must be maintained for efficient operat.ion. the meshing teeth it can then escape back into the
Rotary pumps and blowers may be divided into suction, preventing strain on the gears and shafts by
five main types aceording to the chars.c~r of the the pre9l:lures created. The groove in the shaft i8
rotating parts. as gear, lobe, screw, vane, or cam. placed to prevent any by. passing of fluid from the
But cooaiderable overlapping occurs in specific e&Be6. discharge side through the holes to the suction side.
Gear PumJM. If two ordinary spur gears are Gear pump& may have herringbone teeth, helieal
confined by a casing which fita so snugly &f' 10 IIQIIl teeth, o r a combination of these.
effect.ivf'Jy the spaces between each pair of adjacent Internal genr pumps are of two main kindll. In
1f'f1t,h. as sbo....n in Fig. Ifi2, t.hen fluid entering theboth kinds 8 modified spur gear rotates inside a
larger gear rolating around an axis parallel to that
of the spur gear and displaced sufficiently to mesh
snugly at one point on the periphery. Figure 163
shows a common type which is sealed between suc-
tion and d ischarge by a "creseent." Fluid is t rapped
between the gear8, 1)fl!8Cent, and casing and swept
inl,(J Ihl'! hijl;h-prf'8Hure discharge port.. F.ither gAar
may he driven with the other idling.
Figure 164 shows an internal ~r pump wh{lA8
two gears maintain a continuous series of sliding
Flo. 182. ~tional drawiD& of external ,~r pump. seals with each tooth, fonning the pockets entirely
(HvdmuJ~ llUtil uk. ) between the gean. This type of pump may have
 ROTARY PUl\IPS ANI.) "LOWERS
any number of teeth in the 'spur gear, pro\'Kled one
.more IIOOket isprovided in the ring gear.
Some pumps with the appearance of gear pumps,
but with both "~ars" driven and using the "teeth"
F!(1. 1M. Diat;... m of internal .lear j>ump "" it h 9iding-t.
(~ PU"IP ViPi.w... Alar Oil BIOnItT Corp.)
to form the pump pockets and seal the line of con-
tact between the rotAting members, are versions of
lobe pumps.
Lobe PuDlpl. A lobe pump or blower h811 thc
general construction of 0. gear pump with fewer
teeth, but the two impellers are driven separately
through external gearing. 1,.is makes it possiblc
to avoid actual contact of each impeller with the
F.O.l l65. CutawAY ,,\ell' or tw~lobe b1OWl-'I'. {ROtJI..Cr1fI'-
ftlk 8/Quw Corp,.}
other and with the cnaing. The clearan;::es are a
few thousa.ndths of an inch, sufficient to reduce fric-
tion and wear but to maintain minimum leakage
from the diRCharge to the Sl.lction side.
A two-lobe blower is shown in Fig. 1M. The
lIilllpe nf I.he lobe!! of the impeller is not reetricted
to the particular pattern shown. but no great varifltj
of dC'>:!ign~ exists.
A three-lobe pump is seen in cross soot.ion in Fig.
Hit\. The principle of operation is the same. More
FIG. 166. Sectioll&! diagram of the throo-k>bc pump. (Rool ..
COft~ m-.n Corp.)
lobes may be used in each impeller, and thc intricncy
of contour may be considerable. The impellers may
or may not touch one another and the walls, but if a
sliding contact i!l maintained on the CMing the wear
may he a1'lKOrbed in rcpla.Cf'Able inserts mount.ed in
the I ips of the lobes". '
Screw Pump5. One type of screw pump iA
shnwn in Fig. 167. The central or power rotor
meshes \\it h the two idler rotors, forming fluid-tight
c1usUl'f's in the bored housings. :Fluid eniers at each
end of \ he rotors, is sealed between the rotors and
hou"illlol, nnd is forced smoothly to the central dis-
ellUI'K" . T his constmction provides aimotlt perfect
hyrlr.llll i(~ lmlnnct'_ The !lingle stuffing box may be
_IM\ ttl ''I'ntrnl IPRk"j{('. (IIn('r tyr - ur 111':1'9\\ '
pump!l indlld(' t.wo ur one screw, hut. the
I'IIlroWII
principle of operation is similar.
Vane Pump!!. A <'ireular disk, fitted \dtb vanes
sliding in elots in UI(' dillk alld maintaining a sliding
contact. on the elliptical casing, ooMtit.ui.e13 the mech-
176 PIl\lf'I'~;
FI(I. 167. CUIM ....n} vit\\" uf !!Ctel\" I'uml'. (IN I..arnl Slro'H Turbjll(! Co.)
aniam of a vane pump a:; picl un'<.! in Fig. !!iR
Centrifugal force throws the \'lmf'S olllward, and, as
the impcHcr rotalet:l, the ~pacc behind 11 vaw.' en~
larges and draws in the !luitl, then dl '('/1'RS(>S and
fol"!e8 out the fluid. The V[IIlf'S receive pral.'! i('slly
aU the weaT and are readily replaced. A variation
of this idea is the vane shape and litlachment. of
Fig. 169. The vanes swing outward by l-<lntrifllgal
force and seal the trapped fluid. AI:! these vanes
wear do ....n, the change in dimension is nutoml~tically
compensated until the time when the !!Cal is bmken
by the decrease in size, ufter which new vanes can
be inBerted without specici 100s.
The sliding contact may be avoided by using
guided rollers instl"ad of guided vanes. The artion
U:I identical to that in Fig. 168, except thut Ihe con-
tac~ with the Calling is a rolling action, reducing wear
aud friction.
FlU. 1IiI'. Di"gnu1\ ..r ~tid",!(\" ". ;"''''1' . ( 1I!f"rrr"li~
1".Ji',,'~.,
ANI) CO\IPRI-:SSING
Ca m Pump!!! in('lmlr a !'in'ular nJtnr mounlN!
~'C(' ntri enrly to SWN'Jl a dr-de \\'h~,,;c rndilt~ is the
l:lum of lhf' radius of the rot.(1T and lhe ctcf>ntridty.
FigurM! liO and 171 shOJI\' such 1L pump, wilh a
plunger valve, at ihe beginning of a stroke alJd ncar
the end of 1\ stroke. The circular cam is rigidly fixed
to t he shaft and is inside the rotor ring which ~ free
to rotate about lhe C!lm and whieh is int~gral with
the plunger. The plunger slides freely through a
slide pin to !Let, as Ihe discharge valve. FloI\' through
the p1lmp i8 inuicatPd by arrows. The plunger may
be ff:plllC<.'(l uy any form uf vane which 8Cnh. the
1<'10. IG!I. ('u , ,, .....,,y vi, ..... ,,{ ",,, I vi.""- "f v~"" lJ6mp with
"'uekel-v~. (Blae1ona P.. ",p C... )
 CENTlUFUGAL PUMPS AND
FIo. 170. Cutuway vi"w of earn ,'UI!",P indicatiIli opt'mtion at
hi."ginning: of stroke, (K ill/le!l ,11f9' C". )
suclion line from the dilJCharge line. Except for the
rotation of the cam inside the rotor, the I:ontacts
bet.ween I!Urf:lCC8 are ulmost. utlvoid of friction and
wear.
Operating Fea t ures of Rotary Pumplf and
Blower.
These pumps and blowcr.; ure pcriecHy adapted
to direct connect ion with the motor. They are
usur.Uy small cnough and bah,need well enough not
to require a. flywhPf!!. The ca.pacity is almost con-
stant within t.he limits of speed of tbe driving
mechanism for all d ischarge prei:'SUres up to t hat
which will destroy the pump or stop the driver.
Rotary pumps are made for d ischarge pressurCII all
high as 5O(X) psi, above which the torque drive is
1~ practical than the I"cciprO<'ating ma.chine.
Rotary machines arc cl:lpAble of operating with
low &booiute suction pres;;lIres and re<llIire no prim-
ing. The d iscllarge ranges from lightly pulsating in
the two-lobe blower and some cam pumps, to qui~
steady in tbe gear pwnp and vane pump. Contain-
ing nu va1ves, as used in n ..'Ciprocating IMChines, all
roLary pumptl l$re well suited to pumping liquids of
high viscosity.
The extremely close clearances necessary in all
rotary machines require precise machining and in-
crease the cost as well as maintenance problem.
. These small eleamn~ and freq uent rubbing of the
moving parts preclude pumping of fluids wi th no
lubricating properties or fi"ids containing solids in
sus,Pf"..rullon. The small size, the high dlSChs.rge pres-
CO~IPRSSORS 177
1010. 171. Cutaway view of cam pump indica.tiIll!: opemtion
{\PpnKL~ hj ng end of glrokc. (Kj"ne~ Mfg. Co.)
sures, and the simplicity of con:';tru(:ti.)n of rotary
pumps give them a wide range of a pplicat.ion.
CENTRU'UGAL PUMPS AND
COMPRESSORS
Basically, the centrifugal mlWhine is built a.round
an impeller, which is a. series of radial vanes of van
oUiI Sh3t>C'l and curvatures, spinning in Ii eil"(lul:l,r
cWling. Fluid enters at the "eYfl" or axis of rotation
and discharges more or le~ radially in~o a periphel"t!.l
chAmber at a higher pressure coTl"CI!pooding to the
sum of t he centrifugal force of rotation and t he
kinetic energy given to the fluid by the "aneil.
Thtl only moving part in the pump i5 the impelJer.
Tho vanes of the impeller extend from the center of
rotat ion t.o the periphery, and the shrouds are the
dis ks on each side of the vanes enclosing thcm. The
vanes may be radi.a.1, may curve slightly ' "forward "
(in the same direct.ion us that of rotat.jon), or mllY
curve "backward," the usual case.
The common impellers for pumpa are 8hown in
Figs. 172- 175. Figure 172 5how~ a high-head close-
elearance impe1ler ..... ith narrow ~, six vanes,
and a streamlined "eye" or entrance at the a.~II.
Thi5 impeller is fo r use with dear, noncoTfOllive
liquid/!. Figure 173 shows a similar impeller of more
rugged CtJllEtrucf,ion and more ~treamlined passagetl,
for service Oil corrosive liquid;t and 00 liquids con-
taining small solid purtides in suspension. Figure
1H 2!hows a two-vane impeller with Illng sweepin8
valles' Md an open eye, for service on liquids con-
,. PUMPING AND COMPRESSING
taining small trash and abrasive solids, such as.Jlalld,
gravel, ar.d ashes. For gewage service and sump
pwnps, this type of impeller is often used with wide
vanes to increase the passage area stiJI more. Figure
175 shows a llemi-open impeller (as contr!lo8t.OO to the
enclCkled impellers described above) with an abbre-
viated shroud on one side of the vanes. Such an
impeller is used on pulpy solids which tend to clog
an enclosed impeller. An open impeller has no
0'
'10.. 172. CUta.....y vn hiphf1ld cJoAe..dearanoe impeller.
(Nagk Pt.ompl.)
8brouds and is better able to handle pulpy solids
than the semi-opcn impeller.
Centrifugal fans, blowers, a.:ld oompressorl!" use
similar impellers, but the vanes are more often mdi,,1

..."'""--,,

.-~

Fie. 173. CuUway view of high-bead cl~nce im-

... --~- -
peller for 1II!I"rir.e with OOfI'OIIive liquids or _pellllioll!! tlOll-
taininc I!lJlIlIi pert-idee. IN. P-JIIII.)

Flo. 176. Open impeller for blower. (Roo/~" .. ~!1ilk

hlouttr Corp.)

or lIhort ((.night seet.iOll8. Curved vanes (:li'lually

ba.ckward) are used less freqllentiy than (or pumlS.
The open impeller of Fig . 176 and the serni-open
impeller 0( Fig. 177 have radial VlI.1es. Short
Flo. 171. Cutaway flew of two-vane impeller with open eyr. straight VADes set at a backward angle are built
(N(lgk Pm,.."".)
into the enclORed impeller of Fig. 178. In all these
radial impellert the fluid enters at or near the axis
of rotation and is thrown radially outward by t-bt>
v....,
If the vanes of an open impeller are set at an angle
with t he axis (Fig. 1(9) the direction of flow ill iUiai,
. Fans deliver large volume!! of iase!I at low preesUtei! up too
".
L pili. b!o....~ ... (cr uht.ul!tefll) deliver .mall volume. at "reII-
mire!! up to 35 poIi, and oompl'CAOrII deliver small~r volumeI'!
at h~r heads. Only recently have oonlrifUpt JOII\p~rs
oorne into elltellllive Uge fOT discMrga preOl!lur.-. aloove .so pei,
I"ut their .u\&.lkr K11e Iill..! lighter weight jti ..... tham lin 1lJ
"'MI. 17a. !o!eml-opt:n impt'ller fO!" h .. ndlina: "l.Iid~ ' ..... nl~illi"K . .,,,,t,,,,,
OJ""'" reci"",x:utiug cuJUpre-'nJ fur . ";rcra/L ~uJ
PlIIW.llOlid>< (Naglf P U7flp..) Ioo.>olOl i""",
 CENTRIFUGAL PU~lPS AND CO:lIPRESSORS

,,'!G. 177. St'ml-tlpl!n lmpt!llor for blower. (Roo43-Clmn.orMll'lk

H/ou,"ff CfIrp.)

FlO. 179. Axi ... l. Auw im l"I1,,r. (lI'orlhi.gt<m P"mp "'''/

as in thtl propeller p\lmp or ordinary electric fan.
Axial-flow impellers are excellent for handling large
volumes oJ fluid at low heads, liP to a1 ft.
For intermediate conditions of moderately large
volumes of fluid at heads of 20 to 60 ft, a mixed-flow
impel.1er (Fig. ISO) may be used. The trailing edge
I of the hub of such an axial-flow impeller is flared
out to direct the flow Mgularly away from the axis,
thUIl adding centrifugal force to the force of direct
thrust given the Auid by the propeller blades.-
MBChi~"1I Corp.)
Side~Suction Centrifugal Pump!';, are the
simplest and mogt common cent rifugal pumJM. One
version is shown in Fig. 181 , a longitudinal section
of another verl!ion in Fig. 182.
The pump of Fig. 182 is built for belt drive through
a pulley keyed on the shaft at the left. The liquid
Miters thruugh the center of the easing and -is dis-
charged tangentially upwtmt from the periphery.

""G. 178 )::udt.otll'lJ iPll":lll!r r<.ll'

H/.Q1PtT C"'JI.)
!,Io"er (RooIt-CORfttf"mlk FlU. IMO. (I~I m i ~(!<,I.f\ow im""lkr. ( II'nrlA;..,,_
.. ltd Mudti MTJ Corp.)
P_,
180 PUMPING AND eO;"PRF..5SING
FlU. 181. Sidt:-sudiol\ ocutriflll['oll pump. (.fUM'U Pump Ca.,
'n.e casing cf rnOl't Kidc-suetioD centrifuJ!:si pwnps
can be rotateJ to di!iC:hnrge upward, dO\\'nward, or
horiwntally in either direction. The vulute, bolted
to the ~rame, is 9. spirt!! chamber of incr~a..~ing cross
section in the direetion of rotation of the imvcller.
The volute receives the liquid from the &>mi-iJpen
impeller and converts kinetic energy (i the fluid
into pressure energy. The pump is built with
journal bearings, tbe " inboArd" bclU"in& being grer.sc-
lubricated and the "o\ltboanl" being oiled with a
"slinger ring." The higher-pressure liquid. in the
volute red~ulates behind the shroud of the im-
FlO. l1i2. &-etionnl .,it:", uf II ~'dlM'Uelion l..,ntrifu~,II)Uml'.
peller, causing an end '''-rust tcnding to force the
impeller off the sharL A thrtl~t ball bearing is in-
stalled to counteraet. thig force. The thru~t may be
rMlIc",d by relief holes through the buck shroud, but
then tl,e liquid will r(J('jrculu.t.c t.hrough thc pumping
channf'i, !'t'tillCing the efficiPllcy of thc machine. The
pump pictured has these relief hoies but hW:l 11 side
plate which partially seals the discharge side of the
!lump from the space behind the impeller. Leakage
of thtl Ii,\uid from this spuce through the inboard
lx~ari llg and out of the pump is reduced and c,)n-
trolled by the stuffing box, aided by the grease
lubricant entering from the grease cup.
All enclosed impeller is ul:ICd for high discharge
heads with a singie-slage pump to reduce reeircub ...
tion and to improve efficiency.
TIH~ tw .... OOarings of the pump in Fig. 181 are hot I,
"outboard" (external tQ the fluid being pumped) and
are gl'eu!:ll.'-]ubricated ball bearings. The outer
bearini< i~ held in pl:l.t*- by 8Jl adjustable iO(,lk nllt,
wllcreUl! the inner bearing is fretl to float, thus permit-
ting liU ooju;;tmer.t of tho cleanmec b~tween the
imrlf'l ler und the ca..<"ing without dU:<l\llUltlillg the
pump. The illustration shows the pump directly
coIlnccled through a flexible coupling to an electric
motor.
(Fairbankl. ,II",. lind Co.)
 r.ENTRIFUGAL pmlPS Al'iD COMI'RESSORS 181

FIG. 183. Sect ional vi..", of een(rifuga.l pum p built IQ "" unit with IIIQlor. (FairooTltb, .Ifar~~ " ",I ('",)

Figure 183 gh(,II'S a side-5uction pump built as a

uni t wit.h the driver. The rotof of the electric-motor
and the impeller of the pump are attached Lo a. single
shaft. riding in ball bearings suppurted in t he motor
housing. In smaller pump sizes the motor housing
also carries the weight of the pump stnlctUfC. These
combination :.mits are compact, always ~tay in
alignment,
, and are w:lIuilly mountable in any posi-
tlOn.
A wide-passage impell(>f in a side:6uction I':lmp
is shown in section in Fig. 184. The wide openings
make this type of impeller u!;efu i in pumping storm
water, screened sewage, and irrigation \nl.tcr, where
large volumes of water containing small solid par-
ticles are to be pumped against low heads.
Uoublc - S u ctio n S ingle-Stage Centrifugal
PUIllPS. A sidc-suction pJ.mp develops:t high end
t1Irl.l~t. when operating at high heads. This thrust
1I11l)" t....: eliminated by u8ing two impclll'rs in pnralld
(}ll tho ~ame shafL and arranged to oppose one !UI-
(.olhf'lr, or more 8imply by build ing the t\\"o imrc\!{' r~
~ onf'l with t he li<\uid entering from eac h side, as
: 1)O\\" n i n Fig. 185.
T he impeller is equi\"ulent to two !'"nc losed im-
pcl!('r~ back-t.o-back. The recireulal ion ( If high-
pressure liquid is hindered by "wearing rings" r f
I:Klft metal utt.achP.d to the cu.~il\g and serving as a
~ against the rotating impeller. .Leakage a round FIG. 184. ~tiol1ll1 view of oentri rug-.. l pum p wilh wi.-lt.~
the shaft is reduced by the stuffing boxes OOlItaining IJIIISIiIIce impeUer. ("oirbo.. b, Mur5C ami Co. )
182 pmfPI:"iG A~D, CO"'IPRESSING

F IG. 185. CutawAY vi('w of doubJe..esudion ucnlrifugtl\ pUmp. (P~n1lJl!1I""n'" I'ump atld CumprcMllT Cn.)

rings of fibrous PBtking compressed by a gland. If - from an ouUiide S01lrce. Leakage bccau&J of iOOllC
thl! suction p~lIrc is less than 1 atm, air would packing will 1)(\ visible outside the pump and call to
k-aTt in past tl1ii! packing and "a.ir bind" the pump I'fflucoo to a t rickle by tightening the gland. Some
(.we p. 189). Thi ~ is prevented by sealing the stuffing liquid will leak back into the suction of the impeller
box with a high-vressure ]i(luid through the seal and be recirculated. This is the price paid for
tube and the " 'antern ring." Frequently the high- prevention of ai r IrAks and !.linding. Double-row
pre:;sllre liquid is obtainoo from the ea.'>;ng of the ball bearings are moun ted outboard on t his pump
pump itllClf, thus placing the packing under the equipped for direct dri ve.
tlil\eJl!\rgc p ressure, but. it m:\y be supplietl as well Figure 186 shows a pump of this type connootCil
through a l1exibli:~ coupling to all eleetrie motot.
Multis lKge (A.ntrifugal Pumpa! ~ nd Blower.<.
The head deli\'(~r<'d by a single impeller (or two
impellC'fS in parnll('l) is ret!trie\C'd by the pra.ctiNli
limits to diamC'tcr ami ~ 1x..'eJ. If high heads arc
d!'l:!ircd, two or more pumps may be c{)flnected in
series, or hvo or more impellers mounted on II. single
shaft may be connected in series.
A four-stage pump is shown in longi'.,lldinal IICCtioIl
in Fig. 187. The four impellers are mounted to
provide balancing t.hrutlt" and the casing or piping
carries the finid from tbe discharge of one stage to
the inlet of thtl ncxt. stage.
Multistaging may be applied to blowers and com-
p ressors. Figure 1SS shows a three-stnge compressor.
DeepooWell Centrifugal PUJ1lpe. The <'eflt.rif-
Flu. 186. llnuhlNluMion e!'nlri (u!(,,1 IlIlmp. (AtmINI ngai pump is capable of reduction in size to an extent
P_p('",) whieh permil"" t he tlQIllltrndion of n mliltist8gf! unit
 CE~TRIFUGAL PUMPS AND CO\IP}{ESSORS IBJ

l'IG. 187. Cut .. way view of four..;,tagt> eentrih.J.l;a\ pump. (lk 1...,,-o1.')lefllll T",mne CII.)
which will fit into \\cl1 (,!l..~in~ as small as i in. in
diamcter. The p l.lll)p 58Sf'mbly can be IOIl"t'l"cd dOlm
to the water levf!1. The motor may be suumerged
with the pump or ~ept at the l!urfae~ level olll:rating
through a long d.;v!' ~haH extending down to thc
pump.
A tW()-l;tagc doop-wdl pump (Fig. ISO) is su ppo!"l~ 1
by lhe discharge pipinl!;. The "haft is shown ""-
dosed hy tubing in this version. Some p llmps use
no protective tubing around the shaft and dcpelld
upon flowing liquid to lui)ricat(' rubber shaft be;~riTJgs
mounted at intervals. In the pump illustrated thc
oillubriCllnt is scaled rrum the water by the labyrinth
packing. F igure 190 !$hows olle impeller anJ bowl,
indicating the diffuser channell:! leading to the howl
above. The rpp]n.ccable wearing rillg ror the im-
peller ahove is seen at the top of the bowl.
Qifl"use r Centrifugal Pumps. The guid ing
channels through which the fluid flows from the
discharge of one impeller (Fig. 189 (I[ 100) to the FlU. 188. ThTl'!'sl rlK" ""nlrir"Jr.l 1 !""\,mp n:,&"or. (lI'"rlhillgttm
inlf't of the nC'xt uro rulloo. diffuscril. They arc P""'P "",/ Jl11rM",ry ('urp.)
 'M P UMPING AND COMPREsSING
Flo. 189. Lon"..hudina.l clJtu"'ay vie w of tW",,",I:IF Joo,>-....,.I\
pump. (u.!/f~ and RlJU'Ur, lru;.)
designed to enlarge t he cruss section of flow gradu-
ally and thus convert kinetic energy inw pressure
head. These- diffusers serve the same purpblsc as the
spiral volute of the centrifugal machines previously
described. Diffu!!Crs are used in pumps only rarely,
usuo..lly ollly in dccp-wi!lI pumps, but they are com-
mon in blowt:r.. and almost msndatory in compres--
sors.
Self-Prim illg Ccnlrifu glll Pumpl5. An ordi-
nary t:eurrifugal pump ill incaplI.ulc of priming itself
and initiating flow throl:gh the sYlJtem if the pump
ClUlir1& is filled with air or vapor. Thill handicap can
be.pveroome l a~y hy a mt)(lification in ('.lUling and
v9fute desii[fl, IU; shown in "'il!,!>. I~I and 1H2. The
volute pt't'!tmttl 0. tiharp edge t.o the rotating mass of
fluid. The ~uction . lI.nd discharge coonections are at
t.he klp of lUl over~ized housing with two cbambers
above tlle impeller (note thc reversed impeller, with
the eye flU'ing !Jack along the shaft toward tlw
d ril'er), thus keeping the minimum a mount. of liq uKl
in the pump If the Ilyswm is shu t down fUld per-
mitted to drain. When thp. pump is reSlartt!<i the
impdlf'r throws the liquid to the sides of the casing
FIG. 100. (.'u bw., y vil-w of on~-IOllIge of II tI~'ep- ...ell pump.
(I...,1(Y Qwl iJouitr, I lIc.)
and begins to pump air flowing t.hrlJugh t he SIlC-
t.ion pipe and eyp. (Fig. 1\13). Just beyond the
tips of the vanes the air uud llquida.rp. mixed, forming
a froth. This frot.h follows around the impeller to
the knife edge, which di vel-ts the frothy mixture
away from the impP.!lf' r in to t he chamber at the top
of the housing. T hp. a.ir t.hen ri Se~ and is diSCharged.
In thil! way the a.ir is eXila.llsted from the suction
line, uiter which time the IloCtion iii n orn~al . This
pu mp \\ill prime fw;t.er if the ti p~ of the impeller
vanes are slotted or drilled , a.::I imlica.tcd in Fig. 193,
to' facilitate the How of !lir from the eye to tht! volute.
Operating Features of Centrif''601 Machines
The la rge dear pit.~ in centrifugal machines
ma kf" tlwm relati vely !!.9.li.sfaetory ror btllldling ftWds "
 CENTRIFUGAl. I'U.MPS AND COMPRESSORS 185

FIG. lUI. &'(:tionul VIC" of I5Clf-]lJiming pump. (Nagk p,.m~.)

FJ(I.I112. ew.'ng I\nJ vo)..,I " of" ~elf-J',i",i"g !JUJUI'. (Nauk Flu. JU3 . ])rllwi ng il!u~lnuiug .~~tiuH of ft se lf_printing pum".
/'''1IIP11.) (Na(lle l'"mp'. )
186 PU~IPING AND COMPRt:.5SING

8 888888
.... iii. ori<O ci 2'
U. S. 6_110119 pet" Minute
~IU. 1!)4. Itcrommelldtld pUmlJ8 for V'.u1oWI combinaliollll of bead 8000 capacity. (FoirbaW, M_ alld Co.)

containing solid particles in 81l8pension, and permit or maximum head possible for a given pump, may
throttling and the temporary closing of the valve be derived from the concept of angular momentum.
in the discharge line. The fluid then simply rotates A generalized sketch, Fig. 195, shows an elementaJ
arOllnd t he cl\Ij;ng and ahlsorbs the energy supplied ma.-;.; of fluid dm moving at a. velocity v in the d irec-
iJy the uriver. The absorption of the total energy tion and magnitude shown as referred to the center
by the flu id quickly raises the temperature of the of rotat.i()ll O. T he mass dm is at 8. d istlU'lee T from
fl uid and pump sufficie ntly to CIlUSC distortion of t-he t he cenl.er of rotation, IU'Id its di rection of motion
rotating parts in a short time. The lack of posit-ive fonn!:! the ungle (r with the perpendicular to the
displacement restricts the economical U~ of cen~ radi us r.
trifugal'! to the conditions indicaled 1m Fig. 19-1 The linear momentum of the mass dm is
which reprerent relatively large volumes of fluid at
moderale discharge pressures (hflaJS), for high prf'..8- {dm)v
sures can be obtained only by excc8~i\'c mult.istaging.
'In general, a cent rifugal pump ho.!:! lower init ial and I ts angular momentum is
lower maintenance eo<>ts and il; more eli-~i l y mad!' of
mll tt'rilll!l that n"l;iKt r.nrro.;iun than t ht' positive {dm)vr co;; a
d ill('lla('f:ment... rt'Cipnl(:aiing IIr rolm'Y unit", hilt it li s IUIqt:e.!fT iii
hao; If'KlI II.bilit.y t.o oper-,lIe with 11111' alpto ,luie p~
l:m~ on the intake or suction . A (:e nt.rifugal p u mp
lIT - th,,--d (l!r- --
(';.1/< ,,)
( lOS)
dt
II:! better able to handle vi.scou.l:l liquids than a
reciprocat.ing pump, but 1C1!8 ~ t.han a rolaT:,\' If an idcalizerl version of a eentrifugal pump is
pump. <' ''IL,; id ~'rl~ 1
(Fig. !!)(i), it may be tU!ljllmcd that all
Virtu,,! Heat.! with Inlinite Nurubcr ur Va""", Ihe tluiu cllmpri~ing a ring at con!ltunt fAdius r ill
If alllo8SC8 of energy are negleeted, the virtual head, moving at. the IlIlme velocity and at the srune angle
 CENTRU'UGAL PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS 187
The toW power C<H1lJUmed by the fluid is the prod-
uct of the total torque 8ll.d the angular velocity,"" in
radians per unit time t. .
t>Qw(C2r: cos at - tV, OOH a ,)
If energy il:l expressed in form uni ts, tu; foot.-I)OUn.W
(force) or centimete'~ra"'l1 (foN:e), the expl"e$llOh
i'lcludeR the conve~ion factor !'~.
"q.,
o -
,. (v2r:,! (,"t,., a2 - VI ', COt! al )

Hince !hlWCr i ~ a!,;() 'he proOUllt of ti re mlloll!-! per IInil,

time and the energy per unit mas!!, or head, the
virtual hood developed by a centrifugal pump is
Path thrOl.llh
pump referred........... '" /
to IfOUnd
/
, ,
~'" /

/{ 'Ii t
,."
- (I'2r2 cO!! 012 - vIr, COS ad

I / Figure 197 indicates the vector diagram of t.iw

1/
1/ d, velocity components at the periphery of the ,m-
V peller of a centrifugal ",'
0, Cenlet of rotItlon
pump. The absolute ve-
FIG. I\IIfI. l)kt:lcb of motion t.hrough A centn,fugaJ pump. locity II of the fluid at auy
point in the impeller may
with the radius. The path followed by an element be expres..;;ed- in terms of
of fluid IL8 it Passes through tbe pump is shown in the velocity of the impeller
relation to a stationary point 00 the earth's surface. u at that point. The BUgle
The IlladII of the ring of fluid is between the velocity of
the fluid relative to the
dill. - p2n-bdr (109)
impeller u' and tbe veloc-
where " represent~ the density of the nnid, b repre- ity of the impeller u is
180 h ' F' Jo'lQ. I~ . Ve<:lordillJ!;Mlm of
I!entlS t he width of the ring ( perpendicular to thi~ .. - fl, 8.." S OW" In Ig. vdodti,,,,. (Aftn C,l Iirm.' oJ
J.o8ge), and dr is the lhieknf!ti8 of the ring slong the 197. Since the angular
radiUI!. Combining equatipns lOS and 10'.1, yelooity of the impeller III is the ratio of t he tan-
gential velocity to the rtrodius uj r,
d,
,.
. (1121'2 COB 012 - "tV, COO al )
dT "" p2 ...rb - d(vr ClNla} (110) Virtual. head = (113)
dt

'The area of the ring of fluid il:l 21rTb, and the radial If point 1 is t.aken as the eye of t.he impeller and
\'elocity of fluid through. tho ring il:l dr/lit; therefore point 2 is the periphery of the impdler, and if the
the capacity, or volume of fluid being pumped per fluid enter~ the impeller without any prerotation,
unit of time Q is then the angle a approaches 00 degrees, its C06ine
app!'oach~ zero, and equation 113 approa.ches
(111) .' 1121'2 cos a2
Vi rtual hewl ... - ( 11 0
g,
ComhinilL.IC 1'>: llIaliullS 110 am i III , :lI1d il1l .1jt;r"Ul. il)~
~I \\'oon poillUi I and 2, Frum Fill:. 1\/7, II - V l.:QI! a + u' C<~ fl. l'lcrdun!
equation 114 may be writt.en

{ dT .. T: - TJ - f.P(i {l(tfrOOlla) Ih - . ... u.:(1l2-u2'eosfl,)

V Irtua eau -
, " '
g.
(1 15)

'The bi lJlio::rn.phy for thi~ cha " t.cr . pp<.... ~ on p. 1 ~l i.

188 PUMPING AND COMPRESSING
The virtual head is the theoretical mfLXiIDum head
that could be developed under the indicated operat-
ing conditionll. The quantity o( fluid being pumped
is more easily delennined than the velocity at any
point. The quantity of fluid being pumped is
Q - 21rrbt' ;;in a - 211'rbu' sin {j
Solving for u' and substituting in equation 115,
Virtual head _ U2
g~
[u, _(2""Q26COB2 ~ iJ, )]
sin
---u,.'l
g~
U2Q
2...r2b~. tan (j:
(US)
If the virtual head is plotted 88 a function of the
fJ\lantity of fluid pumped for impeller! of the same
dilUTleter operatiu!!; at the same speed, st.raight lines
afe obt.ained as shuwn in Fig. 198.
."'" -<
-.r .....
Quantity Pumped
Fro ~ 1Q8. Virtul\! head versus cl!.Pf\city for different outlet
VlJ.ne a ngles. (After Cllureh.)
The slope of the line is a function of the outlet
vane angle f3.J. A forward-curving van!'!, with a
negative outlet vane angle fJ-J" gives a po6itive slope
on Fig. 198 or higher heads for higher throughputs.
A baek\\'ard-curving VN1e (positive outlet v~
angle 132) gives a negat ive slope on Fig. 198, a.nd a
radial vane gives constant head. At zero How,
Q-O,and
Virtual head - -,-
u'
g.
regardleBII of vane angle.
Virtual Head with Finite Number of Vanes.
The virtual head equations assume no losses and an
infinite number of vanes in the impeller to provide
perfeet guidance to the fluid in its travel through the
impeller. Actually , a finite number of vanes must
be used, II.nd the fluid is not guided perfectly but tends
to circulate in the space between vanes. The fluid
within II. box rotB.ted about "an external axis (Fig.
199) tends w remain in the same position relative
f{y
,
A~rect~
,/ 01 rotItion
'0, Center of robtion
F IG. 199. Effeet or inertia on flu" of fluid,-ine.idt! rot,til\& boll ,
to a point on the earth'. alrflloCe. This effect of
inertia tends to eatlse a 80w within the box oounler
to the direction of rotation. Applied to the space
between vanes uI & rotating impeller (Fig. 2(0) the
inertial effect is superimpoMd upon the cent.rifugal
effect created by rotation at the impeller, resulting
in a variation in velocity ~r068 the space between
the van'es, as indicated . The result is to reduce the
&l~'p' Q and increase the angle (3, whioh decreaees the
virtuai head (rom that computed for an infinite
number of vanes. .
Aetual Developed Head.. An impeller is de-
Bigned for a particular bead and tbroughput. If the
pump or blower is operated at a lower or higher
throughput, the inlet and wUet VaDe aDgies are not
the best for that flow and int.roduce turbulence
which increases as the throughput divergelt more and
more from the design value. Frictbn of flow through
the impeller itself also reduces the energy convertible
into head.
Figure an indicates the effect of theee factors on
the head developed by a pump with b&ekward-
curving vanes. This curve ifI. representative of the
so-called " rising characteristic" curves, showing an
increase in head as the throughput is increased from
zero, reaching a maximum and then decreasing in
. the usual manner. Such a. curve is not necessarily
the reeult of fnrward-curved or radial vane8 but can
be obtained {rom backward-curved vanes if the
Velocity YWCtlQ !n(ludillC
~!etfteU
'I--,V'!eIoeily wekn fllCldlll
11! ineo1Al tIftds
( !mpe!1e!' vAn!'
""""
of rotItion
(Afttr
FI O.:lOO. Effect of inert ia on flo ... thmUKh impel1l!1'.
Chum.')
 CENTRIFUGAL PUI\IPS AND CO)IPR.SSORS
turbulence 1(l88e8 are sufficienUy great at low
capaeitiea.. A "falling characteristic" curve has no
maximurn.
EX"pt!rimental values of the developed head at zero
capacity agree wen with the theoretical head result-
ing from pentrifugal force alone (U2 2 j2g.) which is
one-half the virtual head of equation 117. This
means thllot the kinetic energy of the fluid R.'I it leaves
the impeller is expended in friction and turbulent
1"""'-
Lnspectiun of equations 114 a.nd lIB show that
the head varies with the quantity of fluid pumped,
but not witb the density. The discharge pressure,
however, does \'aty with the density. In other
words, a Jiven centrifugal. pump develops the same
bead at a givcn capacity, irrespective of the fluid
being pumped. If a pump normally handling water
is filled with air instead of water, the discharge pres-
sure immediately drops 80 low that po air ean be
delivered against the pressure of water filling the
dil:lCharge piping. The air remains in the impeller
because of its low density ref:!ult-ing in ceesatian of
flow through the pump. This is known as air
binding. It can be cured in an ordinary pump only
by stopping the pump and allowing the air tQ ri~
to the top of the casing, from whit::h it is removed
through II. petcock, t:l8 shown in Fig. 185. FlolV can
be initiated t.brough a centrifugal pump l>y positive
pre&Sure on the suction, by some VACuum priming
devico, or by a self-priming pump, as described.
Any variation m head accompanying a change in
fluid is the result of a change in viscosity. An in-
crease in viscOllity of the fluid increases the friction
108ge8 shown in Figs. an and 202 and thus reduces
FJ(l. 201. Factors reducing vir\URI head to developed het!.d.
(Afkr Ch!U"Cil.')
FIG. 202. F" ctOf1l inereasin& fluid botselJO"'er to brake ho .....
power. (AjlerCh .. rdt.',
the head and affecta the charatteristic curvCII a.s
shown in Fig. 203.
If the pressure in the suction line or within the
)lumps is lees than the vapor prc!;suro c.f the liquid
being pumped, vaporization of the liquid occurs in
the pump inlet or impeller. This vapor is persistent
and binds the pump exactly as in air binding. This
can be corrected only by changing t he suction
piping to reduce frietion losses or elimina~ "lift"
in the line.
Brake Horsepower. The power required to
drive the pump is that required to overcome all tbe
losses and supply the energy added to the .,fluid.
These losses include the friction of flow through the
impeller and turbulent IQSl;CB, the disk friction or
energy required iust to rotate the impeller in the
fluid, tbc leakage of fluid from the periphery back
to tbe eye of the impeller, and the mechanical frict ion
iOll8C8 in the bearings, stuffing boxes, and wearing
rings as indicated in Fig. 202.
The fluid horsepower is the energy absorbed in the
fluid leaving the pump. The brake horsepower is
the energy requirement of the pump per unit of
time.
Efficiency. The efficiency of a centrifugal ma-
chine il! the ratio of fluid horsepower to brake horse-
power. The effect of operating conditions on tbe
characteristics of a few pumps is indieated in Figs.
ro3 to 205.
Effect or Speed on Characteristics. 1118pet.'-
lion of Fig. 197 shows thnt an increase in speed of
rotation increases tangential velocity u proportion-
ally. The vane angle {1 and the fluid angle (l are
unchanged; therefore, all velocities are inc~
proportional to the increase in l>peed. The capacity
is thus dire<:tly proportional to the speed.
, 0<) PUl\t PING AND CO.HPR ESS ING
\
F.... III\' >'; 1111\' :<....." ... 1 I.f rol n.t ioll, t he velOl'ity l erm~
,." 6-
~ ~ t" t' t'::
" 2 :UIII /.") a l'(' pm po..rii" n!\l 10 Ih{" nuli ll:> ; ,he l'f"ol'(',
t h{' Iw:ul " f l~ l"('ll l riru~al Inl\('itinc is proportio nal
, t o the 'i<.iu!l.re of l he diameter.
\ 1\ I'\. ~ I'\. 0- The horSf']'l.oll'er, va rying as lhe product of head

, i'-i".. '" >.. '''''", ' and l:up:teilY, is propo rtional to til e e ll l~ of lhe
d iamell"l'.
\ 1\ " "I'\.~'~ I - Speci fi c Speed . For ;;inJl;Ie--stage KiJe--I!uetion im-
~.. ~"'l\ ~ rw,lle n;, OJ' Qflf J:!tu.ge of a mult illt age pllmp, the
' f- \-' ~ r\~~~ M!, , t \\ 1" spedfi e ;;pt'etl N. is a "Orivenif'ntt:onecpt
20 \f\~ -
, 1
0

8 I wh.:n : N . ". ~ifi c speed.

I --
;\' ... re volutions per ~ond.
' f-~ /
.'" Q '" volume of flu id per ~onJ .
,V ,
,"' -iD ... "tolll.l de\'el upeU head," or work done
r--
0
2
I
(w .... ) \

I
C,nI.oW<'

I
by one stage on Hnit rn a...." uf flui d
(eq ulttion fiO with TW ,.,. 0) .

T he 8p<!cific s(lfle<1 is dinmnJiiOfli(!lSK if coll>listent

IIllit;; arc u>iCd. l1
T he characteristic curves of a. p ump represent
,'"" , perform lLllcc from zero fle w to maximum flo w
(w ". 0) , tUJJ t ilt! spedfu! speed would vary from
V: V 'l": " zero to infini ty, Te8pei:tively. For cia.saifying im-
pellers II. single val ue mu~-t be selected. T he point
I.t:: :,- I" of maximum efficiency is usually l!C~ected for CalCIi'
' f- #.V y l""'- I' lation of the specific speed. T he usual range is from
0.03 to 0.87 when so calculated and expr'C!lSOO as the

I:~~t
r"" " dimensionless ratio given above. The lower va lUei!
o .""
. 60 ., 100 .20 140 IGO 180 200 220
~pacity, gpm
FlU. 'lOO. Clur;w:leril!l: ie ~UJ'VeII of & ' y pical ~ ,nl ri rlWll llump
f, ... Itlli.... or ,liIf, ..I vi I'C<SI K'II. (W..rIfti" gi .,. I' ll ...,. "..,1
,u",;Airvrll Corp. )
Since the abwlute velocity V2 and the trngential
velocity u, arc inCl '.!asOO. proportionally, the virtual
head and the de~eloped head a.re incre-'Sed propor-
tionaJly to the sq~are of thc speed.
The hON3eptlwer 1."1 l,roportionai. to t he product of
the head Md ca,acity and therclore inereases pro-
portionally to the cube of the speed.
EfTt.'et o f Impelle r Dia m e t e r o n Ch arac le r-
illtica. The capacit y varies IL's the Ill'eli or d Udlarge
of the i mpell~r for a given velocity of flow a nd
I,hcwfore ilO direc tl ~ prop,:-r tiOnl\l to the d iame ler of
the impcllr.r.
apply to radial~Aow centrifugal pum ps IIJ)d the
higher !SpCCific speeds to axial-flow p ropeUe r pumps.
Ullfortu nately , current practice I" w. omiw g~ and
expl'el>He8 Q in 'gallollil per min ute, N in re volutioDs
per m inu te, Imd 1b in foot-pounds fotce per pound
mWlS. In these units spEl(:ifi 'l speeills vary from 5(X)
to 15,000, which may be conver ted to the dimentl.ion-
!eill:! ratio hy d ividing by 17200.
Cavitation. When a centrifugal pump is operat-
ing a t high rates, the tligh velocities occurring a t cer-
tain points in the eye of the impeller or a t t he vane
t iptl cause loee.l prcssures to fall below the vapor pres-
ure o[ the liqulrl. Va porization occu ~ a t tJICSC point.;,
forming bubbles which collapse violently u pon rn(.v-
ing ulong to !l region of higher pressure o r lowe r
velocity. ThilJ momentILry vaporiloRtion and destruc-
tive collapse of the h:.;,bbles ~ called cavita tion and
is to be uvoidcd if maximum capacity is to be
obtained and (~amage to tl>e pump prevented . The
 SPECIAL PUMPS ANn BW1\'ERS ,.,
'80 ", 35".,,!~ hp
12-'di.
I
ll' """ .....,~~ .
J,IOh P
170
ImPfller
/ ~ EfficiellCY
160
II v I"\: 1.1,.
'50
1I~di.
I " -" . ,.
.40
1 Mdla
""
)< r--
l-~

~ 130

' ~
111
120
0
9Jj:"di. .... I" I" N " """
\ ~ W'~'\
..
.00 hL B
\
~
~ i ' t--. IX / (\\
80 I" r-;.~ J\.. '01"
r-- ~ vV 7/f IIi
10
00
o .. 40 . 80 100
.
, ."
120 '40 .00 .80 200
~. pn

FlO. 204. The ,"'""t cllmpeller diameter 1)1\ tbe <:banu:teristiea of II centriJupl pump with ~ impellera opcmLin,; at
17t!O rpm. Li ......... of equal eMeiMleiellllnd bnke bonopowers 1Ir!! 8bowD. (A_ P..pC..)

"hock of bubble eollapee causes severe pitting oi VIe
impeller andcreatc8 considerable noise tlJld vibra-
tion. Cavitation may be reduoed or eliminated by
reducing the pumping rate oc by slight atteratioIlB
in impeller design to give better streamlining.
Cavitation usua11y does not occur .at. low flow
rates on any given pump, but, when cavitation
QCCUf1!, all tbe characteristic curves shown in Fig.
203 "break" suddenly towards zero.
.20
Net POIl,t ive Suctio n Head (NPSH). Both vapor
binding and cavitation may be eliminated by main
taining a pressure at the pump inlet significantly
higher than the vapor preeeure of the liquid being
pumped. TIle required margin of pressure is e&Jled
the net poeiti~e suction bead. It is a funetton of
the pump design and is usually specified by the
manufacturer for pumps to handle liquids auch as
preheated boiler feed, steam condensate, or volatile
liquids. Usually, it is of the order of 2 to 10
f~lb/lb mass of fluid and increaaea with increaaing

.
"
i 100
~,900
I
H... np . . ..
,""- throughput.

S PECIAL -PUM~ AND BLOWERS

J:I .. .~ 80
" r
c

~40
B,.",IIoIM_,
IOOO"M

~.1000

-
There are many different typea of machines for
the handling of fluids which do not Call into the three
clllSSCS discussed above. Some of these, such as the

o
~ . o
- -..o-
.JoliI:DIdoncJ. 900"...
jet. ejector, the air lift, a.nd the hydraulic ram,' aTe
f&.r from these c,steGorie8. Some, such as the turbine
pump and the Hytor pump, are close re1&tiw.e.

0200 600 800 1(01)12001400 Turbine Pump6

1.&00
Clpacity. gpm According t{) old tenninology 'the diffuser pump
was called the turbine bccaul:le of it!! sim ilarity to
Fla. 205. Head, tfficieney, a.nd brake bol"lltlpower, plottOO
u a fupction ol Mp8Cily for a oentrifUpl pWl1p operatinc at the turbine driving unit, hut today the name turbine
two l p00d5 with the /IafIlII liquid. (Wm1lti~ P .....p 1Iq,i is rtl8trieted to a pump whose impeller is similar \0
Jr(tII'Jti""!l CfJf'1I.) that or Fig. 20(;. The turhine or "periphf'r.l.!" pump
 Pe:'\JPJ~G AND C<:nIPRESSI:\'G
Flo. 207. D rawinl or ltI!d.ir.n of ftuid c1"lnllci in luThi""
pump lIhowbg cin:ilialio:l. (A "rona f'"",p Co.)
rotates and acts as II. centrifugal with a semi-opcn
impei!er, but. t.he "eye' of the impeller is at thc point.
where the flat sidc of the impeller cea.'!es and the
radia.l Vanc begin!: (see Fig. 207). Recirculation is
encouraged in this pump. The fluid leaving a vane
is swept around the channel with the vanes, re-cnters
n vane inlet, and receives onc or more additional
impulsions before it weeps almost a full , tum
around the periphery r~om the suction to the dis-
charge.
These pumps have close clcarances but. are not
poI:!itive displacement pumps. They do not air bind
an(~ need no priming. The a.ction is that of a multi-
stage pump and gives Il high head to a small quantity
of Auid . Su(!h a pump it! shown disasl:semblcd in
Fig. 200.
HyLur Pump
A rnllchinc whose prin ~.iple of op<'ration plll.eflll it.
ill the cllUll:! of rotar.Y vnne pumps hut whose con-
struction p!i\(,"e!> it ir> Uw clQ.~ of eentrifugai pumps
iii Ih(' Hytor vacllum pump <IT nlfnprcssor, "h('wn in
 SPECIAL PUMPS AND BWWERS
I5eCtion in Fig. 208. The rotor has forward-eurved
V811e8 enclosed in shrouds and rotates around a
hollow shaft with four ports at the fOllr quadrants,
two serving as inlet ports and two as diseh&rge
ports, each opposite pair being connected through
the shaft with the proper pipe connection. The rotor
revolves in an elliptical casing and d~ not touch
the sides at any point. The seal is maintained by
liquid which is rotated by the vanes but which fol-
lows the shape of the cw;ing as a result of centrifugal
action, thus approaching and receding from the shaft
twice during. each revolution. This motion of the
FIG. 208. Sectional view of Hylor vaeuum pump indieatill4ll
.- operation. (NeWt EnjJi~ng Co.)
liquid acts as a piston in the space wtwocr. the
vanes, Slicking in gas and discharging it unc-quarter
revolut ion later at a higher pressure.
All seals in this pump are poHitive, frtclion of metal
against meW is practically eliminated, and wet gas
or gas containing glugs of liquid can be handled
equally well.
Jet Pumps
' The general term, jet pump, includes all machines
whose operation is based on the transfer of energy
by impact from a fl uid jetting at bigh velocity into
a slowly moving or stagnant fluid , giving the mixture
of fluids a moderately high velocity which is t.hcn
rcdur.fft carefully 80 88 to give a finsl PN'i\.<;urc
,greater than the initial pressure of the low-velocity
fluid. An injecWr is a jet pump using 8. condensable
gllS to_entrain 8 liljuid and diHch.'\rging at a pl"C::l!llln!
higher than the initial pressure of the motive fluid
193
or the entrained fluid. It is now practically re-
stricted to boiler feed-water injectors. An l'jeckJr is
a jet pump more general in character, U$ing either
gas or liql,lid for eitber the motive or the entrained
fluid amI. discharging at a pressure intermediate
between the motive p ressure and the suction pre&-
sure. An nhaw;ter, blower, or compressor is an
Mi>:ed flukl
FlO. ZOO. Lonitudi n:d l5eCtion of. 'ten.m-jl!~ ciecWr. (&:h~
aM Kot:rling Co.)
ejector w;t,h gases both as motive and entrained
fluids; a !iphott is an ejector with gas as the motive
fluid and liquid as the ent.rained fluid; an educlur ;1;
an ejector with liquids both as motive and entrained
fluids; and a furrw absorber is an ejector with liquid
88 the mot ive fluid and gas as the entrained fluid.
The essential parts of a jet pump are the noztle
.and t he diffuser. The nonle is a device for tran!-
form ing the high pressure of the motive fluid into
high velocity; the diffuser is a mixing chamber and a.
device for converting the residual velocity of the
mixture back into pressure. Figtlre 209 of !l steam-
iet exhtlu:>lcr and Fig. 210 of a water-jet eductor
iIIu.strlil.e the variatioll8 in fonn of tbese devi<:el:l.
'94
The nozzle in Fjg. 209 is converging-diverging, '
and the srearn passing through it. reaches "critical"
or "acoustie" veJocity a t the narrowest part-, then
increases in velocity still further in the diverging
section as the pressure is reduced to a vallie at the
tip approximately equal to that of t he slowly moving
Mano.e
(walt.)
' ' i<I
YI<!.210. Lnnlt'ilU!linal Sloctioo of a wlllr.rjet, cj,~,(.Qr. (Sch\llie
and Knt:rl.ing Co. )
fluid into whiGh it jets.. The forepart. of the ditTUJ!Cf
has a slight laper. In this soction the two fl\lids mix,
the high~velocity flHid losing momrutllrn to Ihe !OIV-
velocity fluid. The mi :-;cd fluids ('oter the fli verging
section with & velocity. n ot _greate r than Ihe 8(lolltl8tic
velocity. Under these conditions, kinetic energy of
the mixed stream is converted to prt)lSSIlJ'C energy
and the final discharge of the mixture may be made
into a pipe, a tank, or the atmosphere.
The 00'* in FiIJ. 210 ill conv~rpng only, giving
the water a high vt"ioc:ity by l:onversion o( the high
lliu~iv{! pll'';>;IIl'C tlllU jet\.iug it iuw lite low-n'loci\.y
liquid. The ..hort furellart'of t he diffuser :teI'VP.8 &8 a.
mixing section and is tapered to conform to the
increase in 8.vera~e velocity of the mixture pasSing
through it. The diverging 8eCtion of the diffuser
I!OJlverts the veJocity into the pressure at which the
mixt.ure is discharged. ,..
Jet pumps have no moving parte and thus ~
tically no maintene.nce requirements, but they do
require 8. quantity of bigh-pressure motive fluid,
which is usually expensive to supply. They &1'(:
mOfjt useful where need is intennittent and an in-
cxpcru;ivc stand-by unit is desired, where corrosion
is important., where 3. C9fTlbinat-ion of heating and
J){unping is desired, or where ... ]ow-prCtiSu rc exhaust
steam can be aalvllbred and ro-W:lCd.
The Acid 88
It is Frequently advantageous and possilJle to
eliminate moving mechanical Cquipment in pumping
-""".'"
FIG.211. 8keteh 01 t~ blo,, CI&l!I,!, or acid eg.
or compressing fluids by the utilization of kinetic,
potential, or pressure energy of fluids 88 a motive
fon::e. The acid egg or blow case, Fig. 211, operates
by displacement of' one fluid by another and includes
no moving parts.
The operation of the egg is simple. Liquid whicl.
has been introduced through the feed inlet is die-
placed by a les&-dense fluid such as compl'el:!SCd air
or inert gas fUld flow~ upward through the outle~
pipe leading from the bottom of the vessel. If the
entrance to the outlet pipe were at the top of the
vf'&Je1 instead of the bottom so that liquid would
displace gas, the blow CMe could function as a. gas
compressor.
If only one egg is used the operation is inter--
mittent.. The operation can be madc continuouy
with respect to the fluid flowing if two or more eggy
are used 80 that at. least ODe is discharging while
otheN are depressuring and filling. Acid eggs are
frequently mMually operated, although with. lIuit-
able hldLrulllenwtion the entire !leqllence or operation
can. be made automatic.
 SPECIAL PUMPS ANn DWWERS
,The acid egg, as the name implie8, is useful if
pumpe are either unobtainable or Wo coetly because
of the corrosiveness of the fiuK!.. lIB disadvantages
lie in the int.ermitl.ent action wJ.ich, in tum, requires
manual operation or excessive instrumentation. The
egg is inherently inefficient bP.eaUIIEI at the end of the
cycle the egg is filled with the motive fluid at its
highest pressure ; if a compressed gas is uacd it is
usually necessary to vent it to the atmosphere with-
out recovering work. Ag more COrTOSiOlH'csistant
materials of oolltitruction arc developed for pumps,
the usefulnet18 of the add egg grKdually decrea..'ieS:
Hydrofdic Ko m
The hydraulic ram, Fig. 212, uses the kinetic
energy of a moving column of fluid, wmally water.
to raise a portion of the fluid to a higher pressure or
elevation. If the fluid fl owing in the supply line,
or fall pipe, is ablUptly etorped by the Closure of the
escape check valve, the ~tatic pressure at the valve
suddenly increases because of the conversion of
kinetic energy of tho stream. The delivery valve
opens, and some of the fluid \ows into the delivery
splem. As the energy of the fluid in the fall pipe is
abHori:Nxl, the static pressure at the base decreases.
The escape valve opens, and the delivery valve
closes.. The flow in the column then inci'eBl!e8, and
tbe motive fraction of the fluid fiOWf; out, to waste,
through the. escape valve until its velocity becomes
great enough to pick up and seat this valve. The
cycle then repeaLs with !I. frequency which JlUI.y be
as low I&S 15 or as high as 200 tilOOS per minute.
Tho effi ciency of a properly dCl:livu~1 ram may be
as high as 90 Pf'r cent. The efficiency may be
defined :
W'h'
EtficicllCY (per cent) = - - X 100
Wh
where W' - mlis.~ of fluid delivered.
W ... nl8.l;S of motive fluid exhaul:ll.ed through
the !!!!Cape valve.
h - the full (Fig. 212).
h' - the lift (Fig. 212).
Ham.~ may vary ill the detail~ of design, but the
estsential components are the moving column, the
escape and d:J.livery valves, and the air chamber.
The f'ffieie lll'Y lUlIl \'lI plI~ity will depend upon th~
dt':iigll IIf 1.1"':' dl'.nwnh.
The i\lu,.ill~ (".oh""u. '111e important factors
of tJlis component are the 1n1lll9 of moti\'c fluid and
195
the friction of flow uf the motive fluid . Theile flOCOOIll
are usually expressed. 88 the rlllio of the lengtr of lhe
fall pipe to the beight of fall. Tbis ratio has an
optimum value, for & vertical fall pipe wOlild con
lain too small a. mM! of fluid and a relatively fiat
faU pipe wouLd have too great a friction loss. Too
optimum value varies with the lift.
The ValvC5. The ve.riabics to be (.'Q nllidemrl in
the design of the vo.lveR are the we;ght Bnd the
lengl.h of the stroke. As a broad generalization it
may be statal that the effi ciency varies inverl'lCly
with the length of stroke and Ule weight c>f LIte valve;
L:"'::'iv,=,:j"""l! ~_~
pip.!!
-=-
-~-
FlO. 212. Skcteb Indi r.,.tiflJ: principle of ollCruliun or ~...,
hyli",lIlk: ram.
Ule cap:l.Cit) varies di reetly with the IVeill;.ht oC tJlC
valve and the length of the stroke. In addition,
decreasing the weight of the ,alve decl'CftBe8 the
length of each cycie.
The Air Chamber. A surge chamber contain.
ing an elastir medjum such as air is necessary to
eliminate intermittent flow in the delivery pipe. In
practice, the volume of the air chamUer is approxi-
mately equal to the volume of the delivery pipe.
In order kI "keep this vessel supplied with air, a small
check valve opening inward from the atmosphere is
installed just below the delivery valve. At the end
of the delivery' portion of the cycle a small quantity
of air is inspirated Il.nd is carried upward at the start
of delivery.
The conventional ram may be modified to permit
the pumping of one fluid by another. This can. be
accomplished by replacing t.he delivery ch('Ck valve
with either a ~i8toll or !I. diaphrogm which sppnrates
the two flui<b. In this manner, for in..!i.ance, dirty
wawr can be used to pwnp clean water 01' some other
fluid.
196 PUMPING AND COMPRESSING
~1ut ..iT U/t.
The ai r lift ia a device for indueinK upward flow
of a liquid through the introduction of a less dense
immiscible truid. Compressed air I:,. the most com-
mon lifting 8uid. As shown in Fig. 213 the average
density of the material in the submerged column is
reduced by the introduction of a gas at the base,
and the fluid level "ill rise n.bove the level of the
..-,
-
G n itlltt
FIG. 213. Sketch iDdicatina principle oi operation of the /Llr
Iif~.
submerging liquid. A force balance may be \Vrittcn
for the system for the conditions of no flow of net
liquid t.hrl:::mgll the column:
PJa + p.t..A' ... .(VIPI + V,(P,),,,!) (h + hi)
. V/+ V,
= p.,..(h + h')
~here P, - density of the liquid.
Pat.m - aVeNge density of the su rrounding at-
mosphere or fluid.
(p, ).... - average density of the lifting gas (or
other lifting flu id) in tbe oolumn. .
the mean densit.y 0( tbe contents or the
Pt... -
ooIumn.
V" V, - the volumes of liquid aod PI in the
~wmn. . generated by vaporizing a portion of the liquid.
h., A' - "ilia submergence and lift, reepectiveiy.
.. defined by Fig. 213.
This . equation states the relatioo between the
height to which the liquid is lited and the quantity
of the lifting fluid 'required for ,static equilibrium,
As the .lifting fluid will always rise becaWle of j u.
lower deoaity, it must be introduced continuollllly
to maintain the liquid level in the column at any
desired point.
The quantity of fluid Dooe8lS&ry to rai!:IC the liquid
to any level will be the minimum at the point of no
net liquid flow. This minimum quantity which
must be continuously charged may be computed if
the rate at which the bubble6 rise ill known.
When quantities of lifting fluid greater than the
minimum ~ used and the liquid is being raised, the
~ow equation (59) applies to the system. However.
there is aeldom enough knowledge available to enable
a rigorous application of the flow equation. The
principal difficulty lies in the determination of the.
1000t work of friction. It is difficult, at best, W edlti
mate aeourll.tely the friction loss accompanying the
flow of two phMe8 in a pipe. Air-lift systems are
further complicated by the exisU'nce of a relative
velocity, or slip, between the two phases.. 1'hi!;
factor. causes an additional friction 1068 and an un-
certainty as tu the velocity to be used in computint
the 1081. work, U the velocities in the column an
high enough 80 that the relative velocity, or slip
is small Compared to the wta! velocity, then the lost
work may be estimated with sufficient accuracy bJ
conventional methods.
For tM air-lift pumping of 1DGter an empirical
rela.tion haa been proposed l'
h'
V. ir - 0.8--::....- -
h + 34
Clog - -
a.
where Val. is the volume of free air required w lift
1 gal of water, and C is defined by the following list.
rt
It, c
I<H;() 245
61- 200 233
",-roo
rot..,.
216
I..,
651-750 ' 56
There are many other applicat.ions of the IIIim"
principle as in the tubes of a nstural eirculatit'J
boiler or evapo~ator where the lifting fluid is gas
For the air lift itl!elf, many different devic~s,
called root pioocs, have been used w inject air intI)
 PROBLEMS
the base of the lift. The oommon purpoee of these
various foot pieces is to dispel'ge the air in bubbles
as small as possible. As the relative ;ising velocity,
or slip, of a bubble de<:reases with decreasing bubble
diameter, the air consumption will be lowest and the
efficiency greatest if the smallest poesibkl bubble is
used. The efficiency of a properly designed air lift
is at least'75 per cent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. Au.,"u PUll' Co., Aurora, Itt, c.t.alop.
2. BI.ACl:IllEa PUMP Co., Gl"1lIId Rapids, Mich., CataSop.
3. CHUIU:H, A. H ., CmlriJIifIol P"mPf aM Bk1u.Yn, John
Wiley and Son.<! (I944).
191
tbe piping system 1Ib01l'D in the figure which oonlalllll ~ ft of
2U-in. IICbed,,[e-4.0 It.raigbl pipe io the pump IlUction [ioo
and 210 ft of 'in. scbedule-4O pipe in the dbch'!Je line. Tbs
motor i8 22O-volt 3-phaee alternating CUmlnt, and the' ponr
faet.or iI 0.9. If aU the globe valV1)fS shown in the ak~teh .re
eomplete[y open, determine:
(a) The flow Mltl! t.hrmll\:h the piping in gAUonR per minute.
(b) The ampere. dM..-n by the mo\.Or driving tile pump.
.
-
CaPf-clty,

0
10
,.,
20
DeveiOped
Head, ft
' 20
119. 5
117
113
f:ffidenny
(Pump Ilna Mow)
0
13
23.'
31.6
,.

.,'"'"
of. CoorCftBMIIEliII:Eft CoftP., MI.. Vemon, Ohio, C&talop.. 107.5 37.'
5. DA UG HEWT1", R. L., CmtriJugtJ/. PumPf, McGrawHilI 100.5 42 . 2
Book Co. (1915). \l3 42 .&
6. DE L,\VAL&rEAlo( TURBlse Co., Tront.on, N. J., Catalogs.
7. F AlftIlAN)!;" :\[OIl8E AND Co., Chieqo, JU., Catalogs.
8. GEIWTCft PUlfP DIVISION, MAT On. BURNlt1a Cou.,
'"
80 "
77
41.7
39.'

Bahimu"" Md., Cat"alogs. 2. A pump is to be lJeieetoo to ropl8..", the old unit in the
9. HYOI\AI!LIC I N&1'I"JVTE, New York, 8tandatdt. ,y'tem below. The pump must pick up 12110 Ib of " 'lIer per
10. l ",oy.It>IOLL-RANO Co., New York, C .. t.alop. minule at 1.50- F from the oondenmle hot ....e ll and deliver
II . C,uITU, R , f. J . KA.llAS8I~ E. F . WIllGKT. Pump Q_ it to tbe top 01 the coolinK to"-er AI II. noule Prea8uro of 25 psi.
tiOM a1!d AIVItlft"I. MeGnlw.HiII Book Co. (1949). The piping.is compo!led of al nlight pipe (2~ in... eebedulc to),
12. KINNEY :\lASU'ACTURISO Co., 800!t.on, 1101...., Catalop. lltandud e[ba".., .nd a pte Ylllve.
13. LAYII I!l AND Bowloll.... INC., Memphit, Ten.n., Cat.aJop.
14. N"OLa PUMP&, Chicqo Heia:hla, li!., Catalop.
I~. NUH ENOtNEEIlINO Co., S. Norwa[k, Conn., Catalop.
16. PCNNBYLVAIIU P UMP AND CoM'lt.MIOa ('.0., &.ton, Pa.,
"
C'.... talo8fl.
17. RooTS-CoNNEMvILLI;l BIDWBR CoB'" Connel"SVi.1le, Ind.,
Catalop.
17(1. Rot/fiE , HUNTER, EkwunUJ'7I Meebnia oj nui~, John
Wiley and Sons (1946).
18. ScHtrn'E ASO KOII!:RTIl(O Co., Philade[phia., Pa., Catalop.
1&. 8ft;PAIfOPP, A. J., Cntlri/U(Jal a1Id Au YWw 1"1111111',
John Wiley a oo 60nB (194.8).
19. 8W INDIN, N., TM Mockrn T~ G1!d PrQ(;tio/Pumping,
F.rneIII Bcnn, Ll.d., London (1924).
20. UN ION &rEAM PuMP Co., &.ttle Creek, Mich., c.t.aIop. Two uaed pump! Jre aT&ilab1e, a 12 by 8 by [0 OOlble-
21. WOBTIfINoro", P UMP AND MAC HI/UBY Colll'., Harriton, actin( llimplell .team pump witl> a volumetric efficiency 01
N. J ., c..ta1nK.~. 81 per cent and a llteam p~nre ratio of 0.65, and a Clentrifu-
pi pump wit.b the followilll chlLnt.ctermic. curve:
PROBLEMS Developed H~ad.
I. Thf! motpMriven centrifugal punlp' (or which data are Gpm ft of fiuid
pven below Ia to be used for pumpiOj: _ter at 80- F throuch
"
60
200
229

"
100
186
158

, ''''
160
175
1'"
'27
118

"'"
8tum ill anilable at 40 'pei.
110
,',

Would bot~ pumpa be auitable fot thil job? If not, 1eJeet.

the mort! IlUitable one.


;J CHAPTER

15
t
-.
"

Gas Flow at High Velocity

N the treatment of Chapter 12 the energy air nozzle inlet, P / P o is unit y, the velocity is zero, tlw

I sorbed by the increase in velocity or the fluid

as it expanded to a lower p~ure u~ually
was neglected. For moderate changes in preR8ure
flow is rero, nnd the cfOS8-8eCtional area ill infin;t p' ,
As the pre;sure decreaoos along the pMSage (from
right to left ill Fig, 214) the flo\\' per unit area reIl.Ch l'~
this may not introduce significant error. But, when a maximum at a value of P/ P" a little greater tha n
the p~ure drops become large and the gas flows
at high velOrf.ty, thMl errors become significant .
Tht imtlortance of these ch!UlgeB in kinetic energy
during flow are well indicated by consideration of the
friction16!!S nozlle.

NOZZLES
If a com~ible fluid is expanded through a
nm:zle, its velocity increases and its specific volume
;ncre&leS with decrca,to;ing pressure. Ir the eXp&ruIion
i~ r;onaucted with no fr;etion loss (~vemble), equa
tion p9c becomes

+ Il~ =- 0
Ir dP
2g,
(118)

and it is po88ible to convert tbe drop in pre88Ure into

an equivalent increaiJe in velocity of the fluid. This
convenlion of pressure encr.ftY into kinetic energy at
relatively low velocities occurs in the venturi meter
dcecribed in Chapter 13, Throughout any sllch
nOl.l1e operating under steady conditions the mass
rate of flow is constant (W - GA - vA / V), and it
ia p<lI!8ible to de~rmine the CfOtlS-6eCtionai area of
the flowing stream as a function of the p11!l6llUre from
the known properties oJ the fluid (equation 130).
The specific volume V, velocity 11, maas velocity
or flo\\' pt"r unit ;lfea G, and area . per unit mass
flo\\'in~ :t .... ploll~1 f"r high-velocit," How or large
PI't'l!<!IlI't' dl,tl~ :I~ u flluctinu of tilt" ralio P/ J~II for a
reversible adiahatic cxpanginfl ~ . in Fig. 214. At the
...
0.5. This pressure ratio corresponding to the
maximum flo\\' per unit 'area, or the minimum r,r08~
sectio,!-al area of the stream, is called the' critical-
prUIIUNl ratio, Inapeetion of the curve repm8Cntinr;
&rea per unit of flow indicates that, the flowing
stream (and therefore the DOl.lle) mWlt be oonverging
fOf expa.nsions down _to the critical-pressure ratio.
'For any further expansioo to p~SBures below this
critical pl'el\SUre, thf'l flml'infl; strpam (and nou:l('l
mlillt. l)t~ diverging. 'rILe minimum ",'O.IS ~tt ion uf
tILe IIj,n!um is the V\"lta cUldmtlu, (Illd the minimum
The bibl;"gaphy for thi3 chapt.er a llpo!an on P. ~,

 NOZZLES
"
..

.'"
0,171

O.
. J. ~~:
_ ~i
0.833
0.820
0.811
t

I\' -t-.
~~

# 8
o. ..,
0.80"

...
0.171
,
O. 7
?' V
-
c ;...-
'~: ,
.
O

, O.

;; D,6
"liA!
,.-
/"
---
O. 575
,
o.
1)'1 ! ;' L p..- O.
"
, ...... w I II
o.
'-J.
o.,
lOT O. ,.,
'"
O.

, ,
00 1345' 1 , ,
FIG. 215.
Dittuu tro. "flZZ"
tIItrr-i"dH "
Pret!IIUn! dilltribution in a oonvera:ing-diverpng nOllle 6pl'Cl5lled in \.erlll$ of 'the ratio of prtBIIUre to upstream or

flntl'1lnee Pre!!IIUI'e, P/ PD for vanoW! down&trmm {\f' exit pretl8Uretl.' The nozzie .... ao;; dOl8ignled to "P"MI,~ under the eu nditiooo!
eomospondir-A to ruM 71 a.nd 1'2 repreMDt.ed by (';utY1) O. The ~k in eurve D ooewrin!lt about 7 in. calM..:!. by sudden u.
eoode~ of ste.m 1.0 _ter reault.in, fl'OlllllUpereoolinK 01 the 8t~m dl.:rin& Upan!!lon :md Y not II ".hock ...." ....1)..,

cr08lJ 'section of tpe nozzle is called the Ih1'CKU. The
velocity of the fluid in the throat of the Doule is
the ve&ocity of sound in thl*t fluid.
The veiOl'ity of 80uQd is usually derived for fI. wave
comprising an infinitesi."al rise in pressure followed
by an infinite8ill":J fall in Prefl8ure moving through a
tube of umfonn cl'OII!HteCtional area:. The ftuid is
_continuous and in a uniform 3t;.a.te (rom wall to wall
at any inst.a.nt. U the observer were to move with
the sound wave so that the sound wave would appear
to him to be stationary, htl could observe a stream of
fluid flowing reversibly and adiabatically through an
infinitesimal rise and fall in pressure with no change
in the cros!H!eClion..aJ. area. of the stream or in its
Row per unit area. -Such behavior is found only
at a stream velocity corresponding to maximum Row
per unit area (a minimum area per unit of How).
Therefore the velocity of sound in the Huid is t he
velocity of a stream of tbal fluid at maximum How
per unit. area or in the throat of the nozzle, It follows
that velocities in a converging ~oJ:lle do Dol exceed
the velocity of sound, whereas velociti~ in, 01 dis-
charged from, the diverging part of a nozzle may be
~on8iderably in exces.'-\ of the velocity of lSOUnd, The
smaller t he anPile use:<J in the divl'rgent Dozzle, the .
lees the loss due to lateral eXI)Ilru;ion, but the gN'H.ter
lengtb of the resulting nozzle I('Q.((,~ tn il\("111l~
friction 1~. A pract icul 1~III1"rumL~' i" n>l IL !llI~'
n:u.chal ill tilt: nUIgt' lM:"hw('n iii ,m, \ :~o del{T,"'" f ..r
t.he whole angle.
The ope\"il.tiOll uf a cQfwergellt.-dioclyeli l IllIz.lle is
iIl U1ltrated in Fig. 21 5, which shows t h e p ~u re 3.'J
the ratio PI Pn throughollt the Ir-ngth of t he nozzl!!
supplied with steam for different downstream pres-
sures. 1 When the p~llre ru.lio i~ eV('I"ylI"heftl
gl"eIHer th a n the eritical-preIIl:Illre ratio lind the
velvcity n u\\"hl're exceeds the vc\od ty of iKlund, the
diverging pnrt of the llOz1.le !Serves as aditTIl8eT and
the IUJzzlc as II. whole is in every respect like a venturi
mete r. Thi~ condition ill represented by curve ,1
which shows the minimum pressllre occurring in the
throut of the nozzle. If the e).: hli.ll~t prf!h'lurc i~
lowered, the pl"elliUre in l he throat decrc~ and t ht:
flow through the nozzle inercMe8 until the crili('al-
pM!:ll>UTe ratio is tea.chod at the throa t (cHIve H).
This is the maximum flow rute that ('an be obtuined
through t.he noz~le fo r the given uptltrcam condi-
tionS. No further increase in flow can r&1f \t from
any change in downstre am conditions. FUI' a1lloll"er
e.'\.hallst pl"t'Saurre the Cl.mditinn in tne th;(I(lt r('mains
llnclilUlgtXl anJ the flnw rt'llULill!l cons taili.
When the exhaust. pr~ure is I ~ than lhat cmre-
spouding to Cllrve 8 but grcat('T thun that for wbidl
the nozzle i>l designed (identit:ul expansion rat ios
of ~tlTam und nozzle $S rep",~'iCnt.cd \iy uurv(' D),
at !Wme section in the diverging passage the", will
be a stanciing pl"eSllure wave (I'!ueh :w< imiicuted
I,y ~r on ell rvf' (') wili(' h il"l jall ... 1 :1 ;,rt',""tft' "}'f>r/i.
'11", tl\l;,1 ,'III,'r,; thi,. WltV' :It \,, <\' ,.n,,-"un '. ;md :11 :.
\(,Iudty gl~~at .. r tha!llhtl vdOC:'ily oj ~o'lI,j :1I ...ll(':(\!'~
 ... GAS FWW AT HIGH VELOCITY
it at high preseure at a velocity less than that of In the mathematical treatment or flow under large
IIOUlld. . This preUllre ,hock representH a 10B8 in pressure drops or at high velocity, the assumption.
efficiency for supersonic flow similar to the preMure of ideal (J(UIU oj con&l4nt hetJl capacit1l is generally
drop required to overcome fri ction in the morn lIlJICIe to- simplify the calculations.
familiar low*vclccity flow of fluids. Pressure shock For many procesees the path followed by the gas
may be expected whenever any friction ill encowi- may be represented. by the cxpl'C88ion py" - 'a con-
tered with fluid!) a.t velocities greater than that of stant, or

'. sound .
YJ.gUre 21.5 may ail:lO be Ul:ICd to indicate the op(!:rA- PV" - PIY 1" - P,Y," _ P3Y~ "
lion of a cmwergent no:zu if aU the figure to the right where n is a constant whoee value dcpends upon the
of the vertical line laiJeled "throat" is neglected. gas and upon the conditions of flow. For adiaba.tic
The rate of flow through such a nozzl.c is independent reversible flow 8.!1 in the nozzle corusidcrod, 11 ... k.
(121)

of the downstream pre88Ure only when the down- Fur isothermal flow' J1, _ unity.
stream pressure is less than that corresponding If equation 121 is written in the logurithmie form
, to the criticai-pl'08!:!ure ratio. So long as the down-
the following rell!.tiomshipiS are apparent
stream preBllure is ietlS than that corresponding to
the critical-pressure ratio, the flow rate is at. its
maximum and is independent of any change in the
downstream pressure. This statement is also true
G:) -G:)- - (~f' (I21a)

for an orifice, tube, or pipe.

Although the linear velocity may exceed that of
sound in a convergent-flivergent nozzie, it is impos--
( ~) In P, _ ( _ I) In T,
n PI J1, - 1 TI
(12Ib)

sible to attain a linear velocity in excess of that of

sound by expanding a fluid through an orifice, con- When IlZ, q,'and w are each zero, equation ,5.k&
vercent noule, tube, or pipe. Any expansion may he written in thc differential form for unit mWSl:i
through an orifice or convergent nozzle to a pressure
below that corresponding to the critical-pressure (~)lldT+"dr! "" O (122)
ratio takes place irreversibly downstream from the \i - 1M gc
discharge with the energy dissipated.in turbulence
in the surrounding fluid . since dH - Cp dT and Cp - R[k/ (k - I)).
Writing equation 120 in logarithmic form, .ub-
Beeau!Je the velocity of eound in the fluid is 60
stituting RT/ M for pVJ and differentiating,
important in defining the characteristics and limits
to flow at high velocities, the ratio of the velocity of
d(Ma) dll I dT
a stream to the local velocity of sound in the g8.11
at that point is a useful ratio in treating gases at
- - - - ---
(Ma) II 2T
(123)

high velocities. This ratio is called the Mach number

and is represented by the symbol Ma. Friction". Adiabatic Flow
The velocity of an infinitesimal adiabatic pressure
wave, or sound wave, in a g&.'!CVus medium of pres- For revehlible adiabal,ic conditions, equation 121b
tlUre P and specific volume V i::s becomes
1 1
- dlnP - - - din T
(119) k k - 1
where k - Cp/Cy (the ratio of the "specific beats"). (124)
II. _ &eOustic velocity.

The Mach number for an ideal gaB is

--( , ---
' - l)dP dT
P T
, Combining equatiOM 122, 123, &lid 124 ",itb equa-
(Ma)-.J V (120) .tion 1200 and pV - RT/ M,
and
v/cgcP

(Ma)' - - -
.. (1200)
-k4eR aT
-; - (k - I)Mtt' -
d(Ma)
(Ma) +2
1 ("1'\
T)
(125)
"J'V

 NOZZLES 20'
A is a minimum when Ma is unity or the velocity
dT _ (~)dP
is equal to tbe .acoustic velocity.
T k P
SincedU _ CydT;Cp - Cj. - RI M; and (RIM)
_ d(Ma) [ 1 ] (126)
dT - d(PV),
d(PV)

(Ma) I I (131)
dU-(k_l)
+-2
(k - I )(Ma)2

RearrangillKand integrating from p - Po loP - P, SubstitutioK in equation 54 in difl'erent.W form,

with q, w, and dZ e&;Ch equal to 1efO,
-.
with Ilo ... Oor (Ma)l) - 0,
d(PV) ,,2
P,)~ , _~~ (Ma)' + _2
(P 2
_)
k - I
(127)
- - + d -2</, +d(PV)
(k-I)
- 0

Solving for d(PV), ,

(Ma) - Jk ~ 1 [(~)'f' - I] (128) d(PV) - - ( -k-I)

k- d (2</,
") (132)

Mo.dmum Adiabatic FI~ Rau Integrating betwoon the limits II - 0 and II .. 111;

Equation 127 ean he solved for Po/Po and pV .. P~Vo and f'l' - PI V ..

:0 _[2 + (k ~ 1)(Ma)'Y=1
111 2 .. 2gck (PoVo - PI VI)
(121l) k - 1 "

The cl'Of!8-!!tlCtional area of a fl.owing .stream ex- 2</"R (T T ) (133)

panding adiabatically and reversibly through a (k _ I)M 0 - I

nosale may be similarly shown to be given by -equa-

tion 130 -til
i . 2gck
.. - - (PoVu)
[ '-'] PI T
I - (-) (134)

(M')'l'~':'"
k - 1 Po
A (Ma), [ 1 + k ; I
__ - - (130)
(135)
A. .(Ma) .1 +k ~ I (Ma)o!
For maximum mass velocity, dGaldP I .. O. Mak-
wbM:h may be"df.rivrd fton:l ing the differentiation and changing PI to P, to-
represent critical flow condit.ionll
A V""
dB - rot' P'_(_2 )<=; (136)
Po' k +I
~ _ ' (Ma)o JPoV~
Substituting equation 136 in eqllationa 128, 1M,
" (Ma) pV
ar:d 135 gives for, the maximum possible dU!charge
..!:. .; (p,)l 3
IIG ' . rJekP.V. (137) .
Y, P
(Ma)e' ... I (138)

g.k(;:)~': li~:
1

G,t -
.t I (Ma)2 (_k --2- )

(kC. I) + I
+I
Gu
2
.. (13lI)

(Ma)02 - 2- w"here G._ - ma.'l(imILm flow rate in nozzle UDder

adiab6tic condi~)OOIl, which corresponds to 8. velocity
Inspeetion of equation 130 61' plutling on" any in the throat equal to the &coostK: velocity and ..
&rbitr&ry scale indicates that the area. of the s tJ'l'aDl :\Iach number or unity .
2112 GAS FLOW AT HIGH VELOCITY
'fI", f :ri rjl..,1 rim, PrtH'~r Hllh.<titut,ing t'lt1I1af.ioll 141 illl'<luation 12Ob,
:-:iim't' tilt' m&'~ \'f'1,)t'it~ through a nozzl", depends
only on upstream conditions as indiClited by eqUI!-
tion 139 whf.n the down!tream pre&>ure is I~ than
'(Ma')~ - In (:ay (142)

that corrPllpondrng tl) t he critical-pressure 'ratio, a ") _ 01.')"

_ = ~ 2 ( "24)
nozzle npera ting \ludt'r c ritical flow conditions mukes (
Po
a ml.,t. oonvellif'nl. devic~ rO! measuring flow. The
di verging sect ion is unne;:essary. Any carefully The mas.~ velocity in the t hroa t of the nozzle may
!>tl"f'U mlincd nozzle which may be simply a rounded- be expressed by 8ubHti t utiop; in equation 141 G.
e ntry thick-plate orifice, operating under critical for IIlt V .. and POV()/~I for VI'

~, (~~) G:)'ln G:)

~ ow conditions may be used for calihmting gas-flow
metCNl or for I:onlrolling the rate Qf flow independent
If d ow n ~ trpam p~u re. The coefficient of di~:harge
may be fl.'! high 11." 0.95 1.0 0.99. U~lIully the capacity
of the prover is ~Iaw<j in gas volume per unit of t.ime
for IIp11tream conditions of the gus, thereby eliminat-
ing the difficult det.ermination of the area of the
Ihroat of a small no~tl e.
Sharp-edged orifices are unsatisfactory u.s critical
How provers, as the discharge is not entirely inde-
pendent of the downl:ltream pre8llllre.
G,' - ( 143)
If thill equation iH piotteu with G1 and p. 8.!j variable-;
for given uplltream conditionll, Po and Vu, the equa-
tion indicates that the mass velocity G, increases
to a ma.ximllm as PI decreases and then decreases
for further reductil)ns in PI' The condition for
maximum discharge is met when (dGddP I ) - O.
Differentiation of equation 143 with Te8peet to PI
and equating (dOI /dP.) '"' 0 gives!

Frictwnleu [Jloth.ermal Flow

As hili! been indicated, n = I for isothermal flow.
In (~:) - ~ or (;:Y - e (t44)

Under such ('.ondiLions the calculations become where p. has been 8ubsti~uted. ror PI to repr_nt
simple. Lapplt!' has developed a method of calcu- critical flow conditiC'n!.
lation for high-velocit.y flow based 00 a computed Substit.uting equation 144 in P.ql\&ti on~ 141 , 142,
critical mass velocity through a nonle in isothennal and 143,
flow, AJ t hough such conditions of flow may never (145)
eJlist, such a hypothetical velocit.y affords a con- ( Ma')' ., I ( 140)
venient basis for calculation.
If t he flow is flictionless and DO work is done, .2 _ g.Po . p 2 IJ.M
Gn. (147)
equation 594 or 11 8 beeomes "
t Vo
0
tRm
I ()

Jl'o("V ,/p +i'" (~) -

2g~
0 ( 140)
where Go..; - cri t ical maM v~i()('ity t.hrongh a. nozzl~
in isothetml!-i flow .
From equations 14b and IUI it, i ~ cltdl" that. till'
maximum flolV poKHible t.hrough a nozzle und" ..
For iwthermai flow , V - PuVo/ J'; and fot" a
il:lOthermal conditions correspondll'o the fluid att.ain-
nozzle, 1111 - O. iut.egration of equation 140 then
ing an "lJ,Coustic velocity" in t.he nozzle throat equal
gives
to the velocity of an infinite6imal isothermal PTffillurc
wave through the Q;9.!I at throat 'Conditions.

Ratio oj Flow Rate to Jl.fll;rinHlm 1.~(,tllermfJl

For isothe rmal ('onditloll!! n = 1, or k may be
taken fU! unity, t;.nd I.ht'. equution (~orreKp()wlilig to) 1=
I'<luation l20a would be F..quation 143 may he ilividf>ll h.'v I'qn:lt.ion l-li w
give
(Ma'):.! = "V for k ,.. 1 ( lrob) a )' (")'
(--;~. --!- !II (,.),
- .-;~
I' ( fi R)
9, 1' (" ~' I, J"
 PIPES 203

(l(9) 122

1.2<>
In LhiKway all jijOthermal fl ow rates are expressed
in terms of a ratio (0 a calculated maxi mum dis-
1.18
charge through a not.de under isot-hermnJ flow oon-
ditions (0",,) wbien is related to uPlStream conditious
U6
byequatilm 147. The time of flow through a nozzle
ill !to short thai. isothcrmal flow cannot he realized,
hut the caiculal~1 value for Gc ,,; makeR 3 oonvelli~nt , 1.14
rational rdf!renm'! for use in cak\lll!.tin~ flow. a
S{1.l2
Frjctionl(!,..~ iVonixothermul How 0'
1.10
.r
I'or fiow unde r condition~ which are not iro- t- :-
thermal, the value of n ill not unity, and equations Lilli
corresponding to 148 and 149 may be developed by
combining e<luations similar to 139, 135, and 128 by 1.06
suhstit.uti ng 11 for k to give:

(f7"."G)'...
1.04

1.02

(~)(~).:,
_11 - 1 2
(~'):
I"
[I - (p')'~'l
P
( 150) 1.00
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.1 1.8
u
i - Cr/Cv

(G",,,,0)' '""' (Ma')

,[ 2 + (0 _
"+ 1
I )(Ma')%
J::: (l51)
FIG. 216. Rat ... III ffilll<imum f\..w for .uli"ko.l;r. "o ... l;l;o",' It.
mlL-.'mllm How fot i9Qth.~nr",1 I'Qndit ion" """ fu"" I;"n "r t.'

Tne ratio between th<> maximum flow rutes under Irreversible I..otll erlllol ""mv
nonisotbermal and isothermal conditions is obtained For isothermal Jl01lllitiolll:l, (I(I'V) '"' 0 = P flY
by combining an eqlJation ~i mils r to 139 with 11 SU" + V dP; thererore.
I'titutcd for k, ....:jth equation 14i.
(_ + lJ d("') J
u
V;;; (2-)"'-" -- + -- Ill. .. ( 2,,r'..) l'rlP (liH)
(C ,) _ ( 152)
O... i n + 1 " V
By 8uh8tit.u!.ing ~,fm' I.
in (''1uation 152 til(' ratio
Hine,e, I' ,.. I', Pd P 1"01" iSllilK'1"mal flow, awl f~)I' 11
pipe of \'ou,;(aJil IW()S.~ st'l,ihm Uw lila:>" v('iue:il.,
of maximum fiow for adia hatie: conditions t.o maxi-
(0 - 1'.lV) ii'! (:1I1L.ctuul awl tiP IV = flv/v, t'l!uaiio;\
mum Row for isot,hermu-l 'conditions is obtained. 1.'>4 l)f~lUm()~
This ratio is plot-too as 9. fUllction of k in Fig. 21:i.

PIP1-S
For flow in a pipe or wherever f ridil'o i(ft'R.!! must
be con.cidered, C(1\ll~tion 63 may I.e subl:ltitutro in.
e<IUll.tion 504 for unit mu..'!S of fiuid , giving, when l
to _ 0 , 2

( 1~1) FIG. 216A. Illft.j/.ntn, 'mh..... ,,,1I. ~ilC " i fo, .. rot~"f ~ul ",,"ri,,~ ~ ("r
III.\\' ~h",u~" pi l..-!\.
204 GAS FLOW AT HIGH VELOCITY

Integrating between limits v - VI and v - 1)2, and Swgnotwn Temperature

L-OandL - L, In adiabatic flow the temperature is not cOnlltant.
but varies with the prC88ure or velocity or Mach
number, .as indicated in equation 126. The flo ....ing
temperature would be indicated by a thermometer
moving at. the same velocity a... the fluid whooe tem-
Substituting N for JUD and solving for N, perature is being measured. The "stagnation

N~ ('o::,V,) [ (?,)']_I - In (;;Y (57)

SinCfl G is constant, 111 / 112 - VI / V, -
suootitut.iag G for vi r in equat.ion 167,
temperature" (or "total temperature") is the tem-
perature attained by the gas upon bringing the How-
ing gas to rest by a reversible adiabatic process and
can be sho wn to be
P2/ Ph and

N- - "P, [ (P,),]
- 1- - - In - (P,), (158)
G2V1 PI P2
where To is "stagnation temperature."
T is flowing temperature.
For given vtUues of !'I, Ph and VI! G is a maximum
when dG/dP2 _ 0, differentiating equation 158, and
The adiabatic waU temperature T~ is the tempera-
substituting Pc for 1'2 and Ve for V2 ,
ture uf the wall that will maintain adiabatic flow of

() '
r. - (h
(P,) (P,),
-
VI -
PI ---
'op.
V.
(159)
the fluid and i8, t herefore, equal to the wmperature
of the stagnarit gas adjacent to the wall. If the
flowing gas were broujl;ht to the st.a.gnant condition
F-or maximum maM flow, equation 158 then becomes reversibly and adiabatically, the adiabatic wall
temperature T" would equal the stagnation tem-

N, - (:Y (;:Y]- I~ (::Y

[I - (100)
perature To. Actually this is not the case. Turbu-
lence introduces irreversibilitie$ eVident as friction
losses. and heat transfe r within the gas tends to .

N. _ (;:Y- (::Y- In 1 (tOfu)

(161)
and it fl)lI!)w~ tho.t tho ma..ximum possible mass flow
throljgh II. pipe indw.Hng friction effects corresponds
to the "ac()UI~tic velocity" under the conditions of
flow . being attained by the gu.~ in the pipe exit.
IrreVf!rltible Adi"ootic "' lole
By a series of operll.tionl:l lOimilar to those followed
in deriving equation 159, Cl.{uation 1Ii2 may he de-
rived for adiabat.ic fluw in Il. pipe,5
equalize temperature differences between the How-
ing sud s tagnant gas. As a result , the s tagnant gas
actually attains a temperature g reater than tbe
Hawing temperature but less than t he stagnant
temperature. Therefore , the adiabatic wall tempera-
ture is intermediate between Ule flowing and sta.g-
nant temperature.
The recovery ractor it! the ratiu
T" - T
(l63a)
T, T
Heat transfer rates should be calculated using the
adiabatic wall temperature T" as the effective tem-
perature of the gas rather than either the flowing
temperature T or the stagnation tempe rature To. .

(162)

(1620)
 PIPFS 205

Flo. 211. lU.lio of. nliUimum flo"" ,10 iolOtIWtllW.\ Itll,);i muln flow ' 1l.II" function of VN ... V/LI D wh~re/'" ftidin" f"(lt()l',
[, _lenlllh ..1 pipe, aDd n ... diameter of pipe.

The distinction bet.ween Rowi ng te mperature and
etagnation tem perature is somcwhat similar 10 the
distinction between static pI"CSSurt' and impu(' t pres-
sure as d iscussed in Chap t.er 1-1 in connP("lilln \\'ith
t,he pitot. tllbe.
M etluNI" oj Culcnlati"K Pipe Cupocitictl '
The ratio of maximum flow in a pipe; G" 10 that
for isothermal condit ions in a non ie, Gc.. i , is given
in Fig. 217 as a function of e<luivalent pipe length.
Since The isothermai.expressione are identicul \\;th
th<l corresponding nonisothcmlal (or adiabatic) ex-
pre!!SionB (or a value of k equal to unity, isothennal
How may be considered as equivalent to adiabatic
flow of a hypot hetical gas having 11 value of k equal
to unit.y. For convenience then, all How conditions
rat io GIG~~ i, lIince r.~~i may be readily ca leula tf'd in
tenns of the entrance conditions in reservoir ahead
of the pipe by equation 1-17,
Figure 217 giveI$ \'Rll11's for the ma..xi mUffi possible
discharge (G.IGcK') as a function of N for various
values of k, for given ups tream conditions incor-
porated in G.,,/. For lung pipes the maximum dis-
charge may be eHt.imated by ..the ap proximate rela-
tionship.
( 1M)
and the critical flow pressure may be estimated by
the approximat ion

JC:1X~)
are expl"('i;SC(!: in tel'ms of vnlut's for k, N, a nd P'l.I J'c 1',
( 16')
or Pa/P", lind the mas..'l velocity is expressed as the P,
206 GAS FU)W AT 111GB VELOCITY
The error involved in the use of the approximat.e llIu, lr,tive E .. Plple, It W dellired to calculate the dill-
relationship of ct'Jllation 164 is indicated in Fig. 217, charge rlt.te ilr air to the atmosphere from a TeIM!rvoir a~
150 psis and 70" F t hrout;h 33 ft of 8I.nIighl 2-;D. ><ehOO u......
which indud{'tl a plot of equation L64 as a function
40 8mooth >steel pipe {t ... 0.000 11 ft) and thn... c1bo .....
of .Y. The IJiIIC intake project/! elightly into tho l"t'<ICrVU1T.
For long ri~s the maximum posaible discharge is To IIOl vc the probll'.m, i ~ iI! ne<ll~ry to aIioIUmc a vaJup- "r
the 61Lffifl whet her the How is adiahatic or illOi.herlTUtl, till! friction l!\Clot J and IIJpre!!JI all 1\";~tan'" in 1('rms " r !t,"
hut Ule prc:-;;;U1C drop is larger for adiabat.ic Aow. as full,,"e:
In Fig>l. 21 &1, b, c t hc actulll m~M velooit.y ex- H,.,J~I""<-u (1-/ /1) (N )
pressed as the rtLtin (G/ On ;) is pl"Uoo It.S a fun"l i' lI1 Inl ak" 31 n ..'"", t
of t.he pressure ratio P,/ Po with N ItS a parH.mel.er HI.nlillhl pip" 1\12 ;UIf; :
(T 2/ 7'u indieulerl as 8trsight chii:lhcJ lines) fOf VU)Hftj 3 db<,,,~ !11 t 1.14 I
of k (J I, 1..1, a nd L.8.
By mrnm; of these charts and lhe simple ralcllla.- Tutlt.l 5.00
tion of t he maximum ml\SS veil.eily t.hrough an iso-
Borda ent ran'~, Fill:. 127.
thermal nllzzlr (O'"i) hy equation J.l7, the cupst';ty t ~l<ldiu.l 8Wt-ep alhow8, Fig. 127.
of a pipe line 0 1" oritiee may bf> readily f'Stimatcd for t Calculated, a!II<Umillll ... 0.016, corl"98J~mdinl: to rcugh-
all)" n lille ur k II.\' intcrpulat ion. ne!lII (. 10) of 0 .0004 Ilnd oomplfle Wrl",Io.'<\<'@<>II Fig. 125.

il(l. 21 811;. k ... 1.0. R:\H" nf downs!.r<l&m lH"L"8Ilure lu IIp.!t.tcIlm I' IUlIIUI"<! ;LI! II function ,i fI"., ratio Glro l :Iud ""';st
llr>Ce Iat.1(11" N ..
 PIPi;S 2117

'"
::! 0.8
ci
o

".... 0.7
t
-.
~o
....
,
0.6

0.5

..
~

0.'

...
~O.2

0.1

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

It .. 1.4
FIG.2 111b. k. .. 1.4.

Frumlne OOnJitKHUI of lho , prohh1ll', II is nuw ~i hl,' 1" ~"Ilh-nhlh' I)", d i,... hlll"jl;' hy ,Iiri~,t u...
or Fig. 2 18 as shuwn by the (,,[[..,wing hlb'.l llltiQn:
T .. 530 1t
p .. (150 + IU )( I44) .. 23,700 Ib r"m :/*I (~
P, .. (l4.7J{144) .. 2210 III furre/ IKJ h , i o;ol h"r mal
1.0
AdilllM1.ic
1.4
(GIG ;), from curve for N _
(P,/ P~) .. 0.0803
6.0 and (P,! Po) .. 0.08H3
M .. 2!l (Ib rnMll)/O o mule) (Fig. 218) 0 .54.'> 0.51>5
G lib Dla6'5/ (ace)I/Iq f~)J
~'ru", the rclat ion.4ip:
~ r!1,~11
Di.8ehuge ,"""I.e (II> mlll!>lj ...,..,)
(Tl/ r-.), rrum dll~I)('<.! ti m,.
"" 6 . 18
275
0.41

(le Ri - 1'0,\/ ;Rii'. Hinee (/,,1 p.) is IM't" .....

dashed liD!) .. t N _ 5.0 1.0
' /"(32~~ "t
G_; (23,700) '\/{2:7i8){I546.I(MOj
("Rankine)
A. ~ragll gBI:I tempt;rat..u", in
pip ' (oF)
"" 70 26
.. 486 jXIun(J, rnN:<'l/ (!IOC)(aq ftl 1', At Rv"raj(" ~ l.em pe ra1.un,
D .. (2.067/ 12) .. 0.1722 ft. III! 1I""",/\ft)(ilCc) 1 1. 21(10) - 10 1.14{l0)-J
Re or (IX;/ ,.) 3. P{lD)" 4 . 16(10)'
Pipe CfI_ se<:l ion .. {0.785)(O.1722)t .. 0.0233 9Q ft (/ Fig. 125 for .!V (If 0 .00(4) 0 .0 16 0 .016
 GAS fo'WW AT HIGH VELOCITY

OA 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.

Glo.... for" - 1.8
FIG. 21&. k - 1.8.

The OCln'eetfleS of the valuee oJ a obtained oopeM. on. the lIIu.t... li~e S.... ple, A ~ at 50 psi, pl'"e8lSUl'\l ~n<.i
--.uned value of /, .,..hich '!I'M ebe<:ked by computiog the ~. " re1eMee hydrogen chloride pB to a 8Cl"Ubber at sub-
Reynolds number from the valUfe of 0 and avtrap tempent- stantially atmuepherie prolIIIUnl tJromu&b t()()"h ~,
\.ute obtained from the charta. If t he value of / had bI!en length of &-i n. ID pipe with. rounded inlet. What ill tho
.iocorroetJy ~ a ... r-t e&lcuJation would be requirOO. ratoe of diKharge of hy......,n chloridc, a nd ...hat. ~ !.be
It shookl IOIlYer be ~ to make more than one repeat condiliol1& 01 t('mpera~ure a nd pro88Ure oithin the ",pe?
calculation!lince the effect 0( {ill no~ very pl"Qn()lln~. I t is ~rning I - 0.016, N .. (0.Oi6)(iOOX I2>/ (6) _ 3.2. Froro
.,klom nl.'<U:I>I&ty to . make this cheek caltl.llation when the CODI.Iitions of the problem
G/ G,fti ill a muim um, as this conditioo it llSuaJly accomr-nied
hy complete turbulence. Althou,gh in checkiD!{ the value of f T. - 660" R
the aVIIr&ge temperat ure WM Cllleulated to obtain the ... vernge
1M villoCOlSity, . !I1lfficient acCUnl.Cy (bette1' than 2 per cent)
p . - (00 + 14.7)(144) - 9330 Ib fOfoe/aq fi
will usually l(lijUlt if the visooeity ill taken at the UpI!tre&l1l PI .. (14,7)(144)" .. 2120 Ib foroe/eq ft
t .'mpcrature.
(PalPe.) "" 0.227
If the regular frictioo factor m(lthod dCS'ribed in M .. 36.5 II> mll!l5/mr>Ie
Chapter 12 with all !.enns (Idined by Ihe conditions
correspond ing to t he arithmetic Itven.ge of the up- G r (32. 17)( 36.6)
... .. (\1330) "\J (2.718)( L646)(6OO)
&lrearo and dOWIUltream P-relflures had been employed
in the above solution, the calculated discharge would .. 102.0 Ib m&III/ (soo)(1Iq ft.)
be 3561b ma.ss/ (sec}(sq ft) or 8.30 lb/ sec. D ... (fUXl / 12) _ 0.500 ft
Pipe eroe& 80tltlnn .. (0.785)(0.500)' .. 0 .1002 aq rto

PROBLEMS
-Usinr'I''i,. 218
eaJculated.
(a and II), the followinj!: ..=. may be diff~renti.ting with reapeet to Pl

(GI(}...;).rrom~rveror N -
.,
TfIOthermal Adi&b.ti"

'"
20 dOl ...
1
dP,

-".(";7) (~:) [ G:)' ~: + ,(~:) " (~:) 1

3.2 alld (Pal " .) - 0.221
(Fig. 218) '.G32 0.662 'For maximum ftow JGd,/P I .. 0, !Iond writin P, for PI
GlIb 1lUVII!(aee){"1 ftl[ 121.2 127 .'2
Diar:~ n.te (Ib mMlljeec) 23.8 25.0 1 + 21n (~) .. 0, .nd
(TilT.), from curve for
(GIG~;J and r~ N _ 0
Tl (-Ran kine)
.,
000 ..,. . .13 In (I'rP.) ... ~, 0' (-P.).
P, -. (144)

(oF) >Xl '82 Thifl dtmOlUltrat.... that o,quatifJn 1 i~ !Ioppliea.ble to non-ide&l

(TI/ Tt) from dAShed line, lUI well lUI ideal ~
si nce (PI/PO) Ie below
dashed line at N - 3.2 ., 0.833
Suhlltitutiul from etlu.tion 144 in equ.tlon 143 give.

(v."')(. ......
",' )'; . . Po.(RTM( .... )
-(-.,
Ts ("Rankine)
.,.,
"" ""'" G.... - g. ",t ( 147)

(P I/P O) from eurve fOJ'

(G.O ..;) and fOl' N _ 0 O.9Hi 0.910
I', (Ib fOre<l /eq It)
(Ib foroe /&q in. ~)
(P,IPQJ from dNhed line,
"'"
".0 ...,
84110
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BllcHu .nd WOOI)8, Proc. 1n.N. Mech. Eng. (Lond_),
lSI, 1m (UI38).
IIinoo (Ps/ PtliIJ below
daBbed li oe at N - 3..2
PI (Ib foroe/ eq ft)
...'"
35711
0 .300

"'"'.3
2. DoocE. R. A., and M. J. 1'HOMP80N, "'Wid MMAiet,
Mc:Gra ......Hill Book Co. (193'1) .
3. FRoItMEL, W., rrw.dl. GtlJitU '''I1fII~IU'W., . T, 7~ (1936).
(lb foroe/ IKI in. gage)
.,.,
10.1 TralU!l.ted in U. S. Nat. Ad.ifOr1/ Cmnm. Aero. TI1.
Average of TI and T s (oF)
1'. at averace 11.8 temperal.l.lr'e
~b rna./ (ft){aeeH 1.15(10).....
'" 1.04(10}-'
M~. No. 844 (1938).
4. Kt:I.:N'AH, JOII~PH H., TMrmodV'lOIII~', John Wuey .ntI
SoN (19011).
Re 01" (DO/ ,.) 6.28(10}' 6 . lt{lO)' So KI;Ii:HAN'. JouP" H . TI'IIM. Alii. Soc. MtdL Engr... J .
Applitd Mtdwmiu, U, 1l-20 (1939); 4. 13&-(1.
For commercial IIt.eeI pipe of &-in. I.D. Fi,. 120 giVfJII
./D _ 0.0003. From Fig. 125, / _ 0.015 for U1i1! piJ)f! at.U fl. J.APPLE, C. E., TroM. A.... iliff. C/i4Ift. E1Igr' " n.. 385
(June 19013).
value!! fOl' Re,ln ftXoess of 5(10)', Therefore the COI'I"eCt value
7. Loll(), W. E., LEO FB.!.N'Ii, and G. T. SI!;APEBDAlI, 1M.
for f .ahould be 0.016 mther than the MBumoo valut! of O.ot6.
Brag. C1w:m., M, 821 (t942).
Tbe diff~lloe. however. '" .lmollt negligible M it would
d _ l h . value of N from 3.2 to 3.0 indiea\ina: vrJUf'ltI of 8. SToool.... -Lo"J:NSftIJoi. &.:om ClAd (J(U Twbi_, CN,pt.er
111; Pet.er Smith (U)4,5).

(GjG<WoJ
loot""'
0."
" AdW-ti"
0.67
9. 1'lIOMBOJoI, G. W /rtd. EItI/. CMri., 14. 1485 (1942).

G [lb nWiij(lIeCl) (111 rt)]

.DiMchMge Rate (lb IIWIIIj!lee) ... ,
122.9 1'28.6
26.3 PROBLEMS
1. Ou 80wlI Uuoogh tn.nIlmi!lBion 11~ 150 miles )one.
The line IlODIIista of two *'CtiDllll, 9O-mile eectjoo of Z4-i1lo.
OD pipe whOM! wall thkkne!s is '~I in.; Uld. OO-mile IleCtion
AcruAL GASES of 26-in. on pipe whoee w.ll thickn_ i, H $ in. The inld
pl'fJ88Ul'>l is 400 psi nd the outlet prel!8llnl ia 50 The pew..
By introduci~ the oomprellllibU!ty factor,. (_ pqM 145. Hoell are level. the Sowing temperature is 64)0 F, and the
16Q and 591 ) the above equatiolUl can be modified to eover efficioency of tbe lin!! may be lakn all 90 pet cent in bot.h
acluaI sa well M ideal p.ItS. SubBt.ituling IRT for itT; eect.ions. The 1M hae aped&; aravity of 0.52, villcolJity
P.V~ ... prill for isothermal eonditiOIll$ and ecluaUon 140 of 2.4 X 10-1 Ib 8eCj eq ft, IUld ita devi.tion fn;.ru the peried
wm.n iDtewated beromea another form of equation '4' ; CM I.W'II is negligible. What i3 w e 50w tate in cuhie C_
per hoor meMUnld .t 14.7 pili and 110" F?

r'" -2g.
f.1" ~-dP
P. Vo* ... ~2g.po
V 1;1
(,~
.... , ) " -pp (141) 2. Cari)(JIl dioxide .t 95 F and 800 paia ifI oontain6d in I
, I", Plo 10 0 lalJt! battery of Bto~ cylinde~ A dMehMle line made of
By definition Ji-i n . ,teel pipe (schedule SO) is 20 ft Jon".nd containll fitti. .
G, _--
o P",
P.VGlI
(ineludin& the oonlM!(:tion between the cylinder and the line)
with. rmiatance to flow equivalent to 30 rt of pipe. What.
the maximum rate of discharge (poundB per hour) ir !.he
OJ' - -~.(~;f(f!)(-:t~)III(~;) (143) dlie~ prcsrure i. 14.7 pIIl.r AllIum!! illOth.mn.1 Row.


CHAPTER

16

Flow of Fluids through Porous Media 1

Single Fluid Phase

LUIDS flowing through a bed of contiguous

F
2. The friction {&cLor also includes a rador F,
particles, such as ::and or other porous medium which it! another fun ction of these variables.
distinet from a conduit, fl~w through passages
between the panicles of the bed. The dimensions D.f/R.Up
Re --"--= (Hi6)
of these pas&t.gflS depend upon the (oBowing vari-
ables.
-

';I.IF,
PurfJkity of the bed. Iw, .. - -
Diameter of the particles. 2gcDp
Sph;rjcily or shape of the particles.
Orientalion or packing arrangement of- the par-
ticles. ,
Roughntu of the particles.
The actual linear velocity of the fluid through the where Dp - diameter ' of the particle. When all
passages in the, porous bed may be expressed in particles are
of the same size the
terms of the "superficial" velocity (computed as the screen size (DuJ may be used for
rI~te of flow or fluid through the unobfitnlcted entire D.. For mixed sizes D. is the mean
cross-secl ional area of the bed) and thcee same surface diameter, that is, the diameter
variahles. _ of a particle having an area equal to
J.ikewise. the length of the path followed by the the "average" area of the particles
fluid may be expressed in tenns of the length of the (see p. 21 and equation Hi9). '
bed and these-same variables. II - superficial velocity, linear velocity of
The lOBI! due to friction accompanying the flow the fluid computed on the basis of
of fluid! through such a bed of contiguous particles. the total or empty crOl!llHCCtionai
when the: particles are in random arrangement may area.
be expreseed in the fonn of an equation similar to p _ density of the fluid.
equation 71 for cylindrical ducts if the two following /A - vi8C08ity of the fluid.
conditions are met. L - superficial distance through which the
1. The Reynolds number based on the diameter fluid Rows, or th~ thicknees of the
of the duct and the superficial velocity is replaced poroua bed in the direction of the
by a Reynolds number Re' based on the diameter flow .
of the' particles and including a factor F~ which ill a -I1P, _ decrease in presI'Ium due to rrict.ion
function pf 1h(' variublPlol lillIe<! tt.bov~ . 10llllt....
210


SINGLE FLUID PHASE 2l!

!WI = energy ,.dissipated in friction losses per unit where In; ". mass fraction of a given particle size D i
maS/> of fluid. ,I D, ,., the diamelel' of part.i('\es in eaeh siZ('
FRo ... fador included in the Reynolds num- , fradian taken us the arithmetic
her Re' to modify V p average of the screen openings pass-
PI ... friction -factor fartor. ing and retaining the particles.

The values for the factors Fa., and FI obtained

(169)
frQm available experimental data by empirical
methods 3 are plotted as a function of the porosity X
D, - with parameters of sphericity", in Figs. 219 and 220
for random packing of regularly shaped particles.

0.5
Poro'lity,X
FIU. 21!L Ri'JltlohJ n mmher r..('(o r:iS", { ullcti on of p<lIoo;ly and Mphcl'icil .y.
212 FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGn POROUS MEDIA I
FlU. 220. F riel.ion-fllclOl' f&etor M
volume or void space
POmJlty X_
total volume of bed
Sphericity y, - surface area of Hphere having a.
vulume equal to that of the par-
ticle, divided by surrace area of
particle.
The experimental data on random-packed regular-
shaped contiguous particicIJ (Table 26) 1, 4,11. are
plotted in Fig. 221 , using the facto.-s of Figs. 219
and 220. The correlation is slLti~actory, with an
The bibliocnaphy ' W this ehaplftl' appear. 011 Po 2 18.
Porosity, X
& function ol porosity and sphericity.
average deviation .of O per cent and the maximum
deviation of 24 per cent.
The tram~itiun between the laminar and turbulent
region for porous media is in gener81 a smooth curve,
indicating nn average effect "for the large number of
t:hannels through which the fluid is flowing. Some
of these channels may be in lam inar flow and othen
in turbulent flow, owing to their different dimensions.
It is somewhat lIimilar to a plot of average Reynolds
numbers versus average friction fact ore for 8 group
of pipes of different dinmeLPrs. But even at very
high Reynoldli numbers the friction faetor is not so
constant for porous media as for cylindrical conduits,
indicating t hat. the flow through porous media never
 SINCLE FLUID PHASE 213

~
, 1~::S~W::I
to eeli. ~ete'J, eyllnders,
Berl~"

~
.; .~~

I
?;:

10 '" 40 60 100 200 400 1000 10,000

~ 100""
D,!... '
RIeynoId$ Number, ~.. y.

F1o.221. Experimental data oll'fIow throuch po\'O\M bed!I of random-packed particle!! of T.ble 26 plott!!d with friction factor
V) .. a fUIlCtion of Reynolds !lumber Re.

becomes 80 completely turbulent as in unobstructed

conduits. The existence of very small interstices at
the contacts of the particles in the porous medium
constitute sucb small channel3 tha.t the Sow may .R
never become turbul,ent at these points. .= "
PoroMtll is the most sensitive variable used in
defining a porous medium and -must therefore be ...
I
determined with a high degree of accuracy if the .&
ea!culations based on Fig. 221 are to be reliable. I
Particles adj8CeDt to the wall pack more loosely t~_./ 1
a higher poroslty. This makes it particularly
poBBeSI! .::
important that the porosity of a bed be determined -f
in containers having the same cross section as the l
porous bed or medium for which the computations
are desired. This wall efiect is included b. the
curves of Fig. 222, which may be used to estimate
the porosity from the ratio of the diameter of a
sphere having the same volume as 'the pBrlicle
(D. or Chapter 7) to the diameteJ:,. of the container FlO. 222. Poroaity ae .. function of the I'\I.tio of diamet.en '. 1
or of the bed, D~. . D. /D,)' -
214 FWW OF FLUl~ TIlROUGH POROUS MEDIA 1
TABLE 2(1. SUMMARY OF TRE DATA USED IN But this is not the ease. Different porosities are to
PREPARING FIG. 221 be expected with particles of the same &l:iape thi'ough
Poroeity, Sphericity, variations in the packing arrangement, and both
Diameter,

Spheres "
m.
0.217
X
0 . 3781-0.468 1
porosity .and sphericity a1'6 required to define the
porous medium.
GlMs IlpOeres 0 .... 0 . 12 1 In ealculating or determining sphericity ftom the
LeIKl Bhot, uniform size' 0." 0.315-0.421 1 dimeosio[U\ of the particle, only the primary shape
0.'"
0.121
0 .363-0.375
O.31tH).390
1
1
should be used. In the CI\.BC of splined rings the
sphericity should be calculated from the dirnell8ions
0 .... 0 .... I
0.325 1
of the cylindrical ring without including the area. of
0.078
0.076 0."" 1 the splint$.
~lite cylind(ll'l" 0.267 0.361-0.461 0.871 The sphericity of a pa)1.icle composed of agglom
Herllladdlea I 1.97 0.780 0.314 crated spheres is N-H, where N is the number of
1.38 0.785 0.297 spheres in the agglomerate. M08t granular particles
0 .985 0 .700 0 .317
or crystals may be expected to have a sphericity
0.'" 0 . 758 0.296
o.-tn 0 .710 0 .342 varying from 0 .7 to 0.8.
0.300 0 .694 0.329 Although the sphericity could theoretically be
1.00 0 .725 0 .311) calculated from the dimensions of the particle, this
0 .5 O. 7125-<l, 761 0 . 370 is often difficult or practically impoesible. Figure
0 . 132 0.031 0.140 223 is a plot of observed values of porosity and
0.1295 0.935 0.140
1.97 0 .853 0 .200
1.38 0.835 0.262 1.0
0 .985
0.'"
0 ....
0.65.5
0.272
0.420
\11\ 1
Ruchig rinp 1.00 0 . 701 0 . 391 0.8
"\I~I
RNchi, rin8' "
Ow.. riDge'
0.'" 0.554-0.620 0.531 q\ -.=,
......
0 .228 0 .07 0.411
0.213 0.72 0.370 )'\I\~ I I
0 .3875 0." 0."" r - 0-

~'.
ptcking
0.n15 0 .845 0.2540

When the bed is composed of porous material such

as coke, the porosity of the bed for purpose! of
calculation may be defined as the void space between
the particlea (not including any void spaces within
the particles) divided by the total volume of too bed.
In general, beds composed of normal granular Of
crystalline materials will usually have porosities
from about 0.32 to 0.45. If the particles comprising
the bed, regardless of !lise, are not contiguous but
spaced apart, additional modi6cations of the rela-
tions must be made, based on experimental data.
SJw.~ or tpMricity of the particle, indicated by y,
is defuled (Chapter 7} as the area of the sphere
baving the same volume as the particle divided by
the area. of the particle. Consider a round ball of
clay, aud allow the ball to be deformed. 'The ratio
of the initial to the final area. is the sphericity t.
The porOBity is closely related to the sphericity. The
IIPlfricity could be used as the sole detemtining
factor of porosity if t he particles of a single size were
always oriented in the same spatial arrangement.
~
~
0
o 0.4 O.b 0.8 1.0
f'oIosily, X
Fl(). 223. Sphericity as a [unction of poromty for random-
packed bedlI eX uniflJnn!liled patticletl.
sphericity for randompacked beds of uniormsizcd
particles which may be used to estimate particle
sphericity provided the bed porosity iB known. This
relation is recommended for estimating the spbericit.y
of complex particle shapes, o r for eases where there
is doubt concerning the "effective" particle area and
volume. The dashed lioo mould be used. for
"normal" packing, and the 'values to the left or
right uaed for denee- or 10000000000ked beds, respee--
tively. It is not advisable to use values of sphericity
83~ ttm~ ttru~ ~~ &5F~
.., ~~
,~'= ~'=
83 - ,- .
tffi'-
, ,
-"""
Orth_ 3 Orthorhombic 4 OrtlJofhornbic Tetraeonal $p/NlnoidJI
""'"
Potosity 0.476 (clear pasSlIge)
Poroscty 0J%4
(blocked pII$~) Poro$ity 0.3954 (clNr Pu.scoge)
PoI05ity o.301~

fl1~ (b - ,~

~ ... @~ ,~

~ ... ,~

~~ m ~
Telf,;ona' Sp!Ier'lOid.l
(blocked pIIsu ge I)
Potosity 0.3019
7 Tet'agQnal Sphenoidal
(blocked pa S5lle 2)
f'IlrosiIy 0.3019
8
em .- ,m'= m~ ,,~

Rhombohoedr,1
Porosity 0.2595
Rhombo/1edral
(clea r pII",,~)
Porosity O.2~
10 Rhombolledral
(b/OCked~)
Porosity 0.2595

..
'! 0-

, -~
_
,, "'"' .....
A""",.,.,ent Porosit)'. K
~"
.,'"
:

-- .,'"
(deilf"",,,P)

(bIodIn ........ )

, Tttt ."....~
,.O.:l()19
""

----
(_PM .....)
T*-,",~
(bbcktcl PM"p)
o.lOl9 "

, _ _ II

-,-,
,~

- (-"......) "'"
0.1595

~
"
~
i'-
::
::
00'
Ililla I ' .!
~

~

:.! '0
..
Re)onaIcIs 1't\II'IIbIr, 1M _ D,~ ~ -:
Flo. 2:2&. Frict.ioo r~ U) veIMJa Reynoldl Dumber (Re) for random-paeked p&rtiell'Jl and for lWked .pben!l..
D'
 216 FLOW ~OF FLUJDS THROUGli POROUS MEDIA 1
outside these bounds for predicting fluid flow, even equation 167 in equation 60 gives
though these values are based on physical measure-
ments. Il.P g I?
- +Il.Z-+Il. - -
Diameter, or dimension of the particlo, D", whE'-Il P fh 2g.
determined for gnliluiar IIOlids of mixed s izes by the
If w is !ero
rE!lat.ionship given in equation 169, is extremely
sensitive to "the amount of fines present. A metbod
which is less sensitive to small errolll in the oontcnt Il.P+p'Il.Z - (16&)
of fines and. also of more general applicution because 2g
it can be applied to fibrol.\s or other more granular When the velocity v is approximately constant, the
materials is to compute the value of Dp from per- last term is zero.
meability illCMurements by use of cquetion 170. WiUl the friction factor and the Reynolds(n
The value of D,. so dctennined from laminar flow Ltumber Re as indicated in Fig. 225, the calcula-
measurements is also applicable to turbulent flow t.ion of the How of Huids tb rough porous mooia is
conditions. handled in a manner similar to that used for the
Roughness of the particle is or lesS significance than flow of fluids through unobstructed conduits.
the other variables but may become somewhat
important in the highly turbulent region. Experi- lllu ltrative Example. An estimAte ill J'tlquired of the
fio'" of air through a 8eoCtion of 8tandll.l'd 4-in. pipe eontaininJj;
mental da~ in the laminar and early turbulent region
a packed bed Qf ~-in. Iu..,chig rinf;!! under the following (lOIl-
indicate that roughne&l has little effect on pressure ditioll:8:
drop and should not be included in fluid flow corre-
lations (or porous media in this How range. As cases Depth 01 bed 1.93 ft
PI'e88Un' drop 32.19 in. of -,yaW'
of extremely high flow rates through porous bOOs are Air tcmper&ture 00 F
infrequent, the effect of surface roughness on pressure BU(lmetri" pre>!illll'l'l 2\:1.38 in. of mercury
drop may, in general, be neglected. ' &d poro~ity 0.5545
Orientation is an important variable in special Out.Hidll diameter (If rinp 0 .385 in.
cases. In some recent experiments,:to pressure drops Height of riDg!l o.:m in.
WaU thicknell of rinp 0.0836 in..
\Yere determinro for different arrangements of
stacked spheres, as indicated in Fig. 224. In order The sphericily of tOO particlee d .:.t,imatro from the dimen
to correlate the friction 10II8eS with the Reynokis moos of the rings; - I

nllmber, it was found necessary to draw a separatc SIJ.~/ar.t, ana of ring.

~ urve ~or each particular geometric orientation, as
indicated in Fig. 225. The curve applicable to Out&ide surfaoo - (3.1416)(0.38.5) (0.3!J7) < - 0.480 IIq in.
randomly packed smooth particles (Fig. 221) is also IDJliclu 9UrfAOe
included in Fig. 226 for purposes of comparison. _ (3. 1416)10.385 - 2(0.0836)1(0 .397) - o.m 8q in.
These different packing arrangements s ho wn in Fig. Surface area' of edge!!
224 are special cases and serve to indicate the maxi-
mum effect of oricntatiun. Such variations in orien-
.. ~i 1(0.386)1 - (0.38.'i - (2)(O.0836)fl - 0.158 sq in.

tation do not occur with random packing as encoun- Total ~f&OO area of particle - 0.910 'Q in.
tered in ordinary industrial practice. Oriented beds
Volume t)f ringa
arc used in some a.bsorbers and for other applications
where the packin,l!; is stacked by hand rather than -i 1(0.38S)' - [0,38.'; - 2(0.0836)1110.397 - 0.0316 cu iD..
dumped into the vessel.

COMPlITATIONS
... Wbenever more than one potential is involved at
the same time, all potentials must be included in the
equation, as indicated by equation 59. If chemical
and s urface etiCCbi , etc., are excluded, equation 59
ml1Y be s implified to equation 00. Substitu t ing
 SINGLE FLUID IN LAMINAR FLOW THROW;H POROUS BEDS 211
The IllU of a sphere having the !lame VQlume all the particle EQUATIONS USED FOR LAMINAR FWW
M-eornJ)\lt.ed by detenniDinl: the dilUIle\el' of a spbcre ~vi", THROUGH POROUS BEDS
a volume of 0.0316 eu in. and ttron determinin,; the area of
this Iphoro.
In laminar flow the same foml of equations may
.D,
V - 6 - 0.0316 eu in. be uged for the frictlon losses through poroWi media
&8 for the flow through conduits; for example,
Therefonl
D, _ 0.392 in.
64
A _ .D,t _ 0.4.83 aq in. corresponds to f - -
R.
Sphericity (t) is obtained by dividing the &n!a of the apb.! re
bavina the ,.mll vorum~ as the p&rtide by the ~. of the corresponds to
particle, or sphericity - 0.483/ 0.GI(i - 0.63l.
From Fill. 219 P"" i. found to 'be MI, ..wng '" - 0.531,
X _ 0.M4:i. From Fig. 220 PI iB found to he 1600.
The preern1I'f! drop of 32.39 in. of water ie equivalent \0 (63L)
168.5 par Ol" 2.38 in. of JrM:rcury. The arithmetic' aV8J'llge
dem>ity M ~ beea.olle of tbP, relatively amaIl cban&e ill prell- Solving for v:
IlUre. Using a moleewllt ..-d,h! of 29 ~ an llverage Ptelllllll't
ol30.67 in. of mercury, the a~ density of the air i. com-
_(gJ)./PRe) (pi';;}) ""' K pi",,}
(170)
put.ed ... an ide&.1 g.... 32F, L/J L/J
liP 29(80.67)(1U) (It4) Equation 170, known M Darcy's equation , corre-
P - ar - (29.92)( 1544)(460 + 110) sponds to equation 63L, known as Poiseuille's equa-
P , _ 0.0741b nu.ea/eu It tion.
For vertical flow in which tbe energy of position
-" - 0.0182 oontipoi8e (potential energy) contributes the driving force
The values of aU the flleWr8 in the RoynoidB numher (Re) AP = 0 and dv = 0, and from equation 00 42,,1, . =
and biction fact()l' are now known except velocity, which can - lw. Substituting in equation 170 gives
be fou.nd from Fig. mas: fol)owa.
Re _ D,F~ _ (0.~)(50) (O.074). _ 9'1'OClIo ,_ ("J),~FRa) [P( - l1Z)9j .. Kp(-I1Z)g (171/
-" (0.0182)(0.00067'2) 32FI LiJIJ. L/Jg.
2goDJW, (2)(32.2)(O.03M8)(168.5) l.523 When L - - I1Z, equation 171 simplifies to
1- Up - (I .93)(O.074)( IOOO)r - -;r
Kp'
(1.523)(9700)1
(l71a)
J- (Re)~ "
The permeability K is defined by equation 172,
which is derived from equation 170.
The 801ution will be obtai ped by tbe , interlleetioll of,... .. K ___
".Dp2 FR.
_
straicht line of !Iiope of minus 2 011 FIC. 225 with the curve (172)
fOl' random-pack~ particle-. At wOO"y of I f)lll, 32 P,
Re _ 9700 and J _ 1.523. At. 11 of 10 fpe, He - 97,000 and
J - 0.01523. Plottini these t.wa poiDte on Fig. ,~ and The surface per unit volume of particle 8, com-
rlnllring a lItniiUlt liDe through them givea the aolution fo.- puted by dividing the surface area of particles by
Re and I at the point of interaeet.ion OOITeIIpoodill& to a the volume of the particles, is equivalent to & re-
ReynoJd" number (Re) of"irJ,OOO. DividiUfli thift by 9'lOO ciprocal diameter a.nd has boon used ", 1, 12 in an equa-
giv"l 9.2 fpr;; as: the lIoVerage ~cial velocity of the &ir
through the crctIIIHeCtion&l &rei. of.J~e unobab'ucted '-in. pipe.
tion similar to 170 as follows.
The quantity of &ir llowing ~h \hit pa.eked &eetiOD
of pipe iI

9.2 -It (0.08840 ftl) ( 3600 -_ ) (0.074 - Ib)

,- - 216 -Ih
.eo bl' cut . hr
where I ,. surfaoo area of particles per unit volume
Tbil value oorresponde with an observed rate of 213 Ib/hr of particles.
in !Ill experimenl.al run" under !.he conditiOOll indic:aWd. X = poT06ity.
2111 FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH POROUS MEDIA I
Equation 173 bas an important advantage in dealing ~bere
with laminar flow through media such as gl888 wool, A .. area. of bed in plane normal to direction of
fibers, or packing whose si:r.e cannot be expressed in How (sq ft).
tem;l8 of a diameter or screen aoaJysis. For best W .. of bed (lb).
m8B8
resuita the constant, 5, in the denominator may be '6' f L~ [Csec )2(lb force) ]
replaced by other values between 5 and 5.5, depend- a - spec! C I'eSlStanoe 0 ueu (Ib lWI85)'
ing upon specific conditioll6.
The Iptrifo; rens!ance a of the bed is another con- The values for a include the variables of pttl"Oflity,
cept which b.as been used It in laminar flow of ftuids density, and, once detennined, simplify the calcula-
thrOUPl filter beds. tions for a given bed.
pltoJA 1 ( - t:.P), A
The relationship between the penneability K of
, - - - .. - (174) equations 170 to 172, the KO:leny" equat-ion ( 173)
apW a Po W using specific surface, and the Ruth 14 equation
(174) using specific resistance is

BIRUOGRAPHY
I . B""t... E., Call1lOfl of Diu rmd r~., Wieeb&don (1\130).
2. BLA K, F, C., "The ~ksislll.llOO of P~ckillg to Fluid
Flow," TraM. Am. lila. Clint!. Engr. 14, "15 (1 92-1-
22).
3. BaoW .. El.oL. L . E., o.nd D. L. KATZ, " Flow of Fluid3
throuRh Porou. Medie.- PIlTt I," eMm. E1tfJ. Progre.a,
u. :.37 (1941).
. 8 UIU(E, S. P., and W. B. P LU MIIIE1t, ''G.l3 Flow through
Packed Columns," Ind. E1tfJ. CMm., 20, Jtoo (1928).
5. (j. ....... N, P . C., " Fluid Fio... tbn>Uf;h Granular Beds,"
TrrlM. I ..... CM .... Eotgr~. (Londo,,), 16, 130 (1 931).
6. ClI.IIM ......, P. C., ''The Dekrmin.tion of the Specific SuI'-
{&Qe 01 Powder., I," J . &C. CMm . Ind., 51, 226 {I93sI:
''II,'' ibid., 18, I (1930).
1. ClIIL'!ON, T . B . and A. P. CoLIIUIU<, " PrclJSUre Drop in
Packo;!d Tubell," Tra"'. Am. l rut. Clltm. EI'II}I"'" 28, 118
(1931 ).
8. DUCT. ~, LeI Fonl4inu PulXi4uu dtJ /(J Vi/k de Dijon,
Victor Delmont, P &ria (1856).
V. F,\l1l, G, 1'01" and 1I....1\:H, L. P., "Fundtmental Factors
Go~", t.be Bt.eamline Fklw of Water through &md,"
J. Am. WOW Wort. Auo.:., 26, 1551 (1933).
10. F4)IfCKEIl, G. H ., aDd J . A. LEWIS, "Flow of Simple
FIuidI thn:Iu&h Porous Mat.eriak," 1M. E"f. Cllem., 1,1
1139 (1933).
11. F'vILH ...s, C : C . "FJQw o(G..- throuah Beds of Broken
, SoIidI," U.8, Bill. Mi_Bull. 3IY1 ( 1m).
AL
(175)
aW
12. KO~ENT, J ., "SXI Permeability," Si!zba. Akad. W i...
Wi~, 136a, 271 (l~7 ) .
13. LEv .... MAx, "PreNure Drop through Packed Tube!!, I.
A GeDeral CorrelatiO!l," Ckm. Eng. p~. D, 549
(1947) .
1'4. OIol.A,N, A. 0., and K. M. Wo\.T!ION. ":rr-.re OrOpl in
Granul&r Bed.," Noll. PdNleum N_. Ted!. &C.,"
44R19i> (J944) .
15. ROllI:, H . r... La,,'.
"An Illvestigation into the of Flu'"
of Fluida through Beds of GnullIlar Mal.eria.llJ," Proc..
I ,... M:h . EIIIJ!"'" In, 5, 141 (1945).
16. RtM'H, B. F., "Studiee in FUwtion III; .Derivation of
Gener&1 Filtralioo .quat.io", IV. The Natun! of Fluid
floW" through Filter Septa and It... Importan ce in the
FIltration Equation," Ind. Eotg. Ckfm ., 21, 108, 806
(1935).
17. 8cHOEtnII)RN, E. M., and W. J . DoUGK1Ut'rT, "PretIlIUre
Drop and Ftooding Velocity in Pacbd Towel"ll with
Visoous Liquids," TrtllI" Am. Ina. CAmn. /:"IIIJ!"'" 60,
51 (1944).
18. & :HIUEVER, W., TfGIU. Am. 1M. Mini1tfJ Md . Engr .,
"Law of flow of the P&SM.ge of a Cae-Free liquid through
SphericrJ.G....n &nd," 80, m. 333 ( ~9M).
19. SU LLlV.~N, R. R., and K. L. HERTEL, J. Applitd PliI/'"
'''The Flow of Air tbrough Porous Mooie.," 11, 761 (1940).
:n, MARTIN, 1, J., TM.lu . C~ I.IIIItitute of T eeh.nolocY
(l948).
 PROBI.EMS 219
I. II cy lintlrical tower, 'l It in diameter, pa.clmd toa bei,hl of peroot .. tkm pl1'>OO3ll, I h of oil standi above the bed with
10 ft \lith Iledvated a lumina, isnoll' beingu!lll!d toelean naphtha. atmOilpheric pre8l!urn above this oil and at the bottom of the
flowing downwArd under the followin,; operat;"' oonditlona. adIIorbent.
It is 8\Igge!t.eU that tho mRnufa.eturinc ~ be cha.nPl'i
T~mperatul'l! - Il)~ F
80 t hllt the lubricating oil stock will be dibttcd with IIOlvent
D!~n~ity ... 49.3 Ib mMii /eu ft
at the ti nle of }JII rrola lion.
\ ' ill;C()8jty - O.91G oontipn" Pbt a eurv\, sbo"inlj: the capacity of an adaorbolnt unit
A ve~ di-. lIl8t.f (~l""'.m size) cl<preMod in gall<>IUI put 'hour of lubricat ill,ll; oil versuIJ oon..
of alumina - 0,046 in,
_ OAOQ eentrati<>n of IIOIvent in the oil. The Pl'Opertiet of tbe oil
Pn...,,";ly of bed

,-
8OIutiollll at til<! oontacting temperntut(l are M fo1lo"'8:
Flow rate - to II:Pf'Il/$q ft, crom .eeotion
Pl'CIlSurc differenoe _3Sps;. !IS% 90% .,%
Lubri- Lubri. wbri-
It ill t:t!llired to oo,="vcrt tho to"'er into an air d rier, ~movinc cll.tinll: CAting
e/ltilll
exOORS m oi~turc {rom 1000 5te.nda rd ru h (mell8ured at 60 F
Lubri- Stock, Stock,
and 14.7 p&a) of &it per hour 80"";1\1 uJ7Ward.
cating '% 10% 20%
U ~hc drier opera.~.. i..othermally lit HIO F and the a ir
mlU.t leave tbe tower at 25 p4ig, .... hat mU8t be the inlet .""k Solvent Solvunt Solvent
PN!'SUrel Demity, lI:f&IllII/ tt 0 .91 0.00 0." 0.87
Viscosity, C'JO':n~i_
3. 1
2. N aphthalene cylinders (0 .11 in. in diameter and 0.18 in.
long) form a bod 3 in. in diameter and W in. lone. The
po"," ' .0 3.'
wiligt)t of !l2 tt of the pellet. i3 S8 grame. <Ampute t he S. A cravity 61le!' co"u u of .. 2-It bed of l"n. t n.bed
pounds of ai r which will pass through t~ bed per hour at a trap rook eoverod with a, 2-ft layer of 28-mesh .and. Both
f1uwing temperuturtl 01 100" F \\'itb a pre86u re differential layeCll have bod poraliticl of 40 per 1'AiJ\t. The iii," is flooded
of 18 in. of water . with 2 ft of water above the top of the a nd. The ~
.t the bottom outlet of the fil ter is II.tl'll08pheric.
S. A 001" typo! 01 pebhle regenerator ill Ulled in a proeea. for (II) What i$ the flow of water thrOUJh the filter, upn:Med
lireheat;,,@.airirom 100 to 250 F. Alternately hot flue sa- ... fee\' /(feet%j (bour)1
Ilml then lIl r a t lOO~ F are ~ thTOUfh the helller. TIle (&) H .. similar filter bod Wel'O cnclOiled in .. pft.'3SU1"C! tank
helli er iri pIlcked with oo rl>mic Ipherell 1 in. in diameter to a and operated ,,ith a pl'eS8IIfe drop of 100 pllill, what would be
roomsi l y 01 40 per ce nt.. The bed is 3 It in diameler Md 8 1\ the flow of watert
<lp.
6. Compute the Jll'Il'IIUfe in t he well bore for a natunl p.II
aphcl'COl "2
It hu been ~Uggellted that the addition of MIme lJIllall
in. ill iiiameter to fill the interatioes 01 the bed
would in crelll!e the hell t Clapacity of t he bed., Experiments
well (6J,i in. in dillmeter) a t the nt.te of 34,9)0,000 eu It per
day of natural ru m CMIlred lit 6O~ F and 1'.7 posia. The
indicate th~t the ~ ,.in. 0011.11 ,,nuld fiil on&othird of !.he produci", sand bas a thiek ne811 of 1 It and .. porOlity of 26 pur
inteNtices Ir.ft bet ween the t-in. apheree. cent. The sand 1I:f&iD3 have an avefllll! diamr.ter of 0.000791
Plot 1\ "U rvc of p~ure drop in pounds per ' quare foot ft and a , pheridty of 0 .\10. T he pre&'lurc in the 1000II1II.t,;on at
5000 ft (!.em Pl''''ture, 113 0 F) i8 COtLStaDt as 2100 pm a t a
Vii l'!llJ,ll ~lIl1erficial IllA8II velocity (pounde per square foot per
hour) of the air fnr l be t .,,o beds. radial diltance of 500 ft from the "ell~ . The natu~ gall
hu a gravity nf 0.65 (air - 1), II. viacosity at 11.';' F of
,. A lubrieati"i: oil BOOck is 'beln'g ';"nt&cted "';ith a !IOlid 0,0176 ce ntipoiIM , a pecudo crit ical tcm peratllnl of 37" n.
"d8Ol'bcn t by gnr.vity pereoJation. The eonta<:ti~ 1lIl!!,a ~ a nd a pIIeUdo crit ical pn..uro of GOO pllia. T1le preLllce of
cy lindri cial lxxb! 6 h in dia me ter by 4 ft high. Tkti adeorbcnt ",ater in the sand may be ncgJ.,e wd. (Hoe "A Radiil.1 Turbu-
cun"i~Ui of particicR 0.02 in. in diameter with a apherielty of lent Flow Formula," F;!enbau and Kilt., Pdrok"", Tlt-
0.72. The porosity of the betl . '34 per oent. Durin the 1WII.ow, January 1!M8.)

 CHA PTER
17
Flow of Fluids through Poro.us Media 2
Two Fluid PhlUes
I
N m&.llY operations two homogeneous fluid
pha.ees may be flowing simultaneously through
,porOU8 beds. The flow of the two phMe8 may
be countercurrent to each other lIS in pa.cked towers
or columns serving 8.'J gas absorbers or scrubbers, or
the flow of the two phases may be in the same direc-
tion lUI when air is used to displace fluid from 11 filter
cakc in the air-flow period of the filter eycle, or in
the displacement of oil by gas in the production of
oil from permeable sandstone.
When two fluid phases are flowing through a
Porous medium, one fluid normally wets. the solid,
floW!! adjacent to the solid, and prevents contact of
the BeCOtld phase with the solid; the other fluid
flows through the void space IUld is in contact with
tbe first fluid rather than with the solid. Tbis 800-
ODd fluid is then flowing through a. porous medium
which is different in charactemties from the un-
wetted porous solid. Th,e fluid wetting the surface
of the eoIid changes the volume of voids available to
the gas or nODwetting fluid and ,also changes the
shape of the pore space available to the gas or non~
wetting fluid. It is therefore necessary to speak of
a wetted porosity and wetted sphericity in con~
sidering the flow of the gas or non wetting fluid in
the presence of another fluid which wetf5 the solid
surfaces.
Before considering the flow of the Doowetting
Huid, it is necessary to ,establish the How character-
istics of the wetting Huid in order to arrive at values
for the wetted porosity and wetted sphericity.
In every porous medium there is a volume of
~ace not occupied by the solid. The volume of
220
these pores is designated by the term voulR. If the
voids are completely filled with a fluid, the porous
medium is said to be saturated with that Huid. If
the voids are not completely filled by a fluid. the
fractional volume of the voids occupied by the Huid
is referred to aa the saturation of that fluid. The
saturation is expressed as a percentage or fraction
which equals the volume of fluid in the voids divided
by the wtal volume of voids. For simplicity it is
the usual practice to express the fluid content of t.he
voida. in terms of the saturation of the wetting fluid.
For example, if the wtal void space is filled to the
extent of 20 per cent by volume with water and 80
per cent by volume by air, the medium is said to be
~ per cent saturated.
In developiDg procedures for predicting tbe flow
of two phases through porous media, it is nece!!88.ry
to consider capillary forces in the bed in addition to
the degree of saturatioo.
The calculation of flow for the two phase!! is based
upon the previously described. correlation for the
How of a single homogeneous fluid through porous
media (Chapter 16) with modifications depending
upon which phase is under consideration. The
nonwetting Huid is treated 88 a single phase flowing
through a porous bed modified by t.he presence of
t.he wetting fluid. For the wetting fluid, a correction
to the velocity is applied, based upon t.he saturation.
Figure 226 shows t he relative permeability" of
Relative (aonlOUmea callod 6pecific) permeablllty wthe lie-
tu&l QUM.tity or Bow of II pven phll.ge divided by the q UII\Hlty
of flow of tbAt phaIo under too ""-me driving foree when that
pbaM oompiflteIY ' IiIu. tM voids, i.e., single-fluid phlWl flow.
 TWO FLUID PHASES
1.00
I

0.80 1\' II
\,'
,
.
GH
'"
1\ .. .If
..' _1
Fla. 227. (0) c.pilI&ry tubell ill coot&ct wl Lh liquid ; (/.I) b....
1\ If aontlll capilb.ry tubeIJ..
!')., W
r;;; horizontal position, as indicated in Fig. 227b, but

0
j.A
j
. .f-. completely submerged in a flowing stream of the
liquid which wets the surfaces of the capillaries, the
o .. OJ liquid will flow through- each capillary in aceord
20
Uquid Saturation, % '" 100
with Poiseuille's equation 63L- under cOnditions of
laminar flow. The liquid in all capillaries will be
Flo. 2'le. Permeability of uDCODIIOlidaled !land to gtI-' and oil
M IIolunei;ion or liquid .tul'II.tion." flowing u nder these conditions of 100 per cent
saturation.
unconsolidated sand of iO to lro mesh to oil and to -If the bundle of capillary tubes is rai!led above the
gas as a function of the liquid saturation . At ll liquid stream and placed in a horizontal position in
saturatiOll8 iess than about 18 per cent, only the gas an air stream, as shown in Fig. 227b, with 0. pressure
Hows through the porous bed and no oil flows even gradient from one end of the tube to the otber, tbe
though, the voids are 18 per oent saturated with oil. air will tend to displace the liquid Crom the clI-pil-
Similar data for the simultanoous How of two liquid 1aric8 with a force corresponding to the pressure
phases, such as water and oil, are available-II gradient multiplied by the Cl"OI!8-6CCtional area of
This effect of saturation on the permeability in the fluid in the capillary. This displacing force i8
the simultaneous flow of two fluids through a porous opposed by a force equal to the interfacial teMion
medium can be explained by considering the effect between the liquid and air multiplied by the internal
of surface tension of fluid in capillsriee. The surface perimeter of the wetted capillary. Since the cross-
or interface between two fiuid ph.a.ses always tends sectiooal area varies as the square of the diameter,
to contract and generally behaves 88 if it were in and the perimeter &$ the firs t. power of the diameter,
tension. This characteristic is described as the there will be some size of capillary for a given pres-
6Urfoa temion or inl.erfacial ten8Um. IT (our capil- sure gradient in .,.-hich these capillary forcee balance
lary tubes of different internal diameters are placed the pressure gradient, and no fluid will pass through
in a fluid wroch wetB the surface of the capillaries, a capillary having 0. diameter equal to or smaller
the fluid rises in the capillaries to different heights, than this value. In Fig. 227b, tube 1 is passing
as indicated in Fig. mao Thil'! r-ondition Tepre- air and the capillary forces in tubes 3- and 4 are
eeots a balance of forces. The totaJ surface force sufficient to prevent the flow"of air. If the pressure
tending to pull the liquid upward in the eapil.la.ry drop is incresaed over the lengtb of the capiUary
varies directly as the inside perimeter of the capil~ tubes, air may pass through tube 3 and only tube 4
lary, or 8B the first power of the diameter. The will be of such small diameter &8 to prevent air flow.
gravitat ional force tending to pull the liquid down- Further significance of capillary forces is seen by
ward in the capillaries is the weight of the fluid in comparison of a porous medium to a bed composed
the e&pillary and _varies directly as the square of of many capillary tubes of short length. varying
the diameter ,of the capillary and as the height of
diameter, and random distribution. Coll8ide!" such
the liquid in tJ:ae capillary.
If the bundle of eapillary tubes is placed in a a bed completely sa.turatoo witb a wet.ting 6uid such
&8 water and subject to a pressure gradient. Each
The bibliography lor this chapter I.ppeal'II OD p. 228. short capillary conducts flow a.ccording to its diam-
... FLOW OF FLUIDS nfROUGH POROUS MEDIA 2
I the wetting fluKi retained in the capilla"ries. This
-.
j I
=::,
F lo. 228. G~phi(&l I1!preeelltaoon of tbe di8tribution of the
two fluids Rowlnl throulh .. pol'OWl hed upreo!l8ed as per OBD.t
saturatioo S and the oorrellpon_iol!; relative permeability of
the wetUlJ1 fluid for OHe [16rlieu!a.r preeeure gra ... ient. The
line !lep&ratilll &rea I fNun area 2 ill tile oil permeability line
of Fig. 226.
eter, pressure gradient, and viscosity of the fluid as
stated by Poi8euille's equation (63L) for laminar
flow. Now replace a portion of the water with a
nonwetting fluid such 88 air l'oO that the saturation is
about 80 per cent. In the "unsteady state" repre-
senting the change from 100 per cent saturation to
80 per cent saturation, the air flows through the
larger interstioos, displacing the water as is repre-
eented witb tube 2 of Fig. 227b. When equilibrium
is reached, with both fluids being supplied tAl main
Lain a saturation of 80 per cent, the air will be
flowing in the Iaeger capillaries 88 represented by
tube 1. The water flows by two systems.. A por-
tion Rows in the annular space a.s shown for tube 1.
At this high saturation many of the small capillaries
still are completely flooded nod conduct flow in the
same manner a8 if the bed were completely saturated.
However, a portion of the short capillaries is ex-
posed to the air stream at one or both ends, produc-
ing surface forces wbich prevent flow 88 repre-
8Cflted with tubes 3 and 4.. Thus, water flow de-
creases for two reasons: (I) in the large interstices
the air replaces the water, and (2) a portion of the
smaller intersticeS drops out ot flow.
With progressively lower 8&.turations, this phenom-
enon continues with additional interstices opened to
the flow of air and addit.ional interstices eliminated
from flow by capillary forces until the IiquKi ceases
to flow. This condition represente the maximum
pore IIpace eliminated (rom flow by capillary forces,
and also the equilibrium reached if the flow of the
wetting fluid to the porous media is stopped and the
non wetting fluid contim,le8 to flow under the same
conditiOI1ll.
For any specified pn::ssure drop over the length of
the capillary tubes, there is a definite quantity of
liquid wruch remlLins fixed in the capillaries depends
not only upon the si ~ of the capillaries, but also
on the pressure gralhent of the nonwetling fluid
across the porous medium and the interfacial ten-
sion. If the porous medium or the capillaries are
completely filled with a wetting fluid, all that fluid
is flowing and there is no fluid "fixed" in the capil-
laries.
Figure 228 is p~p.kJd to c!arify the tenua lor
expressing the distribution of the pba8e8 for two--
plase flow. The voids in a bed are divided into three
portions: (1) Donwetting fluid, (2) wetting fluid in
flow, and (3) wett.ing fluid eliminated from flow by
capillary forces. Each of ~ese portions 'of PIe voids
is represented a8 an .. ~ QD Fig, m, wqi~h applies
specifically kI the cQlldit.ioDll of liquid saturation
indicated by F'ig. 226. The oil permeability line of
Fig. 226 appears on Fig. 228 as the lin" gepa.ra.tWg
area 2 from area L
The significance of the following definit.ions is
also iIlustratA!Jrl on Fig. 228 for the specific case of
00 per cent saturation.
Saturation, S
Volume of voids filled with wetting fluid
Total volume of voids
Residual saturation, 8r
Maximum volume of wetting flUidl
I eliminated from flow
- -----=~'7':i=_=~-~
Total volume of voids
Fixed saturatton eliminated from flow, Sf
Volume of wetting fluid held stationary l
l by capillary fofQC8
---~~~~~~---
Tota! volume of voids
-
1-8) (,)
(1-8. (176)
 RESID UA.L SATURATION

Effective saturation, S. RESIDUA.L SATURATION

S~

- Voids containing wetting fluid active in flow

Voids containing both fluids in flow
To predict the effective 8ILturation correspond-
ing to a 'given saturf\,tion, it is nooessury to know the
residual saluration S, ILlld the total saturation S.
s-s, 8 - S. The residual saturation may be defined as a function
- (In) of the permeability of the bed, the interfa.cial wn-
-'8 - S, + 1 - S 1 - 2S. + SS. sian of the fluids, and the total force per unit area
and length. If flow is horizont.al this is the pressure
Equation 176 defi.n~ the satura tion eliminated
from flow S, in tenus of the saturation Sand ra;idual gradient. TIle result. of diIDensional analysis gives a
saturation S. and a;;sumell that S, is proportional to combined group,
the liquid permeability, I.e., K(-AP)
U;~., cos 9
S, 1- S
- - - -- (178) which is the ratio of forces driving fluids from the
S, 1-8,
bed kl the force! retaining fluids in the bed and is
called the capillmy number. Figure 229 is a plot of
This assume8 that the liquid removed from flow
by capillary forces is proportional tQ the nonwetting the residual ,saturation as a fun ction of the capillary
number as calculated from experimental data~,"l\
fluid iii. the- bed.
The effective I!8tura~iOll & dt!fjll~ Ole lwo-phW:!e for thick beds over 1 ft in thidmes;l (in each CI&Stl

system with reglLrd to the relative volume of ea.cb the cos 6 was taken IL$ unity). Data for low values
Auid flowing and is the rel'm used in flow relation- of residual saturation are for packed towers, whereas
shipe. data on high residual saturation are primarily from

Consolidated
Ib!schig rings
Bet1 saddles
Glass TiniS

2 II 21~"1 214'11 21 4 21 ~ '81

1..-. 'oW--. 1O-c.l.-. ,,,W--XlIf!..l.-x 1O-~X 1O-!..j..... lIr!"!-x 1O->.j

Capillary Number Ki;.,b1
FlO. 229. Re8ldllalu,tul1lti on ... " tllilctiull of cllplll.. ry numoor for thick bede,
 FW'W OF FLUIDS mROUGH POROUS MEOlA 2
consolidated sa.nds, thus giving a wide range in the this fluid flowin g per total cross !I(lCtion of pipe in
va.riables involved. Equation 179 is the equatior. terms of the saturation S as follows,
of the line shown in Fig. 229 and is ' applicable to
relatively thick beds where the entrance 8lId exit
effects are negligible.
.- Volume of fluid' flowing per second
Total cl'tl&l.flOOtional area. of conduit

S, ~ _I_(K( - ap )~.", (ISO)

86.3 g.v, 008 (J

Equation 180 is equation 63l. for laminar flow in

_ _ 1_ (D,2PIW( _11P)--O.21K (179)
a pipe, with v/ s'laubetituted for II.
86.3 321./'IPJ cos 8 For a porous bed the velocity is proportional to
in which 'Y - surface tension or interfacial WIlBio!l the effective saturation S. rather than the satura-
Ob/f') . tion S. USC of experimental data to determme t he
(J ,., contact angle measured through the exponent applied to the effectivtl saturation indi
more dense phase, cated that it is variable, having an order of magni
-ap tude of 2. 'llterefore. for the wetting fluid, the
- - = total Coree per unit area and length. mooified Reynolds number (Re") is defined to
L Ii the flow is vertical downward and include the effective saturation as shown by equa.-
L = -IlZ, (p' - l1.P/ L) is Bubsti tion 181. With v/Sl substituted for v in equatIons
tuted Cor (-I1P/L); if vertical up- 166 to 168, the following modified Reynolds number
ward and L - ll.Z, (_pi - tlP/ L) (He") and modified friction factor (j") result..
is substitutel;i for (.- ll.P/ L) (see
equations 168a a:nd 187). Re" _ D~PR."JJp
(181)
.s,'
FLOW OF THE WE'ITING FLUID f" "" 2q~.,.s. "lwJ
,-
(182)
In the case of the simultaneous flow of two fluids lVii'/
in laminar flow tbrough a small conduit such as a. LaminaT Flow of Wettin& Fluid
pipe, the wetting fluid may be considered as Rowing
In & manner similar to the derivation of equation
next to the walls of the 80Iid as a cylinder, with the
1m
nonwetting fluid Rowing through the central core of
the pipe surrounded by the flowing wetting fluid . J" 64
The fiuid wetting the eolid may have zero velocity - R.e"
at the solid surface and the sarne velocity 68 the
nonwetting fluid at the interface between the two
,
-"- _ ( g<Dp p&)
- -
(plW/) _ K plwJ
fluid phases. The portion of the pipe filled witli the S." 32FJ LJI. LJI. (183)
fluid wetting the walls contains fluid flowing in the
same manner as if the !entire pipe were filled with Values for y may be estimated from Fig. 230 and a
that fluid. having the same velocity distribution knowledge oC part!cle size, D,.
curve as though it completely filled the pipe, except
that its velocity distribution curve is relative to the FLOW OF NONWE1TING FLUID
velocity of the interface. With this concept the
velocity distribution for the fluid wetting the solid The fluid not in contact with the solid 80ws
may be integrated between the limits of zero and through the equivalent of a porous medium having
the velocity at the interface, and the integrated a porosity Jess than that of the unwetted solid. The
average superficial linear velocity II for the 8uid wetting fluid occupies some of the voids, and the
wetting the walls may be related to the quantity of voida available for occupation by the nonwetting
fluid may be expresaed &8 the wtUl poromy, X lIT
The HlIIC of this faetot vane. wi~h the relative thic~
cl the bed, owinc \0 cod elfeet& For tbill bediI up \0 about - X(I -S).
2 iD.. in ~ .. eDCOUllte~ on rotary neuwn Iilten, This wetted porosity Xw is uauaUy quite different
t.hia fact baa. value ollabout oW. in kind rrom the porosity of the unwetted eoJid X .
 FLOW OF NON WElTING FLUID

,.0
lead $hot
Spheres
BeI1 $lIddles
.. Ru<:hig rinas
0',,,,,,
o So'"
o SoIl

1.,
1.0
0.0001 o.otlO3 o.ooos 0.001 0,()02 o.oos 0,(" 02 0.3 o.s
P/IrtiCIe Size, D,. fl
FlO. 23). Expopent!l to the efl'ect.ive SAturation S. in eq\ULUoIl3 181 to 187 M II. function of pIIortiele!lise D,.

The wetting fluid on the surfaces of the solid changes For example, in Fig. 226 at 100 per ceDt satura.-
the shape (sphericity) of the particles exposed to the tion (8 _ 1.0), the equivalent porosity for the' non-
non wetting fluid and also occupies selectively the wetting Bum is zero. At the residual saturation
sinall pores and capillaries, leaving only the larger (about 18 per cent) , the equivalent poroeity for the
pores open to the nonwetting fluid. The correlation nonwetting fluid is the total porosity X aB follows
for flow of IL single fluid (Fig. 221) is based upon the from equation 184.
total porcaity of the 80lid phase including all voids,
no matter how small. 1 - 0.18)
X' - X ( -X
]n order to use the correlation of I<igs. 221 and 1 - 0.18
225, the porOBity must be expree&ed in term! of a
porOBity of the same quality as that of the dry At a saturation of 90 per cent the equivalent poros-
medium. The wetted poroeity is of a far more effec- ity is 0.122 times the porosity X lUI follows from
tive quality than the porosity of the dry medium equation 184.
because the liquid hal! selectively filled the smaller,
less permeable voids. In order to make this adjust-
ment the wetted porosity m\lijt be increased before
X' _ X (1.0 - 0.90) _X (0.10) _ O.I22X
use in Figs. 221 or 225. The equivalent porosity X' 1.0 - 0.18 0.82
for U$E! in Fig. 225 is obtained by adding the voids
eliminated from How S,X to the wetted porosity X.". Sphericity of the particles to the nonwettin, fluid
or
is altered by the presence the film c4. wettira Ouid,

X' - X(1 - S) '-8)

+ (- - S.X
1 - S.
provided the amount of wetting fluid is greater than
the residual saturation. In other worda, wetted
sphericity is a function of the effective saturation.
_ (1 - S) X Thus, the modified Reynolds number (Re"') and.
(184)
(1 - S.) friction factor if") for the flow of the fluid DOt wet-
 FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH POROUS MEDIA 2
ting the particles are defined by equations 185 and drop over the total path due to the effect of density
186 whenever changes in elevation 6Z are involved.
Re'" _ D"vp Fa,' (185)
For the general case of flow of noncompressible
wetting fluids througl) porous s;)lids, equation 168a
" bocom..
/''' .. 2gtDJw, (186)
PI - p~
,}LF/ - t?L!"P, +AZ-+-
(') 6(,}) (187)
p 2gcD,s.'- g. 2gc
CQrTeBPOD<!ing to equations 166 and 168, respec-
tively, where X ' is the equivalent porosity, FRA' and For the nODwetting phase,
F/ are factors determined from Figs. 219 and 220,
VdP - oi'LI"'F/ +AZ (') 6(oi')
using the equivalent porosity X' and the wetted
sphericity of'
-
f 2gJ)JI
- + - (188)
g. 2gc

,-"
~~ \.
.~

.~

-
.-
A"~
'\ ""
O.
"-
. / .....
.-' .
k:.~ ..!:
0 :.-
.-
7

--
7
.-' /'
9.pC'f'I"4 (11

..~
./

O' ~ V~ \t>.
e.;...
iP'
OA
V-
Q3
o I 02 0.3 0.4 0.5
Effective s.tumIon. S.
0.6 0.7 ... 0.'
FIo. 231. Wetted 8pbericity as a runc1.iOD d effective .tmatioD.

Figure 231 l5bows the wetted sphericity 40' calcu- For noncompressible and nonwetting fluids, equa-
lated from experimental data. as a flWction of the tion 188 becomes

+ AZ G')
effective saturation. For the larger particles the
P, - P,
wet~ sphericity i:J reduced with increasing satura-
p
- oi'LI"'F/
2g.D p
6(oi')
- + -
'}.g.
(189)
tion to a greater extent than for smaller particles.
In general the llu'pr particie8 have a lower value of When applying the flow equat.iona t:> differen~
the wetted sphericity V for the IllUDe shape and streams in the same operation as in this chapter, 1M
.turation. sulncript (1) rejer' to the point up.tTeam and 1M aub-
Each fluid flows according to its indiTidual prop- BCTipl (!) to 1M point dotorutream; therefore. in
erties and tJle foroee acling upon it. The total cotl7Ikr~ jlOfD, point (1) fur the wetting fluid i&
driving force available to overcome friction may be 1101 point (1) Jor the nonwetting fluid .
different for the two 8uids even for the same preMUl'e Different methods ma.y be used for the simulta.-
neoua solution of the two equations, 187 and 188 or
 FLOW OF NON WETTING FLUID 227
189. to calculate the pressure drop and the velocities Since (S.l.lO) OCCUtll to the nt>gati ve fitllt power in He" and
of each BuKi. Bowing through the porous medium. to the positive iItOOnd power in f', the corrtIlp(lndint: VIlIu",
Re" ..nd f' will be found on .. line wi lh tbu l!Iope or nega-
The correct solution is obtained when each Buid or tive 2. By elimin.. ting S.I. ... log!" .. _2 log Re" + con-
satisfies its respective flow equation for the operat-
"""L
wg conditions. For a given solid bed and two ftuids Af!l!Uming a vallJe of 1.0 for S. I.... t he OOrTtIIpondilll! value
r
of known properties there are four variables: the rOf" Ren is 11,400. ..nd fnr is 0.695. Tben..foro the correct
velocity of the wetting Buid , the velocity of the non- IJOlut.ioo ill round at the i n te~tion of the tul"Vfl on Fill:. 225
wetting ftuid, the effeetive saturation at steady ...;th the st.raight line dr .....n t hrough t he point, Re" .. 11,400,
t' .. O.~, with .. slope of oep.tive 2. This inl.el"l!leCtion is
state conditions, and the pressure drop across the at. He" .. 68,000.
system. Of these lour variables any two may be TberefOl"l'!
arbitrarily fixed and the other two determined by S _11.400
_ _ _ 0.168
trial-and-error calculations. 68.000
For the C&Se in which the velocities of the wetting S .. 0.338
stream and the nOD wetting stream are both fixed, it
is necessary to compute the effective saturation From equation 179, !JOina: (p' + !!PIL) for tb~ pre!IIIIlnI
whict-. gives the same pressure for the two fluids at , gradient l1li explained on p. 224,
a. selected point in the system such as at the bottom
or top of a packed tower, or inlet or outlet of a
s __,_ ( (0.0417)'(39)(62.01 - 4) 0.0276 )-O.Ifl ..
T 86.3 {32)(72.8)(6.85 X 10 ')(660)(1)
porous bed.
If the pressure drop is fixed and t.he velocity of From equation 177, using S .. 0.338, S .. 0.0276, Sis fOlllld
be 0.351, and 13, ... 0.0188.
one of the fluids is to be caieulated, the procedure is to The
holdup ellp~ III! eub ie feet of liquid per eubie
mdre direct. Such a calculation is demonst.rated in root or void.!. .. 8 - 8, ... 0.351 - 0.0188 ... 0.332. ElI-
the following example problem. prt'l!!!f!d .&I> poundB per .cubic (oo~ of p'-cL:inlil. (S - S,)pX
.. (0.332)(62.4)(0. 75) .. 15.5 Ib of w.. ter per cubic (oot of
lIIu.nati..., E,..mpk. Pr-ediet the air fio'I!" aDd Iiqwd packiq. An experimental run under l heee coDditiorul indio
holdup throu&h .. ; -...eked bed of O.600-in. Herl aaddles. cated .. hOldup of 13.3 lb/ eu ft or packing.
~ gradjeo\( -bP'/L} .. 4.0 psf/ ft of heigb~

w..ter ,.te .. 16.610 Ibjhr/ .. ft

X ' .. 0 .75 1 - 0 .351 .. 0.001
Tempe.... ture .. 21 0 1 - 0.0276
P()I'Q8jty or bed .. 0.750 ..' .. 0.535
T he sph!!ricity it esl.imated rrom the porOlity by Fia:. 223. From Fi. 219 {I~' .. 54.6
using cu~ ror norm ..1 packin& as 0.34..
F'l"Om FiB. 220 PI' .. ~.ooo
From Fig. 219 YR ... 89
Frum equations 186 and 189, using (-,' - t.P/ L) for the
From Fill;. 22!l p, .. 660
pressure vadiellt.
From Fill;. 230 .. .. 1.65 for- .. diameter of }1 in.
or-().041 7ft 2(JJ),J.-;, 2(32.2)(0.0417)( -0.076 + 4) 0 .00300
/''' .. UFl " (1}~1(0.076)(35,000) .. -~--
Applying equation 187 to the liquid (wetting) phase lor ..
height or 1 rt, L .. 1 .. -~Z . S in O!! PI refers to the entering From equation 185
point of the liquid
D.1JpFI/4' 0.0417(0.076)(54.6)u """-
PI - PI J.O u~L!"FI Z ' ","I', , Re'" .. - -- - - (0.0182)(0.000612)
- - - - - - .. 14.,UUVIT
- -p - - ---
62.4
- 2("T).,s.~
+~ -,. - - -- -
2(JJ).,s."b
,.

Since
Solving ror f" logr" .. -21", Re'" + Conat.a.nt
I" .. 2(32.2)(0.0417)(S.)t(I")(6U - 4.0) .. O.~S )1.1
16(110 )' ,be eolution ia obtaiM/d .&II the Inte1"8eCtiu n of t~ lItn.it;ht line
( 62.4(3600) (62.4)(600) Jllll!8inK through Re'" .. 14,000. 1m .. 0.00396, with &lope of
From equation 18 \
negative 2 with the curve on Fie- m. This intetlleCtioo ..
at Re'" .. 4350.
(0 .0417) (82.4)39 Tbererore,- _ .. 43-50/ 14,000 .. ().3t (PI-
roe" _ _D_",:_. ~
_or _~_ --~;ilr.;~i%1~r.- 11.400 Experimen\al relUlte under the _ oonditiom. CaYe ..
I. - s.1-D
docity of 0.29 rl&
228 FWW O}' FLUIDS THROUGH POROUS MEDIA 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Bo&L're1l, L . M. K., and R.. II. KPsR, "Pr-..re Drop
At companring Two-Componen~ F10w through Pipe!l,"
1M. E,,~. eMm., 31, 426 (1939).
2. ~Jo;T, H . G., "Flow of Gas-Liquid Mi~to.)R~ lhro'ligh
Consolidated Sand," TI"(l1I!. A.m. IMl.. Jl illillg Md.
ElIgr. , 138, 91 (l940).
3. BKOYlS(;Ll., L. E., IUld D. L. KATZ, "FIn,," nf Fluids
through P()I"OlUI ML..J.ia-Part IT," OMm. Rna. P,O')rc33,
n, 601 (1947).
4. EL(lu", J. C., and B. W. JE~S(;R, "Studies of Liquid
Holdup in Pacrud TO.... er&," Trail, . Am. [1181. O~ e lJl.
A'n,,,., n , m (1M3). _ of 96 F. The natural gas has a specific pavi~y of 0.71
So E Ulll'!, J. C., and F. B. WEISS, " J..iquid Holdup allfl
Flooding in Paeked Towera-Part I," I nd. eng. CM m.,
31, 435 (1939).
6. L&VR!:TT, M . C., " lItow <If Oil-Waler ~r;ll"tures through
UnconlOlidated Sands," TraM. A.m. Inllt. ).IiM"fI Md..
Engr3., 1n. 149 (l93!l); ibid., 16, 152 ( 1941 ).
7. MARTlSELLl, R. C., L. M. K. BoELTER, T. H. "I. TATJ.OR,
E. F. Tno)tlll!N, lind E. H. MOflllllf, " I!lOloormal Pressure
Drop for T.wo-Phase Twp-Componcnt }'low in a Hori-
lonlal Pipe," Trani. Am. Soc. Md. E-II{JI"" &8, 139
(HK4) .
8. MAIITINU,I, R. C., J. A. PuTN.6JI.. and R. W. LocIU.HT,
"Tw~Phalle, Two- Component now in tbe vi8..oua
nqion, Tronl . A .... 11U1.. CoVill.E.,., U. 681 (1946).
9. PrRlIT, E. L., C. A.. M ANN, and T. WAL .... Ja., " Pft'I!IiIlJe
Drop and Liquid Holdup in Packed Tower," Ind. SAg
CM ...., n, Rfil (1040).
10. SCltOll:lflJOR.S, E . M., and W. J . DoU(loIu:a'TY, "PreIlSUre
Drop and FJood.ing Velooity in Packed Tower 'IIjlh
Vieoou.s Liquids," TraM. A .... In. Cke .... Ertgrl ., 60,
51 (1044).
11. VAN .WINOE"'. N., "Influence of Oil Flow on Water
Oontent of &nd~," Oil W ed:llI (Oet. 10, 1038): per80Ual
letter (Aug. 10, 1945).
12. WYt""JI:orr, R. D., and H. G. BoTsn, "The ~low of Oae-
Liquid Mi.r.tureB through. Uni::oMolhUted Sande," PArna,
T, 325 (I!136).
PROBLEMS
1. A \.oWer filled with 2-in. crushed quartl (poroeity 40 per
oent) ill being drained. The fluid lIIIIy be oo~den;d 1.0 have
tho propertit... nf wa.ter. WIII.t ""iIl he the hokhlp in the
column, 8,tpre-.:l Il.~ Jl<Jr oont Mtunltion and tu! volume of
fluid per cubic foot of to....er packing? ..
2. Water (00" F ) iO!I8prayed onto a bed 0( 28j3Z,rneII!h 8&Ild
(porosity 40 per cent) at one-half the mUl whieh would flood
tbe bed. What penentage of the voids are filLed wiLh water?
3. A horisont.1 tube of 2-4n. inlli<le; diameter ill packed rith
-.ud of the followin, IICrecn analysis 1.0 a poroeity of 34.3 per
Filtratwn
ILTRATION is the operation in which a
F heterogeneous mixture of 9. fluid ilnd particles
of solid are separated by a filter medium
which permits the flow of the fluid but retains the
part.icles of solid. It therefore involvC8 primarily
the flow of fluids through porous media.
In all types of filtra.tion the mixture or slurry
flows as a result of some driving force, i.e., gravity.
pressure (or vacuum), or centrifugal force. In each
case the filter medium supporl.!l the particles 118 a
porous cake. Thia cake, supported by the filter
me4ium, retains the solid particles in the slurry
which add sUCCCMive layers to the cake as the 61
trate passes through the cake and tJh.xiium. The
sc'"erai' procedures for creatij~ the driving force on
the fluid , different methods of cake deposition and
removal, and different means for removal of filtrate
from the cake subsequent to its formation result in
a great variety of filter equipment. In general,
fi1ters may be classified according to the nature of
the driving force initiating filtration.
GRAVITY FILTERS
Gravity filtcnI are the oldest and simplest type.
Gravity-operated lIand filters consist of tanks with
perfomted bottoms filled with porous sand through
which the fluid passes in laminar flow I as shown in
Fig. 232. 'They are widely used to process large_
quantities 01 fluid cOlltaining small quantities of
salklll, IlS in water purification.
The tanks may be constructed of wood, steel, or
other suitable meW, but for water treatment they
are usually of eonerct~ . D ucts beneath the per-
f() ral9<i fa lso wttomillead the filtra.te from the bed.
The ducts are providod with ~tes or valvea to
229
~nt. 1be Sflnd galu IlI1': 'II'eO rounded and have a sphericity
of 0.85.
"leIIh :w 35 48 65 100 150 2(lO Pan
MAlIS %
Retained 0.92 0 . 70 1.80 13.90 57.00 18.68 IUO l.0
Crude oil IIIoturated "'ith natural gas enters the tube.
Pl"ell$ure taps are located at 5-ft interval!. In ono te~t the
pre88UfC readings on two successivc tapti am 423 IOnd 401 pIIig.
The liquid oil ratc OOtw.'Cn tll<-_ tapti is 1.7 lb/ hr. Tho oil
dcnsity is 0 .78 gnun / ml, iu. viSCOJllity is 2.2 eentipoi-. a.nd
its surlAOlj wns on i~ 2() dYne!l/ cm at the flowing temperature
air ... 1) and a viseoeil y of 1!.012 centipoillC.
Comf'\lte Lhe average rate of gu Sow ool"'een the 1"'0
pre8IlI.Il"e tape ill 8tandard culoic foot pcr hour and the aatun.-
lion of the pol'Ol1ll bOO "-ith oil in this pipe .etlion.
4. An absorber In a brimstone contact plant fOf sulfurie
acid is paok<,d whh quutz pebbles to a depth of 20 ft. The
pebble!! are CiI8tlntillUy 3pherical in shape a nd havu un avcr
age dillJILu Ll.!r uf 7S in. The packed quart' hall &n average
porllllity <>f 0.3M. Caloulate the p!"C8SUle drop and the liquid
holdup IlfI pounds of liquor per cubic foot of p&cked absorber
for &n averap pili velocity of 160 !tandllTd cu {tl "! ft/ min
and an average liquor rate 01480 Ib/ hr/ sq ft of total CI"Oe&-
sectional area in the Ilh8orber. Tbe eoterine acid is !)8 per
cent 8Ulfuri.:. acid, and the product is 99 per cent sulfuric acid.
A~ abeorber temperature is 150 F. The pa to 1he
abeorl.lo:!r averages 8 per ocnt sulfur trioxide. The g:aa hall
an average vW:o.ity of 0.020 ocntipoiae and tb~ fldd a 8Il.rfaoe
tension o0.OO5Ibs force per foot and a demit y of 1121bs/ cu ft.
5. (a) Compu!oe the How of meth.we upwa.rd through a
column of sand 4 in. by 4 in. !!Quare and 42 in. tal! with a
pressure drop from 60 psia at the bottom t.O 51 paia at the
top. 0.2 gal of gM80line (.56" API, vi3008ity of 0.56 centipoise,
and eUriace telll:lion of 23 dyDCB per centimete r) ate entering
the bottom of the column per hour. 10w i. at SO F. The
bed htu! a porosity of Hi-3 per <':eDt. The Mod is com~
01 weU-rou~ ~ 9i.the following ecreen analysis:
Mass F nu:tion
M""
.."
RelAin....!
35 0.17
2.44
23 , 23
100 49.28
150 22.45
200 1.77
270 0.44
0.22
(b) Compule the peml!ntae saturation of the !JfJ)(\ bed
under coodit.iOM of fLow.
CHAPTER
18
enable backwashing of the Mad bOO to remove
accumulated solids by reversed flow. The perfo-
rated ixltwm is covered with a foot or more of
crushed rock or coarse grl\vel to reV}in . thc lIand
above. Quarh sand of uniform size is u;;ed as the
filter medium in water treatment. Graued crushed
FIG. 232. SeetiOllllI di"pm of gmvity 5II od filte r (not
w scale).
coke is used with lead-lined boxes in fi ltering sul-
furic acid, and. graded crushed limestone is used for
alkaline liquors. Charcoal beds are used to clarify
organic liquors both by filtration and adsorption.
In all cases it is important that coarse packillg be
plaood at the perforated bottom to support the
;finer material above. The differellt sizes of materi.u.l
should be laid in layers so that different sizes of
particles are not mixed. T he sund u.sed for filteri ng
should be unifonn in particle size to provide maxi-
mum porosity and maximum filtenng rate.
The capacity of the.sc filters may be calculated' by
t.he Darcy equation (1 70) for steady-sta.w Row when
230 FILT RA110N
the fluid fil~ the bed and no solids have been de-
posited on top of the bcd. When the bed is just
filled (ftoodl'li) and the height of the sand hed
equals the height of the water column, -AZj !,
becomes unity.
The calculation of fil ter capacity from equation
170 gives the init ial capacity when clean. Cont inu-
ous operation of the fi lter resl Its in an increased
resistance to now OC'CBUse of the dcpo&lion of solids.
Cleaning of the bed or removal of these solids by
l::ackwllI!hing: i, required a t intervals to mainlain ur
renew the capacity of the filte r. The average effec-
tive capacity may be even less than 0.5 of the calclI-
lated vnlue for ' clean condit ions. For continuous
plants, II. number of filter beds arc used, and a sched-
ule is established fo[' ba.ckwashing individual beds
in turn.
lIIu Htr"ti ve ~ " mpl e . Compute t he capacity of a clean
Mnd fill.<'r fill,,1 to 1\ depth of I ft with 35-mesh M od (diameter
- 0.OO l 3tl7 h) when filteting city .... aler at 68 F wittl gravity
Dow. The porOolity of the bed ill 0.45.
'W~ \!
O.rcurr- ~
"
.s.... ~,:-'
,
Flo. 233. Vert ;c-,d r"""!"11Te s:u.d .filtt'"r. (PermuJit Co.)
The sphericity is eIItimat.ed {rom Fig. 223 as 0.75. From
219 Rnd 220, PRe _ 48 Ilnd P, _ 1200. Solving ..,qU&-
}-igll.
tion 170 for the superficill! veloci ty of the water ( ba.!OO on
empty eru. 8e(:tiQn),
.-"''''''''''' '
~pptwlt;,
3'lI'I'JL
or 2.98 galjMI h / min.
The rates of filtration vary from about. 2 gal/ sq
it/ m in for water purification tt) about 5 ga1jsq
ft/ min for some indu.strial uses. Washing is usually
dOlle at a rate of about 15 p;al/sq ft/ min. For each
particular bed t.here is II definite velocity at which
the wash water will bfogin to fluidize the bed (Chap-
ter 20) and r('lease trapped particles. This is the
proper wa..<;hing velocity wllich should not be ex-
ceeded because of possible loss of slmd ill thc wash
water, For hi g~-capllcity service the filter bed may
be placed in II clo${.'d vc~l and operated under
pressure, as indicated in Fig. 233.

~ ..
PLATE.AND-FRAME FILTERS 231
2 Buttons
o ,...
inlet

++-- .-++
ffilma Wash plate

FU). 234. Plates and frame of an oPen-deli very fil t.f!r press..

,...

o o
ffllme

FlG. 235. P!&teI!I and fmme for d Ofled..lcl ivery waahing ph.t. ,.nrl-frwnc filter press.

Bag or ""hat" filters .consist of cloth bags of felt
or flannel with the mixture entering the inside as in
a dOlDeltic vacuum cleaner. The capacity of such
filters is low.
In most industrial operations, the fluid to be
filte~carries a high concentration of solids which
bWld up a cake of increa.sing thickness S8 the opera-
tion proceeds. Such conditions require other types
of filters, 'particularly when~ th{\ solids 'are to be re-
covered. Many varieties of' filterS are used indus-
ub.J1y. ' Some filters operate ' bateh\\;sc, whereas
others operate , continuously; some f.lters require
pressure on the Blurry entering the press with the
filtrate leaving at atmospheric or higher prCl!.8ure,
whereas others allow the s1urry to enter under at-
mospheric pressUre and require a vacuum on the
filtrate.
PLATE-AND-FRA;\IE FILTERS
The plates and frames of an open-delivery filter
press are shown in Fi""g. 234: The plates and frames
are assembled alternately with filter cloths over each
side of each pl&te. The assembly is held together
as a unit by mechanical force applied by f' acnl~ "fjlr
hydra ulically, as indicated in Fig. 236.
There are many different types of nit ,t presses
employing plates and frames. The simplest has a
single conduit for introducing the slurry and t be
wash and a single opening in each plate for removal
of the liquid (open delivery), illustratOO in !'IeCtion
in Fi~. 234 and 237. OLbers have separate conduits
for introducing .~he slurry and wash water. Some
also have separate conduits for removing filtrate
and wash water (cloSed delivery), as illustrated in
Figs. 235 and 236. The conduits may be a.t the
comers, at the center, or at intermediate locations.
The fced slurry enters through the conduit forme.:l.
by t he holes in the upper right corner of both the
plates. and
fr&me8 (Fig. 235). Each frame carries
an inlet or hole leading from this conduit through
which the slurry enteN! the space bet.ween the plates.
Pressure on the' slurry fed to the pross causes the
filtr&te to pass through the cloths 0 11 eitber side of
the plates and run through the space between the
clot.h and the plate ~toward the outlet which may be
either a spigot, as sbbwn in Figs. 234, 237, and 238,
or a second channel' (ormed by holes drilled thl~llgl1
 FILTRATION
Flo. 236. Seetiooal drawing of fully &lgembled comer-feed c.d-delivery filter pmlll. (T. ShrifJn lind Co.)
another corncr of the plates and frames .....ith outlet!;
provided from the plates but. not the frames (Fig.
236). Whether the outlet is through a conduit
(Fig. 236) or through a cock or spigot (Figs. 237 and
238), the plate is 80 drilled or constructed that the
filtrate enters the outlet from both sides of the plate.
The solids in the slurry accumulate on the cloths
on opposite Rides of the plates. After due time only
Flo. 237. Ellploded i!eet-ional drawinc of au open-d"liv~ry
6.lter p~.w1lll olJy Olle and two bu\tou platea. (T. Shriw.
and Co.)
a small part of the space between tho plates is
available for the slurry, and the feed is shut off. If
the cake is to be washed, dear washing flu id is then
passed into the slurry or mlxture inlet (Fig. 236 or
237) behind the slurry, enters the ctlke more or less
from the center of the frame, and passes toward the
Wash w..- outlets
FIG. 238. E.J:ploded lI(:etionai drawing of ...-..wlll-type open-
dilleharae 6.Itcr pre., showing wl\3hing Open.tloo. (T. Shri....
and Co.)
 BATCH LEAF FILTERS 233

plates on either Bide. After the cake has been small in quantity. However, continuous fi lters are
wMhed, this flow is stopped, t.he force holding the supplanting plate-andframe presses for many large-
plates together is released, the plates and frames scale operations.
are opened in sequence, and the cake is removed or
dumped into a pit bela", the press. After dumping BATCH LEAF FILTERS
is completed, the press is again closed by applying
the mechanical force to lock the plates and frames Leaf filters are similar to the plateandfram.)
together, and a new cycle of filtration begins. filters in that a cake is deposited on each side of the
By providing both the lower outlet through the ielrl (Fig. 2394) and the fi ltrate flows to the outlet in
cocks 'and s. separate channel at another corner of
the plate, the wash may be taken out separate from
the filtrate.
When the wash Rowing through the cake follows
the same path as the filtrate, the pr00e88 is called
"simple washing." The expression ':through wash~
ing" or "every-other-plate washing" is applied to
the system illustrated in Fig. 238. This requires
the use of two diffp,rent types of plates. The non~
washing plate (one-button) and the wash plate
(three-button) are loaded in the prese between the
frames (twc>but ton), as indicated in Fig. 238. In
this process the feed enters the frame as before
(upper right comer of frame in Fig. 234) but the
wash enters every other plate (the upper left eoo~
duit of the three-button wash plaJ.c, Fig. 234) and
pas!IC8 through the t wo cakes in the frames on either
side of this plate, leaving through the cock on the
nOn\\'a.sh or oncbutton plat.e. This method re-
quires that the spigots be closed on those plates
(three-button) into which the wash elltcrs.
All these types of plates can be dcsigned to
opera.te on clOOled delivery by providing a third (0'
conduit formed. by the holes in the lower right Fm. 239. (II ) Seetiolllli view or II lilter leo! sho..-illg CO r\8true
corner of the plates and frames. By providing four lion a nd .pproximate locatjon of o:ak ~; (II) eutll ....y ... ~ion
conduits (Fig. 235) it is possible to operete with a oflcaf Bhowillg detai4 of roMI.ruetion. (O/im" Unill PiU(T!.)
d.od ddilltTll with separate out~1.II for filtraW ana
wash, as indicated in Fig. 236. The feed slurry the channels provided by the coarse drainage screen
erateNi each frame through the upper right conduit (Fig. 239b) in the If!af between the cakes. The
(there being no opening from this conduit to any of leaves are immersed in the slurry. The types of
t.he plates). The filtrate leaves each plate through leaf filters shown in Figs. 240, 241, 242, and 243
the lower left conduit until the frames are filled operate batehwise.
with cake. The wash enters through the upper left Figure 240 represents a stationary lea.f filter
conduit into every other plate and passes through (Sweetland type), and Fig. 24 1 represents a rotating
the double cake within the frames on'either eide of leaf fi lter (Vallez type) . The rotating leaf Jilter
this plate and out through the lower right conduit gives a more unuonn cake. The incorporation of
on the alternate (one-button) plate. During wash~ the screw conveyor pennits mechlUlical discharge
ing the valves on the filtrate outlet and inlet are of the cake without opening the case.
closed. During filtering the va1ves on t.he wash Figure 24.2 shows a Kelly filter in tbe open posi~
inlel, and outlet are closed. tion. In operation, the filter is closed and the inlet
Plateandframe presses are widely used, partic- valve is opened, allowing the slurry to enter the
ularly when the cake is va1uable and relatively shell with the a.ir being displaced throllgh the vent
1kl.24O. A S~t1a nd pressure lelll' filter in o~n pMition. (VIi.",. J "iWl F:lltr. )

---

FlLTItAn:
OI1l1.iT

F IU.24 1. Rota ry lcul filler. (Stn:n3Im EmporolQr Co.)

""
 BATCH LEAF FILTERS
FlO. 242. Kelly lee.! pressure filter in open poI!iti(,n. (OliveT Unum FiUer3.)
pipe at the top rea r of the shell (Fig. 242). This
vent may be clo;;ed or left open after the sllf~ll is
filled. If the valve is left open, it ads as a limited
overflow valve, returning tJlC excess feed to the
feed tank. This m ay be advisable as it provides
better circulation between the fil ter lca.velol nlld tends
to keep heavy particles from settling. The cake
lJui ld~ up 00 both !;ides of the leaf, as indicated in
Fig. 239, and filtration is continued until the de-
sired thickneS!! of cake is formed or until the fi ltra-
tion raUl drOpti off sharply. The fced is Ulen shut
off, the drain valve is openoo, and the eXt'C!;8 :;lurry
is removed. Low-pressure air is introduced into
the tMk to aid in removing the excess solution. The
prei!Suro diffl"rential also helps to hold the cake
agaillf'it the filter cloth. After it is emptied, the
shell may be fi lled witb wash if desired or blown
with air to d ry the eake prior to discharge. The
flXC<'S8 wa..'!h fluid if:; drained off at the end or the
washing pericd in the same WAy ~ the e..xeess slurry,
and the cake ' is then blown wi'l1 air. The 1>hell is
t.hen opened, as indicated in Fig. 2-12, and the cake
is dumped. Air pressure int.roduccd into the fi ltrate
.. 5
channel, or frequently a wfiter spray, is used to help
remove the cake from the leaves.
Leaf filters may he very la.rge. The leavca shown
in Fig. 243 ~uspended 011 a erane al"'f, being tran&-
ferred to a pit containing Lhe slurry for the recovery
of magnesium 'hYdroxide in the process of manuiac-
turing magnesium. from sea water. After Ule cake
has l)(len built up to t he dOOred thieknellS, thc crune
lifts the leaves and cake out of the pit containing
the urry and immerses the leaves in 8. second pit
containing the wash solution. A vacuum i held Oil
t.he filtrate or wash side during filtration, tran~fer,
and washing. After the rake has been adequately
washed. it ir:; similMly transported to a third pit for
dumping bcforu the clean leaves are returned to the
EUUI7Y pit for filtration.
CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM t'iL'I'ERS
Rota ry vacuum filters (Fig. 244) arc ulK'd where a
continuous operation is desirahle, Jlarlit~\1larly for
brge-S<.:ule upf'ratioM. l'~igure 245 j~ "' diagrammatic
cross section of t.he filt-er shown in Fig. 244. The
236
Flo. 243. Large bat ch leaf filter preS!! used in producing mag!rel!ium from eea w!\t.er, showing ieaVll>l
traMfer ir(lln filtering point t.o washing "oint. (Dol/.' CAm.iwl Co.)
filter drum is immersed in the slurry. Vacuum ap-
plied to tho filter medium causes tho ca1<e to depooit
on the outer surface of thc drum as it passes through
the slurry. This part. of the cycle is indicated in
Fig. 245 as "cake forming." The d rum is divided
into segments, each of which is connected to the
rotating valve tbrougll which the vacuum is ap-
plied, and the filtratR., wash, and uir are removed.
These segments are normally about 1 ft in width
,and in length exwnd aeross the entire width of the
filter drum.
The poI>ition of the twelve scgmcnt.a shm"'n in
Fig. 245 is such that segments 1,2,3, 4, and 5 are
eor.nccWd to the main filtrate outlot through the
rotatillg vslve and the line VI' HI indicates the
poBition of 8. bridge or blocking shoe whieh sep-
arates the fi ltrate from the wash. Segments 6, 7,
8, 9, to, and 11 arc connected through the rotating
valve tQ the wash wat.cr and air outlet V 2 Bl!
"indicates the posit.ion of the bridge !;Cparating wash-
FlLmATION
su~r<"vi<)(1 Ly crane during
ing from air blow, a nd Ba indicates lhe bridge sep-
arating air blow "from filtering. Air ii; Admit.ted
through the line Va to assist in removing the cake.
Tn the operation as indicated in Fig. 2-45, the pipe
from segment 1 hlti:! jUl!t passed bridge Bill and the
drum section 1 is completely submerged in the
slurry. The vacuum (2 to 2(j in. of mercury) causes
a thi'n cake to build up on the out..side of the cloth,
and the filtrate po.sses through the piping V I to the
main, filtrate outlet on the valve body.
As the drum rotates in a clockwise manner, the
cake becomes progressively thicker, with filtrate
still passing out through the main fi ltrate out.let
un til station (l is reached. At th is position t he cake
is fully (armed, and the connecting plpe has j ust
pMSCd bridge 8.. The fi ltralR. will nolV pass into
the wW!h connection and out through the wash out-
let of the valve body V 2. Tile cake is then washed
by a scriC18 of nozzles as shown mounted. on pipes
called "wash headers." Aftcr being washed, the
 CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS 231

Flo. 244. Rotary-drum Vllcuum filter. (Oiilltr United F~. )

cake mlty be rolled in order to increase it.s density

and decrcl\.SC thc moisture content. Wash liqnor is Ca~e Silturat.cl
removed in positions 10 and II, priml~rily by two-
phase flow of air and liquor.
At st.ation 12 the segment has p8S!!Cd O\'cr bridge
BfA (the blow bridge), and the s9gmcnt is Buhjcetoo
to a. posilive air pressure of about 5 psi. Thi.s re-
vel'!!3l of p~u rc or " blow" \oose[;l the cake from
the filter medium, and the cuke is removed by the
scraper or " doctor knife. "
Thc cutaway view of a rotary-drum vacuum filter
of different design (Fig. 246) may help in clarifying
the construction and operation. The drum is di-
vided int.() segments, each connected through ports
in the trllllnion to the discharge head. As the drum
rotates, the faces of Ule segments ptulS successively
through the slurry. The vacuum in the segments
d raws filtrate th rough the filter medium, depositing
the suspended solids on the fil ter d rum as a cake.
AJJ thc cake is withdrawn from the slurry hy TOLa-
tion of the d rum, it is completely sat .mlled with with liltratl
tilt-rato and undergoes "dewatering" by the simul- FIG. 245. Diagramm/IJ.ic CroiIS f'eoClion of rtllary-drum Vllcuum
+.ancous flow of air and filt.rate. The cake may then filter 0{ Fig. 244. (Oliver UniUd FiUtTr.)
... FILTRATION

F IG. 246. Culaway view or a rotary..urum Vlt.cuum filter. ( S _ EI!iI~ Co.)

be spr:lycd with wash water, after which a second d ivision plates in the tank, two or more products
dll.,"atering mmally occurs. Finally, tllP cakf' is re- IDay be fi ltered 8imul tn ncou~ly and !!Cparateiy ~n
m6vrd by thp. SCnll)().r which may be assisted by a the same filter, provided the flllrutcs may be mixed.
Klight air revers.'\l t hrough lhe filler valve. If the fil trates must be kept sepamte, ollly two dif-
The filtratp and air P&8>J into lhe segment.'>, then ferent products can he handlro, as only two valves
through the ports, and thrrlUgh the di~harg*" head (one on each end of the trunnion) can be used.
into a receiver, where the nir is rt!movcd by meaIlS Sizes range from about 22 to 2800 sq ft of filter
of fl vacuum pump anti the li4Uid by a fi lL rate area..
pump. Tho dc\\'oterOO cake may be discharged to
a cunveyor or to a repu1rXlr for rcpuiping wit.h wat.er
or wenk liq uor.
Continuous rotllry l il ter~ of this general type
pru"ide high filtering rates and excellent. washing
am.I are available in a wide range of sizes, from about
:3 to 800 sq ft of fi lter area.
Tu diak-lypc filler (Fig. 247) operates un the
same principle hut, has its filter aI'f'.a arrungoo in
disks rather t han on tile circumferen<:e of a drum.
Inwvidu.a.l sectors of the disks may be changed
independentJy and while other SCCl.Ors continuc in
operat ion. By separating the slurry compart mcnts
for the different d isks, as by placing one or more FtG.2"7. Rotll l)'-di1.k filter. (OIilfltT Un:ttd fiUn, .)
 CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS
The intenlGl rofaf'7/"drum ' filter is of _il revolving
drum type but filters 00 the inside of the periphery,
ILS indicated in the diagram of Fig. 248. BecaUBe of
too relatively short are of travel between the cake
forming, wasbip.g and discbarge zoc..:;, this type of
filter is not 8&ti:factory for sJow-filtering s1urM or
w.:.:e a thoroughly washed cake is required. It iSr
however, an ideal filter for rapid-settling slurries
Which do not require e. high degree of washing. 'The
diffiCulty of keeping such slumes in SUSpe'lHiOll
maus ~ rotary drum vacuwn filter leSs! satisfa<i-
tory for such ma.terl&J. If the sluiry hILS particleS
of different sizes the cake 'formed I in this filter is
properly stra.tified with 'the large Particles adjacent
to the filfur medium.
The tfJp-fw1, filter, illustrated di~tically in
Fig. 249, is equipped for the use of h~ted liJ.ir for
,
drying the solids. The food is pumped into ,the hop-
per wherein suspe!!-d,ed . ~Jids. tend to setUe to the
bottom while exeees liquor overflows and may be
returned to the prooess. 'l:he slurry or {pulp is
ca.rried through nozzles by injecting filtrate. The
slurry strikes the spreader apron and flows over
feed d&ms. The baffle spreads the slurry on the
surface of the drum, followed hy fOrm&tion of the
cake and primary dewatering. 'Ibe-::CU:e is then '" /
wlUIbed by water fl'Qllt the wash spray Iloules. Fill: 249. Diagramma.tie It'd.ion of a top-reed lIt.er. (8.-- .
,. .. _ &u~ Co.)
-r--,
,.
---"-~.

\ crust oC/ the cake by the intennediaCe IIClT&per. 'The
f ~
Flo. 248. Diagramma,ie,crou llect.ion Qr an intemal ooatm-
00. . rOtary-drum neuW1l filter. (Oli....,. u"iil '''lim.)
. .- .jI-r.... '
This is foUowed by a second dewatering w~ilh re-
, moves the ma.jor part of the liquor berore ffie cake
e!1ters the drying section. Heated. air is blown
thmugb the air duel( iiito the hOod 8urrOW!dlng the
drum at 8. positive pfessure preventing the ~_
. age of !'lold air, then through the cake and oUt the
port.'!. Drying is followed py rem~val of the ~uter
thinner, partly dried cake continues iF,ugh . the
final part of the drying cycle and is completely re-
moved by the final scraper. Spray from cleaning
spray nozzles cleans the filter mediwn, and the cycle
is repeated. The dry product drops Ul the bottom,
is picked up by the IIClrew con~eyor, and discharged
onto a belt conveyor. I'i-..
,
Top-feed fiIteno are well adapted for handling
,
of
aolids 'rhich settle readily and filter quicld;r~ They
baw.,t.bJ advantage of producing a dry oproduct.
~y.:: are not so 8ex:ible not-SO-simple to operate as
a rotary drum filter. A oompkte inBt.allatioo is
indicated in Fig. 250.
 FILTRATJON
For slurries containing a small quant.ity of fin~ly
divided mawrial, it is desirable to have the C08J'Ser
materialJ:l. dCp!',sited adjacent to the filter medium,
with the finer material OIl the outside of the cake.
Sedimentation in the slurry bed at the top of the
filwr rntly be used for this purpoee in the top-
feed filter and also in the internal rotary drum
filter. -.
Precool filleT' in which the ordinary filter medium
is coated with a porous cake to a thickness of 172 to
2 in. have been developed for the Clarification of
liquors containing slimy material or fin"!!ly divided
aolids which are difficult to IiIter. The operation
coruistB in building up a porous cake of material
such lL!l diatomaceous earth to the d"C!s.ircd thickness
in the same maimer as would be uSoa f~r building up
. '.'"
any filter cake. The slurry pf diatol118Ce9US earth
is then removed from the pan, ar,d the liquor to M
clarified is admitted. Operation of the filter then
causes a cake to huild up on the underlying precoat.
In tbis way extremely tilin cakes may be built up
and removed, t.hcreby mAintaining a high rate of
filtratiOn . In order to insure complete. removal of
the thin cake, the .scraper or knife is adjusted to ad
vance slowly into the ca.k~ or precoot witb each r0-
tation of the filter drum, In this way the p~~t
filter
_.J medium is finally removed ... after a period Of
hours or days, depending upon the rate of advance
of the scraper. The liquor is then' removed from the
p~ , and the precoat is again built up from a ~iurry
of t~..e precoat material Usually 2 to 3 11r is suffi
cient allowance for forming the prec6at:
. ",..,. \."
~ ,', .
i,
 OPERATION
The action of the knife on the cake ill indicated in
Fig. 251.
Rotary filten; are used for a wide variety of serv
ices. Cakes composed of relatively large crystals
may be built \lP to a thickness of about 4. in. Such
cakes normally admit relatively la rge quantities of
air and require a relatively coarse fi lter medium. In
the filtration of finely divided substances such as
precipitated calcium carbonate, relatively thin cakes
are deposited and the air fl owing through the cake
is usulllly negligible in quantity. This means that
it is practica lly impoBSible to dry these Cll.kes on the
on
ma.y be incorporated to a certain percentage with
the material of the sludge before it enters the filter
PfC!58. These filter aids are usually diatomaceoug
carth or kieselguhr, which consists of the siliceous
skeletons of very small marine organisms, dia.toms,
that were deposited on prehistoric shore lines. They
consist of practically pure silica W""Id are very com
plex in their structure, offering large surfaces for the
adsorption of colloids.
OPERATION
The simplest method of opera ting a filter pres. or
a leaf fiJJ.er is to apply the fuJI pressure at the s tart
of the filtration and maintain the pressure constant
throughout the run. If the initial pressure is high,
the first particles caught in the cloth may be com-
pacted into a. tight mass of low permeability which
results in a low rate of filtration throughout the rest
of the cycle. If the sludge is not homogeneous and
contains both crystalline and colloidal particles, the
colloidal portion may be forced into the voids be-
tween the crystalline solids, greatJy decreasing the
rate of filtration.
on t he other hand, a low init.ial pressure drop may
mean that the first filtrate will not be clear as the
c~ke is formed with a more open structure. How-

FlO. 251. DmMng showinl! action of scr&per Oil preeoat

ever, this permits a more rapid rate of filtration with
rotary vacuum filter. (OliWl' United Fill,",.) a cake more readily separated from the cloth, and
the initial turbidity of th'e filtrate disappears with
filter. IWtary filters are frequently used for remov the building up of an adequate cake when the pre&-
ing the solid':! from the slurry leaving a thickener. ,sure is increased to a COllHtant value which is con
In order to maintain high capacity it may be de- tinued throughout the balance of the TUn.
sirable to... removc all the cake from the drum at the Therefore, the common method of operating filter
point of dil:lChargc. This fel;ull.s in iL turbid flJtrate p~ is to filter a t a constant rate of Row of filtrate
in many eases, but this is not St:rious if the filtrate during the early part of the cycle. As soon as the
is returned to the feed of the thickcnt:r for clarifica-- cloths are welt coated with cake and the filtrate m_
tiO'tl. clear, the pre:;aure is increased to the maximwu and
The sludges hand led in commercial fi ltration vary the filtration is cont.inued and completed under con
widely in thCl character of cake deposits, from gran ditions of constant pressure.
ular noncompressible fre<->.filk!ring materials that If the material to be filtered is stored in tanks,
filter rapidly t-u the opposite extreme of slime and agitators should be provided .110 tha.t a unjfonn sus--
colloidal materials that are compressed and tend to pension is fed to the presses. Reciprocating pumps
plug the filter cloth. The It,Uer are very difficult. to are not generally adapted to handling slurriea and
separate completely from the filt rate. If the cake i.s are undesirable as the puLsatioos tend to m'ue an
compressible, the resistance to the flow of fluid may unduly compact cake. Centrifugal or diaphragm
increase rapidly as the pressure gradient is increased. pump:! are generally used .
Filler aida are .finely divided solids consisting of . In the operat.i6n of rotary vacuumJilkrs,. the filtrate
hard strong particles which in themw!ves would and the wa.<;b fUn into separate receiver's COllnected
form a nuncumpre8sible cake. These materials may to the corrcl!ponding porta of the rotary Valve. The
be used as d escribed for the precoating filter, or they filtrate and thC' wW:!h are usually remo\'OO throUgh
 FJlrTRATlON
barometric IE!gl:I and centrifugal pumps. Sometimes
pumps of special design are employed for pumping
out of a vacuum. Dry Vit.(:uum pumps have ~mall
clearances. and would be ruined if liquid were al-
lowed to -en~r. In' orqer to protect the vacuum
pumps' the receivers are provided with float-o~rated
release valves which open ar.d relieve the vacuum if
the liquor in the receiver ri~ above n. prcdete_rmined
level. This destroys the vacuum on the receh'er And
permits the centrifugal pump to gain its suction.
At the same time the operation of the ftlter ceares
until suitable conditions have again been restored.
SELECTION OF FILTERS
Of the various filte~ the platc-and-frnme filter
press is probably the cheal)(!:St per unit of filtering
s'lrface and requires the lenat floor spnee. The cost
of laQor 'for opening and dumping such presses is
high, particularly in t-he large siws. For this reMOll
thcy are not ch~ when a large quantity of worth-
ies..i solid i;; to be removed from thA filtrate. If the
. solids have high value and particularly if tJle quan-
tity to be handled dues not justify a continuous
automatic fil~,)r, the ~t of labor per unit value of
product is relatively low and the plate-and-frame
filter press proves satisfactory. It has a high re-
covery of BGl.ids, nnd the solid in the fonn of 8. cake
Ill!>Y be readily handled in 3- tray or shelf drier
which is frequently used for valuable products.
'file leaf filter offru:s the advan~ of ease of
handling, mil;.i.mum iabor with efficient washing,
and discharge of cake without removing any leaves
from the filter. The rotary ('ontinuous filter offers
the additional advant-ag~ of continuous and auto-
matic operation for fceding, flitering, washing, and
cake di&charge.
The rotary conti~uous filter is widely employ
where the preeipitate is large in volume aud where
labor cost:> must be kept to the minimum. Owing
to the method of removal of the cake, gummy or
colluidal material is not bandied satisfactorily on
the continuous rotary filter except by special meuns,
as by the precoating filter. The use of a thickener
ahead of the filter greatly decreases the ~t of the
combined operation if the overflow from the thick-
ener is of sufficient clarity. The loperation of the
thickener is much cheaper than that of the filter,
and the cost of the entire operation i::l therefore
greatly decreased. &8 only a fraction of tl'ie materi~
n~ ~ ~ put. th[,Ol.~~h: the filter. A continuous
filter is frequently used in this connection when the
initial cost of 8uch eqll.i pment would not be justified
if all of the material had to be filtered directly.
FILTER CALCULATIONS
The use of equation 170 for estimating the initial
maximum capacity of gravity filters has been indi-
cated. But in all actual filters the resistance to the
flow of filtrate varies with time as t.he precipitate
deposit:> on the filtering sand. in sand bed filters, or
as the filter cake builds up on the cloth, BCr,:lCn, or
other filter medium. The filter mediwn holds back
the solids as the filtrate passes through, and the
/
filter cake continues to incre886 in thickness, adding
its resistance to the 60w of filtrate. This action
continues durjng filtration. At the end of the filtra.-
tion, the prooucts are filtrate, porolls filter cake, and
fluid in the pores of tbe cake.
,
Deposi don oj Cake
During the formation of filter cakes, laminar flow
p,redominates and the linear velocity of the "uid at
any i.nstant (I') is given by equation 170.
I dV Kpl~1 K ( -j,J'.)
,, - - - - - - - - _ . - (170)
A tU L /I- f ,jI.
wbere v _ volume of the filtrate.
A - area of the fi lter medium.
L _ thickness of the cake.
t - time.
K .. permeability, IJ.Dp 2Pn./32P,.
- AP. - pressu re drop through the cake.
In order to obtain sn expression relating filtration
capacity (exprc88ed as either the quantit.y of filtra.te
V, or the cake thickness L ) witJl time of filtering t,
it is necessary to obtain a relation between the
variables, Land V. This can be dune by making a
material balance between IIOi.ids in t he slurry filtered
and the solidi> in tbe cake.
Mass of solidI! in cake - mass of solids in elurry
filtered.
(I - X )LAp, -
(V + XLA)pX (190)
1- z
where x- poroeity of the ca.ke
volume of void space
total volume of cake
 FILTER CALCULATIONS
XLA - volu me of Huid in the caire.
x ... mass fractioo solid8 in the feed
slurry.
p = density of the filtl11w.
P. = density of solids in the cake.
Solving equation 190 for V
V _ P.(1 ..... x)\1 - X) - fJ%X AL (!9Oa)
general, the in~ted eqW:t.tion (193) is reatrieted
to eorusta.Ot.-pre88Ufe drop operation in which the
filtratioL\ ooostant Cv remains uncha.nged.
Ii it is desired to obtain relationshipe involving
cake thickness instead of filtrate volume, equation
190a may be differentiated at oollStant porosity to
obtain
P.(l - x){l - X) - pxX
dV - - .- - A dL (194)
. pZ

""V", and t.his equation substituted into equation 170,

L - -::---c:--='-'--:-;:---= (1001 giving
A !p.(1 - ~)(I - X) - ",XI
dL KpZ( -"",)
Equa.tion l OOb is a rigorous equation showing the
relationship between the filtrate volume V and the
-d, --- pL~. ( 1 ,)(1 X) "X)
(l95)

cake thickness L. It may be used to eliminate L

from equation 170, giving a more convenient rela Defining another filtration coIl!ltant e L,

tiolll!hip between V and t.

",.~:::."(I_---",')",(I",-
--,,X,,)_-. ""X) (196)
dV _ KA'~. (l - ')(I-X) -""X)(-"",) CL - - 2Kpz
- (191)
~ ~V~
I3UbetitUting this in equation 195,
Equation 191 is an expression for the instantane-
ous rate of ftltration in tenus of properties of the dL ( -,P,)
(197)
slurry, ci\ke, quantity of filtrate, and pres&lre drop at 2C,.L
through. the cake. For a given slurry, the only
variables subject to tbe control of the operator are and integrating at constant-pressure drop and coo-
prel:ll:\ure drQP ( -llP.), filtrate volume V, and time
st.snt poI'Oeity,
t. Of the remaining terms, the aake poro.'"ity X is t- (198)
most likely to vary. Combining many of the terms (-lU',)
in equation 191 into a single term, Cv, defined by
In theory, the filtration corurtanta Cv and CL ean
,pZ be ca.lculo.\ed from the properties of the slurry and
C, - ;;-;;;--~-.,c;:=---;;;----::;;" (192)
cake, hut the permeability or poroe.ity and particle
2Klp.(l z)(l X) pxX]
size of the filter we are frequently unknown. When
a simplified form of equation 191 js"obtained. operating data. with. a given slurry bave been 0b-

--
dV
at
A 2 (_ aP.)
2C,V
(I91a)
tained and when assumption of uniform oonditJona
of cake, fil tt'fLte, and Blurry can be made, the values
of Cy or CL may be computed' from the available
Noncomp,euiple Cakes operating data. and used to estimate other operating
conditioIU!.
If the cake porosity remains essentially. constant
during fi ltration (IUJ is true with a 8O-<:slled "non- IUWltratlyCi E",ample. A homogellOOWl lIudp lormina ..
compressible cake" and may also octur for constant- uniform oonoompr!'llleible ca.b is filtered throup .. batoh leaf
pressure drop filtration in general) Cv may be coo- filter at .. ~tant diflenme"., in ple!lB\lre 01 40 P'i tonniq ..
sKicred as a constant, Illld 'equation 1910 is easily ~.ju. cake ill I hr with .. filtn.te. volume 0( 1.500 pl. Three
integrated. For constant-pressure drop (and coo- mWutee ate required \0 drain liquor from the liI.c.er. Two
m.ioutM U'& requinld r.o .6.U the fil\..r witb ."at.er. Wuhiaa
stant porosity) t.h.ia integrates to prooee<k exaetJ,y lie 61tratioo, u.iua; 300 pl. ~ dump-
Cv 112 iD, aDd cloeiDl take 6 min.' Aaatme \be filtrate to have \.be
(193) same ~ ... "ash water, r.nd uepect t be 1WIiat..-

Although the differential equation (191a) ,is valid in

of thtt filter doth and. fiow lines.
(a) How many pllone of filtrate ani pnlduc:ed on
age per 24 hrt
the._
 FILTRATION
ACIfding to equation 193, Bl"erciae : Determine the optimum eake thickness a.nd
maximum daily ca.paeity for \ be conditions in the aOO"~
V' ~ (PI - Ptl Atc emmple.
C,
A corresponding treatment 1.,1,1 " halled on the COil.
(1500)1 _ 40 (~:) 60 cept that the rate of filtration is directly propor
Therefore tional to a. driving force and inversely dependent
A'
- -938 upon a resismnce may be developed at3 follows.
C,
A material balance similar to equation 100
From equation 1910 the ra.U: of .6ltn.tion may be found At the
time that any known volume of filtrate hat boeD produced. (1 - X)LAp. = Vpr (199)
The fuuo.l rale when V - 1500 ill deoIired.
where r - rna&'! rutio of dry cake to filtrate ,
dV .< - .6.PJ( A' ) (l9I a) Solving 199 for L ~nd substituting in equa tion 170,
tit 2V (..' ..
dV A'Kp .(1 - X)
dV " 40 - - ( -dP,) (200)
- - - - (938) - 12.6 gpm dt Vrp,ll
lit 2(1500)

This 6na.l ra.te of 12.5 Kpm equals the I'M.: of wuhing, mDee The expression Kp, ( l - X) represents the fipecific
the ' filtratij hu the Il8.me properties lUll ;1V~h and the prollllure conduct.ance of the filter cake and usually ill con~
is cOlU!tant. stant during filtration except for changes in porosity
T ime for washin 300 _ 24 miD of the clI.ke, IT the specific resistance, defined as

.-
12.~
Total cycle: 1
Filtering 60 min .,,~~~~ (201 )
Dni. 3 K p,(l - X)
FiU
Wuh ,.2
is substituted in equation 200,
Drain
Dump ,
3 dV
_3
A 2 (_.d.P<)
(202)
Fill 2 dt Varpl'

T,'" 100 min Combining with eqn ntion lOla

Av..-ap , ,1101111 of filtrate per 2.fhr i,

(203)
(~ (60) (1500) _ 21 000 p.1!24 hi'
( lIlO) ,
In the previous equations the pressure drop
(0) How many gallons of filtrate would be produced if .. ( - llP<) is the pressure on the slurry or upstream
cake of Ji-iD. tbiekneBB ....ere fanned, usi ng the same ratio of side of the cake minus the pressure on the down~
wA4h .ater to filtrate with oU- co.mditic;Qs the MmC? stream side of the take. In an operatiliK til ter these
_ 1'hEI productioo of a .K-i.n. cake would be &j)companied by
pressures II.te usually not available. Instead, the
JOOO ,.1 of filtrate. SiQ.ee (A1/Cv) - !l38, equadoo 193 till)ll
pressures on the slurry in some tank or tine con
""'~.
(1000)1 _ 4O(Y38)1 siderahly upstream from the cake and 011 the filtrate
Therefore after it haa passed through the cloth or filter me--
j - 26.6 min dium considerably down~trcam from the cake are
The fiMJ filtering, or washing, ra.tc from equatiOCl 191a .., the available dum. In the previous equations the
wri tten ILbove ioII resistance is the resistancc of the cake alone. In
40 . order to use the wLal pressure drop it i ~ necessary
2(1(0) (938) - 18.76 &pill
to include the resistance> of the fi lter medium nnd
Q~tity of ... am ,,'IIW _ 300(1000/ 1500) _ 200 gal. Time
lincs. The J"C!:i.illtanre contributed by the fi lter
for 1If&3l1jn8 - 200/ 18.76 - 10.65 min. Cycle tlllltl _ :!G.6 medium, pipe connections, va.lves, etc., may be ex~
+ 3 +2 + 10.1>5 + 3 +6 + 2 - [iJ .2~, pressed as "equivalent cake thicknes.'1" L., or "cquiv.
Average g..11,,1'III of tilt,rate pn>d~~....-d'pc r 24 IIf is alent volume of fi ltrate" V., to form ~ cake of the
equivalent thjcknC~A I. .
(24)(60) (1000) _ ~7,42211 ..1/24 hr
53.25 .1bt, hihliO&"&phy for this chapter. appeall! 011 p. 255.
 nLTER CALCULATIONS
In equation 202 the cake resistll,nce and driving
forCe are VaTp~/A2 and (-!J.P,) , respectively. In
order to use the total driving force or total pressure
drop ( - lJ.P), an expression is necessary for the
resistance of filter medium, pi~ , connections, etc.
This resistance may be exprcS&.J as
V.arp"" 2Cv V
0'
A' A'
The ...te equation (202) may then be written
follows:
245
will be straight if C y is constant during t.~at run ,
which is true for incompressible cakes. The;e lillef
IlI'B best drawn by differencing the data and plotting
lJ.!/ lJ.V M lhe height of the rectangle and lJ.V as the
case. A smooth line drawn through the t op side~
of these rectangles so that the areas of the small trio
angles 90 formed above tbe line equal the areas 01
tbe triangles below the line gives the !Jest valuE'S
for dt/dV at any particular value of V. The slope
of the line i! 2Cv/ A ll (-!J.P) , and the intercept is
"" V.2CV/ A2(-lJ.P). The corresponding "Klues 101

dV .A 2( -lJ.P) A 2( - tJ.P)
(204)
d, arp,u(V + V.) 2Cy(V + V.)
For cOll8tant-pressure filtration , equation 204 ma.y
be -integrated (\\-ith - !J.P COlIlItant and V. cOll8tant)
to give
(205)

In a similar manner it may be shown that at

constant porosity "'~.
FIG. 252. Plot of derived data tor constant-prl'llllure filtr...
dL
-
ell
- Kpr ( -lJ.P)
-;:---'-;;:--;-;-,~
, ,(1 X)~ ( L L .) +
(-.P)
2C,,(L + L.)
(206)
tiOIlll foc evalULItina: eonstant.&.

Cv and V. may be calculated and used in solviDI!

and at constant-pressure drop ( - lJ.P) equation 206
may be integratEd to
, -
CL(L'l + 2LL.)
( oP)
Equations 204 and 206 are limited to la.minar
flow of IiItrote through a porous cake. The inte-
grated forms (205 and 207) are also limited to cakes
of constant permeability and por08ity, form!ld dur-
ing a constant-pressure filtrati'on with V. conshmt.
Since these conditions frequently do not exlst , the
values for CL or Cv should be determined (,_"peri-
mentally for conditions approximating the e for
which the equations are to be used. This is most
conveniently done by a. series of constant-pressure
filtr&-tioDs on the silln), concerned (lJ.P constant for
each fi ltration but not for the series).
If equation 204 is rewritten as
+
'"
dV A2(
2C"
I1P)
V 2Cv V
A,2( I1P) ,
and test data. are taken in the form of a series of
constantc-pressure runs, a plot of dt/ dV against V,
8.8 in Fig. 2.52, giveS a series of linea. omcb of which
equations such as 204, 205, 200, or 207 for knowr
values of A and !J.P.
A similar procedure may be used for solvi~
(2IJ7)
equations 206 and 207. Provided the flow through
the cake, filter medium, and all connections between
the points uf pressure measurement is laminar and
the cake is noncompressib1e (uniform permeability),
the value oJ V. is a COllBt.a.nt, independent of preswrt
or rate.
However, the flow through pipe connections, lind
probably through the filter medium during the ini-
tial high-rate perKxl of a constant-pressure run,
may be turbulent, and the initial poinu on the
curves may Dot indicate the straight-line char-
acteristics of laminar flow. These initial poinu
should be neglectEd for this re88()[l in evaluatin@
Cyor V. for use in computing a. con.slant-pressure
filtration.
If the. test data on an incompressible cake are
taken at constant rate ill8tead of at con.stant pressure,
(208) V. is constant for each rate wJte/her ur 1Wl tJte }Wui u
laminar t1troug1wut. Equation we may be used in
the form
2C y dV 2Cy dV
(-OP)---V+--V,
A2 tit A2 tit
(m:
246 . FILTRATION
U (- tiP) il\ plotkd against V, the stra ight line has
2C v dV 2C v dl'
i1. slope of -'' 2 - and an intercept of - , - -Yeo
. A & A &
If the arcn and rate are k nown, t he values for Cv
and l', may be determined.
Since ' the major part of the resist.ance to flow
betwccn the point8 of pf'eSSllre measurement is in
the cake it self where the "ow is almost always lam
inaT, e'<l ualion~ 204 to 208 (as well as 209) wi t.h
constant vul ues of Cv a nd V. give satisfactory
r('\O;u lts.
The condilion of consta nt-pressure fi lt ration may
be liollid to exi.c;t t hroughout the filtration pt'riod of II.
dt/ dV is plotted as Ii func tion of fi ltrate volume V.
J:o-:quations 208 or 209 apply equally well to a con-
stu.nt-rutc filtration (dt/dV constant) or tu a con~
st.l"lnt-prcs.sure filtrat.ion (Jl[> con"tant). 'The coUrse
of the filtration de>JCribed in the preceding para-
graph for u plate-nnd-frume filter press is repre-
!!ented in Fig. 253 along a horizontal (const.ant
fate) line at the volume capacity of the pump until
the sloping (constant-pres~u re) line is reached t hat
corresponds to the maximum prctlSure developed by
t he pump a nd t he n a long t his eonstaul-pre5SuTC line.
The cake Ihicknr-;1i8 L is freqqently a more con~
vcnlent variable to use IJIM the volume c,r filtr..llc
V, as fur rotary fi lters with ex:puscd cake. Equa-
tions 20G or 207 muy then be 1lSl.'<i if the (:ake may
be a..-'>,sumeci to have con:,tant porosity for a constant-
pressure d rop. This condi ljon is a pproximately
true even for compl'eSl;ible cakes if the nitration is
conduct.ed at constaf!t preM-ure as on a rotary vac-
uum filler.

Compres8ible Ca kes
In actual fil tr. ltions the combined resistances
Volume repre;ented by Cv are ~Idom independent of the
pressure drop ( - 6P), even when Cy is a constant
Fig. 253. Rec!pror~\l n,t':II dt jdV for m<WItant-rate "nd con-
sjant_pn.""'IIre filtnniun. independent of the thicknf!!'l..'1 of the cake 'or of fil
trate volume, a8 indicated by tbe straight lines of
rotary vacuum fi lter in the sense that the pressure Figs. 252 and 2S.'3. In othnr words, practically all
gage reads a l:onstofll value. liut actual ly the cakes are compressible to some degree Ilt leatrt-.
IlrcllSUre drop acrORS the fi lter medi um and cake is Lu~ d rops iii pressure tend to force the solids
zero while ':w !jI~gment is submerged until the valve further into the interstices in the fi ltering medium,
opens the port to the vucuum and the segment is thereby increasing the resistances IUId the values of
eV8(:uuted. The portion . of the cuke deposition C y and V .
period dllrin'!!; ~Wllich the prr.s.~ure varie.~ as described If Cy increases with the pres..mrn drop (- ilP),
differs with the dellign of thc filter lind oI*-rating there may be a. definite value for the pressure drop
conditions, bllt it usually varies from tiliout 3 per which gives a maximum rale of filtration. This
cent of the total ca.kf' dcpOl!ition period for slow- may be dete~m ined by ru nning a number of t-'O nsl.ant--
fi ltcring shU'fic~ of fine partides to a lmost 20 per preSsure filtratioll ~ and plotting the values of C y so
ee nt fOT fnst.filtc ring slurrieS. obtained as .( - Jl[ / C y against ( -6P) , as shown
III !!lltny ca.sc~, Hwh as a phltc and frame or a leaf in Fig. 254. If Cv is independent of pr~ure, this
press opcrat.l>U with the slurry sup plied from a cen- result.'! in a straight line passing through the origin
trifugul pump, t-he early stuges of filtration are con- wit h a slope of I/Cy. If Cy increa..c;es wil h (-ill-')
Ilueted at C.llnstant rntc rather than CQnstant. pres- u.8 in cornpresl:iible cakes, the plot is of a curved line
!Sure, as the controlling f~ctQr is the capacity of the which muy have a. maximum. The vulue for (- ilP)
pump to deliver. As the cake becomes thicker and which corresponds to t his ma.'I(i m u m is t he pressure'
olTers more resistance to the flow of fluid . the limit- drop giving lhe maximum capacity when fi llering
ing factor l?ecomes the pressure developed ' by the. that slurry.
pump and the filtr&tion prOl'.eetis at. constant Com preAAible cakes are more dense adjacent to
presslJre. the fil ter medium becaul:lC of the 'greater pressure
The twu types of fi ltration may be re presented by gradient (- tJ.P/L) in the initial stages of cake
1he curves of Fig. 2113 in which reciprocal rute formation.
 FILTER CALCULATIONS
For compnmDle caku it is necessary to determine
va.luee of Cv and V" for differen t pressure drops
(tiP) and instantaneous values of either V or L , and
to lise the proper values corresponding to t he known
pressure drops in the differential equation 208 which
may then be integrated graphically. If mean values
for Cv and V" are determined for a given pressure
drop and cake thickness L or the corresponding
volume of filtrate V, the integrated equations 205
or 207 may be used with t hese mean values for
these specific conditions only.
If the experimental values for Cv (and CvV.) are
plotted 88 a fun ction of pressure drop fo r particular
-4P
FIG. 2M. The effect. of ~ drop 0lI capacity of fil ler for
DOneom~ble a.nd oomprelllible cakes.
values of V, on logarit hmic paper a straight line is
usually obtained, indicating that Cv may be ex-
pressed as an exponential (ur ction of the pressure
drop (- tJ.P) for I"Ubstitution in equation 205. Simi-
lar procedure is inaicated for CL in equation 207.
If the values for Cv or CL are exponentiul funo-
tioll8 of the pressure drop for a gi!'e7l ,luny, the
specific ,resistance a is also an exponential fu nction
of ' tJ.P) for a gi!'e7l cake. Under these conditioll8
C v - (C y')( -tJ.P)- a - a ' ( -tJ.P)-
CyY. _ C(- tJ.P)6 aV. ,. fJ( _tJ.p)6
where a', fJ, a, and b are constanta for a particular
cake, and Cy' and c are constants for a plU'ticuiar
slurry. Substituting the appropriate exponential
relationships in equation 204 or 208 and integrating
between limita of t - 0 and t _ t, and V _ 0 and
V - V, for COll8t&nt tJ.P, gives,
(C v ') y2 2cV
, - - A'- { I1P)I...... + co;-'-==
A'( _ tiP)I-6
(2080)
(2(Ha)
247
These equations may be rewritten as follows.
(-tJ.P )t /y\ 2c
VI A - (C')\A / (- . P)'+ A ( -.P)' (208b)
(- AP)l
VI A
rpjJa'
- - 2-
(V)
A
' p,.{l
( -j.P)" +A(- j.P)~
(204')
which are equa tions of ~traight lines when plotted
( - 6P)'
( VI A) against VI A for constant-pressure filtra-
tion data. The respectiveslopesare (C y ')( - tJ.P)- a nd
rplU%'
- 2- (-tJ.P)-, and the corresponding intercepts are
2c( - tJ.P) rp~
-"-7'''-'- ~d - ( - tJ.P).
A A
The value for the exponent a is obtained by plot-
ting the logarithm o{ t he slopes, (log ev') + a log
(-tJ.P), agaill8t the logarithm of the pressure drop,
Jog ( -AP), giving a s traight line whose slope is a
hUd whose intercept (when (-tJ. P) "" 11 is log Cy'.
f:;imilarly, the value of the exponent b may be ob-
tained by plotting the logarithm of the intercepts,
log (2l:/ AJ +b log (- tJ.P), against the logarithm or
t he pressure drop, log ( -tJ.P), giving a s traight line
whose slope is b and whose intercept is log (2cj A).
Unfortunately this exponential relationship is only
a rough approximat ion in mOBt cases of compressible
cakes, but it may be used to help estimate the effect
of changes in operating conditions when experimen-
tally determined coefficients and exponents are
availa.ble. The values of t he exponent 11 vary from
a. maximum of about 0.9 for the compressible hy-
droxide sludges to abou t 0.01 to 0.15 for calcium
carbonate and kieselguhr.
When these equatioll8 are used, b is frequently
B55UDled to be equal to a with coll8iderable simplifi-
cation.
,-oc(C,-,v",')
v;-:("V-;;+;,::2
,
A'( tJ.p)l-
V,-'C,)
(2050)
When a - 0, equation 205a is identical to equ&-
tion 205 for incompressi ble cakes.
Rem(J1)(l' oj FiltroteJrom CalM
After the cake is dcposited and built up to the
desired thickness, it is usually desirable to re move
 , FILTRATION
the filtrate from the voids of the cake. Thil! may btl Differentiating Nluation 211 and substituting in
done by washing the cake with another fluid such as equation 210 M indicated gins
water or air.
1 - S, ]' dV
H the waslling fluid is not miscible with the - [ dS.- - - (212)
lilt.rute, DB when air is used, the problem becomes 1- S~. XLA
one of simultuncoUlI flow of two homogeneous fluids. Since
dV
Under these conditionB the quantity of filtrate in t.he " ~ -A dt
- (213)
cake may be reduced to the residual saturation S,. as

[11- S,]'dB.
a limit.. The quantity of air that must be drawn
through t.he cake to reduce the filtrate content is an dV = vA dt "" -XLA (214)
- S,.8.
important consideration, ~rticularly in vacuum
Rearranging,
filters as it. determines the required capacity of the
vacuum pumps. Further reduction of fi ltrate rnfl.y d1~ - -
XL[ I-S,]'dB.. l215)
be accomplished by some other procedure, such as v I -B.S.
drying with heated or dr)ed air which removes only Equation 215 may be integrated graphi
the volatile fluid, or washing with a fluid miscible cally by plotting the cor~vondin)l; valu e~ of
with the filtrate which in time will remove prac- XL/vl O - 8.)/ (1 - S.s.JJZ RgllinstSe and determin
tically all the filtrate. A miscible wash flui(i can be ing the arca under the curve hAtwecn the dc!;ired
used only in limited quantities when the cake ill limits of S. , to determine the required time.
soluble. If the flow of the fi ltrate ii laminar, as it USIII!.lly
The removal of filtrate by another immi&cible is, tile calculation may be !>implified by substituting
fluid may be cruculaW as a function of time, using the value of v from equation 183 in e<llIation 2 )5,
the relatiooship for steady.state two-pho.se flow for giving
instantaneous conditions and integrating e.!I ou~
lined below.
, Fint., select the pressure gradient (-AP/L) to be dt - (2lfi)
UBed. Select values of saturation S of the cake by
the filtrate over the range from the initial satura-
tion down to the dCllired limit. These values are
converted to effective saturation S. by equation 177. (2160)
The porosity of the cake X must be determined
or estimated. Once the cake is formed the porosity
wbich can be integrated graphically.
may be assumed to be constant with re!pect to time
The tenn [(I - 8 .)/(1 - S,.8.W in equation 218
during the washing period, provided there is no
is unity when the effectiye saturation Se equals
mecha.nksl compression.
unity, and it is (I - S.) 2 when 8. equals zero:' As
This value for the pot08ity and the selected values
this factor is always e\o&e to un ity, a good approxi.
for effective saturation are then used in equatioo8
mation may be made by \Ising the arithmetic aver
181 and 182, with the proper values for Pn., P" and
11 determined from the properties of the cake and age value [(1-
S,)' +
2
1]
as a constant value, and
from Figs. 219 and 220 to determine the correspond
ing filtrate velocities for the selected pressure the equation becomes
gradient.
If V is the volume of filtrate removed from the
t .. _ I'XL
2
[(1- 5 r) 2 + I]fdS. (217)
K(-AP) 2 t 8l
cake
dV Integrating,
-dB - XU
-- (210)
t (I - 8.)2 + I] (8.) 0 -.-) - 1
(218)
c, [ 2 Y- 1
Solving equation 117 for S
~bere
,
jlXL2
S-
S. - 2S.s + S;
r
(211) C, - - - - (219)
1- S.s. K(-AP)
 F1LfiR CALCULA TlONS

and 11 - exponent dependent upon )Mrticle size, Fig.
230.
The filtra tion constant C, hliS t he units of time
and incorporates the variables affecting the flow of
filtrate. The exponent y varies with particle size
L'om 2.4 for 20 Tyler mesh to 2.8 for 100 Tyler
m~sh. Using an average \'ulue of 2.5 for the ex-
ponent 1/, the time ratio tjC, is plotted versus
saturation IS, lI'ith parameters of residual so.turation
Sr as shown in Fiji;. 25.5.
1.00
Tbt: procedure can be simplified by making some
approximations and integrations for the general ease.
As the flow of air is usually in the early transition
region bet ween laminar and turbulent flow, rela
tionships may be derived on the basis of laminar
flow, with a correction factor for turbulence. Equa
tions 18.5 and 186 may be combined with til -
64/ Re '1l for laminar fl ow of the nonwetting fluid to
give
IJ.' _ (g.D/fi'R~)(-AP) (220)
32fi'/ L~

0.90 ; where v",' - slIpcl'fieini air vclocity in two-phtule flow,

Cll ft/ (sq ft)(sec).

0.80
.
<
Dividing, equat ion 220 by equa tion 170,

0.70 I (221)
rr.t 0.60 ~
~050 ::-- ,
Sr " 0.5 By the solution of equations 221 and 218 for
M!l~ted values of S and BTl (V,.'j v",) may be obtained
~ 0.,
as a function of tIC , . By plotting t he rntio (v. 'j v",)
~ 0.40 0,
0, against the oofTC!lponding ratio (tjCJ (computed
!:'- 0,
0.30 0, with the same value of saturation S) for the same
-0,15
0., ~ residua.! saturation S ., the wtal air How V. in cubic
0.20
." feet may be detcnnined by graphical integl'5.tion of
~l 0
0.0
J:
these curves, since ( V .. ) is va' dt, or
0 .
024 ti S
Time Ratio,
10203040
t, Ii ('.') d ( .:..)
Jo V. C,
=1"' ,,'vaC,dt _ c.V.
0
(222)

FlU, 2M. OMphieal solution of e<J,\I!l.t.ion 218, giving the

where
"".... turutiOI... a funct ion of the lime ratio I/C,'f<:K vanau. values
oll'elliduah:\lltullLlioo s.- (or - 2,~. Co - v",C, - (--A
- P) (",XL
Lp..,
- -') "" XL "'
- 6P
-
~
(223)

Air FJOW from equations 170 :md 219, Chnceling K in the

As the liquid is removed 'by fluid flow during the
dewaterillg interval, the rate of flow of air increases
rapidly from zero to a ma.ximum, which is virtually
the ralQ obtained with a dry cake,
The rate of flow of air pa..."'-~ing through the cake
flimul~wusly with the filtrate may be computed'
by graphiwT integration Qf instantanoous velocities
of air flow pIQUed again~t time, The ins tantaneous
velocities of ruf flow are calculated fOf the selected
values of saturation expre;sed 88 effect ive satura-
tion S. by mcnns of equations 185 and 186 and the
relationships of.:J<.)p, 219, 220, and 221 or 225. The
correspondi~g values for time are obtained from
tbe previously dctermi-LCd relatJunship between sat
uration and tune when cdmputing filtrate removal.
numerator with K ill the denominator.
In Fig, 25{\ the accumulative volume ratio VG jC~
is shown as a function of the ratio tjC, with param-
eters of N)lIidual saturation S" In prepurntion of
'these curves, average properties of the cake were
~, with porosity about 0.45, sphericity about
0.75, and y - 2,5. With. }~ig, 256 a rapid deter-
minatioo can be made of the accumulat ive air Aow
for conditions of laminar Bow in two-phase flow.
A correction lor turbulence should Ix made if the
modified Reynolds Dumber Re'" tor the air Oow
excceUs a value of 100. In making this correction,
~'" (I ) is first determi~ed, assuming laminar flow.
Such a value is on the 4~egree line for laminar
flow on Figs. 125,221, or 225. Withrefercllce to -
250 FILTRATION

I VV V
V
., r" ~>
V

'/ ' / fA Y: Iv'

'/ V V V V
/ 1:/ V V
/ V t/ v
V- I/: V V
v: V:: v v
t% V- i:/: y -
/. r;:;:: ~ v
~v
~~
Time Ratio, to
FiG. 2"6. Auumu!lltive volume -ratio V G/Ca lIS 8 function of the time ratio IIC, for variol18 val\lel!l of residual saturation S,
for 8. cake with II. porol!it.y Y of about 0.45, sphericity of of about 0.75, and y of 2.5.

Fig. 257, point 1 represents a Reynolds number of the corresponding Reynolds numbers. The tur-
above 100. The correct lWynolds number is at bulence correction factor FI is
point 2, which is the intersection of the friction
factor curve and a line with slope of - 2 drawn Re'"
FI - (224)
through point 1, because the locus of points in Re'" (I)
which velocity is the only variable is a line with a
slope of -2, as described in Chapter 7 (equation 22). For convenience, a plot of thi8 correction factor F,
The ratio of the velocity found by assuming in terms of permeability K and pressure gradient
laminar flow to the correct velocity equals the ratio - t:.P! L is shown in Fig. 258.

!*-IO' "I ~ 10-1 I I_

!.
"""
FIo. 257. Diagram iIlUlltmting method
for oorreeting for air turbulenoe.
FIG. 258.
Permeability. X,
Correcti<)n for turbulence F, as II. function of per--
mell.bility for vari0U8 pretll!Ufe gradientl! as indicated on the curves.
 FILTER CALCULATIONS 251
Although the air Aow increases from zero to
maximum value during the cyele, the modified
Reynolds number Rem for the air remaiO)! virtually
constant for the constant pressure gradient, even
though the velocity v,: va.ries over wide limits.
Therefore, a :single evaluation of the correction for
turbulem,'e is suffieient.
IfaMifl(J with a fluid miscible with the filtrate
invol\'l!8 only singie-phlUlC fluid flow. Tn leaf filters
und in plate-and-frame presses with only one- and

FiG_ 25\lb. Relative volume of w&Ilh requinm as alfec~ hy

Vi8colI~t.y of w,,~h"II p.xpre:s&>d 108 .. fllne: i"" of per rent finAl
... turation of thl': rnkl': by Iill rut" and ratio 01 vi~liIi t y of
filt rate '" 10 viscosity of wash , Il, /Ilw. ror flooded ;;:a kes with
110 Ildilor]ltion.

three :!!'tagcs_ During the first stage the filtrate is

Oi.Jmeter, in.
FlO. 259a. Filtrate retention by Cll.kc (in per oent Silturation)
nflcr wlUlhing with wMl, of t.he &line viscosily u the 6ltrnt.e
wlu~n the a ke ie flood ....! and there i~ no Il.dsorplirln, expresscd
"B a function of the mean surflLce di!i.met.cr (equation 169) of
the particlClS, in inches.
two-button plates, the wash water follows the same
path as the filtrate. The properties of the cake at
the end of filt.ration and the properties of the wash
fluid control the washing process. WhCh operating
in the manner known as through washing, the wash
fluid is introduced on every -other plate of a plat~
and-frame filter pfCl:l8, &Ild the wash fluid passes
through a cake twice as thick as that through which
the filtrate passed at the end of the fi lt.ration. This
procedure make!! the washing area one-half that of
the filtering a.rea. Under these conditions the wash-
ing xate is one-fourth that of the finu.l filtering rate
for fluids of the same density and viscosity with the
same drop in pressure.
The mechanism of washing may be divided into
displaced from the cake without dilution by the,
wash. During the second stage thc concentration
of filtrale in the stream leaving the cake d,,;:reMC8
continuoUsly_ In the final stage the fi ltrate is slowly
leached or washed out of the interstices in the cake,
in a manner simiI8.r to that dp.scribed in Chapt.E.r 21.
Usually, about 90 per cent of the filtrate may be
removed during the first stage if the wash is of ap-
proximakliy the same viscosity as the filtrate. Un-
der these conditions, the volume of wash required to
carry the operation through the second stav;c is equal
to about twice the volume of the filtrate originally
in the cake. TIle quantit.y of fi ltrate remaining in
the cake at the end of the accond stage is controlled
primarily by the diameter of the particles in I,ne fil-
tcr cake. Figure 259a indicates thc filtrate retained
in the cake (expressed in tenns of filtrate satura.tion)
as a. funct ion of the particle size and tile volume of
wa&. used; it is applicable only to those cases where
,
FiG. 25Oc. Relative vulume uf wash required [or thin ClLkes,
cxpn:1IIIed as a function of the ratiu of mkc thi"kne8!! L to
particle Bi~ D", lLnd final pertentagc 01. &\hu"II.lion of take by
filtrat~ tor Hooded cak~ with no adsoJplion.
252 FILTRATION
1.0

~ ~~ S:-
..-::::: .~!

IS' :--.; ~

~~
"- ~\

!-O,

I
Ii
o,001
0,001 ,01 >~.
Air VtIotily Ratio, ~ ,

FIG. 259d. The OIlio of lIupcr!ieia L "ir velocity when liquid i8 present ".. to vek>city or ai r when no liquid is preeent It
e:tp~ &II .. function of t he eorre8ponding ratio of lIuperficial liquid ~Iocitie.. ,,{ / '" for laminar flow of both phue!l with
panune tel'1l of residual saturation S. &00 Mturation S.

there is no adSQrption of fi ltrak on the surfa.ce of the
part icles.
If the wash is I~s viscolls than the filtrate, the
quantity of was h retluired is increased by the multi
plying factor given in Figure 259b , as a function of
the viscosity ra,tio and the extont of washing ex~
pressed in terms -of saturation of the cake by the
filtrate.
With thin filte r cakes having a thickness less than
200 parlicle-diamctcrs, channeling occurs and a
grea ter q uantity of wash is I'C(lllired . Figure 259c
; hO\\'8 the mult iplyi ng factor to be used in estimat-
ing the volume of wash required for such thin cakes.
These relationship${ are based 011 a flooded cake
with the wash following the Same path as the filtrate,
as may be encountered in plate-andframe and in
leaf filters. When the cake is not flooded because
of simultaneous flow of air, the amount of wash re-.
quired is somewhat reduced.
On a continuous rotory vacuu m filter, wash water
or \\'eak liquor is sprayed continuously and uniformly
onto the cake wi thout Aooding the cake and in t he
presence of air. This creates a condition of steady
state /wo-pwe jWw. The cake at tains a saturation
dependent upon t he Tate of supply of the wash
water, the properties of the cake and wash, and the
pressure gradient. T he vclo<:ity ratio of the ai r
du ring washing for lam inar flow is given by eqlla

tiun 221. The velocity ratio or
t he liquid under the
same conditions is givcn by equation 225, derived
by dividing equation 183 by equation 170, giving
'f
- "" So"
"
where II,' - velocity of the liquid in lamina r two-
pha.se flow, cu ft/(aq ft)(sec).
III - velocity of the liquid in laminar single-
phase flow, cu ftj(sq ft)(sec).
By selection of a suitable wll.Sh Tate III', t.he cor-
responding saturation S may be computed from
equations 225 a nd 170 wit h equation 179, or F ig. 229.
The corresponding air rate through the cake during
washing may then be calculated by equation 221-
The re!atiOilship between air velocity ratio (II.' Iv.)
and liqUid velocity ratio (II!' Ivil is shown on Fig. 2l'j!)d
with residual saturation S, and saturation S as
parameblrs. The accumulative volume of air passing
through the cake during wa.shing il! equal to II.'
multiplied by washing time. The air flow so deter-
mined should be corrected for turbulence by use of
Fig. '258, as described.
Blower R equiremel1tll for Rotary Vacuum
Filt.erll
During a fil ler cyclc, the r~tumti on S and in-
stantaneous a ir ratc Va' vary over i he eycle lUI indi-
cated in Figs. 260 and 261. The lotal volume of air
passing per ~uare foot of cake can be readily calcu-
",
, fWk."'.
" 6. Surf&Q8 tension or filtralt" l' .. 0.004,;2 lb force/ft.
t
Port
"""nlnc
6.67 - '0'
c.~. depooJllatl
", 3 7.5
Co~'_JlJ
(pot!
FIG. 260. Typical instania lle(lllll saturat>on or filter ffike N
a fu nction 01 cycle t ime I for II. rota!), Vl!.CUWll filter.
curve i8 8p<.!Cifie only for the condition s given in the illusLnol.ive
example.
FILTER CALCULATIONS 253
'"
<0
(225) "
~3.0 ,,
:: 2.0
,
,, "
"
F IG. 261. Typie&l curve of the inst.antancous ai r veloeit)" ~.'
lUll.luru:t>on 01 eycle time I in JSe('Ond..;. The 1lret\8 VI, V 2
VI, &nd VI repre8tmt the Ilccwnulative volumes of (lir for
t he OOl"l"ellponding portiolU! of the cycle. The flatul"lltion
C(looitioll8 are ~pn!l!entcd in Fig. 260, and tltis curve i~
specific only for oondit;~ &II gi Vlln in lb., iI1 US1.nl.l.iVll entnplc.
latcd as follows. Determine the total calculated
v olume per SQuare foot, assuming laminar flow by
adding t he volume of air for t he removal of fi ltrate
duri ng wa.shlng and dewatering periods. T his total
volume iB t hen corrected for t urbulence a nd con-
verted to the pressure at the vacuwn pump. Mul-
tiplication by t he drum area of the filter and divi-
s ion by the cycle ti me givC:$ the blower capacity in
cubic foot per minute.
Lam pi<:. Compute the blower req uir(!tTlCnt8 for a rotary
vaeuum filter filterina: Glttubcr, salt from recla.i.med rayon
, pin bath liqut under the foll owing conditions.
,s11ll't"Jl DoI.t;J
t. Weight f!ll.Ction of sU8pCfJOOd rolid.1, .z .. 0.20 Ib !!&It
pur pound of slurry.
2. De.n.'!ity of filtrate, p .. 82 luku ft.
3. Densi ty of aull." in s lurry, P. _ 9 1.4 Ib/ oo ft...
"'. Vi!!C08lty of fillrate, 1'1 .. a.o ccnlipoiscs or 0 .G0r02
lb/it-l!lec.
6. Vi".:osity of air, ...... 0.0 18 eo: nlipoWic or 0.0000121 110/
d"s..)
52.5
Cake lJaIa
7. POI"OI!ity, X .. 0.4 volume of voids per volume uf calc.
8. Sphericity, of .. 0.7(;.
9. Average partiCle ~i ze (3.~ mCllh), D _ 0.0013(;7 ft.
10. Opemti ng vacuum " 4 in. mercury or 283 psI. If the
Thi~ droV in pl"t.>;Riure atrut\S filwriog medium ... nd. oon nl-cuons is
ncglnctnd, th~ may be used II.'j tho drop in pn.'I!<!Ul1' It.CI"OII!! the
oak.
 FILTRATION
11. Fi]tA;lt aize: Diaflli"lWt of drum - 4 ft Equation 223
Width of drum - 2 ft
Drum area - 25 IQ it. C. - XL - "-
~
0.f{0.10(7) -0-(3.0) ... ILl eu ft/ aq h
O. 18
12. Cake thiclmeu, L - 2 in. or 0.1667 ft.
13. Rerolut.one per minute .. I , ",;th variable speed pn> Equation 170
visions. K ( -ll.p) 3.89 X 10 --C283)
14. Wuhing ratio (.,'1",) - 0 .10 . 1& - L;;:- - 0.1667{1.21 X 10--) .. 5.46 CI.I hI .. ft !lee
15. Filter cycle, all given in Fig. 262.
Equatioll 170

K { -ll.P) 3.89 X 10--C283)

" .. ---z;;;- - 0.1667(0 .002) - 0.0331 CI.I fVeq ft SI C

Equation 179 (footnote)

~ _ 0.02.5 [K(-4P) l~m

flL-r COl'
3.8(1 X 10--4(283) ) ~.*
- 0.025 ( 32.2(0.1667)(4.&2 X 10~ X 1

... 0.19

CGhllHpo.Htion
Equation l ~

-CLiJ
-_ 58,.500(0.1667)'
1, - (-ll.P) 283
-!l.74aecore _

I!; - 360'(6aec) -16 _ 36 - 15 _21

Ol_

VII! 25 deer- fill" the angle of submer&enOl!', U providi.nr;

a IKllDewbat longer IUbmerseDoe than the ca..leulated .minimum.
Flo. 262. filter cycle fOl" ilIuetrative eumple.
Firll. DellXlhn'ng {VI, Fi,. ~/ i
Caku/!lli(l1l (If rilll"oliOil Ccm.lot(q
..... 150 -'I - 150 - 25 -125-
P M" - 51.8 from . ig. 219

In equation 172
F, - 2500 from Fig. 220 . """
It 20.8
125"
- - 60rtee-20.8.r.tc

- - - _ 10.ao
flA' FRA, 32.2(1.367 X 10~' X 51.8 C, 2.02
K - 3211," 32 X 2500 From fig. 2M .and S. - 0.19, St _ 0.28 (at end of IirIIt

- 3.89 X 10
__ CII ft
eec'
(IbIb fM)e
_) dewatering) .
From }o'"lg. ~ and S. - 0.1(1, vt/e. _ u .
Therefore,
Equat.too 196
VI - 4.0(C:J ... 4.0(11 .1) - 4404 CII ft of air/{aq ft){cycle)
Cl. - ~ [,,(1 - z)(I - X} -..uJ WoMing (Va, Pit. MI, &.l on ~ of FiUrote)
2K"
0.002
D{ - (~) ./ - 0.10(0.0331) - 0.00331 CI.I tt/aq It lea
- 2(3.8!l X 10- ,)<82)(0.2)

X 191.4(1 - 0.2)(1 - 1).4) - 82{0.2){0.4}] - 0.00331(7.48)(60) C:') (25) - 6.191P1J1.

- 58,500 Ib force rtee/ ft From Fi&. 259d

S. - 0.19 and
,I' _ 0.10
Equp_t.ioo 219

.' ... 0 .175, ~ "

- 0 .48 (dwina; waehini)
"
 PROBLEMS ...
'::0 c:) p. . . 0.175(5.56) .. 0.973 ClI n{aq rt l!JeC
From Fi&. 2M and S. - 0.19, VJC.' _ 12.4.

V .. 12.4(3.7) - 45.8 eu IV("'l Jl)(eyele)

It - M (fIJ) - 10 $laC B/mo:.tr Ctlpori1v (N~inv VI, Fig.Ml )
Therefore y .. Vt + V1 + V, - 44,4 +9.7+45.8
VI" p.t. - 0.973(10) - 9.73 eu (t / (1C! ft)(cyele) .. 00.9 cu ft/(sq ft)(eyeill)
&:ond lhwotering (V" Fig. !Ill) From Fig. 258, F. _ 0.47, since K _ 3.89 X 10....,
(~t.l') /L .. 4 in. mercury per 2-in. cako. Converting from
" .. Ih COO ~) - l5 IKle the mean prcasure in the cRke (27 .92 in. mercury) to the pre&-
C. and C. (eocreeted for villCOeity or wWi) !ll.lre at t he vacuum pump (25.92 in. mereury) and oorrecting
for turbulcna:,
C{ _ 2.02 (I.')
3.0
_0.673 27.92
dill - 99.9(0.47) ~ (25)
_.92

C; _ lUI (1.0)
3.0
.. a:ro _ 1262 elm at~4 in. meroul)'l'aeuum

- _ __ _ 223
" 15
Co' 0.673 . S;.
( ') ( ~
X ) -0.245 (91.4
".' ) ( 1 -0.'0.4 )

Fron: Fi,. 255 and8 . ... 0.19,8. - 0.245 Cat cake removlll}. .. 0.1l15ib wa~r/lb Glauber salt

BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. CAIUIAN, P. C., "A Study of the Meeha.niam of Filtra-
tion," J. &C. CIwn. Ind., ~a, 2&1 T (1933); wid.,
159 T (1934); ' "Tbe Determinalion of the Specific Sur-
'aoo of Powders," ibid. , 11'1', 225 T (1938) ; iUd., 68 (1939);
"Fundament..1 Principle!! of Induat rial Fillration,"
fuM. I".. Cltem. Engra. (Landon), 111, 168 (1938). -'
2. DICItET. G . n., a nd C. L. BMTnl!l'I, ""'Utration," ReInhold
Publishing Corp. (1946) .
3. LI:WI~, W. K., IIlId C. ALMT, ''Fact.ort Determining the
Capacity of a Filter PreeII," Ind. Ellfi. Cite'll., " 528
(1912).
4. LEWIS, W. K., "Some Obje<ltions to Filtration Formulas,"
CIIem . M~. E",., 27, 594 (1922) .
6. PI f. KARO, J . A., Filtration nnd
J..ondon ( 1m ).
',fUn,
Ernest Benn,
6. RUTR, B. P., ''Studies in Filtl'lltion : III, Derivation of
Generat Fiitl'lltion EoIU.Uooa; IV , Tjle Nature of fluid
Flow throop Filt.er Sepla," 1M. Eng. CAem. , 17,
806 (1935) .
7. RUTH, B. r., and L. L. KEMPE, " .'-n Ex tenaion of the
os. Teslin, Methoda: IUld Equatiootl of Baldi FI1tt&uon,"
r ....... A. .... [ lUI. CAmI. E,.,n., II. 34 (1937).
S. RUTII, B. F., G. H. MONTILLON, and R. E. MOrn'Ol'ItfA,
" StudM;>e in Piltrat.ion: I , Ci-itical Analyait of Filtration
n-.ry; II, Fund&mc.ntalB of CoILlltant Prc!llll.n!l f1Itra--
tion," Ind. Eng. Chern., ~, 76, 153 (1933).
9. SPERRY, D. R, " Principles of Filtrations: 1, The iJ'fect
of Pl"CEI!IUI'e on Equa.tiolll! When Solidi! Are Non-Rigid or
Defnrm&blc," CMm. Md.. E"g., lCi, Ins (1916); "Prin-
cip\ee. of Filtr... tion n," ibid. , 17, 161 (1{H 7); "Const..Jlt
P rel!8llre Fi ltrMion," JIId. Eng. CMm., 20, 892 (1928);
"II, Anal yei8 of Fil t l1l.tion nat&," ibid. , S6, 323 (19).
10. USI>ERWOOD, A . J. V., " A CritiCilI Review 0' Publisbcd
ExpooW!nla 00 t,l lration," Tm.... J .... Cltem. ""., 40,
19 (1926) : " Fj ltralion Equ&tiollll for Compte8'Jibie
Sl.utlp," J . &e. Cite'll. Ind. (London), 401, 325 T (1928) ;
708. ''file l\lathe matical TIicoI)' of Filtration," Irid. CIte".ilt,
" 463 (1928).

PROBLEMS
1. I~ I, nooeeMry to inere....., the c&paeity of a rotary vacuum 2. A disk-typo filter hnndlCfl pctrohum Pellidue eettJjnp.
drum filter. Too cryetals In too slurry bve a deilliity of A !!erie/! of tIl!IUI run &t a OOlllItant rate of 0.1 iPm yielded the
100 Ib/eu it Rnd produce R nonoomprcssible cake bliving II following data:
pol'Ollity of 45 per cent. The filtrate hu a lI(!nai~y 01 65lb / eu P~ dift"crcntial (psi) 32 67 ",
ft. Tbe fol ln..' ~ CbRnges have been ' Iliieated.
(0) Double the vacUUItL
Ttl"" vohllnll liltercd (pi) 1 2

It ;. proposed tba.t this filter be opent.U!d at a oollltaDt-
(~) Double tbe I!Ubmergenc:e. 0'
pre!!IISUre differeolia l ro pili. If the sludge ill bo~neoua,
ealeui&te the Tol ume of oil fillered in 30 min uoder aueb 000-
(e) Do'~ble the s peed (rpm).
(d) Double UW! fraction of .l!U8pendoo eolids in the &lurry. dit ions if the ehan&c io preIJII resistance wit h rate ill negl~Ne.
Calculate t he filtering time if the pre811 were operated at
What will be the per...,nt&ge change in the quantity' of oo""ta.nt /'lite unt il the p,..,.ure differential bo.ooalDO.50 pti, and .
cake produced per unit of time for el/oeh of these 8uggetlted then at eonatant.-PI'\.'MllnJ differential until 20 g&I of oil wen!
changes? forced through the pl\\l!ll.
 '!i1LTRATION
3. ;. rot""" OO~r filter, 3 ft 1n dlameter .... d 8 ft 4 in. wide, (Ill If the t ime for dumping aDd fCa.s8Cmbling the pres. ill
it operated on II. thick Blurry. The.peed of rotation is 0.254 hr, what is thtl optimum time in hours fOl" t ile filtration
rpm,aod the fraction of t~ drum periphery submerged isO.33. cycle at the oonlll.4n tprea.uru of 40 psig. As!!urrw w:I.!Ih water
The preellUreon the vacuum ~de is 14.5 in. mereury (7.12 pIIia). is ~ in the 1I& tru.! proportion to the final filtrate u in (o).
Filtration rate is 00 &pm of filtrate. T he .luny baa II. weight What. the volume of filtrate r.btained per ey~le1
fractiO!! of 0.1 (1 Ib or Sllids per pound of slu rry. The rl'f\ll1t #l.nt
eake!l:u a pIlroliity of au per cent. The .~1ic "l'!'~ity of 'be 6. A rert&in filter pres "'hen tested on a homogeneou..
.olid is 3.0. The filtrate is wilter at 70 F. The average reaist- at COM/a,t/ rale yielded tho follon'inll: datlil .
durl')'
ance of filter doth and linea may be exprel!l'i(lC1 as V. - 1.48
cu ft. The eake may be oolUlidcred incOlIlpreeorihle. Time, PI - Pt, Filtrllte,
It ;. desired to change the fil ter operation to IIeCUre a m in I.
IU"
-clearet' filtrate, smaH amount ofllOlida is coming through . 0 ""' 0
In order to do this., it it propoo!ed to ],eave .. t hin laye r of
I':ake", in. thick on the drum . What would be the expected
1

,
3 "
30
change in the capacity of the filter if other operatinA oondi:ions
~main the.arne! 0 "11 "
00

.,,. l'
Would it be poMlble to operate at the II&IDe rate under the 10 100
. . , condition! If 110, A.~. wb&t aheolul.O prossura in the
vacuum clIeet with otber conditions collSt....t? "
:IS
200

""
4. A cOntinuous filter de",a.xing bright .tack IIOlution oon- If this press it to be operated a t a COMt ant prelllJUn! drop of
"'", of a hcUontal revohing drum 6 ft in iliameter and ]0 rei and the t ime for clea ning anll wWlhlng holtwoon eycJt.o.!
12 ft long, mounted in a gMtight CMe. The filter cloth <)Overs is 20 mil>, Mmpute t ho! optimu tn eyc~ tj,ne {lime for tilt...-
the peripheral IlUriue of tM d rum and is in tum oover-ed lion, cleaning, and wuhing}.
with wire 71:6 in. in diameter. The eake .craper reetl agllillllt
~ wire; o~r the doth. nus
arn.ngement leaY'flll a wax 7. Calcium ca.rbonate &JUlT)' is being filtered in wlI.!!;,ing
cake Me in. thick on the drum which the .crape r cannot plate and frame Pre.&ell oontainina: 20 framos, 3 ft by 4 ft
-.emoYe. The specifie gavity of the wax ill 0.8. The apecilic by 1 in. 11JC ealcium carbonate partieJea are _ ntially
gavity of the bright stock IJ(IlutioD 18 O.M. Ipherical with a diameter of 3.8 miClOIIL The delll5ity of t he
PreIcn~ operating conditioM are: IIOlid is 2.26 J'&DlII/c:c. The porn'lity of the filter etoke is 31
per cent.. The viIJcoeity of the filtillte is I.M C(!ntipoises, a.nd
Filtering rate ... 1.0 iPm/ eq ft of filter trurfaoe.
the dellllity is 66 Ib/ cu ft at liltllltion temperatur6~ The
Wu concentration ... 0.06 ell ft of wax/ eu rt IIOlution.
concentrat ion of IIOlid8 in the "'urry is 4.8 mus per cent..
Rotational a~ - 6 rpRL
Immenion ... 20 per cent of periphery.
The filtillt ion prtlliiBure is 38 pIlig.
(a) Plot a curve of IlCC1.imub,ted fil trate vulume YenIUII ti noe.
Cake porO.J.ty - 20 per ce nt..
(II) What volume of slurry is ",,<uired to fill the ProBII with
Calculate the filter rate ell-peeted, in wm/sq ft for the CIiIke?
foUuwiq; oooditions. (e) The eake is washed with water .. t 120" F and a pl'C!!Irure
(0) The level _of IIOlution it rai!ll.!d to immel'!le 40 per cent of 51 psig. The volume of walb water equals two times. the
01 the periphery of the drum. volume of liqu id in the cake at the end of the filter cycle.
(b) The rotation it inoreMed to 10 rpm. Ho... lung does it take to wash the eake?
(el A liner wire;' UIIed, 110 that the CIIke is tcraped OO"'n to
an ael'qe of }i,,-in. thickne!lli. 8. Ferrie hydroxide is to be filtered at aonlltant preMW'II
(II) N __ OOnditioDII of (a), {Ill. and (e) are. all put into in a plate and frame ~ 3 h lKI.uare with l-in. frame thick-
neIII. After 6.6 hr of operatioL, the pru!16 is full and 4.5 ('U ft
e4ect tot;ether.
'of filtrate per equa..-e ioot of area hu M lleeted.. It ill decided
6. A led filter ptel!ll!l with ]0 eq rt r,f filtering are. operating to wlUh t t,e cake with one-third the volume of filtrate c0l-
at a ooooant pre8lute of 40 P'ig glove-the following reeultl:
P\ltrate volume (cu ft)
nme (min)
14 1
10
'"
20
... ""
00
lected. How- much tirne will be tefluired to wlUb the cake
",hen the aame PI"C8!IUle is appliedf

II. A leaf-type filter wi th a filter area of 2 eq ft, hand1ina"

oompreMible eludr;'e at a COll8tant ,."te of I gpm, yields the
Tbe orit;inal wrry 00IIt.&ined 10 per rent by "''f:i&hl of
d&ta. given helow.
IIOid otJcium carbonate (Ca.OOs) Mld a effiflU amount of di8-
.oI.WJd alWUUty in !.he "'-awe. p-~
(o) Determine the time requi",d to ...aah the cake fanned
(pllig) 10 20 30 46 60 75 90 110 138 170
at the e nd of 70 min of filtering at the tame p~ UIinr;
100 cu ft 01 waah water, Filtrate (gal) 3.6 7 10 15 IS.i 22.3 25 27.6 29 30
 PROBLEMS
(4) It w ill filtM" is operated on the sludge 110 t hat the
filtration is a coMtlUlt-l'Ilte operation unti l the pre:mJre
beeonle8 GS psi, tben a ronst.am-pI'di8U ro open.t ion until
100 pI of filtmtc is obtaiDL'I..I, tho:n "'ll3hed a t 65 pili with
20 pi of " 'uh liquor (8&Jn.c phylli ea l properties a. filtrste),
then dumped in 30 min, how mu ch time will be M.!quired to
prOO uce 1000 ~I of filtrate ? AlI8umc t hat the ro$illt.nce of
the filter itself ill ncgligibl~ .
(b) A ruluy VIl.cuum filter is suggested for the eame sludge.
The fUt<!r 18 tu ClJIl8U,t of a cy lindrical drum ti ft in diameter
. nd 6 ft in width, r otating li t 6 min per revolution, and
immerBed in a n open tank of the sludge to a depth such that
t he axis of I'Olation ill 18 in. above the SUrilloe of the liquid.
The ptell8Ure inside t he d rum is 4. 7 Jlfii&. ~uming the
l"elli&tance of t he filter it8Cif 10 be nf1l:liaible, how mueh time
will be required to protlum 1000 p i of filtrate?
10. A It... f fi ll.er press opoem t in!!: on IIUSpeneiOO of ealcium
carbona!.e yielded 40,000 lb uf fil trate in 2 hr whoo filtering at
a OOI"lft.ant p~re of 25 polig. The filtrate ie ...... ter at 10 F.
Ne(!lcot the n:sistnncc of filter cloth a nd liDC!l. The weight
pel' Cllnt of C .. CO~ in eU8pcll8ion is 10 pe r cent. Compres-
. ibility f&etar g of CaCO~ _ 0.2.
(0) At a (IO""tllnt~"'te filtrat ion. how ]on8 would it tako
to produce 40,000 Ib of filtrnw if ma~mum operation pressure
wu 2.5 psig?
(II) WhAt ill t],e 24.hr capacity of su..pension for t~ preose,
if fi!tralion is carried out a t :1 const ant pressure of 4.5 pelg and
the cake is wu hed at t he SlI me pic98ure with 4000 Ib of water?
Dumping. cleaning, ami n...m.'llBinll: t ]1I! P/"'OIIIJ requirel! 40 min.
40,000 Ib of filtrnte "R' obtaine<l per ("ydc.
11. A ].ear filter pre!II! is operat ing at OO"'t.nt pro:!l!ure,
buildin(! up a Iin. noucorupre8llibl(! cake in 6 hr. At the end
of 6 hr the prell! iJI , c\eane<\ a nd t he c);cle: repe.ted wil.hout
wuhing. Cleaning M.!quires 30 min. Jr it ,,"w be required.
to waah t he eake with 1m .. mount of wash wnter equal to
one-n..1t the volume of the 6It .... t", "'hat will be the m .. ximum
cap..clty of the pres8 obt:linable by varyinr the e&ke thick
IIOM, eJq)~ WI A fraction of the present capacity! The
nature of ~he sl udge, the preIISIlN'), tllld the time of cleaning
" 'ill be unehanPJ.
12. A bomott"DI."OUS &Iilit)' ill 1.0 be liltered lit a cmulom
Tl2U of 5 dm in a Kelly leaf pre!lIL Teus made um)er COlllltant-
PlC:!J!lUte eonditionl! indicate that the cake hM a compl"l!!l!i.
biUty ooeffieiMt a of 0.5 a nd tbat at IL pressure of :it tJSi t he
volume of filtrate in cubie feet &t' Bny given time i n minutes
is Jepl'OIOnted by the eqUll.tion ~ _ 16,000 I. T he time of
t he ooMtant-rat~ cycl e is SOO min. 8pecJry the horsepower
of the motor requil"l.'I..I. What;" the theoreticnl .... ork dono,
by the pump per cycle?
257
13. A ho~neDl.l.'!l oomprell8ible sludge ....s" filte~ in _
led filter pJm: of the Kelly type ujl.h lhe follollinglJ'el\lltll.
Run A Run B
CoMtllnt pn!!:'! ure (J)!iI:)
Volume of filtrate (cu It)
Time of rUn (min)
'"
3.SC
100
sao
30
'"
I t ie sUlQl:ostl'd th~t the press be run on tho ~,un" Rludge a t
a con . U,nt I"II.tc of 15 ~fm and thus ope .... te at a higher thruuKh .
put. The prese nt setup hns a pump uf 4 hp with an overn]]
efficiency of 05 ]le r cent. Compreslihility roefficient 0 m&y
be aken all 0. 7 (Of" t he filter cake. Is the equipment able to
, filter .t this m le wilh B wt&! filt rat ion ti me of 6 ~' min!
14. Two hundn:!d tons of slllIt)' oonlaio ins 0 m!18S per oeDI.
IIOlilb .re to be li ltered per hour. The par"l.idcS of IIOlid are
cubical in IIhupe, have &n a~ size of 0.0029 in. on edge,.
spherieiW of 0.81. and a oonsity of 1.85 III"II ..... / ee (l 15 Ib/ N
h ). T he liquid tu.e .. ooMity of 1,.08 grBlllII / ec (67.4 Ib/ eu f t)
and Po vi&colity of 13.4 oentipoises. It i8 e8lirn&t.OO t hat the
pol"<ll!lity of the filwr cnke will he ad per cent.
Filtration Is to be done without wMhing, and 26 pe r cent
finllhatu rJl.tion fur t. he liquid content of the eJi.k'l is ~Iisfactory.
(a) Specify Jl. lilter or fi ]tel"!l for the above jub, lIivinll area,
rot.&tiun speed, ... te. A V8.CI.I Wll of 2 ....in. mercury, Il. Cftke
thicknt'lll!l of 0.5 in., ... 00 a !!Ilbmcrxenoe of 40 POU Dent am
~ted for fil"llt OPl'toximatiorus.. 'I"' ~
(b) Wha ll\1U lie the liquid sat.unltion of t he CIlkelJrotllk'Cd1
(.:) What is the capacily M.!quire mllot (cubic feet per hou r
at60 F .nd 14.7 psi:l) of the VBC\lWll punlp .tnormal filtering
oonditkms7
16. A aeriee of filtcTII iB being fed by centrifugal pump A..
Byp11811 va lve 8 TrUl.intai~ pressure of 50 ]lIlig on the filteTII.
TIll! filter cyele is: 60 min filter, 40 min wash, And 20 min
clean and fill. Of the 12 filters in: the grbup, 6 are 011 stream,
one starting eve ry to min. The filter p~ cnoh deliver
2800 pi of fill.mte in the hour. ~ ,
The Blurry is oom~ of a.O volume per oent of aolid&,.
.filtrate 1.03 Ir:ltnll/ ec and sOlid 2.60 ,;T&ms / ec.
The orifioe bas a manoll1l!ler containing men:ury _nd filtrate.
A s mal l amount of filt rate is fed s low ly l hroul(b VlIlves C to
keep IIOlids out of the Rl:\oomet.e r. The orilioe eoefficieDt
for ~hc 8luny is O.M\.
Q.mpute th~ rate of return -of the slurry to tank D t hrough
liDe E .t the moment a filte r is becoming full and j .... t prior
to tak infl: one oft" stfl.'lIm.
E
8
 CHAPTER

19

Centrifugation

ENTRIFUGAL force is widely used when a

C
. force greater I,han that. of gravity is desired
lor separation of solid::! and fluids of different
densities, ,80S in settlihg, or for 8ejlarations of the
nature of filtration. A centrifugal farce is created
by moving a mass in a curved path and is exerted
in the din:ction away from the center of curvature
of the _path. The centripetal foree ilS the force applied
to the moving ma.-;s in the direction toward the
center of curvature which causes the mass to travel
in a curved path. If these foroos are equal the
particle continues to rotate in a c~ula.r path around
the center~
PtriphtQI~,
where Fc' - centriIugallorce in absolute units.
p. "" cent.rifugal force in enginef!ring units .
m - m888.
u - peripheral velocity.
r = radius.
w - angular velocity in radiall8.
The tenus (r,i/ o<) and (u 2/ roc) are referred to as
the acceleration in gOO'il, designated as a' in equa.-
tion 7d (Chapter 12). If the speed is expressed in
revolutioos per minute and the radius r in inches,
a' - 2.84 X lO-s{rpm)2 r (pounds force
per pound mD.8S) (226b)
The effectiveness of a machine in creating cen-
trifugal force is expressed in terms of a'. By sub-
stituting the numerieal value f of pO' for p or for the
pressure gradient - /lP/ L in the equations which
have been prt9Cnted for relative motion between
fluids and solids, such equatioM are made direetly
applicable to eentrifuges.

EQUIPMENT
Probably the earliest industrial equipment utiliz.
ing centrifugal force in the processing of materials
was the centrifugal filter. Such devices were referred
FIo. 263. Diagram ol.forcea for centruuge. to as centrifuga.ls and consisted of machines ,of
large diameter and relatively alaw speed. They wern
As indicated in . Fig. 263" the centrifugal juree in used primarily for separating coarse granular or
absolute units is' , .
mu' It b common engineering practioe to use the tenn gee
Fo' - mr",' - - ,- (226a) abo 1.8 a dimellllionleee {&el, gIg" Of r",t/g" where g, ill the
at.&nd&nl. a.ooeleratiOil due to lravity lind not the ooDYersiou
f&cloor ()~ The numerical value {or the number of ll)eII ill the
and in engineering units (Table 25, p. 132) same with eit.hB- definition ~nee g, it numerieaUy cqu.a.l to g.,
mrw' mu' but the dirneosi_ IU'e different.
F. - - - - -
(J.
... ma'
rgc
(226)
... tActually ,.',.lrI. ill lIlIbsl.iluted fot " aad
tilted {(M' -t..P/ L f(M' dimen8ional _ .
pO' il S\I~
 BATCH CENTRIFUGALS 2'9
eryslalline solids from water or other fluid~. The The solkls drop through the opening to Ii. conveyor
smaller high-spcod m~hinC8 of more recent develop- or drier below the cent rifugal. The valvc in t.he
ment arc gencrnlly referred to as centrifuges. bottom of the basket is then c1~ , and the cycle is
repeated.
Batch CentriJu8(Jls A cOIJiplete cycle may require from a few minutes
The simplest type iJ:l the vcrtical-shaft perforated to I hr, depending uPon the elttent of washing and
ba,.<;ket centrifugal. The basket diameter is usually d ry spinning of Ihe cake.
30, 40, or -18 in., although models are available haYing
diameters from 12 to 84 in. The shaft iJ:l usually
di~t driven I;y an electric motor at about laxl rpm
for a 3(}.in. diameter basket, although greater speeds
of about 2000 rpm are frequently used. '
Some mn.chint'f! employ centrifugal cllltchcll or
hydraulic couplings for more rapid u.cce1eration with
a lower starting torque on the motof. Abo, Y-belt,
variablc-8IX-w drive, nnd multispeed motors hu.vc
been used to incrc8.l:lC the flexibility of the batch
centrifugal . Tho motor ill ' generally overllized for
quick acceleration. Up to 25 hp is used for a 30-in.
diameter basket. A brake is provided for rapid
deceleration.
The most common type is a s\lspended basket
with the driving power applied to the vertical shaft
above the bMket, as indicated in Fig. 264. This
overdriven sU!;ipended basket t,ype is widely UlICd for
uft hAlf RChI "-"-
separating and rinsing sugar crystals in the refining
of sugar and for separating aU types of cryst.aJline or ,.....,
Flo< """'" Self -disI;~rgil'lC
blsket
granular produets. For large-tiC8le production (over
i ton/ 8-br da.y; automatte ceotrifugals or vacuum
filters are preferred because of the lower labor cost.
' Figure 264 lS a section of such a machine with a
flat-bottom baskot indieal.ed for the left side. Tn
operation the basket is rotated at a moderate speed
and ill fed with a rathor thick Blurry until sufficient
cake ill produced on the screen. The liquor or filtrate
passes tbrough the cake and filter medium (the
screen) 88 in filtration . The feed is then stopped,
and the cake may be spun at high speed to free it of
most of the liquor, or it may be washed immediately
after the food is stopped ' without the period of high- Flo. 2M. A eompOllite diAltTIUll of II 6u8pended hAlch br.sket
speed operation. After it is washed, the cake may centrifuge, showiftll: for the left ho.lf flection a fiAt-bottom
be rotated at high speed to remove m08t of the wash bssket, and lOf the right half flectlOD a oone-bottam basket.l.
liquor. The basket is then decelerated, braked, and
unloaded through the bottoll). by raising the flat A cone-bottom basket is illustrated for the right
valvl! in the oottom. ~ side of Fig. 264. This type is preferred for materials
In the older low.priced machines the .cake is which readily leave the basket at low speeds without
loosened by a wooden blade held against the cake the necessity of scraping the cake from the !!Creen.
while it is rotating at low speed. The use of a hinged The underdriven link-suspended vertical..shaft
blade or plow makes for safer and more rapm opera- batch centrifugal illustrated in Fig. 2G5 is widely
tion . The blade may be provided with a rack and used in laundries and pbarmaceutjcal industries
pinion to all'lI\' vertical motion. The bibliocraphy for thit dlapter appears 011 p. a.. .
260 CEI'liTRIFUGATION

FIG. 265. Undurdriven link suspended centrifugt:. (pWi!wr IV.......... )

because the Qpeo top allows easy charging and clean-
ing. This type can also be made vaportighi for
handling of volatile materials and requires 1C!16
headroom than the suspended overdriven centri-
fugal.
The suspended type is generally more versatile,
po8I:IeSSing greater stability with unbaill1l(': ed loads
and permitting greater speed for a given diameter.
When equipped with a "solid" or imPerforate
ba.sket, as illustrated in Fig. 260, the centrifugal
opera.tes more like a. settler or a thickener than a
IiIter, as the clt'ar liquor is removed by overflowing
the weirs or baffles at the top rather than by fl ow-
ing through the cake. In operation the feed fills
the machine to the overflow, The sludge collects
at the \\'1l11 ~ and is discharged at the bottom, either
continuously as shown or at the end of the cycle,
wh ilc thc liquor accumulates until it reaches the
flange at the top of the basket whcre it overflows
and is collected in the housing outside the rotating
ba.sket. Artcl; sufficient cake is formed , a plow mAy
be employed (Fig. 267) to free the solids from the
walls of the ha.sket, causing them to drop to the
bottom discharge M in the operation of a perforate
basket centrifugal. When t he quantity of solids is
8IIlali (up to about 1 per cent of the feed), this

~C1ear liquid overlIow

/Baflle

"....HoIe i~ each bal fle

~ lmptrlor3te basket

,
--
FIG. 200. Solid or
Ii
IOliIk dl$Charge
imp<~rforll.te
.J:r

basket.' Feed i5 to center.

FiG. 267. Solid, or imp<'rtorlLte, hILlJket, shmving plow.
(Tolhurll ConlriJugala DiIMWn., Amtrican Machi~ (1M
M Wd3, lm.)
 CONnNUOUS CENTRIFUGALS 261

.... J.-."........ _ -

,
"
:i

Flu. 268. ContinuOIW horilontal !IOIidbo",1 oentrifupl with .pical ~l"9.per. (Bird Madaint Co.)

machine can be used satisfactorily for clarification of" that there is relative motion between the scraper and
a fluid with a comparatively long cycle of operation. drum forcing the 'solids to'vards the left and up an
The same machine may be uaed as a classifier. By incline towa.rds the center until the solids leave tbe
means of a high rate of feed the fine particles may pond. At this point the solids rrte.y be washed
be caused to overflow with the liquor while the lightly, drained, and finally thrown out the solids
coarser particles are thrown to the wall of the basket discharge ports at the left. The solids con.veyor or
t.nd removed. through the bottom. In this way the spiral scraper is driven from gears at the far left
operation may be made continuous {or the separa- which receive their motion from the hoUow ~in
tion of two liquids, as..will be described under con- shaft. If the pond depth i8 increased 8lld speed of
tinuous centrifuges. oPf'ration is sufficient to overflow the fines with the
it. ; filtrate, this machine can also be used as .\ classifier
Continuou. CentriJugob ' with the larger solid particles removed at the solids
The centrifugal filter may be made to operate discharge port.
continuQUSiy by the incorporation of a mechanism A perforate horizontal-basket continuous centrif-
for the continuous removal of the solids. Two ugal (Fig. 2(9) adapted for handling coarser solids
methods are illustrated in Figs. 268 and-269. giVeR more thorough washing, particularly where it
11\e spiral scraper (Fig. 268) is used with both
solid and perforate baskets. Withr the solid hori-
zontal tapered bowl illustrated, me solids thrown
against the wall are moved by tbfo: spiral scraper out
of the bath or pond of liquid up tq the draining JOne
or "beach." The solids are then aSpoo and dis.-
charged through the discharge porta.
This machine is actually a contiouous settler and
drainer. The feed and Wash liquor> enter th!"OOgh
the hollow shaft at the right. The feed PtutB:eS
through holes in the feed pipe and is thrown into
the spinning pond. The clear flUid -overflows the liquid disel!arp
filtrate ports at the right. These ports can be ad-
Flo. 209: PeriOT:l.te;:horiZOllt.i-buket continoou.-eI!otri(upl
justed to vary the pond tlepth aDd volume. The-
witb capiral 'Craper_diic:ht.cge. (CmJri/K~ MW"lIlical E,,,ip-
spiral scraper shown only in section is rotated at a mmt Co., 'tie., Dirri&ion of Co1l.de.ur S~ and Enginuri...,
, slightly ~crent speed flVm the drum or basket so Co., l11C.)
 CENTRIFUGAnON
is desirable to keep t.he wash water and filtrate
separate. The feed enters through the hollow shaft
Ilnnulus between two concentric honzontal cylind~
rotating.in the same d irection with the inner cylinder
or "hub" trhveling slightly slower than the outer
perforate cylinder or bowl. The cake is retained
on the perforate bowl, and the liquor passes through
t he screen or perforatiods 1UI in a .filter. The cake
is removed a.long the insidp of the perforat.&-outer
dn lm by a series of d ischarge plows similar to the
spiral scraper used. with I.he solid bowl (Fig. 268).
The filtrate is caught in the first section of fU1 outer
casing. The casing is usually provided with three
such sections as shown so that at least two washirigs
are possible Il"ithout mixing the filtrate or either wash
liquor.
This type of continuous centrifugal filter is limited
to separations of coarse nonfriable crystals, as the
scraper tends to break the more friable :MJlids.
A reciproca.ting shoving mechanism to remove too
solid:; is shown ill Fig. 270. The feed enterl'J the feed
li!ll! 9t the right and is accelerated gradually to drum
RI." of fled
'-
, FIG. 1'70. &~l iun ...1 dl"llwing 01. .. continuous perfora.te-buket oentrifugal ",ith pUBher d ischarp.
speed as it- flows out of t.he feed fwmeL A cake is
~ dcposited on the !;Creen within the perforated drum,
filling the s!;'ace bcbveen the drum and the ring of
Qle feed fun nel. To' remove the cake the hydrauli-
cally act.ivated pusher moves towards the"right a
short distance, shoving the .:::akc along the perforat.e
basket the dil!tance of one "~troke . The pusher is
activated by nil pre;\8ure, ifo;~rod.uced through the
connections, operating on the' piston in the cylinder.
""ory cake a ies off-the end of the basket into the casing
and out through discharge. The pusher then re-
turns: and additional clloke is deposited before the
next 8troks . The len~t.h and frequency of stroke may
be adjust~ and is generally set to handle ~lightly
more than the anticipated maximum production of
solids. A.<; the cake moves along the drum, the fi l-
trate is thrown out into the first seet ion of thp. ca.z;iug.
The cake m~~y be washed and the' wash liquor
thrown oul. ill the subsequent sections of the c&!ling.
The cal..c reaches the end of the dnlm and is thrown
off. by centrifugal force int.o the collector housing
and d ischarged through the bottom.
"
'0,"" -fI.
., ,
(B~r PerkiM. Inc.)
 AtrrOMATlC BATCH CEl'I'TRIFUGALS
TbP thickness-of the cake is limited by the annular
Sptl~ between the inside of the perforate ba:;ket and
t.he outer cireum[erencc of the removable rin,ll; of the
;eed funnel. The diameter of the ring a.nd the set ting
of :he stroke and frequency of the pusher control
the capacity of the m achine. The low aeCE!leration
of the slurry liS it is brought up to drum ~I)e{'(.\ s.nd
the smooth action of the hydraulic pusher, relatively
free from any cutting action on the crystals, make
this oentruugal suitable for the more friable crystals.
It is made in drum diameters from 24 to 9{l in., with
capacities from 1 to 20 lon!! of solids per hour, de--
pending upon operating conciitions.
A uto matic Ba tch Ctm frijugals
In order to save labor, large batch (:enlriugal!l are
frequently designed for automatic operation on pre-
determined eyries. 'fhp. uperations are controlled
by a timing mechanism and are run continuously
with the elimination of the heavy starting torque
FlII. -271. Sectional dl1!lwing of BII AUtolfllLtie ho.tclJ horizontal
oenlrifupl. (BilMr Perf;in., I~.)
263
FlO. 272. Automatic hori~ontal centrifugAl ~howing auto-
matic contrnls. (Silorplu Ct!rp.)
and the losses of braking inherent in intermittf'rH
operation. Figure Zi 1 inu icat~ the construction
of a. horizontal automatic centrifugal with a per-
forate 00....1. Feed is introduced through the flanged
nozzle. Mter the cake has been built up to the
desired thickness, feed is a.uwmatically shut off,
wash water is introduced through sprays, and, after
dewatering, the knife is raised by mechani8ID, re-
moving the cake througb chl.:te. Figure 272 gives
an idea of the automatic controls required for such
operation.
These machines are well suited to free-drain ing
crystalline solids not smaller than about 150 mesh.
For satisfactory operation t.he moisture content in
the cake should not. ext-ced about 15 to 18 per cent;
2 to 5 per cent is usual. The performance is not
strictly equivalent to the ordinary batch basket
machine. I.oadilll( &lid unlooJillg at full speed sub-
jects thc cry~tals to vigorous impacts resulting in
breakage of fragile crysta.ls. There is ah,ays a thin
layer of cryst.als remaining in contact with t.he
screen, which may become ruther impervious to
drainage after a time.
Centrifuge.
The smaller..<fiameter higher-speed mnchines used
to separate liquids of different densities, to break
emulsions, and to remove or dfl.SIlify filfe solids in
suspcMion are. generally of two types: tile tubular
bowl illust.rated in Fig. Zi3, &lid the disk bowl illus-
 CENTRIFUGATION
trated in Fig. 274. The botUe type, a batch machine, from a fOO<;l nozzle. It then comes into contact with
is limited to laboratory a.nd analytical separations. a set of vertical baffles riding loosely in the oowl,
A very high-speed batch machine called the ultra-- which serve to bring the feed up to bowl speed
centrifuge is used for difficult separations. quickly. \\llen used as a duriner to remove small
A tubular-oon-I cent rifuge (Fig. 2i3) equipped amounts of su.spended solilb from a single liquid, the
with abo\\"l ..J in. in diameter and operatal .at 15,000 bowl contain ~ a single discharge port at the top
center for the clarified liquid.
When used as a ~parator (Fig. 273) to separate
two liquids of dilTerent dcnsiti..s, the bowl contains
two discharge port:! : an inner iUlnllla r port for the
less den!!/' fluid . and all outer a.lJll\llar port for t.he
morf' dense fluid. Tubular-bowl centrifuges designed
as Sf'paraton; may be employro to Tf'move solids
'continllously by n();lIing the :solids on thc heavier
1i(lllid , us in the Sfparstion of oil and :saltcd-out SOIlp
from an oil-soap-II'Btcr emulsion where the brine is
thrown to the wall of the bowl :lnd the soap flOIlts
Ollt with it while the oil is di!;cha!"Ked througll the
inner port. Usually thc solids to I~ removed 110 not
float but eollect on the wall of the bowl and lend to
plu~ the machine. This necessitate> cleaning the
bowl and usultlly limits the operation of the mtU'hine
to suspensions contllining only a few per cent of
suspended sol ids. In the manufact ure of bright
stock for lubricating oil, the solid wax scpurated
from the mineral oil ill the I.;cnt rifuge is continuously
remo\'ed by the injection of hot water into the
wax space just ahf'ad of the dis(lmrgc ring. Thi:.
serves t.he purpo;;e of a secOIld hcavy immiscible
liquid to floa.t the wax out with tile water a nd al.l:lO
the purpose of melting the chilled wax. ' Melting of
the wax is further a.~i;;tcd by spraying hot water
on the top of the bowl to be thrown into the wax
cover along with tbe wax.
Capadties for such centrifuges vary from about
Flo. 273. Cutawny view of a tubular-bowl continuoUII 50 to 500 galjhr.
centrifuge. (.sMrpla Corp.) Special lICak>d designs enable operations under
vacuum, pre58llre, or in the presence of an inert.
rpm dcvelops A. centrifugal force per unit mass gas.
~lllivalpllt to 13,200 geel! (a ' ). Ttle IJow l ~ are u~ual!y Disk-bowl centrifuges (Fig. 27-1) operate at a lower
3 to G in. in diumctcr and up to about 5 ft in If!flgth. speed and have l>owl~ of larger diameter than the
Some of the ~mn.l!er laboratory units wil! develop tubuLar bowl machines. The diameters of disk bowls
100,000 gees. The long 00\\"1, maily timet! the depth run liP to about 41 in. With a IZ-in. diameter bowl
of thc liquid on the inside wall of the bowl, provides rotating at. 6400 rpm , a ccnt rif.ugal fOIl;e equivalent
amplc time for the de;;ircd separation. The hold is to 7000 gee;; is d evcloped.
sllpportft1 vertically with a slendcr solid Oexible Disk bowls contain stacks of cOJ.liral disks spaced
shaft and a. thrust bearing. I t is guided loosely at at least twice the distanre of the In.rgest.-sized particle
the bottom byl a spring-supported bush ing. Drive Of globule to Ue separated. The bowl is mounted
is usually indireet with a belt from an electric within a cast housing provided with onc or more
motor, or direct from a stcam tu rbine. covers, eacb equipped with a discharge p6rt for a
The fet:d enters the bottom of the bowl as a jet liquid stream. The vertical shaft musually drivon
 CENTRIFUGES
through geMl and a centrifugal clutch by 8. hori-
zontal motor. Dc Laval originally dCl>igned this
machine in 1878. It has been widely used in the
separation of cream from milk and for many indus-
t-rial preparations.
The feed enters at the top and flows do''''-n the
cenual tube to the bottl'm of the bowl. During this
traw!l it is uccelerated to bowl speed by vertical vanes
in the tube. The ft.'Cd then passes outward through
sever::t.l feed ports into the conical disk~ lind then
upward through a series of holes in thc conical
diilks. The location of these holes determinCij which
eomponent is to be recovered with the minimum of
contamination by the other. If the lCIJS dense com-
ponent. i~ the more valuable and demrOO. product, as
in eream ~paration, the feed holes will be located in
the disks ncar the center so as to give the gn>ater
travel t.o the more dense component (skim milk),
thereby stripping it as completely as possible of the
less dense component (butter fat).
As the feed moves up ward the ceotrifugal force
throws t.he heavier liquid or solid out.ward along the
under side of the disks. The less dense liquid then
flows wward the center along the upper s\lrfaces of
the disks. In this wily the disks stratify the liquids
FIG. 27.5. Cut"',ay view of disk-howl r>entrifuge with noule
dieeharge for haodling lIOIida. (De Larol Separalor (.'0.)

into thin la.yenl, creating :l. shallow settli."Ig dist-nnec

io ' 0.274. L'ulAwlI)' y~ 01 d Isk_nov., IlOntmUO"Je ,-er>trifuge
f<K sep!lrnting liquids. (lk LaIIfll &pt.ralor Co.)
betwccn the disks.. The less dense liquid is Jill-
charged at the wp from the inner annular porL Tlw.
more dense liquid flows downward and out.ward,
di5()hargmg frum the outer port. When the cen-
trifuge is u~l as n clarifier, only tJIC inner rlischarge
port is provided and al! the li4Uid tn'vels inward
and upward while the solid purl ides are thrown out-
ward amI. collect in the bowl. In order to remuve the
separated solids continuoosly, t.he solids with a small
amount of liquid are dii:ICharged continuously as a
slurry into a diOlChargc cover through radial nozllies
in tho periphery of Ole bo\\"l (Fig. 275), or valves
which open automatically nfter a certain amOlmt of
soIid& have collected in thc bowl. may be used in
place of nozzles. In order to control. the density o[
the discharged sludge, some dCl:ilgns permit rccireu-
lation of part of the sludge !'O removed from the
bowl.
The u.ltracentrifuge (Fig. 270) is a. machine of
small diameter, operating at vel)' high speed!!. A
bowl of 4-in. diameter TOtatiDg at 100,000 rpm.
develops 501),000 gees. S ueh machines operotc only
266 CENTRIFUGA nON
on a hatch of material and can process on1y a small CALCULATIONS
quantity ill a single TlIn. They are driven either by
The capacities and operating conditions of
air or oil turbines, with bearings usually lubricated
centrifugal fillcr.~ may be computed in ' the same
by a film of comprcs-ed air. The rotor may ~
manner as for pl'C58ure or gravity filters by substi-
~- tu t ing (pa') as the dri ving force for the pressure
j grndient (-6P) / L in equations such as 170, 179,
and 183.
i
1 In spinning liquor from a centrifugal filter cake,
I t.wo fluid phases exist. in the porcs of the cake, the

j liquor and air. Neglecting any evaporation of the

liquor, the final saturation of thc cake after spinning
fOI' an indefinite period of time win approach as a
j low limit the residual saturation 88 estimated by the
application of equation 179 (footnote) . When

I applied to centrifugal filters, the capill.'J.ry number

becomes K p4' IrN't (008 8), and equation 179 becomes
I S,., -
1 ( Kpa' )-0.264
40 goy 006 8

~ ~ (D/FRJIIl' )-O.26f (2Z7)

40 32yP, C08 8

In centrifuges the operation is primarily settling

Flo. Z76. Ultra.ocnlrifuge di_mbled toahow the auepended
bowl. (SMrpka Corp.)
operated in \to vacuum or in an atmosphere of hy-
drogen at low pressure to minimize heating the rotor
by friclional resistance.
Ultracentrifuges arc primarily laboratory machines
and are useful in detemlioing particle size or molec-
ular weight by measurement. of the rate of separation
of suspended particles. They have been used to
separate isotopes by means of the slightly different
densities (molecular' weights) and the tremendous
multiplication of this slight dillerenoo through cen-
trifugal force.
under centrifural foroo, and the equation giving the
maximum settling velocity, such ag equations 14
and Ii, may he applied directly to the centrifuge
by multiplying the densities by a'. Since the value
for a' is determined in terms of the conversion. factor '
g., these equations UfC most !:limply modified by
substituting a'g. for g. Centrifuges are u~ually
applied to the separation of very small solid particies,
and the simpler relat,ionships for laminar flow may
usually be !l.SI3umed. But, when the particir.!8 are
large, turbulent motion is to be expected.
In either case the particle will be removed from
the s~ream of liquid if the settling velocity of the
particle is sufficient to bring the particle throu1~h the
settling distance before it is swept (In out with the
fluid. The fluid is in lare.inar flow, and ita velocity
relative to the rotating howl varies with the distance
from the surface of the rotating bowl or d isks. But,
ir an average linear velocity may he assumed for the
fluid relative to the disk or tube, the approximate
time that the fluid is in the centrifugal fieki may be
obtained by dividing the length of How by this
average velocity or by dividing the quantity of
liquid in the bowl by the rate of flow of liquid
through the howl. The time required for the particle
t.o aettle out of the fl uid stream must not exceed the
time the fluid is in the centrifugal field. The min-
 CALCULATIONS 267
im.UDl time reQuired for the particle to settle out is wbere P' - pressure in absolute units.
equal to the distance the particle m oves normal to b - linear dimension of the tube in the
the flow oi f1uKl. divided by the settling velOcity in direction of the axis.
!be centrifugal field. N - revolutions per eeeond.
The optimum 4t!ight of the dam in tubularw or
diskwoowl centrifuges may be calculated by balancing Balancing pressures at the radius e (see Fig. 278);
the pressures between the two fluids 9.1> foUows. 2(N)'7!Pl(e2 - (2) _ 2(N)2.,..2p,,(C ~ Ja2)
First consider a horizontal gravity separator for
~J2)
separating two fluids , 8.8 shown diagram matically in
(228)
Fig. Zl7. The mixed liquids are re<:. in from the upper 1', (c _ h2 )
force of gravity The radius e of the interface between the Ruids
must be greater than l and less than :r if a. separation

F:IO. 'n. Dia&Tam illustrating the principle 01

two (lo....11lJ ftuids by lflI.vity.

left and divided according to their densities into the

~t.iolI ol

_....
Rotating bowl

.... iuI"'~_

-
two phases as indicated. The two levels' L and H ,. 10..,. ,_01
... -
are d.e tennined by t.hc density of the two fluids, and' In.... fin, dt m
by the level E of the interface between the tlVO
J =0.1., ,Jdjus DI
fluids. Since a tmospheric prel!SUl'e exists on the Cree ,ldiusol_

surfaces of the light liquid at eJevation L and of the

heavy liquid at elevation H , ;~=;::~~~~::~-.."" Centrilupl
f~

I>I(L ~ E) + PIlE - P'"

where 1>1 = density of ~e light liquid.

PA = density of the heavy liquid .
E, H, L, IIJld X ... elevation~ 88 shown in Fig. 277.
The centrifuge (Fig. 278) may be regarded as the
equivalent of the horizontal settler rotated 90
degrees into a vertical position. The same principle
of balancing t.he pressures may be applied with the
cenlri!ugal force lJirectcd toward the periphery 01
the bowl instead of gravity act.ing downward. Since
the centrifuga.l force is nul cunstant but varies with
the fadius, the pressure excrlcd by the fluid in a.
centrifuga.1 field (centrifugal foree per unit area) may
be expressed in absolute units by dividing the force
(equation 2264) by the area on which it is acting, or
rn u'
P' - -
A- ,
FlO. 278. Diarr&m illustrllting tbe principle 01 l!eptlrat ion or
t'KO flowing 8uids by centrilup.l (,,1"00.. In ol~ra.ti"n the rltdii
o( the ring d(l.mB, " (1.00 I, which rOlltml the diIN,hurge It ro
almost id enticul with the liquid 8urf"cC~ indkakoJ ill the
fiKl.lrtl,
is desired. By making e IOmal!, approaching l, the
heavy liquid wi!! be well stnppeti :If the legs dense
liq uid, thereby insuring complete. N!Covery of -the
lighter liquid, although it ml:l.Y CQnta.in some con
tsmination by heavy liquid , particularly if the emul-
sion is not (.'O mpletcly broken before the liquid:s
approach the inner ring dam. The propf.'r '>Ctting
of the radiu ~ of the outer ring Jam Ii tu give the
desired position 01 in terf:"l~l f' may be readily cal w

P' _ [ ["'(2<')"'] [(Z",)'r (N)']

"b(2rr)
cula led from equation 228 from the known dcnliilies
Ph lind PI and the known rli.c1ius l.
J h is made less than I, th~re will be no discharge
_ 2(N )2...Zp(r-/ _ Ti t) of heavy lilluid ami the centrifug<' acl s u.s a cllLrificr.
...
In making calcultj.tione for the ultracentrifuge,
CENTRIFUGADON
PROBLEMS
equation 229 may be ueed to give the ratio of the
1. What will be ~be minimum moilrturo ront.ent of .. e..lc
concentration of the more dense component at of salt crys\aIII if a alurry ;" eatunted brine (60 9 F) aod M1~
periphery to that. at the center "When eq,uiUbrium is CI")'StaltI are oentrifuaed iD a baaket. oenlrifuce, 30 iD. in diam-
attained with It. full bowl. eter, rotating at I~ rpm? (The a~rae diameter ol the
cake ~ 28 iD.)
e} (Mil - Ml)u'
1n- - - (229) 2. Wet crystalt oIllUga.:r aro taken from the botwm of an
C) 2RT evapora w r and chatpd 100 a oentrifuce. T~ eb&r&1l oont.&lr.ll
0' 0.4 cu ftol liquor per cubie foot 01 dry eryata1r.. lI .the eryau.h
c.
_ _ , ot.- Mil.'
21t (4-In.. thldc eake) ate oeotrifuged for 2 min and the Clmtrif~
(229a) develope 100 timell the fOl"l'Jf! of gravity, how much liquor will
C, remain in the cryata18 (exp~ '" cubie feet of Iiquot per
in which Cs .. concentration of the more dense com cubie foot of dry cr)'lltaie)1

C1 _
panent at the periphery.
concentration of the more dense com-
ponent. at. the oenter.
Specific gravity of dry lIupt
Di&met.er of ~taIe; {ft}
PoroBiLy ulllUpl" cake
....,
1.69

M .. _ molecular weight of the more denBe
component.
M, _ molecular weight of the less dense
COOlponent.
u _ peripheral velocity of the tube (eml
.,,).
R - "gas" corurtant (8.3 X 10" ergsj"K).
T - absolute temperature (OK).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. ANONYMOUS. CAem. MtL 8f'1g., 10, 119 (July 11M3).
Z. "Centrirupl MachineB," Otto. EI:. RI:t!., II, No.5, 4J6
(May 1919).
3. K.lLWlrn:1l, O. H., ''Tooia oJ the Chemi<:al EllJineer; VI,
CentrirupJ Mac:hme.," /fIolL Efig. CIIeM., 1', 287 (l927).
4. MALo,(u, J . 0., " Unit-Operatioos, CeD~rilU&Ation."
O .4~
SphericUy of eryst&ls 0.'"
Derurity of liquor (lh/cu ft) 85.0
ViHOOBity of liquor (eentipoieee) 7 .
Surfaee tension oJ liquor (lb/ h ) . 0058
3. A tubul&r-bowl celltrifuge ill being ~ to eepan.te a
SO pet rent oiJ-W per cent _ter (by ~llme) emulllioa ..t a
rate of 100 Ph. The apecific gravity of the oil ~ 0.9fll, and
that of the water ie 0.997. The oentrifup bowl i, 3 {t long
from entrance w overflow dams and operate/! at 12,000 rpm.
Tbe radii of the inner and outer overfiow dan. and t.ube
ate 1. _ 2.000, aod 2.600 ill.. ~Iy.
(a) What.;. the ~ oil dropJe\ that C&D. be oompletely
,.",,,,....!!
(II) What would be the effect of deerelloSiIl@: t~ inlltr over-
flow dam n.diUII to 1.91111 in.?
f. The tubuJar..bowl oentrifup oJ problem 3 ill to be uaed
\0 clarify &ll oU. (dellsity .. 58.5 Ibjrl', &Dd viaoooRty _ 10

Ired. En{/. Ckm., . . 29 (1945). oentipoilles) DOIlt&illinl a IIlDItoU amount of finee (dell8i.ty
5. SKAan.a, L. P., "Which Centrifupl--.nd When?" Ind. _ 98.04, Ib/ ft l , and average particle aiIO! of 10-4 em). The
Eng. Ollem., 11, 1072 (19aD). aoIldfJ are w be wl.llhed out of the bowl with a stream of water.
6. SMI'l'!'!, JUIJAN C., "Selecti", ~ntrif~ {or CbenUeal
P~nl," 1M. EJI{J. Ciltm., It, 474. (April 1947). ....,
What ~ the C&p&clty of the machine in pllone 0' 011 per
 CHAPTER

20

Fluidization of SolidA

- ~ "\

F
LUIDIZATION of eolids by the flow of A.tj-pical variation of pressure drop with super-
Auids is an operation intennediate in char- fieial velocity is IIhown in Fig. 279 where the loga-
acter between the Row of solids through fluids, rithm of the prefl8Ure drop is plotted against the
as d~bed in Chapter 7, and the tlOlv of fluids logarithm of the fluid velocity. The IItraight line
through solids, &8 described in Chapte", 10. from A to B represents the variation of the pressure
When a Auid is paseed upward throulli a bed of drop through the bed with fluid velocity during the
closely siaed granular eolids, a pressure gradient is period of 6xed-bed operation when no motion of the o
required to overcome friction. In order to increase partides OCCUI"$. At the point B the bed becomee
the rate of flow. a greater pressure gradient is re-
quired. When the pressure drop ( - Il.P) appf'06Ches
D
the ~ of the bed over a unit Cro8fHIet':tional are&,.. I
the aolids begin to move. This motion of the solids
~ .. is created , at superficial ve10cities far below the
I
/
terminal free-f!ettling velocities of the eoIid particles I
and constitutes the beginning of fluidimtioo. The I
I
p1'OOe8ll is approximately equivalent to the inverse AI
of hindered settling.

Fto. 279. The etreet 01 auperficial velocity OD t.be drop ill

PARDCULATE FLUIDIZATION p~ for Jl.uid lIowiDi upw&rd, throua;h bed d. cloeeI;r
lIi.ed particlet."
When the fluid is a liquid 8uch as water and the
solid is similar to glass beads in its properties, the WlIItable, and a minor movement and readjUAtment
motion of the particles at the beginning of fluidiza.- of the particleft in the bed begin to take place to
tion occurs in a minor way throughout the bed. As offer the maximum Cf'088oeeCtionai area for Bow.
the velocity of the fluid and the pre88ure drop are This change in structure of the bed produces a
increued, the bed expands and the oecillation of each deviation from the simple relationship between pr.-
particle increases in velocity and extent, The mean sure drop and velocity shown in the aeetion .A. to B.
free path of the particles between collisions with .Instability of the bed continues .. th" velocity
each other inCrea.8e8 with increasing fluid velocities. increased, until at point C the looaeat arrangement
Correspondingly, the porosity of the bed increases. of particles in contact is established. With ~
This expansion of the bed continues with increasing furt.her increase in the Velocity of How -..e of the
fluid velocities un til each particle behaves as an pa.rticle8 in the bed are no lonpr in permanent coo-
individual and is unhindered &8 a freely settling tact with one another and become cootinuousiy
body by the action or any other aolid partide. This agitated. This point, C, it known .. the paiDt 01
entim process is known &8 particulate fluidization.
...
fluidization .

270 FLUIDIZATION OF
At this point of fluidization the bed begins to
expand with increl\8ing fluid velocities. At point D
ftuidisation is complete and all the particles are in
motion. Further increases in fluid velocity beyond
the point. D .are attained by relatively slight increases
in pressure drop, merely that required to overcome
tbe increase in friction 10SSC8 between fluid , su&-
pended solid, and walls of the oontamer. The ex-
pansion of the bed during fluidization is indiCll.ted
in Fig. 280 where the logarithm of the Reynolds
number is plotted as a run~tion of the logarithm of
the porosity. The Reynolds number in Fig. 280 is
bAsed on the dimension of the solid partieles and the
superficial velocity of the fluid.
I=====]
f of some of the particles constituting the bed (8 to
c
! literally begins to "bubble" through the soJid bed in
laI_ or l4 ~~~
FlG.280. 1be erreet of Reynolds number on the pol'Ollity 01 a
bed of particles thl'Ougb which a ftuid il lIowinr; upwe.rd with
a superficial velocity ."
The porosity of the bed du ring fixed-bed. operation
remains constant with increasing velocities until
point B is reached. The porosity then increases
continuously as a function of the Reynolds number
up to the Reynolds number corresponding to the
free-eettl ing velocity of the individual particles
which may be calculated as described in Chapter 1.
At this Reynolds ,number each particle is moving as
!lJI independent individual, the bed has ceased to
exist u such, and the porosity may be assumed to
be unity. Extensive experimental data I . when
plotted as in Fig. 280 may be extrapolated as a
straight line to the point E where the porosity is
unity and the Reynolds number is that correspond ing
to free settling.
The dotted lines on Figs. 219 and 280 show the
relationships for a bed containing the same quantity
of the same particles but having & higher initial
porosity during the fixedbed period. In either case
fluidization begins at approximately the SIUIle value
of the pressure drop. Above minimutn critical values
below which wall and entrance effects llIay become
important, the curve of F ig. 280 is independent or
Tbe bibliogapby ror thia ~t.et appe&nl au p. 274.
soLins
the cross-sectional area or the thickness of bed. This
is also true of the curve similar to Fig. 219 obtained
by plotting log [-6.P/ Lo(l - Xo)] versus log v,
where Xo and Lo represent respectively the porosity
and thickness of the bed at any known condition,
and v is the superficial velocity of the fluid.
AGGREGATIVE F LUIDIZATION
When the fluid is a gas such as air, the fluidizat ion
of material such as closely sized glass beads follows a
somewhat different mechanism, although the reJa...
tionships between the pressure drop and , the
velocity is similar in all respects to that shown in
Fig. 219.
Whereas in part.icuiate fluid ization the beginning
of fluidization is marked by gentle oscillating motion
C, Fig. 219), in &ggregative fluidization the fluid
a manner identical to the action observed in bubbling
a gas through 8. liquid. The bubbles of fluid rise
through the bed and break at the surface of the bed,
"splashing" a few particles of the solid upwards.
As the fluid velocity is increased, the bubbling action
becomes more and more violent, "streamers" or
"ribbons" of solids being ejected t ... considerable
distances above the bed before returning.
The relationship between the Reynolds number
(based on the particles) and the porositf is similar
to that shown in Fig. 280, althoug1l experimental
d ifficu lties have made the procurement of data and
Reynolds numbers approaching that of free settling
extremely difficult. These experimental difficulties
are due primarily to the violent "streaming" action
of the bed at high fluid velocities.
CALCULATION OF REQUIRED PRESSURE
DROPS
The forces tending to raise the pa.rticl~ are the
buoyant force plus the friction force. At the point
of fluidization the forces tending to raise the particles
are equal. to the total weight .(force of gravity) of
the particles, or,
g
- (1 - X)(LA ), + (-M',)A
g.
~! (l - X)(LAM. (230)
g
 CALCULATION OF REQmRED PRESSURE DRCPS 211
whr--e X - porosit.y of the W. (ReI',w is ~puted &8 followl, uei.o.g Fig. 219 to determine
A - croSs-sectional ares of the bed. the value of F 7I lUI 46.0.
L = thickness of the bed. D,IIpFa. ..
P. -= density of the solid particles. .. 4O,00J
P - deill!ity ()f the fluid.
- I1PJ - pressure drop required for fluid izing. The frietion factor for gall flowing Ihl'OU(h' a porowi bod
(j) .. then olJtained from Fi,. 225.
Solving for -AP"
/ .. ~'D.(~ ~P') .."0.022
-API - L(I - X)(P. - p) (~) (231) "'pP, L
where D~ .. diameter of partieh: (_ e'lwl.tion 168). From
-"PI (') Fig. 220, F, is determined &II 1640. Therefore,
L(1 - X) - (Po - p) g: (232)

The relationtihip of equation 232 is confirmed by

-fJ.P,
-,;- -
all aVllilable data. ThUll t he lmUmed linear p5 vdO<"ity of 3 1 fps is correct..

JIIu. tr. th,c Lamplc. It is desired to contaet in the The Reynolds number for a single panicle ba8ed un super-
ficial velooity of 3.1 fpa at the 8uidiaation point ill
fluidised state 50 Ib of bead caWyst oomp(JfJC<l ,.f emooth
spherical particl(!lj 0.174 in. in diameter with 20,000 eu ft/hr D,fp (0.174/12)(3.1)(0.143)
of II. IU having a density of 0 143lb/ cu ft &fId II. v.iatJoeity of - ,..- - (Om 1)(0.000672) -870
0.011 oontipoise at the pf'OCClJB condi~ion& The ea\&lyst
density is 1.370 grams/ ce. The porosity of too cat.&Iyst in a Open.linl Reynolds number choeen arbi.-
closely ~kcd bed i~ 0 .383. ~y &II 3 X 870 _ 2610
E.t imale .he 8i~ of t he rel'elm' which .5hould be ueed.
Operatinr; pe velOcity (fpe) is tberefore
Solution. The ralCl required must be large enough to
accomm,KI ...te the bed in h I! eltpBndod AuidilOd st.e.t(l. The aX3.l -9.3
diameter of too bed may be d,:u,nnined from the nWl!l velocity Re&.otor Stel!. (8q ft) is
of the PI! under operating oonditioIll!. The mllSll ""Iocity (2D,000) /(3600)(9.3) .. O.WB
of the gall must be such lhilt the Reynolds nwnoor lit I\'hich
the ayatem operau,", iI! ...ho\ftl the Reynolds Ilumbtor at which lte&etor diameter (ft) ill (2) (0.698/3.14)~ _ 0.872 (10.6 iR,)
fluidiutiOn occun.. T he operating HeYllolda number IN!.y be
The free-eeLt ling Reynolds number j . c:alculated by trial &ad
takCf> arbil'llrily BI! eqUAl lO t hn", time<! t he Reynokk num- <nw as faDow.. .
ber u the poin~ of fluid ililtiun. The height of the reaeIm'
mU8~ be &t le&st eqUlSI t,u the .eight oC the bed in its eltp.l.nded A!!I6Ume free-eettling velocity (rps) _ 32
fluidi""J ~f~t<!. Tbo height of tho, bed may be Cfltabti8hed
lWynold$ number for froe settling
from a plot such /1.11 is shown in Fig. 280.
The ateps involved in t.1u:l SQlution include D,up (0.174/12)(32)(0.148)
I. Caleulation of the fleynoldll numbtr at the point r.:i ,.. (0.011)(0.000672)
f1uidiu.tion.
2. Choice of a I5UitabIe ope .... ting ftlocity _what above Friction factor for froe l!euJing from Fig. 70
tbu OO~1l& to tho point of Ruidiaation to fix the di&m-
eter of the reactor. 4[" - iJ1JD.
I - &!p -0..87
3. Construction of tile plot of log Reynolds nWllber vel'\!JU8
pol"Ollity~ to deterrruno porosi t y of the bed at open.tiolj: condi~
tions [or mtim&ting the height of the l"".-aetor. ' The free-eettling velocity"" caleulBtod from frictioo fact

The pI'fflIlU1"e gr&dient in pound! per tlqU.ll", (oot per foot {4(.. p)gD.
of height of bed..aL the lIuidiaing p>int may be cak:ulated by tr., - '\J 3'DP
equation 231.
~(4) ( t.37 X 62.4) 0. 1431(32.2)(0 .174/ 12)
- AP, rI - (3)(0.37)(0.143) - 31.8
- _ .. -(1 - X)(... -,.)
L '0 This ia in .wfficicnt agef!meItt with the &III!U1Ded. value of
.. (1)(1 ~ 0 .383)(( 1.37 X 62.4) - 0.143) .. 52.6 32. " The logarithm of porosity is plotWd. against the logarithm.
of Reynolds number, all IIhown in Fir;. 281, by drawing the
The wpemei&l "-:"IOOly of the gas at the point of f1uidiu.tion horilontailine of eolllltant poroe;ty up to the ReYllokla num-
is obtained by tria.land erro r. Assuming !.I tinear ~ velocity ber correI!poDdin,r; to the point of fluidization aDd. oonneednc
of 3.1 fpa, the Reynoldl! number modified for JIOI'OO6 beda Lbat poillt C wit.b !.be pain, B reptWlleDWaa WLit pc::woei'Y M
 ..
272 FLUIDIZATION OF SOUDS
I.0 TABLE 27. VALUES OF FROUDE GROUP AT POI~T
010' FLUIDIZATION IN PARTICULATE AND
AGGREGATIVE FLUIDIZATION'

.
3 C
, Fluidilin, Point
Particle
1000 2610 10'<'"
Reynolds Nttn'lber (DpIlPJ/jj a,.- Diam-
SuperticiaJ F .....
eter, ft
FlO. 281. Solution 01 ilIusll1ltift enmp)e by plotting lop.. Velocity Numt-;,r,
rithm of Reynolds number VlmIU8logarilhm of porosity. ~, {pi! t?/D~

tho! Reynolds nUltloor oomJEIpM.,JIIl,g to f"1e 9IlUling. From

Fig. 281, the porosity at the opent.ting Itllyooida Dumber of Partieulate FJuidizatioll
2610 is read .. 0.5S. CIa. beads .. nd ..... ter 0 ."""" 0 .0040 0 ,(I()()52
Sea lAnd and wllter 0.0018 0 .0050 0 .00062
Volume of t he fluidized bc.>d C iMe oo.ds and ...ater 0.0017 0.0000 0 .(0067
Sea ..Dd and water 0 .0018 0.0086 0.0013
~==,""",.-~c .. 1.89 ell ft Sea lAnd and water 0 .0033 0.029 0 .0080
(1.31)(62.4) (1 - MSl Ce.t.al)'llt beadaand wa ter 0.011 0.055 0 .....
Hei&ht of tbe lIuidUed bed ... 1.39/0.698 .. 2.38 ft. Ce.t.aly.st beads ILIId water 0.015 0 .068 0.00!I9
ClaI'JII bead!! and w.. ter 0 .017 0. 14 0 .036
The height of the reactor should be suffieieot to preYeDt Lead ,hot and water 0 .0012 0 . l3 0 . 13
cany~ of "etreamen" of IJOlids ejected aboYe the bed. Aggreptive Fluidization
In the abfJeQoe of any speci fic infonnation, the beigb.t of the GJa.. heW .... 4 air o 000!14 0. 18 1.1
- ' inay be Iixed at about twkie the eakulated height of Sea -.nd .fId air 0 .0013 0.30 1.7
the bed, or 4.66 t minimum height fOf. -diAmeter of 0.87:2 ft
01' 10.5 in.
GiII8I!I beada and air
Sea "'00 and air
Sea _lid and air
0.0017
0 .0018
0 .0033
0 .33
0 .60
1.1
...
2.7

Ordinarily- the operating conditions are choeen
relatively CI08e \0 th086 COI1"e$pOnding to point. C to
insure freedom from carry-over in streamer8, etc. A
~ of calculations simila.r to the above gives data
(or different heights of bed, depending upon the
diameter of the reactor for the cooatant gas rate.
In this example two different "diametera" for the
8IlIIle particles were indicated. The pressure grad)ent
through the porous bed is related to D", the mean
IUrface' particle diameter (equatioo 169) . . The free-
-.ttJing velocity is related to D., the diameter of a
ephere of the same volume 88 the particle. . In tb.i8
particular example, both these diameters (D" and
D.) have the same nuInerical value since the parti-
c&es are spheres of a single size. . tending to dispe1'1!e the particles of the bed in aggre-
CRITERIA FOR PARTICULATE AND
AGGREGATIVE FLUIDIZATION
It appears that the F roude number (vI/gD,,) is a
convenient criterion for determining whether or not
a given system. will fluidize in particulate or aggrega.-
tive 8uidiza tion. The value of II in the Froude group
is taken at the point. of fluidization. Table 'Z7 pre-
aents typical data for systems involvinc air and water
88 the fluid .
10
Ce.ta1)'1It beads and air 0 .01l 2. 1 13
Ce.t.alytt bea.dII and air ! 0 .01 5 2.'
G.... beads and air 0 017 4.7 "
40
Lead abot and air 1 0 .0042 3.'
.
"
From Table 'Z7 it appears that aggrega.tive fluidi-
zation will probably occur whp.n the value of the
Froude number at the point of fluidilation is greater
than Wlity, and particulate fluidization is to be ex-
pected when the value of the Froude group at the
fluidiz.ing point is ie8l'l tha:n unity.
In addition to the forne of gravity acting down-
ward on the bed and tending to keep the bed com-
pact, and the .viscous draa of the fluid acting upward
gative fluidization, there appears to be another force
or combination of foreet which tends to retain the
bed in a compacted although agitated state. These
foreet may be elect-rost.a.tic or f1uid-<iynaOOc in origin
or both. Electrostatic charges have been clearly
observed ..m a number of experiments involving
aggregative fluidization . There is some evidence
that electrostatic charges may be neceesary for
fluidization of very small particles. Whee conditions
favor the 1088 of such charges, as when the flui<.l is
ioru.ed, there is a tendency for the bed to collapse.
 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDIZED DISPERSED SOLIDS %73
"TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDIZED of the most eODvenient' dimel18ionless groups is
DISPERSED SOLIDS; difficult since there are many combinations which

When the superficial velocity of t he fluid e.xceeds eouGI~~~ ~~.' I ted h' ,d . _ b 01 tC-
' he f ree-settI'mg ve IoCity
t
' 0 f t he so I'd ' I h I
1 partlc es, t @' - .I:
"""",rs.....u
. I ._cone"aI t' 18 a_ y d means" . It;

, " ,wmenSiOn ess ""rm re a we presl!ure rop, repre-

particles t:.a.ke on a motion relative to the container ._.1 b th boI d d fined - 'h ,' -'
'h d" .L ' f L fl 'd senI.CU y e sym (I': an e a s e ra 10 Ul
m t e 8UIlle
, lrecboU' u . "ue , motIOn 0 tne UI , the pressure d rop 0 btam ' ed III L flOW 0 f a suspen-
' t lit:
For deslg~ ~urposes It IS ne<:esBa.r~ to kno\; ~he -sion to that obtained with pure, Huid flowing in tht
~ect -00 fnctlon I~ of such , van~les as pipe same pipe at the same velocity, . Both Gasterstadt I
Slles, the amount of flwd and solid flOWlllg, and the d C _~ln ' . _L t <- I' f t' of ,he
- .' f he fI id d HOlid Ret. h' an ;:,t:lY"'r ~.II0W a 0.,., a mear unc 100 .
~ropertle8 0 t u an , tl~1lH Ips mass ratio Y for the conveying of wheat in a given
tleveloped
,
for the
_
flow of homogeneous -
fiuuis
.
are .
Pipe WI
'tb a given
, " alt
, ve I0<:1', y, b Ut .C
wley make "nc
not dlreotly applicable t() the fi()w of suspenSIOns of _ '.,' t c_ ff~ f .
_ _ 1:.1 L __ _ of 'c - ~d" aI " "1 h' b genenulZA rollS as () til" e '="~ 0 pipe size or ail
,,..,uuS uo:cause .,u e au Itlon VlU'"", es w IC are I 't
7 uire? .to describe the solid phase and the effect ve ~~~~sional analysis indicotes that 01 can be
o ~avlty, 'hi expressed as a function of seven dimensionless groups
esc vana es are : according to the relation
D~ - diameter of the cooduit.
D. - effective diameterofthepart.ieles (Chapter7). D", Y D. P. !(p. - p)pgD.!)
a - q, ( --.-- , - ' - , t.
'D f, 2
P. - density of the particles.. P P P
Y - mass ratio of solids to fluid in flow, (23<)
t - sphericity of tho particles.
t' = roughfl(!SS of the particles.
Data on the flow ()f suspeosions of &Uld , wheat,
. g = acceleration of gravity. clover seed, and lead shot in air tbrough' pipe .have
been correlated by the following dimen.~ion1ess
The loss due to (rktion will then be a function of equation,
the nine variables
of the pipe).
M follows (neglecting roughness
_ 1_ B (Do)' ( ;y, )'. (235)
\D, p.D,vp ,
lw "'" ! (D., V,p , )J, D.,' P., Y, t, e, g) (233)
This equation is dimensionally conBistent, and a
Some simplification might be gained~y resorting similar relation may be deriv6:i by making a Dumber
immediately to dimetu!ional analysis, but the ~choioe of 8lI8umptions.
. '

1 2 4 6 810 100 1000 100.000

B in Equnon 235

FIG. 282. Tho rela~ioWlhip be Lween the group ~1 /3(p. :/)pfD,4and the coefficient 8111 equation 236
27. FLUIDIZAnON OF SOLIDS
, 6 8 10
FIG. 283. IThe relatiollllhip
.
.
between the group ~1 /3(P. - t p)wD.1 liDd ".. '". exponent .In eqUlltlon
The 'values of the parameteI"l! B and k are ex-
. ft(P, -
presaOO. as functlOll8 of the group '\j 11-2
which is the product of the Reynolds'number based
on the solid particles and the square root of the drag
coefficient for a. spherical particle under free settling
conditions (Chapter 7, equation 22) and involves no
velocity term.
F'lgUre8 282 and 283 show the effect of tbe group
( HiP. - p)pgD.' )
" 2 on the values B and ok of
P, .
equation 235 in both horiJontal and vertical convey-
ing with air. Data are not yet available by which
the effects of particle shape and roughness can be
evaluated, and the correlation represented by eqUllo-
tion ,235 and Figs. '282 and 283 is baaed on limited
data.
Application of the eorrelatioos of Figs. 282 and
283 is subject to large error because the value of a
OlAy be many times 118 large 1:18 the computed pres-
sure drop for the fluid alone. This error is particu-
larly significan t in vertical flow where the major fac-
tor in determining the pressure drop is the wcight of
the solid particles suspended in the vertieal column.
In fact, the pressure drop for vertical flow of fluid-
ized solids may be calculated more accurately as
equal to the weight of the suspended solids in the
vertical conduit by methods indicated in equation
230: . B"fI. C.w.... U, 1099-125 (UH.9).
20 30 40 60 so 100 200 300 400 600 1000
.
. to~.
.... 7
In industrial practice the velocity may be limite9
by damage to the solid particles or by erosion of
p)pgD.a .
the conduit which may occur at high velocit.ies. At
J
relatively low velocities unsteady operation Qr " slug-
ging" may oceur in horizontal runs because of the
alternate settling and resuspension of the solids.
In m ost industrial &pplicatioos, solids are trans-
ported in a much more dilute or dispersed. condition
than is represe!lted by the condition of a fluidized
bed, and the fluid velocities encountered will usually
lie between the two practical limits which represent
damage to the particles and conduit on one hand
and slugging on the other.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. CRAMP, W., J . &C. Chmt. 1M . (L..ondOll). '"' '1Jfl (1925).
2. Czu.lIIP, W., &nd J. F. PRl ICIjTLJ:Y, EngiM"r, 137, 34 (1024).
3. GAJlTEM'I"ADT, H., V.D.I. Par lI unglQrbtiUn, No. 265
(1924 ).
4.. MvaPHltKI!, E. V .. C. L . BltOWN, E. J . GORK, C. E.
I .UHfIG, II. Z. MAItT'IN. and C. W. TYSO N, TraM. Am.
lui.. CAeon. Engr. , U, 19 ( 1'*5).
6. PAJUCNT, J. D., N. YAGOL., and C. S. 8Tl'lrNR, eMrn. Eng.
P rogreu, " , 429 (1947).
I\. SCGI.L"R, W ., U~llUnvm _ KOF"1W'~ tmd
GruItdLagm fur illm BtrUllnung, MllliIlho"im (1934).
7. VOM. E. G., aDd it. R. WIHT~ Ind. Eng. CMnt., 40, 1731
( 1948).
8. WlurlCl..M, R. 8., and M. ,K WAUI:, Ckm. Eng. ProgrCB8,
" ' 201 (1948). .
9. WOOD, S. A., &nd A. BAlL_T. J. Proc. b u t. Md . Engr.
(Lcndon), ld, 149 (1939).
10. "Sympol!ium on Dy namica of F1uid-Solid Sy.llwmII," Inti
 PART m
Separation by Mass Transfer:
The Ideal Stage Concept

HE movement of one or more components between phases occurs in

",
T many operations and is known as mass transfer. The absorption-of
a. volatile component from a vapor phase, the extraction of a com-
ponent from a solid by solution in a liquid, the separflt,ion of volatile com-
ponents of a -liquid by distillation are examples of ~paration by mass
transfer.
The equipment for such separations frequently incorporates a series of
stages in which the t wo phases are brought into intimate contac~.to provide
an" opportunity for the transfer of material between the two phases, and
subsequently separated. The effectiveness of the stage in accomplishing
the transfer of material depends upon many factors such lUi the design of
the f'quipment, the pbysical properties of the phases, and equilibrium rela-
tionships.
It is convenient to compare the performance of actual stages with the
standard performance of an "ideal stage." This standard performance is
5Uc.h that the two streams leaving an ideal stage are either in equilibrium or
of such composition that no further transfer would result from further con-
tact of the phases. The use of this concept of an ideal stage in calculations
involves only the fundamental principles of material and energy balance!!
and phase equilibrium relationships, without any consideration of rates of
transfer. The effect of the rate of transfer is reflected on the relative per-
formance of the actual stage as compared to that of the ideal stage. This
relative perfonnance is usually expressed as a stage efficiency.
In a later section the rate of mass transfer will be considered as applied to
these and other operations in which the concept of the ideal stage is not
readily applicable.

Solid-Liquid Extraction
XTRACTION is a term that is used for any
E
operation in which a constituent of a solid or
of a. liquid is transferred to another liquid
(the solvent)". The term "solid-liquid extraction" is
restricted to those situations in which a 80lid phase
is present and includes th08e operations frequently
referred to 88 "leaching," "lixiviation," and "wash-
in&."
Solid-liquid extraetioo is important in many in-
dustria.! p~ Copper is fecovered from oxi-
diled copper Orell, whieh are usually iow-gfade ores
COIltaining'iess than 1.6 weight per cent copper, by
exttaetion with 80Iventa such as dilute 8ulfurie.acid.
'The extraction by suitable eoI.venta of 80ybean oil
from soybeans, sugar from sugar beets, and fish
oils from fish livers are further examples.
Extraction always involves the two steps: (1) con-
taot of the solvent with the solid to be treated 80 as
to transfer the IIOluble constituent (solute) to the
IOIvent, and (2) separation or washing of the 8Olu-
tion (rom the residual solid.
Liquid always adheres to the solids which must ~
washed to prevent either the lOBS of solution if the
soluble constituent is the desired material, or the
co~ta.min8.tion of the solids if the solids are the de-
!ired ma.terial. This washing of solids is frequently
necessary when there is no cOlll!tituent to be dis-
eolved. For example, the calcium carbonate pre-
cipitate formed in the manufacture o.f eaustie soda
from soda ash and lime is washed 00 recover the
maximum amount of caustic.
The complete pr00088 may also include. the sepa-
rate recovery of the solute and solvent. But this
is done by another operation such lUI evaporation or
distillation.
,m
t '
CHAPTER
21
EQUIPMENT
The equipment used for, solid-liquid ex(raotion
may be clasaified according t.o the manner in which
the fint step is accomplished. The tenn "aol.id bed"
refen to any operation in which the solid particles
are kept in relatively fixed positions with respect to
each other while the solvent flows through the bed
of solid particles, whether or not,: the bed of IfOlid
material remains stationary with respect 00 the earth
during extraction. The tenn "dispersed contact"
refers to any ope~tion in which the solid particles,
suspended in the fluid, are in motion relative to each
other and t.o the solvent during the t ime of cootact.
Both t ypes of equipment may be operated either
with a batch of s.:llids being treaWi with one or DWre.
batche.rs of solvent or with the solvent flowing suc-
cessively through the solids being extracted,
SfatiotWll'y Solid Bed
Open Tanh. Where a fixed bed is u8Dd, the
sinrpleet type of equipment c~nsist.8 of open tanka
made of wood, concrete, or steel with protective
linings if the solution I1I!ed is corrosive. The tanka
such as shown in cr068 sectiou in Fig. 284 may be
provided with false bottoIfl8, \~' hich serve 88 II. sup..
port for the bed of solids but allow passage of the
solvent or solution. The solid to be treated is placed
in the tank in such a way 88 to prevent size qte-
gation of the 80lid particles, and the solvent is then
introduced at either the top or the bottom 01 .the
tank.
In one method of operation the solvent or solution
is pumped in unt il the bed is covered, and the liqukl
is a.llowed to remain in eolltact with the solids for a
278 SOLID-LIQUID EXTRAcrIO~

prescribed length of time which may he until a

desired minimum fraction of the solute is diSSolved
or leached out of the solid phase, or until the con-
centration of solute in the solvent has attained a
desired value. The liquid is then drained frum the
SQlids through the fsIse bottom. Tills cycle may be
repeated with slIccesaivc quanti t.;es of fresh solvent, 14 f~
but usually 8OIutions of decreasing solute concen- burned 10 I
tration are used until finally the extracted solids, (Seo..1ion ~ -:1 of Fie- 286)
arter dminage, are removed [rom the tank. FIG. 2M. Diagru.mmlOtic h,ngthwioo !oeclion (11~ of Fig. 286)
In another method of operation IWlvent or solution of e. leachiUII: tan k ([Jot to .'!eale).l
is pumped into the tank continuously and the result-
ing solution is oontinuoui:ily rt:moved. The concen- from the overflow of the next previous tank in bat.-
tration of the solute in the effluent from a tank , tery.
The ore, after crushing ILl1d sizing, is delivered to
~7-1"I"m,"" l lead lininl the b!lttery of tanks by a belt conveyor (A in Fig.
286) run ning the length of the batt.ery. The ore is
diseha rged from this belt conveyor to another belt
. ,- conveyur (B) on a movable spreading m aehine
spanning the tanks. An a utomatically reversing
tripper travels on the spreading machine and
empties the load uf the bell into the tank. At each
reversal of the t.ripper, the spreading machine moves
forward 23-i ft until it reaches the side of the tanl<,
I -."
when the motion is re'versed and the machine travels
(Stetion .1:-X of F"II- 286) toward the opposite side.
When the tank is filled with are to the proper
RIo. 284. Diliilramrn&tic CJ'O!I8 section (z...-z at Fig. 286) of II.
large leaching tank, irujice.tinll OO!l8t ruction (not to !Kale).' depth, the ore is covered with dilute sulfuric acid
(the solvent) pumped in tbrough the bottom of the
becomes less as the extraction proceeds. If a battery tank in order to prevent disturbance of the bed.
of tanks is uacd, ~ is (ustomary in continuous opera Approximately 175,000 to 2OO,000'gal of solvent are
tion, the feed to ono tank is the effiu.cnt from a. pre- required to fill one tank. The overflow solution from
ceding tank, and tho concentrations in both the inlet
and outlet solutions change continuously during the ,
A 10m tie t'npper - feYefSl5
procellS.
i r 67 5 "" 9000 dry IOn$

r
. ; Ofl pel tln~
An example of this latter method is the extraction
of copper from ore as reported by Aldrich and
Scott. l The ext-raction ba.tt.ery con;;il:lts of thirt-t'en
concrete lead-lined tanb, each 175 ft lonl/:, 67.5 ft

L
l-
wide, and l8 it deep, having an appruximate capacity
l 1
of 9000 tons of ore per tank. The tank const ruction
is illustrated in Figs. 284 and 285. The false bottom
in each tank consists of 2-io. pial.ks having 15 holes
,
per square foot of surface. Each hole is % in. in ~ COflYeY'Of A. - - --;
diameter at the UPIX'r surface lind ~ in. at the x<SI,ndarllllipptl'
bottum to prevent clogging. A 14-in. lead pipe is I3-T.n~Cyde
8 \IMer Kill t".tment
"burned" kI t he lead lining at the end of the tank 3 beinj"'.ned
opposite from the overflow and eonneetcd to the 1 t.iot lilod
l Minc_
~ ischarge of a vertical lead pump which takes suction
Fl(]. 286. Diagrllm of t"nk~ lind helt eonveyol'!l illustratinc
ThO! bihiiography for t his clll!.[">ter "PI>C&l'S un p. 2<J -l operation of .. n r.xtro.ct ion hattery ttll.chillit OOpPel".'
 EQUIPMENT 279
the preooding tank Of fresh solvent is pumped by a
vertical lead pump underneath the false bottom and
up through the ore in each tank. The solution over~ Pulp and
liquor inlet
flows t-hrough the launder Ilnd to the pump &erving
the next tank at a rate of approximately 1200 gpm.
Baffle
The ore ia washed with solutions progressively weaker We;,k liquor
in acid until the last wash is made with water, ten and WiSh
WIlei' inlet
-1'---.J>:21>----1
washe!! in aU being uged. In washing, the wash
~UtiOD or water is pumped ooto the ore, circulated
by ~8 of the pump, and then drained. The
drained ,solids are removed from the tank by a.
bridge-type excavat.or which spans the leaching
tanks with the bucket C:l. rtlage traveling across the
long dimension of the tank. This bucket travels to Yo,,,,
the end of the excavator and discharges its load
through It hopper into air-dump standard-gage rail~
road clln. A complete cycle for one tank takes 13
days. At o.l)y one time eight tanks arc under 8cid
treatmcnt, three are being wllShed, one is being
filled , and one is being eXC:l.vated.
~ Closed Tlln.ks. With volatile solvents, such as
Wn hed po.olp
ammonia solution in the extraction of copper ores,
discharge - , I">'
or hot water, it. is necessary to operate at pressures Water
above atmospheric and closed tanks are required. conlleCtion
Such vessels are usually constructed of stool and
must be provided with adequate openings for charg~
ing and dikhnrging the solids.
Digested pulp obtained from the sulfate paper pulp To 5tora,. .To seMr
process is washed in the type of closed vessel shown Flo. 287. Diagr1l-m of c\Of!ed Ye&"Je1 (or wuhing di"eewl
in Pig. 287. Th~ mixture of pulp and hot liquor pulp fro m wlf.te paper ploeaollS."
under pressure in the digester is transferred to tbe
vC:!!8el t hrough the feed opening. Steam formed opening for injecting a high~\"e1oci ty stream of water
due to tl1e drop in pre!:l8ure, together with entrained to aid in discbarging the pulp.
IiqUOl: and pulp, escape through the vent at the top.
The cone-shaped baffle fastened underneath the pipe Mooing Solid Bed
through which the pulp is blown into the vessel, In some cases it may be advantageous, par-
distributes th~ pulp and protects the oottom of the ticularly from the standpoint of hlLlldling tPe solids,
vessel from the impact of the entering material. to move the bed itself.
The false bottom is mounted on I~bearns and on The SoUman or lIama-MUhk soyl>t>an ext ractor,
angle iron faatcned to the circumference of the ehell. Fig. 288, is similar to a bucket elevator, conei!:lting
The empty space underneath the false bottom is of a series of large perforated basketd suspended on a
partially filled with ooncrete which supports the pair of endless chains which are dri ven by sproo ket
Ibeams and also decreases t~ free spaCe beneath wheels. On the side of the equipment where the
the false bottom. The weak liquor and wa.ter used basket.s are moving upward, frellh s<Jlvent is sprayeu
to wash the pulp are introduced through a top con~ on a b!U!ket, near the top, which contains bean flaketi
n!letion and gradually dil>place the liquor contained almost exhau8ted of oil. The liquid flows thrvllgh
in the pulp, ioreing i t through the false bottom and tlle bed, through the perfnratioos in the basket, and
through the bottom outlet. The washed pulp is downward to the next basket. A seri~ of counte .....
discharged through the discharge opening which is current multiple-atage oontacts is thus obt ained
fitted witb a tleavy cast-steel frame and bolted. cover. until the solution of solvent and oil reache.~, the
A water conneetion is locll.tcd opposite the discharge bottom of the unit where it is collected in sump A
... SOLID-LIQUID
and J:umped to an intl'l'mediate storage tank which
COUU:m8 liqnid known as " half miscella." On the
other side OJ the ~I\lipment, wllere the basket.il are
moving downward, a Fixed quantity of bean flakes
is charged into each basket from the charge hopper.
The IOlution from the intermet.liale storage t.ank is
, lion. Coarse gmnular materials not fine enough to
Flo. 288. Diagram 0( BoIlmaD or HaMa-Mtihle continoous
movin-bed extnetor."
sprayed onto the top of the freshly charged basket,
and both solution and basket move downward. This
side of the sylltem corresponds to parallel-flow
multiple-conta.ct operation. The strong solution
from this aide- of the system is collected in another
sump B from which it is pwnped to filters and then
to storage tanks. When a basket reaches the top of
the unit. on the ascending side it is automAtically
inverted ~nd the extracted Hakes are dumped into
the discl.arge hopper from which they are ta.kfln to
M'-11& is a term WIed to designate a mixture of oil and
fIOiveDt..
EXTRACTIO~
dders by the !;Crew eonveYOffl. The enUre apparatus
is enclosed in Ii vapor-ligllt hou3ing to prevent leak
age of the solvent vapors.
Oisperlied Contact
A variety of E!(]uipmt:llt is used when the solid
particles are dispersed in the sOlvent during cxtrs.e-
remain in I!U81)cllsion in t.he solvent may be handled
in multideck cla8si/ter& composed of units such as
illustrated in Fig. 79. Countercurrent flow is UBed
with the solid particles advancing up the inclined
deck and liquid flowing down the incline. The
drainage whicb. occurs in the upper section of the
inclined deck removes the bulk of solution adhering
to the solids before they are advanced to t.he next
der.k where they come iIlL!) contact with solutiun
containing leSl! of the soluble constituent..
Where the solids are fine enough to be kept in
8USpensiOIl by agitation, agitalOf"$ (Figs. 88 and 476),
thickener& (Fig. 101 ), or a combination of both
may be used. If both agitators and thickeners are
used, the agitators are used for contacting the solid
with the liquid to dissolve tbe soluble material
present in the solids, and the tbickene.t8 are used to
effect the separation of the solid.. from the solution.
In some cases the agitatioll and solution may be
accomplished by ooncurrent flow of solids and soIu
tm through a pipe in place of agitat.ion in a tank.
For small-:aIe batch operations, the agitation and
separation (sedimentation) may be conductoo in
the same vessel. .Thickenertl alone mliY be used lor
the separation and washing of a precipitate.
Tbere are many types of equipment in which the
solids are movf'd countercurrent to the liquid by
means of screw conveyor!>, rakes, and other mecban-
ical devices. An interesting development is the
soybean extractor,'-U shown in l<'ig. 289, which con
sists of a. Vertical cylindrical vessel containing a.
series of horizontal circular plates equally spaced
and fixed to a central shaft wbich i:; slowly rotated
by a motor. Soybean Hakes are red colltinuously
by the conveyor to the top, and solvent is pumped
continuously into the bottom. 'lbe flakes introduced
at the top are distributed evenly by spreader blades
attached to the rotating shaft.. Stationary scraper
arms rastened to the shell scrape the surface of each
plate, which is Blotted, 90 that the soybean flake!
are swept through the 810t-8 by the stationary scraper
arm. The slots are so located that the flakes lollow
helical path in moving downward through the uniL
 , EQUIP"I ENT 281
The flakes at t h~ base of tIl!'. unit .aN! d i!5Charged uy .!!uh'cnt req uires additional operations a nd equiP"'
means of :1 lob lly cnl'lusl'd com'cyor which elevc\u"'S me n t S Uci l n::s d ripn;, C\'apurl\t o~, st rip ping (,'o lumns,
the mn.lI~rjal a sufficient di"t,ance ahove the solvent wate r separators, and {(Hld cn SC'1" ~. Fip;ul"c 290 is a
ie'ld to permii adequale draina.ge before discharging t1u\"~h~t fur olle proce"~ [OJ' the ~xtl'adion of
to 'the d rier.;. The liqujd' flow:s upwnru through the soybeans.
e~t rac tor. coun tcrcllfl-ent to t he motion of t he Ha kes.
A think lavcr I)f fre:<h flllkrs i13 maintained on the
top plalc, -providing 1\ tiltrr heu to' rotard the fine
palticlt'lj c l i:;loJ~x1 in the lowe r parlfi of the a ppa-
ratus and carried \\pwuru by the 'liquid . The Sl,ilu-
tion of oil-und suivenl, toget.her \dth entrained w lid
partidk ,_ovcrflo\\,t'! thrlJugh a screen near fhe top
3nfllt':IVCS the (>xt rn('i.or.
An opt.ionaJ clt':Sig~ is to fasten the scrn,pc-rs to the
centml rota ting shaft and make the plntes stalti(mary.
In w nel;al, Ihtl stationary ,;ulid bed extractor in:...
vokj>~ a min imum amoul)J. of ha nd ling tlnd i5 ohen
mal II"hc\'(' large !'JHal!titic~ of mat(,rwJ have to be
treated or where Ihe dJnl'Ur lf'l:i ~ t i(:s of the St..!li{J
particles a re suI'Il Ihat ron t ;nuous rnm'cm<>nl of t.he
matE' rir~1 is und C5irahle, :\ lixtu['('S of ,;nlid pmticles
which form a bed of low porrn;ity. ('it he r orii/iinalJy fir
during c xtra~jj on , arc \[:'j\1I\Il,v Il~~lI h,.'d in the d is-
pen>eJ !:ltate r31Iul:r thlm in a :solirl lll:!tl. As poM"i ty
is guvemoo by !liw di",,"i \mt;on ra t her than thf! ';i ~ '
of the IKIlid p1l.rt irlp.~, 1X>T!,";11)' may bt! imp["(J\"(~d by
cla.!!8incation of t he solids I)('fore't'xlra.('tion. This
has been done in the ca&' of metallic Of('!! .I.>'

Th e Complete Ext.mel,jcm Process

The streams If'll\"ing a solid- liq uid c .. lrn('tion sys.-
tem usually undergo t\ ~riCl! of furt her o~r:ltinns
before t.he fini shed proo.uet is obtainf'fl. Either the
solution, the extru.doo solids, or both may cofllain
the desired ma terial. In add ition t o t he recove ry of
the desired' product or products, Nl(:QVcry of the
solvent is usually an import ant operat.ion.
In t he process for the extrayiun of copper orC
which ha... been described, the/ desired COPllC r is in
tI.e solut ion while the extrac ted and wa.shed ore i~
discarded. The major portion of. the , copper is
Inspection
recovered by electroly tic d.f!pooi"tion from the !;(Il u~
tion. Du ring the f>Jet:trolytic depOl'!it.ion a la rgfO: part
of the aq ueous sulfu ric tlrid rcquifL-.:1 for the extrac-
t ion is aLw f()rm~1. '(ho solut ion from the electro-
lytic cl'lIs, ufler liddit i"on of \\'ater anti sulfu r ic acid
necessAry l{) m:lkt' up losses r,;ccurring in the process.
is then rccyciNi LO the' cxtrrll:lion ;;ystcni.:
In the extract ion C)f soybeans, bot h t,he soybean oil
an4 the exlruckld soyht::IIl.\l (meal) arc va luable F IG,28\). Dilll:lllm of (I. 1"01IIdnJ!:-plftfp. count"N:urrent d ie-
pn.duel8. I{eeQvery of the o il, t.he meal, ~nd tho perncd ' OO)l ta et extMel.I)T, "
 SOLlI)..LIQUID EXTRACTION
FlO. 290. Flow dia&ram fOf" IIOIvent ut ...ction of eoybealll.
METIIODS OF OPERATION
The simplest method or operation for a solid-
liquid extrsctiOQ or washing of a solid is to bring all
the mstepa1 to be treat.ed and all the solvent to be
uaed into conta.ct once and then to separate the
reBulting solution from the undiSSOlved solid8. This
8ingle-ccntact ba.tch operation is enoountered. in the
laboratory and in small-scale operations but rarely
in industrial operatioIl8 because of the low recovery
of soluble material obtained and the relatively dilute
solutions produced.
If the total amount of solvent to be used is divided
into pomona and the solid extracted successively
wi~h each portion of rresh aoIvent after draining the
sohds between each addition of 8Olvent, the operat.ion
is called ttimplt muUi~f.a.ct. Although recovery
of the soluble constituent is improved by this
method, it has t~e disadvantage tlJ.at the solutions
obtained are still relatively dilute. This method
may be used in Imlall-a.le operations where the
soluble constituent need not be recovered. U the
solid and solvent a..re mixed continuously and the
mixture fed continuously to a separating device
such as a thickener, a continuo," 8ing~
operatifm is obtained.
High recovery of solute with a highly concentrated
product solution can be obta.ined only by using
countercurrent operation with a number of stages.
In .countercU1T(>nt operation the product solution i8
last in contact with fresh solid feed , and the ex.
tr~ted solidg are last in contact with fresh solvent.,
as Illustrated in Fig. 299 which shows a continuous
countercurrent battery.
A similar result is obtained by a batch counter...
~ur~ent operation, illustrated in Fig. 291 which
mdlcat.cs the u..<re d three batch contactors producing
the same separation as five stages in a continuoUll
countercurrent battery such as Fig. 299. The six.
steps indicated in Fig. 291 trace the contacts of the
fresh solution added to vessel A in step I through the
five countercurrent eontacts indicated by Mterisks
in ve8$cl.s A, B, C, A, B, alter which it must be
removed. In general tbe number of contact uniUl
required for a given separation using a continuous
countercurrent operation, N e , is equal to 2NB - 1
where NB is number of contact units available for ~
batch operation. But the rate of production from the
continuous battery of equaJ-ai.zed units is much
greater.
METHOD OF CALCULA nON
In .most intennittent operations, particularly
those ID which the solid is agitated with a batch of
liquid before aeparatieJD, the composition of the
 METHOb -OF CALCULATION
EIOlution leaving the stage as a liquid . is the same as 4 S Stept
that of the solution adhering to the solid leaving 51l1li willi uIIII C trnpfy'no!
ri. '" on6S ~
the stage. In the sense that n o further change in "'*'
lINrly"""
3 1OIuIUI."'" '" """"'
...... uAtd.
composition of this adhering solution could he 8.e-
_10 '"
1. Ch", IreoI> fft<Ilt> C
complished by further contact with the liquid , the 2. T,....... _ ' ...... s ... C
3. _
.. 1,""'_"""
tftI.h "' illS
stage may be designated as an "ideal stage." The
use of the term "iI~cal stage" to define such a condi-
tiel.! must not be misinterpreted as suggesting in

~
any wayan equilibrium or saturated condition be- 3
"'P'
1. RI..- product ooIutiorl """" C
2. " "rIJIl, soIutior> I""" BloC
tween the solutions and I:IOlute in or on the solid B 3. l ,aMlo< oo/WorI ....... '" to B
particles. 2
C
I .... o-o_otted_"""''''
An equilibrium. or ideal sta{} is defined for solid-
liquid extraction as a stage from which t.he resultant
solution leaving is of t-he !lI:UIlC comJlt.l/;ition as the "" 3
1. Chelf" ......" feod 1(1 '"
solution adhering to the solid!! leaving the stage. Z. 1""11et- "",_ I""" Clo '"
3. r .. o"tI $Dlulion from B ... C
Since t.his condition is not always fulfilled, the ratio ... .o\cId'-"_ ... B -

of the number of ideal stages to the number of actual

stages required to accomplish the same results is
called the o.veraU sloge effidency
A I
2 "" ,
Number of actual stages -
Numhcr of ideal stages
-.- ---;;:-;--"--
Overall "tuge efficiency
2.
T,"~$1 t1_'~
3. Dvmr>
.... __ BtoCdM_.
1. R"""", procIucI toIuIion f>Olll '"
1,,0.'" """'iOn
I,om e ... '"

The computation of the n-umi:>er of ideal stap;cs

required is an oot.lquate bams for 1he design of an
extraction battery only jf the d esigner also knows,
or can estimate, the overall stage efficioncy. The c
s, 1. C.... 'f" fffl~ Iftd 10 B
2. Tf",.'tI sohoIiOn I,om '"
3. T_",*""""",,,"C1II"
.... _"""_ .. e
b.
stage efficiency is frequently related to the t-ime of
contact between the liquid and solid in each stage
and therefore tends. to decrease Ihth increasing
throughput if the equipment is overloaded. Such
information can be obtained only from experimental
, "" , 1. _ PfOCIUCI KIIutIon _
2.1'...., .. _ _ """'''' ....
data on the type of equipment to be used when 3.1,. _ _ "","C""
... DI.W!'P _ _ _ C ~

operated with the actual materials involved in the

extraction. Pw. 2\11. Diagram jlJu~lmting the ~tep:9 ",<1 number of
In order to simplify the calculation of the number c:onlacta in a bateh eount,"~urrent. exl.nl.ction. Each time
of ideal stages required for a solid-liquid extraction, the solut ion ntiginuHy Ilddl!d to V \!&IC! A in step 1 ie(l.V1'!:1 It.
tbe following 8.S8umptions are usually made. eounterCUfr<lnt contllct, lin I.IJt"ti~k is added to the U"".... m;
as it IeaVeli .4 . step 2 ; trs it. leaves B, at.ep 3; ... aa it
I. The system is composed of materirus which
let-Veil C, nep 4; a8 ;1 leaVl!!l .4., ~tep 5; .., l1.li it
may be treated aa three components as follows. leaves B, ~tep 6.

(0) IDert, insoluble solids.

(b) A single solute which may be liquid or solid.
(e) A solvent which dissolves the solute (b) but
has no effect upon or is saturated with the
inert solids Cal.
2. The solute is not adsorbed by the inert solid.
3. The solute is removed by simple solution in the
IOlvent without what is called s. chemical reaction.
These 888UlDptioos are not necessary for the cal-
.culation. The solid need not be insoluble in the
solvent provided that the data are available on the
solubility of the inert solid in solutions of varying
concentrations. Similarly the solute may be ad-
sorbed on the EIOlid provided that data .are available
on the amount of solute t\d!!Ol"bed per unit mass of
the solid 88 a function of the concentration of the
solution. In the case of electrolytes, adsorption of
the solute is usuatly negligible.
The computation of the number of ideal s~
required is based on material balances, a knowlerlge
 SOL~-L1QUID
of the quantity of solution retained by the solid, and
the definition of the ideal' stage.
The following nomenclature (Table 28) is used in
the calculation of all tra nsfer operations such as
8Olid~liquid extraction, liq uid~liquid extraction, gas
absorption, and fractional distillation, in which one
or more components are transferred from one phase
to another phase.
EXTRACfION
IIlustrati ..e u a lDpie A (Arithll1e ti., Cal",ulatl.on). It
ill desired to extr. the oil from halibut li ve'" by continuOUl
oountel'l.'\lrf1lnt multiple-oont.ao:t extnletion with et hyl ether.
The quantity of !lolution retained by the granula.t od. livers hlUl
been d~tennined experi mentally II.! i. function of the composi-
tion of the I!OlutiOli all follOWll-
TABLE 29. REI'ENTION OF OIL BY LlVr:RS If
(FIG. 292)

Pound$ of Soh1tion
T .... BLE 28. G E:-i" ERAL NO ME KCLATUP E FOP. PoundIJ of Liver Oil .RetAincO by 1 lb
T RA;\"SFER OPERATIONS iu 1 Lb Solution. 1/A Oil-Free Livers
L Qu&ntity of one etlt)am. usaally t be /f1U'Q' phol/t leaving
a stage. d~'8ignated by a numerical I!tIbscript.. as 41,
' .00
0 . 10
'02.242
05
0 .286

....
LI, L,., etc. '.>J
V Quantity of the other etrea.m, usua.Uy the upper (0:' '.30 0 .339
VIIjlOr) phaae leaving a. . tage.
..,. 0 .405
0 .489

.."
~ Fractional composition of stream L in len os of t he com-
ponent, dcail{J1ated by a lett.er subscript, M 'l'A, ZB, etc. ' . 00 ' .600
0672
11 F ractional composition of ~tream V in terms of the 0 . 70 o. m.'>
oompolll'nt. dClSignated by A letter !IlLbftcript, lUI !I", ' . 72 0 .8 \0
1/11, etc.
X Ratlu of -q uantit y of oon'ponent, designated by le lt.er o
suUscri pt, in 1.. tO lm [)th er ~pecified quantity, Ueually
of otkr mll.teru.i in the same st ream.
1

II
Y RAt io of q UAnt ity of com ponen t in V to another speci-
fied qUllJl tity, usual ly of other malenal in the same
stream. 6
Number of ~tages in the operation. When U!Ied as a
n
!!Ubscrlpt n indicates the lo,,CI\t or La.st SUIge iu which
the stream 1",~ leaving t heoperalion is ooot.ao:ted ...itb
, /
I'"
the ,>nte ri ng stream V .. +1 in multlple-<9tage counter-
current extraction. , /
The quantities and compositions of all the ter- 3
V
minal streaIllB Are first calculated, using tI convenient.
V
q nan ti~y of one of these terminal streams lIB the basis
ror the calcuhuions. The q uant.itics and composi-
tiom~ of I.he streams. enterinp; or leaving a terminal
ideal stage at either"~hd of the extraction system are I
---
next calculated. These calculations are repea\ed
for each successive ideal stage from one end of the
system until an ideal stage is obtained which corre-
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
PoUnd 5 01 Oil per f>r,und of Solution. YA
0.5 0.1
sponds to the desired conditions at the other end
of the syswn. The number or actual stages may be FIG. 292. Retention of eol ulion by livers WI II. function or
IIOlution concentrat ion (Table 29).
obtained by dividing the number of ideal stages by
the overall stage efficiency. These calculations can The fl'l.llih ha libut li ven con tain 26.7 mMS pcr ce nt oil. If
be made if the quantity of solution retained per unit 95 per een~ of t he oil i~ to he extl'll.Cl.(ld and t he fillllo l wiut ion
quantity of inert solids leaving each stage is known. obtained from the operation is 1.0 oon t.jlin 70 TfUIIl8 per een ~
Thi!;' is .not a constant quantity as it depends upon oil, oompute,
\. The poun tls of oil-free ether required per lOOO-lb charge
the properties of the solution, particularly its
of fresh li vers.
viscosity. 1t is therefore determined experimentally 2. The number of ilkAiltagcll n!Quired.
under conditiOI18 similar to those being considered 3. T he num l.oer of &elU::ll ~ta.ges required if t he overall $\.af;e
for the commercial operation. efficiency i", 70 per- cent.
 MEmon OF CALCULATION
The aI;ebraic calculat ion ()lI the ~ of 1000 Ib of fresh OVERALL MATERIAL BALA ;':CE (BASIS, IIXXl LB
livers, ~,follow. FRES H LI VEnS)

I. Cal~ulo.liQR '" Ttrmirwl. COfIdilitml

10 0,,,
Oil in fresh liveN! ... (u,, )o _ 1000(0.257) _ 257 Ib Lo F""h l"iI_f~
Oil-fretl Ji vers _ 1000 - 267 - H3 Jb iivel'!l 1000 Ib Iivr.T 743 Ib
O il remaining ir. elttracted livcl'll _ ( l...1;,4) ~ - O.~ X 257 VaH E ~her (by L. Oil on liver 12.8.':l
_ 12.85 1b differ E ther "fl
enee) 264.65 liver 159.8
Y, &l ution
TIt~ liflU' d~ from the opellltK>n will contAin 12.& Ib
of oil, 7431b of oil-fNlC lh-.;orll, Ilnd I. 'IUIlnl ity of ether which ill
as yet undcwrmiri,:d . T he 1IW!8 I'&\i o of oil to oil-free JlV(ll'!i
1264.65 1b '"
1264.65 lb
in the di!lf;har#il livers (X ,,) ....i11 be 12.85/ 743 _ 0.01100 2. Mattrial BWIl Jlu. for $~ 1
The quantit y 01 el-h<:r l'rtlOII'nt ill t hL... computed [rom t he ~_ __ ~
experimental d&ta gi v<m M follows. Fill&lsolut.ion, 1/1 - 3491b I<-__Y:"~_
S....
Pounds 01 oil ) ( Pou nds of solu tion )
( Pounds of !IOlu tion Pound of oil-fret! livt'ni

... Pounds 01 oil _. X ....

Pound of oil.(roe liven TIle 8trearil. L I is a m utll ll' of oil-frue livcl'll and ltOIution
, containing 0.70 ITUU!S fraction uil. Frmll tho experilnent81
P:mnd~ of solution PouDde. 01 oil data, ploJ u ed in to' i,. 2m, Ll conllliM 0.7G5 lb of suiuLiOIl per
Pou.nd>i of oil-fn:c livers Pounds of oil-frue Ih-en pound of oil-fn 'll! liver... Tht,roforu,
Solution in Lt .. 0.765 (743) _ OOS' lb
Poonds of ether X
Pound" uf oil-frue IiVl!rB - Oil iuL I .. 0 .70 (568) .. 396 lb
o

x, x, By different.e,
0 .00l 0 . 5 Et ber ill L:t .. 1721b
0.0242 0.218
0.0572 0 .22\1 Total rna. of ... 568 + 10&3 .. 1311 ~.
T hese values are plott<..-d in Fig. 2lJ3 "'h;eh givt'S, for (X A)..
_ 0.0173, (Xs)~ .. 0.215. Therefore, the dller p,"6ml ill Uu Lo + Vr - Ll + VI
di1u::rgtd Ii""" ill 0.2 (.0; (143) - 159.8 lb.
VI" 1..01 + VI - 4J .. 13 11 + 34'J - 1(l()O .. 600 Ib
0.230 By & mAterial ba\s.n('(! for the oil, wound idc&18l&ge I,
i >? 0.225 ,/'" Oil leaving in I~I and V I _ 244 + 3OO' - 6-40lb
.:i ~ 0.220
o~ ./' .
Oil entering in Lo .. Ui11b
:i I 0.215
~! 0.210 ,/'"
i.s 0.205 . /
'0 Oil entering in V, .. 383lb

0200 Compoeition of VI - tH .. 0 .580 I\lAIlS ,fraction of oil

o 0-01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Min Ratio 01 Oij to OilFree Liv. rl, XA 3. M aUrial BaU.i~. for Idtal Slagtl , 10 n
FIG. 293. Retcnt ron d eoIute by Iiwl"II lIS Il lunc~ioll 0/ T he same proc:edllre ;" foUol\'I in making ('Alculationa,Co,.
retention of lIOI.~nt by liVen!. it.\eal ~taget 2, 3, and 80 on, as IlUlllmari rx.'Il in Table 30.
Exll.IIlination of the v&lues eaklllatcd for st rt,&m Lt 1Iho"'s
Toial _ of di.ldwrgl Ii-n, L.. .. 143, + 12.86 + 159-& that the dildw~ livers leaving idc:tIJ stage 6 oontaiD 17.1
.. OI6Jb. Ib of oi l, compared with the n''llli"-'<1 va!\Ul of 12.85 lb .
Stream LT oontaiIlll only 2.4 lb' of 011.
Th~ a/' ('lC1 or final !!Olution leavin" the ope .... tion con ta.i ni If the acturJ slap were 100 per cent cffi dol'nt thd e:iaol'l
O.~ InII.SS rra.ction of the toW oil l'ull!ring in the fr'l'llh liven. spQCi ficWOl)8 fm the dillc~-d livelli could not be ':Ullined.
or 257 X O.~ .. 244.2 lb. The oompoorit,ion of cxtnot Willi The doeigncr hM the opt"m,of readj us ting t hC' {)pcr:lti nK 001,
specified ... 0.70 IIllIM fractiou oil. i.litiuns unW the caleu l"lL\'! com po:lllition of too rliOl<'h"rted
livers sgteCII ,,; th In.. speci6ed oompollitioo, or n",in tlli nin&:
7'olal _ of roildion leotti"'l, V I ... 244.2/0.10 .. 349 Ih. the operating NIfl,litions llnd aeeepting a lo"'f'r oil ",-"'tent in
286 SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACflON

TABU: 30, SL\J:\I;\RY OJ.' C AI.cn .,\ T IONS )o' OR ILLUSTRAT ION OF ARITHMETIC CALCULATION

l:noJcrll",,' Leaving SIII.g<>, LK Solution Entering Stage, Y _+1

Comr-itinns, Quantities, Ib
CoJnJlOllitione,
Qw.ntities, Ib
M &lIII Fractions M .... Fraetioll8

Total , g,,]u- Oil, Ether, Oil, Ether,

Oil-Free
T ot&!, 0i1, Ether, 0;, E.....,
L. lion (wAl. (ws). (ZA). (rs).
Li vers,
(,te) .
V~, ( V~.t).+1 (VV").+1 (VA)_+1 (VS).+I

--
0 1000 '57
,,, 0 0 .2';7 0.000 0 . 743 34. m 10' 0.100 0 .000

,
1 \311 Sf. 3\16
24'
172
1711
0.302 0.131 0.567
0.635 ""
51'
383
2M
2n 0."" 0.420

3
1170
1075
427
332 150 182
0.212
0.140
0 . 153
0. 169 0.691 424 137 '"
287
0.463
0.324
0 . M7
0.676

, 1007 21" 85.5 178. 5 0.""

0 ....
0.177 0 . 738 356 n .' 283.' 0 .204 0 . 706
212 42. ~ 100.6 0 . 178 0 .778
'" 211.4 Z74.6 0.097 0.003
{\5,'j

7
020
800
177
156
11.1
2.4
150 . 9
153.6
0 . 0186
0 .002<1
0.174
0 . 171
0 .807
0 .826
269
2<,
4.1
Nelo:lltive
264 .9 0 .0152
. . .. , .
O. \185
.. ...
I

t.'te di8Chatged livers with 8Cven $t~ The &Clua] Pgcll ConverseJy, if streams V IWld L are combined into
..., not. 100 pcr cent e fficient but .tated to be 7Q per cent
.~
a single stream P, equation 236 expresses the maw..
e lfieicnl. Therefure the 6 ideal Ft4gee aro equiv&lent to
rial halance.
& + 0.7 or 8.& actuallltAp, and the 7 ideal sl.agt!a are equiva.:
lent to 10 IlCtUAI It.t.gorI. Rinee the numbQr of ide&l stages Similarly, for any single component,
I'\!fluired is lIIighlJy puter than (I &nd (lOIlSi(\ertlbly u. than
7, it is eetimated thiLt 9' .ctuaJ aUt.gct I\i lJ give the specified Fz, .. Vy + Lx (237)
-.It.
Substituting rrom equatian Zl6 for P in equation 237,
CRAPHICAL "ETHOOS (V + L)z, - Vy + Lx (238)
Although any solid-liquid f'xtruction problem can Vy+Lz
be solved by the repeated use of material balances
and the dat:J. on the underflow compositions in the
z, - V +L (239)
For the solute A,
above manner, such arithmet ical solutions are tedi-
oue. Graphical methods not only simplify the cal- (239A)
culations and thereby reduce errors but also indicate
more clearly thE:! variables involved and their effect For the solvent S
on the operation. The samc graphical methods are () V(y,) + L (z,,) (23ll8)
applicabkl to any operation which involves the Z8' V+L
trarufer of matter (and energy) between t wo phases.
The principles are the same in the arithmetical and TIle composition of the etreams may be repre-
graphical solutions. The graphical method is simply sented on a rec tangular (or right-triangular) diagram
a graphical representation of the materia.! balances (Fig. 294). The fraction of the solute in the stream
and the equilibrium data. is plotted horisontally a long the absciMa and d~
. If a stream (or quantity of material) designated F nated ZA or 1/.4. a8 may be required by the nomen-
is split into the two streams (or quant.ities) V and L, clature given in Table 28. The fraction of solvent
the quantity of material in stream F, designated F, is plotted vertically aJong the ordinate as Z8 or 1/8,
is equal to the wm 01 the quantities in streams V as required. Thus z or II may appear on both the
and L. ordinate and abscissa as the nomenclature used is
(236) not consistent with the usual geometric plotting of
 GRAPHICAL METHODS
equations involving x and y. Thi8>may be oonfusing 1.0
ulltil une becomes famil iar with the nomenclature.
Keep in mind that the subtlCript controls the coordi-
nate rather than the leller i' ~If. Thus XA or Y.{
is a1ways plotted horizontally, and Xs or ys is always
plotted vertically.
Therefore, a lIingle puint on the diagram (Fig. 294)
indicates the compusition of a stream , or the rciatit'e
quantitiu of the throe components of a stream,
but not the absolute quantity of the stream. The
horilOlltal distance is the frac tional quantity of
component A , and the vert.ical distance is the frac-
tional quantit.y of eomponent S .
If the slope of a straight line connecting 'points
x and x, is the same lUi the slope of the line r.on- ",IriH~~+++++~
oOhl,1.~I."I,l.~I,~,,'.71,~"~''''':.~''''':''''~''O.~7':'..l,-~0~'~'D
necting points x find y, it follows that the t.hree
points x,.. x, and II, are on one straigh t line, and a
material .balanct such as equation 239 can be made .r"or ),,,. Mus Fraction Saillle. A
by simply drawing a Iltraight line through the }'IO. 294 , lli'III'(";<' IlI :llinn of material bfllaMe OIl right.-
points repre~n ting the composiliOlm of any two of lriaogutu di'liilUm.
the th ree streams.
Keepi ng in mind that the subscripts A and S be. demonstrated by simplifying equat.ion 238 &II
detennine the coordinate, the slopes of the lines foJlolVs, ,
connecting points XF anq. x, and connecting points V (XF - y) "" L (x - x,.)

II and x , he

(2'"8)' - (zs)
and
(I/S) - (xs)
V
L
x - x, (%.4) - (rA),..
-----
x" - y
=(r.dl' - (Y.4 ) - (xs ) - ex,,),
(x.~)r - Ws)
(2380)

(ZA)' - (ZA) (YA ) - (XA ) E.ercille, By" o;imibr Pl'l~UI'O, eli minating L, and then
Y, from 4l'[uation 237 by lOOII.ns "f equation 236, 5how that
3uhi!tituting for (XAJ,. and (xs)l'" from equations
, - X"
239A_and 239.$ and simplifying, ,,' L
F "' ~
(238b)

+ [. (r8) z,.
- V(Ys)
V (IIA ) + L (x.t)
- V(xs) - L(xs)
- V(ZA) - IAxA)
Therefore, the d istance between pointB i and
to the distance between points XF and y as the
quantity V is to the quantity L. to other words,
is

- (us) - (is)
(YA) - (z,.)
8inoe the slope of the line between points x and Xl'"
is the sa.me as between points x and y, all three
points, II, x, and x" lie on the same IILraigbt line.
The location of the point. x,
is alwa.ys between
points II a.nd x if streams V and L are added to fonn
IItream F, Similarly, if V is separated from F,
leaving by difference tbe stream L , tbe resulting
product obtained by difference has the composition
of the difference point x whieh always lies 011 the
extension of the line from 11 thrQugh x"
The lincar distance between ' these three points
representing the co~position of the three streams is
dependent upon the quantities L and V. This may
x,.
the point is located on a gl: aight line between
pointB 11 and x so tha.t the ratio of the distance
between x,. and the two other points, y and %, is
inversely proportional to t he quantities ol the eot're-
sponding streams, V and L.
In dealing with solid-liquid extractioo there is
present not only the solute A and the solvent S but
also the inert solids C. If these three components
account for all the mAterial prtilC nt in any stream'
or mixt.ure and x is thc fract ion of the component,
X.4 + Xs + Xc "" I
Rearranging,
. X8 - - x,( + (l '- Xc) (240)
Equation 240 is represented on Fig. 294 as a stl'aigbi
line wit.h a slopo of - 1 and intercept of (1 - xc)
... SOLID-UQUID
Any line parallel to the hypotenuse of the right
triangle is a line representing a constant fraction of
inert solids, Xc. equal to I minull the intercept. of the
line as indicated.
The composition of any real mixture of solute,
solvent, ruld solids is represented by a point within
~.~ triangle. Mixtures containing only solute A
and solvent S are represe:lted by points on the
l.ypotenu8e, :.:c "" O. Mixtures oontaining only
'lDlut(: IUld solids are represented by points along tl".e
abticissa, Zs - O. Mixtures containing only solvent
and 801ids &re represented by points along tbe
vertical ominate, XA _ O. A material balance in
volving any or all of these components is readiiy
made by a straight line.
The point z, is called an additicn point since it
repreeenta t he C"_mpoeition of the resulting stream
obtainee by the addition of two streams, V and L .
Any nu miJt>r of streams .nay be added together, and
the resultant strea.'Il8 may be represented by one
addition point by t.a~~ing pairs of the added streams,
obtaining the addition points for these paira, and
then takillg pairs of these addition points and com-
bining them until one point representing ..II the
added strea:ns is obta.ir.ed.
H a mixture, represented by point %I' o)Il. the di-
agram, is to be separated into two streams :>f fixed
compositions, such as represented by points Y and %,
the pl"O!le8l'J may be con,idered as the subtraction of
one stream from another, 8UC'-i:l as L from P to give
the resultant stream V, or a.8 V from F to give L.
When one stream is subtrsctcd from another, the
point representing the composition of the resulting
>itream so obtained is ca.1k.d a d.~'fert.'fiCe poitU. The
concept of a difference point C&D be extended to
calculations where t.he subtraction of one mixture
from another would result in a stream of imat;inary
c.xnpoeition, in which case the difference point falls
outaide the triungle.
An addilion poitU always lies between the points
representing the streams added together and aearer
UiC original stream of larger quantity. A difJerenu
poitU always lies on an extension of the line through
the two original points beyond the point represent,-
inp; the larger stream. For example, if the stream
(or quantity) V is subtracted from quantity F, the
diffel,;>nr.e point % must lie on the line beyond x, and
u"..oU'('r x, than y, since F is larger thAA V.
The concept of a difference point of negative com-
position or of c()mpoaition greater than l.00 will
cause no difficulty if it is recognized that a point on
~TRAcn:ON
Fig. 294 represents relative quantities and that the
sign indiC&te~ direction. Far example, COl\fidl;lr the
two 8t~ Y3 and L" flowing in opposite direct:'ons
to the right and left, ~pectively, to produce r.
single stream D, fl owing to the right, 88 tndicated in
Fig. 29.5. By a material balance
)Y"bere D is the difference stream between V3 and ~
and represents thO! "net flow" of material to the
right at each and e,.very place in the system.
- - I
~
....2
"
L,
"'''
I
v,
L. "'" 0
D
L.
'-- - '--
FlO. 295. Di:\gram' represellting CQuntereurre'lt flow of two
3tresnu V ..nd L ..nd tbt. significance of the dHrerenee .tream
D u indic:atilll V - L .
Similarly, a material balance for any component,
such as A,
(DXA)O '" (VYAh - (LXA h ... (VYAh - (LzAh
( VYAh - ( Ll:A) ~
(XA)O - ---'-""D~=
where (XA)O is the abscissa for the difference point D.
Since (XA )O is the relative quant ity of component
A moving to the right per unit quantity of D , or the
relative net. flow ...,f component A to the right, it is
-:Iear t hat the value for (XA)D may be any number,
positive or negative, depending upon the relative
vaJues for (Vyh and (Lz)2' Identical equations and
statem~J:.18 may be written for any other component.
I na wlid-liquid exlraclitm where tl!.e solute
originally present as a solid phMe, the amount d
solute that may be dissolved in a gil'en qU&.ntity
of solvent is limited to the Rtl.tUflltion compollition
of the solution as determined by the temper&.ture and
pressure of operation. The effect of pressure on the
solubility is small and may be neglected except for
high PfC88Ures. At any given temperature, therefore,
the right,-triangle diagranl may be divided into two
areas (Fig. 293), one representing all the mixt.ures
in which the solution present is unsaturated, and one
representing all the mixtures in which the solution
present is saturated. \hen the solution is saturated
the solids prctCnt in the mixtures will consist of
undi!l8Olved solute and inert solids. The point y..t
 G'RAPIDCAL METIIODS
1.0
i-
"i
-
i
~
~
o '" 1.0 o 1.\1
"II or y" ,lMass FractIOn Sol~te " II or y". Mass Fraction Solute
Flo. 200. i oolh .mnl rP.Mnllllular FIG. m. Il!OI.berrnai
diflgram for I!Olid solu te nf limit ed dia.gram (or a liquid lIOIute tha.t ia
ooluhililY only pfI!tiall,y milll.'ihie with the
\. 1I01venL
represents the sutU nlt.ed. solut-ion of the solute at
the l~ m peratu re under ronsideralion; the point 0
represents the inert solids free of solute or solvent..
Any mixture of inert. solids and saturated solution
lie!> 0 11 the Iille {JY,nt. 'J'lu'!refore the arca t-o the left
of t he line, GY,nt, lllbel~ '''unsaturated'' on the
dillgrum, represent s mix tures in which the solution
is unsaturated since /l.1l poin L.. in this area are for
smaller mass frac tions of solute x,. than points to
the riRht of the line Oy",,~ in t.he area labeled " satu-
rated."
This is demonstru.tt!d by any point such as N
represcnting a mixture in the unsaturated region.
1f this mixture is separated into a solution free of
solids, as reprellCnt.ed 'by a point on the hypotenuse
JI[, by removing the inert solids, represented by
point 0 , the difference point. YI represents a 8OIutioo
containing less solutc than the saturated solution
rep resented by point YIM' On the other hand, the
area labeled "saturated " un tbe diagram represents
mixtures of saturated solution , undissolved. solute,
and inert solids. In the absence of supersaturated
eolutions any mixture in this area, such asJ P, COIl-
aists of saturated solution with a dute content.
represented by point 11... " undissolved 80iute and
inert solids represcnted by point %2 .
Where the solute is originally present as a liquid,
the solute may be miscible with the solvent in all
proportions, and, since the mass fraction of solute
11.4 in the solutions JIlAy range from 0 to 1, the entire
triangle represen ts an unsaturated area as the point
JI.... is then at z,. = I , X3 "'" O.
'"
o 1.0
.1:11 or y.... Mass Fraction Soluta
EO-when " $ i$ 4>(",,)
EO' -'III'hen ., is con~nl, "s" rtr - .1:A
EGP-WlllnK i$(OI!~1, "s K~ I (1-.1:,.'
recl&~l'f FI(I. 298. Loci of underflow tuIllpOllhiolll.
If, however, the solute is not oompletely miscible
with the solvent and two diff~rent solutions are
formed , the triangle ma.y be d ivided into three areas
as shown in Fig. 297. Point VI represents a saturated
solution of solvent in the solute. Point YIn repre-
sents a saturated solution Ilf solute in the solvent.
T he solution will COill!ist of only one liquid phase in
the Ilreas labeled I and III. In the area labeled II,
a mixture, such as represented by the point P, will
consist of inert solids, represented by point 0, and
two solutions represented by the point fI, indicflting
a composition between points VI and Ym, which
requires that point y represent a mixture consistirw
of two Ii(lllid p h88eB, of compositions YI and 1/111 . fn
this sense 'Y is an addition point fe,r tho two imrr.isci-
bie liquid phases of composit.ions YI and ym.
In most. solid-liquid extractions a single unsatu-
rated solution is obtained as a product because 01 the
desire to obtain a high reco v~ ry of the solute, or to
obtain the inert solids relatively free from the
solute.
The quantity of solu tion retaIned per unit quan-
tity of the inert solids M determined experimentally
under conditions simila r to thOl!e which are L1!eing
considered for the full-scale operation may be repre-
sented by a curved line such as EO in Fig. 298. Thi:!
line represents the locus of the compositions of
mixtures of inert solids and adherent solution and
will be called the locus of underflow, or x, composi-
tions. Point %:z represents the underflow oompueitiOl! '
for which the solution retained hasJ the composition
represented by point. 112, provided the composition
 SOUD.UQUID EXTRACI'JON
of the solution retained by the inert 80lids is the
same as that of the solution removed from the inert.
solida. The underflow composition %2 may be con-
sidered as conflisting of inert solids represented by
point 0, and solution of composition Y2. The quan-
tity of solution of composition 1/2 which is retained
per unit quantity of inert solids is equal to the ratio
of distances &,1';'11,. For an underflow of composi-
tiOn %" the ratio will be OxJ!%11I1' In this case the
ratio of solution retained incl""..fUICti as the solute
content of the solution increases. For an ideal
stage, the composition of the solution leaving
the st.agt', 111: detenninell the composition of the
underflow %1, which J1lII.y be computed by construct-
ing the- IItraight line joining the point YI with 0 and
finding its interaeetion with the curved line EG at
x,.
If the quantity of solution (including aU c~ the
&o!ute) retained per unit qua.!ltity of the inert solids
is COD8t.aflt, tLe locus of underflow compositionfl:t is a
straight line, EG' pa:rallel to the hypot.enUBe of the
triangle since Zc is constant. The intersection of the
:I: or underflow line with the vertical ordinate
%A - 0, point E, repre!leJll.8 the limiting case of a
mi-ct.ure containing zero solute and occurs at
%A - 0 (242A)
where k equals mass of solution. retain~ per unit
mass of inert 801tds. Wben k is a constant, t-he locus
of the underflow compositions if. a straight line repre-
sented by the equation
k
x, - -(k +
- -1) - ..
If the quantity of BOlvenI (solute free) retained per
unit qWUltity of incrt solids is I!onatant, the locus of
underflow comp<lf!itions will also be a straight line
EG". Since xs - Kxc, the line passes through the
points IZ8 "'" K I (K + 1); :tA - 0) and (X8 - 0;
%A ,.. I), where K eqlmb Dla88 of 80ivent reta.ined
per unit mass of inert solids. I solute is added to a.
mixture containing only inert solids and ~lvent,
represented by E in Fig. 298, the resulting mixture
by a material balance lies on the straight line joining
points E and (rA _ 1; Zs .. 0) which line represents
a constant ratio of solv~nt to inert solids and the
locus of underflow compositions % for these condi-
tioofl
Continuou. Cclntercurrent Multiple~Coneoct
Operation-
A solid-liquid extraction system using continuous
multiple-contact countercurrent operation is shown
schematically in Fig. 299 for a system cootaining
ideal stages. When t.he system is operating und~
L._ 1 L._. L. """'"
~
FlO. 299. Schematic ,1iagJ'll.m indicatlll( the operation of a
oontinuoWl OOWltercummt multiple-contact eyatdn.
steady-state conditiOll8, the equations for tht:
malerial balancu over the whole B]l8lem are as follows.
Total Lo+V,,+I-L,,+V1 (241)
For any component :
Loxc + V,,+ly .. +1 - L,..z,. + V 1Yl (242)
1..0(%"')0 + V ,,+I{YA ),,+I - L.. (%.,.) .. + VI(y,,
The subscripts are used to identify the stage from
whkh a stream originates. The solids or slurry
en t.er the sy"lem from an imaginary stage prior to
l:ltage one; accordingly the subscript 0 is used. The
fresh solvent is int.roduced from an imaginary stage
following stage n. and the subscript n + I is used.
The extracted solids or slurry I~ve the operation
from the last stage, n. The fresh solvent enters the
system on 8tage n, and the strong solution leave!!
from stage L
A material ,balance for any 8tage m in the 8ystem
gives, with simple rearrangt:ment to express the
differences in the flow of the streams between stages,
what might be called t.he " net flow" toward the nth
stage (to the righi). For loljl,l I:I lreruns,
L,.. _ I - V... - L. - 1'.... +1
... L"+I - I'~+2 - (243)
For any component the net flow toward 8tage n (to
tbe right)
L.. _ I (X)"'_ I - V...(Y)..
(244)
 GRAPHICAL l\IETIIODS
If the difference in ma88 ,t. an. particular com-
ponent as represented by equation 244 is divKled
by the corresponding difference in total streams as
represented by equati~ 243, that is, dividing the
net flow of a single component by the roW net
flow, the resultiq difference in mass fraction is a
cooroinaUi of the difference point, (zAh, (Z8)4 or
(ZC)6, representing the nlalilJe net jl.otD o'f each com-
pooent. ioward stage n (to the right) .
L.". I(X).". I - V.(lI) ..
(Z)4 - L.. _ I _. V..
I.",.(:t).. - V _+1<Y)"+1
(245)
L.. - V",+I
which may be written for (x... ), (XS), or (xc).
As has been previuusly indicated the compositions
or coordinates of the difference point for the streams
on either side of stage m are identical. The same
diJTerence point represents relative net flow for any
stage or for all I'tages in the operation.
Lo(x... )o - V1 (Y... )1
(%.. )4 - Lo _ VI
L1 (x... JI - Vt(y... ),
LI - V,
L .. (XA) .. - V"~I(Y..tl"+1
L,. - V,. +I
(24M)
Similar equatiOJl1! (2t5S and 245C) may be written
for (XS)4 or (Zc)4' respectively.
If the qU&Dtitiel! &D.d compositions of any two
p8S8ing streams, as the t.erminalstrea.ms at'w;: same
end of the system, aw known, the Ioca.tion of the
difference point is fixed, since (Z... )4 and (%8)4 or
(:le)4 are fixed by equations 245.-4., 2458, or 2450.
In solid-HquKl extraction the coordinates of the
difference Point uSually lie outside the triangle COI"l"'3-
sponding to a "necative" relati~ net. flow for one
component (negative, because the direction is oppo-
site to the relative npt flow of another component,
toward stage 11., or a "po!!itive" relative net flow
toward stage 0) and a rdaLit;e net jI.IJw greater than
.wity (or another . This is undenltalldable from the
definit ion of the difference poin~ (equation 245) and a
realiution that the toW amount of material corre-
sponding to the difference point, L.". _I - V ..., or total
net fl ow toward stage n, may be either positive or
negative since the sign indicates the direction.
291
If the compositions of all terminal streams are
6xed. by choice or otherwise. the. Telative quantitaee
of the streams and the OlL'Ilber of ideal stages are
the~y a.lao 6xrd and may be determined graphicaIly
by tOO procedure outlined in Fig. 300. The dilferenoe
point .:1 lies on the straight line passing through the
points Xo and 111 and also on tbe straight line passing
1 1 ,
'.
~
i
i
"
"
"
~
E
FIo. 390.
Grapblcal rtolution of eou.nU!rcurrent multiple-
cont.a.ct HOlid.liquid extraetion.
through the points x. and 11.+1, since .:1 is the differ-
ence point for the two te.-minal streams at stage 1
and also at stage n &8 shown from equation 245.
There(ore, the difference point 0:1 is the intersection
or the straigh t line passing through the pointa Zo
and 11" and thll straight line passing through the
point.s x,. and 11 .. +1 .
The graphical solution for the number of stages
may be started at either end of the system (Fig. 299).
Beginning at stage 1, the underflow leaving the ideal
stage 1, L I , has the composition Xl which ill on curv~
EG (Fig. 300) and also 011 the straight line oonneeting
point 111 with the point 0 , as bas been explained, and
therefore is determined as the intel1ll!Ctioo of the8e
two lines. The composition 11: of the overflow
stream V: flowing from ideal s~ 2 to lltage 1 is
on the hypotenuse of the triangle representing zero
I!Olids, and a1ij() on the st..aight line connecting the
difference point .1 with XI or at the intersection
 SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
~ ndicated. Similarly, Z2 is detennined 88 the inter-
section of the line "EG with II straight line drawn
through the points y~ and O. This procedure is
eont.inued as in Fig. 300 until an underflow solute
compoeiti,on XA is obtained that is equal to or less
than the required solute composition (%".) ...
The number of ideal stages required corre.."J)Onds
to the number of lines representing the streams leav-
ing a stage, t hat is, the number of lines connecting
the point 0 with the hypotenuse. In Fig. 300 three
Kleal sl..fLKeS are not suffident and four ideal stages
are more than necessary as four jdeal stages give a
concentration of solute in the slurry leaving the last
stage, (XA)4, that is less than (:tA)... In actual
practice all stages may not be ideal and the values
for %A may be Bomewhat higher thlUl computed for
an ideal stage. For th~ reason four actual stages are
specified for the case ilIustrai;)(f.
Exe.-clM. Show tha.t the IIWIII of IIOIvt:nt fed V _+1 per
unit ~ ol underflow- leaving the lMt.1iW&e L.. iI tbe length
of the line 4 to %_ divided by the lengtb ol t.be line tJ. to lia+l.
Le....... Sbow t hat !.be m&M or 101ute-!ree .oIvmt V _.+1
retained by t he lfUIulated liven ia PV'eD in Tahle 29 ..:od in
U>e finst t wo ooIu mus of Table 3t. The halibut Iivel"I oontaio
0.257 INIIII fRCtton oi l. If 95 per eMt 01. the oil ie 1.0 be ft-
tract.ed and the strong lIOIution obtained from Lhe ay8tem is
i.o oontain 0.70 I1'WIII fraction oil, detcnnine;
I. The quantity .nd oompol!ition of the di8chatp;ed .oIidt.
2. The poundt of oil-free ether n.Quind per l~b ~ha.r&e
of fresh liven.
3. The number of ideal $1qeII required.
4. The number of II(ltual . tII.pa required if the ovt'.raI1.t.a.p
efficieney it 70 per _ \.
Solutimo. b.- G'ropAlt:al M~
TIu. II<f of 1M --flow _PHitimU may be either caJeu-
Iat.ed or determined iBphically from the uperimental data
civen. Table 31 includes. amunary of the neceeeuy caIeu-
Ia~ ('-oIUl"DllII 1 aDd. 2 lin! the nricinaI experimental data..
Col,unn 3 ia the produet 01. columna. t aDd 2. Column 4 ia
the difl'erenoe, obtained by 8UbtrllCting the vall.lllll in oolu:un 3
from tboee in column 2. The va1UEl11 in oolwn.n ti repl'Mel1t
the total IJWIeeII of the underflow IStnounI &nd lin! obt.ained
by addina; 1.0 i.o the valllllll in oo!umn 2. Columns 6 I.Ild 1,
repreaenting the underBow oompolitiollll, lin! obtained by
dividinc t he valUElll in oolUlllIlll 3 :uid .., re.peeti vely, by the
value. in ooIwn.n 5. The vclues in ooIumllll e aDd 7 are plotted
011 the ~ ~ thue IocatinC the kl<.ua oI.lhe UDdez--

per unit ~ of eolvent.-ln.e IOtHb fed to the exu.ctiuo. bat.- Bow compoeil.ioaa..
tery 1.0 ie obWoed by drawintJ: IItla.iPt liDe from ptJint.%e Th& pobieal method ia ebown in Fie- 301. For the ate
to point ,.,,+1 .00 a etrai&ht line from point %" to point Iii. of elari ty, oo1y '.0
of the pointll repreaentinc the under&w
u the mtenfttioo of ,'-1:_ ie muked J , abow that
Y,,+I z;J '"
0.'
"""L;""" - "'_+1
lII ... trathoe Example B (G phleal 'vsoIudoD of the ~"Hn:!"~
~ ., k-"'I<:-"I<--">'

i O'Hn,,*"-'),<
Same Problo:m .. ~ ..... A). Jt iI dee.in!d to ftXtract too
oil from hUibut liVen! by continuou. OOODtereurrent multiple-
OOlItact e xtraetion ..nth ethyl ether. The quantity of .oIutioo

TABLE 31. CALCULATION OF UNDERFLOw COM- "'I<--"!.--'

P06lTION8 FOR !.T.LUErrRATIVE EXAMPLE B =
:; 0.4

U....s..r6ow 0-.,.,.......
~talO' ..

Pet U> 01 00-..... Li.-. M_ J'neUoa.

-. "".. -.
"'''' "'. "'. Total M_

.
,..",
""......
U> Solution
PttLboo. 00. o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0..5 0.6 0.7 0.8 o.g 1.0

-. -
UDdet8<>W,

...... .... .....

1'too Liven Z, Z. ~ Of l!o. IIII$s Fraction Oil
L

............
Flo. 301. Graphical detemUD.t.tion ol 100", of underftow

... .. .. ..... ..... ...... 0.1700

cotnPQlitiow! 101" the iIll18t.raUve exampl&.

--
..,
--
0 . 10 0 . '42 ~ 0 . 111

..... ...
.
0 . 01 115 0 . 17U

............ ....
.... ......, ..... ....
.. ~
\J. 10 17
0. 1$20
. .m
. .m
.m
0.07$1
0 . 1731
0 . 1770
CIOmpOIi.tiona are thown. T he underflow oompoeit.iOQ :1', cor-
nwpondinc to .. lIOI.utJoa overflow conlainiDi 0.40 _
"J.,
tm oil iI ohtai.oed by OODIItruclq!.he line~, n:IeUlIrin&
f~

..
0 . 1162 0.1730

.... - .. ....,.. .. [.,..

~ 0 . 1642 0.164:;
the totaJ. lenct.h 01. thit line, .l.Dd then dividinc: t.b lenctll by
.m 0 . 437
n '.m

1 . 571 0 .281
0.1600
1M total. _ of underllo. (1 + 0.4(5), to det.enniDe the
'.ro 0 . 7(\6 . m 1 . 76& 0 . 12113 length iY which ill meuured. along the line ON {rom 1/ and
'.n 0 .110 ~ ", 1.810 ", 0.12.\.3 Ioea.te. point:l'. The reMOD lor thia prooedure 1Il',Y he made
clearer by the lollowiq; relatiDllllhiPII .
 0, ~ to the total maIIIJ of underl!ow, when the
GRAPIDCAL METHODS
solution retained coor.ains 0.400 IllW!IJ fraction oil, which is
1.4OCI 1b of under flow L per pound of oil-fn.e livers ~Table 31,
oolumu 5).
iN oot'N'Iij)(,,,,u. to the IIlMS of oil-froe li ven ir; ~he under-
How .
., --'-
lfY 1.405
Other un.]crftow.eomp<lllitions may be obto.ined in the 8&IJ1e
TfIAniIer, the ~nlction for POint :t' also bcilli shown. A
smooth cu.n'Jl is then drawn through the points" 110 obtained,
llJlII! )O(;II~", i.J.~ locus, EG.
The compositions of only three (>f the :ml inal "tn:a1nl5 are
specified, nAmely , the h&libut livers enleting the sygtcm (x>..
the soh't1lt entcnnll: the system , {J) .. ~ ., tuld t he Kt.rnng !IOI.u-
uon leaving th6sYstem (Yh. Since the COUll )()!Ii(.iun of the
roorth 'tenninnl strc&m is fixOO by sr>Ccl fyi"" tlKl compoolitiun
nr three i\.cmlillll. l at.N-'1l.ms, th" oom pnai ti on of the extrucl.ed
livers Jellving the system (:r)ft' may be nbULincd (rom a IIlILte-
rial ba lance. In order to recover 115 mass per.cent uf the oil
IIP-cl.ion of t hese iillCl ;' the addition point defined by dimin(
...
equalion 242 by e1 IUlltion 241. The rauo of tbe mM8 0f e~
required to t he mll9l nf fresh liven! may be obtaillt.'Ci by deter-
mining the ratio of d istances ZoIfJlI. +l 00 tbn dia,"UlL
From Fig. 302 this r&Lio is 0.26. T~reforu, 0.260 Ib of oil-
fme et.her is required per pound of froM liv,,,,"
The graphical eoJulion for the number "f ide ...l'tqee, ~ta.rt..
ing from the ~tr()!)g IIOlutinn end; ~tage 0, of the system, ill
shown in Fig. 302. Six equilibrium st&gee II.re not 8ufficient,
whereas ","ven e'Juilibrium ~tagc~ give a slightly Nllher I'eOOV-
cry of oi l th a n desi red. E-itim"tina: the equiVlllen\ of &hout
6.3 hypothcti~..u ide&! ~t8.I1:"'" the number of aetu&! ~ of
70 Jlt' r Ctlllt overall e fficiellcy required is estimated as 6.3/ 0.7
.. 9 actua l st~.
I.0
o. , ~'l
o.8 \ I"" "
,

""V\ X
in the Jiv~~no, the total mass of oil left in the .:::drlLctl live1'S ,
will htl ( I - O.\h'i)(O.257) _ O.OI285lb/lb of fre!lh liver. Since o.7
t he oilfrofl 8<)li(\8 HC 0.743Ib, till' m8ll! rat io o'f oil to 8OiV1!!lt.- I
fl'lll;l liver and oil i~
6
I I
0.01285
0 .0 1285 + .. - 0 .017
0 .743 I 17
5
and may be repreeent.ed by poin l P, (:Z:A - 0.017, :rs - 0), L'I
shown in F'ig. 302. The extracted livers ~avjng t he o<yIItem
4
I
I
!
/~ "x,
~
cuntain ethe r, a.nd the actual oomposition )ica,)!) t he 8I.Taight
line joining point P with Xli _ 1.0, the IInlvcnt ApeX. Since
t he composition of the extracted Jiven also lice on the l"cUll
too
3
I I V " :7 / ,
of undorftow compositions (line EO), ;JOint :t'. i8 located
hy the interooetion of lhe 1inc joining P II.nd :t'$ _ \ .0 witq II 1/,';/ /" /
// ?
~o. 2 "
the underflow oompalilion eurvc EO. AI!. I'1!Rd (rt)m }o'ig. 302, ,,
the enmpoeition of tl~ cxtrllcl..:d ""lide w,: ,r L? / '
1 i~>; ~. 1:'
:'>tll.88 fraction ether _ 0.113 o. 1
:'>taes fraction oil _ 0.013
MM8 ff':\lction oil-fn-,e solide (by diffel'l!nee) _ 0.814
o '/ / ' 0V'

:i~
The quantity of discht.z-ged solids is therefore

~:~:! _0.913 Ib of solide pel' pm.m d of fre.h livers

p
- 0. r?-
- 0.
The qUl\otity of oil-free ether MJquinxl may be obtAined by
a mal,1!nlll balance. By mean8 of tile gruphi':'11 mMhod , the
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0,7
%", or y"",Mass Fraction Oi l
~traiW!t line join ing 2'0 anJ Y,,+l, lIud t he Htmight lin e joining
:z:. and '1 UIl COllIItMlcted. The point J loc&t.c<i by lhe inter- FlO. 302. Or&phiClli eolut>ou for the illWll!&tive uampk

,.

 SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. ALDIUCH, H. W., IIlId W. G. 8co-rr, 'The I nBpiratioo.
Leachin, Plant," Tram. Am, 1M. M iniTIIJ Md. Engra.,
106,650-77 (1933).
2. AlhlfI'I1IONO, R. T., and K. lUIIIIElun:n:R, "Counter-
eUJTent Le&ching-Graphieal DetenninaUon of Required
Number of Unit.ll," Ind. En~. CMm., "' 122&-31 (1942).
a. 8 .u;:.:., E. M., ''Caleuiati,,''- Methods for CountereUTl'eot
Lea.ebing." Tram. Am. 1M. C . ErIgrII., n. 62-72
(l93t).
.fo. BILlE, C. W., "ContinuOWI Solvent ElIitracUoo of Vege-
table Oils," Md. Bng. sa.
357-1 ( 1941).
6. CUU.WAT, L. A., and F. N. KotPEL, "The Metallurr;iclll
Plultof the Andes Copper Mining Comp&lly at PotrerilJos,
Chile," T_. A",-1rut. MiltiTIIJ Md. e.,.,lOG, 69&--lI6
(1933).
6. DoNALD, M B., "Percolation LellChing in Theory and
Practice," Tro\'l.f. 1rut. CMm. &!gr . (London), lli, 77-104
(1937).
7. DORR, J. V. N., "0ya.ndi~ation and Concentration of
Gold and Silver Ores," McGra1f-HiU Book Co., pp.
99-106 (1936).
B. ElAlI", J. C., "Graphical C&lculation of ~hinr; Opera.-
t;OOII," T ....... Am, 1M. C/u:rn. Enqr._, It, 461-71) (1936).
k Gosa, W. at Jwr. A .... 00 C.\e1Jl.. Soc.. 21, :us
(1941).
PROBLEMS
1. A Oo.""Unte,CUl1'enl multiple-aontaet extraction system
bI to treat 60 tont/hr of wet, sliOf:d ~ugar bo!et.B, with fre!!h
water u I,he IIOlveoi. The beet.B have the followina: analysis:
Component M. . Ftl.Ction
Wl.ter 0.48
Pol, 0 .<0
S"'" 0.12
The 'trona ..lulion leaving the ' )'litem ie to oonwn 0.15
IOUIltl.ClioD aupr, ud 97 per ceal of the aupr in the "'iced
beett isla be relvered.
Determine tile number of extraetion cella required, . .uming
equUibn'.lJll between the underflow aad overfiow from each
cell:
(a) If $l.Ch ton of dry pulp ret,illll 3 Willi of IIOlution.
(lI) If each too of pulp retaina 3 ~1llI of water.
i . A .hufY of pulverized IIOlirlJ In heavy oil i, to be ...uheJ
with a chlorinated ..Ivent ia a bt.ttery of oontlnu\>U.e thick.
enerl. TIle "'urry ill initially 60 per OI!flt by volulOt oil. The
llDderftow from each thickener conwlllI fS pel'" cent by rolume
Itq-.li<i. TIle specilic &l1l:riu.e. are: oil, 0.95; IOIvent, 1.3; 1I01id.
3.0. n.e oil awl IlOlvent are oompletely miecibJe and fOo'ID
ideal eolut.ioM.
If 98 volume per cent of the oil ;. to be reeovert)C\ from the
,Iurry, what ie the relation bf.tWflIlD the number of ideal ,tap
~tbe volume ratio of aoI.veIlt to ,Iurry feed!
9. H"WLIlT, L. F ., ''DiIIoontintlOllB Extn Jon ~"
Ind. E"V. Clltm. , 9, 86&-71 (1917).
10. HAWLl:T, L. F . "Numerical &b.tion between Cella and
Tre&tment.s in Extn.ctiou Pro<:eIIf!et," Ind. Eng. C1Iem.,
12,493-96 (1920).
11. KnHI':Y, G. Jo'., "Leaching CaJ.culation&-A Note on the
Gmphieal Method," Ind. Eng. ChnH., M, 1102-04 (1\;42).
12. MARXI.U, K. S., and W. H. GoSII, Soybean CMmWlrJi
Ilnd TfI.Iwlow, Cberr';cal Publilr.hing Co., In~, Brook
Iyn, pp. 175-182 (19-14 ).
13. RANOALL, M., and LoNOT'IN, B., "SeparatM>n p~
AnalOI.)' belween AbIIorptioD, Extnt.etioD, Dilt.illation,
Heal Exchange, and Other Separation r t - , " Ind.
Eng. Clem., 11, 1295-99 ( 1939).
14. RAVENSCRO fT, E. A., ''Ertn.ction of Solids with Liquid&-
Multiple and Countel"l!UlTent EztraetiOll," Ind. Eng.
CMm., 28, 851- 55 (1936).
15. SAN!)Jr.RlI, M. T., "Ca.leule.ting Wuhing Efficiency in
CounteNllllTtlut Deca.ntat.ion," CMm. Md. Eng., 19,.
16l-(l2 (1932).
16. Mant4adut"e of Pulp and Po.pet", MeG,..wHiU Book Co.
( 1937).
17. K Jr.NYON, R. L., N. F . KausE, and C . P. CLAUIC, ''Sol--
l-eDt Extn.etion 01 Oil from Soybe&na," Ind. E..,. Clem.,
.0, 186-19-1 (I948) .
3. RoNted ooppe r are, oontalJUDg the oopper all cupric
suHate (CuSO I ), i~ la be extracted ia I. .em of eJl:tno.ctora,
with wat.er &II the eolvent. The 8y8tem i!lloa.ded hourly with
10 tollll of pngue, 1.2 tollll of sulfate, and 0.5 ton of Wl.ter in
the ore. TIle 8troDK extract 8OIutlOD ie to contain 0.07 l""M11
f",cti.oa of cupric !IUIfate, and 98 per oont of the cupric , ul '\11.
initially Iot.ded into too ' Yltem i>I to be reoovered.
If each toa 01 inert , ... ngoo ret&illll 2 toni! of water, plllli the
cupric l ulfate d*lved in that water, oompute the requiA:!d
number 01 ideal or equilibrilllD eJrtraclioo unit.s.
4. Tung meal oontaiillnA: 55 ID.IIdII per cent oil ill 10 be
extracted au rate of 4000 Ib,lhr, usi", 6000 Ib/b.r of n-hexane,
containinc 6 ITWIII per cent oil, u the IIOlveut. A oouater--
current multipte.t. extracuoa I)'Btem which is equivalent
to t ...o Ideal atagea 18 to be employed. Tile meal will retain
1 Ib of eolutlon per pound of oi!..free meal. The averfto.wB
'll'ill bf. a mixture of !IOlution and fine meal particlea with an
eiltimatecl ratio of O.06lh of ..lids Pf'r pound of lIOluti.on.
Determine the per ceot reoovery of the oU obtained under
the I.boY\' CDaditiooll. LU!t IWY &lllU.mptiont that mt.y be
_ ' Y.
5. A t.lurry CD....tine of eodiwu chloride c..,..u1s and aD
eo!lItion of IIOdillm hydroxide and eodiwn chloride
&qUell ....
is to be WMhed with .... turated eodiwn chloride IIOlution to
remove !.he ea..-tie eolution from the crptalt.. The daily
produC\i.on af IlUfry, of tbe compDlriti.on &i~n belair, bI
"'...,.
 PROBLEMS
ColI\poor.ent M_ % No. 6 will be fed 19 tona of watfot per bour. Thi ciuluer No.4
NaC l (/JIylItala) <0.0 will reoeive an intermediate feed of 9.5 tOIlll of mother liquor
NaC l (diIBIlV$!) 8 .' per hour, ront.&ininl 15.0 IIlUI per ce nt talt.
NaOH l.diMolved) U., PrniOUl! experience with this material In Dorr thickel'lerl
B,o 42.0 indicat.eB the following rel&ti.ooBhipil betwcen the eolution
cooceu ......tiom a.nd t he amount of liquid retained by the IOlidL
A fOUMlOOlp&nment countereurrent lI'J.IIhinI cl&Mifier is
to be . - l for t.be operatM>n.. Twtnty-6~ toIII per day of PoundB of Solution
Mt.waWld aodiwn ehIoridt .olution (27 ~\ per tent Naa) "-%Sal\ Retained per Pound
~ be UlIed for the wMhing. Determine thfl quantity of in Solution of Dry Solid
!!Odium byd.- oxide leavinl; with tbe uJt cry1Itaia froll\ tbe o U.
da.ifier if tbe dueifier ie opera.loed .0 that \be 8OlkI. diIt- '.0 2.37
.chMpd from the fint three compartmenU cont&l.n 76 wel&ht 10. 0 2.20
per cent Nac,, ' eryat.U (~ "'tight per ClInt aoIutiOll) aud \be 20.0 2 .07
dida diecbarpd from tbe fourth compartment contain >1.0 2.03
85 ,",ilbt per eent NaCI cryltaJa (16 weight per cent aolution). " .0 2.03
The dubility of eodium ehloride in e&Ufl.ie 8Olut~ at \be
Pure wt erytItail carry with them 0.50 Ib of fIOlution per

_......
temperature of operation ie All foUoWII.
pound of dry uJt.
M .... % M_% Compute:
N.OH N.CI (IJ) Quantity &Del. oonoentr&tiou of the .ttron,; IlDiUUoD
0 27 .0
25 . 8 (II) The ~ per oent recovery M strong eolution of all
2

6
23 .6
21.9
.-It fed to the battery.
Reoommend any changes ... hich would improve thit
8 20 .3 operation.
10 18 .7

.."
16
17. 1
15.6
1 . 1
S. A eootitloOOUlll countereurrellt ex.traetioll l)'t\em ill to he
used to extract lIOdium nitrate from a mixt\u"~1 of eodium
nitnte and mum chloride eontalnin 0..520 me.-. fra.etioo
IIOdium nitrate. The syttem ie to be ~pcm.ted at 100 C.
18 12.& and M to prooellll .so tona/ day of the mixture. The aq~
-alutioo t.o be U8Ild for the trtraetioD OODt.ai~ 0.100 _
&. Tbe C!-'*iWin& of"lOda aeh foBow. tbe lMCtioo:
fraction lIOdium niw-ate aud ie .turated. with re8pect to
NItCOa: + Ca(OHn _1NaOH + CaOOa lOdium chloride .t 100 C: 1be lIuny leavirg the .,.atem
ill to oonUUn 0.200 QUIllS fraction lOdium nit.rate .
MUIr marl. of tbe liquor containing tbe NaOH a.nd lOme . U 77.6 ioIIII/ day of solution 1.11) fed to the' .,.tem and if
reeidlMl N.,coJ 9t Ca(OH), ie deeMloed, IU.I appreciable the I)'stem ill operated..o that the underflow frum eaeh . tap
aJllOUDt 01 NIlOH .till remains with the CaOOa slOOp. 1be oont&i.", 1 Ib of water per pound Df eoiidlJ, determh!.e:
Ca.COt ie to be recovered a.nd marketed lIB "precipitated (u) TIie eompoBitkln of the !IOlu~lon leaving too 6)'8te1Xl.
chalk." (II) The num.beJ 01. ideal , tage8 required.
The Bl.ud&t from tbe pndpitation tanks oootainB 6 per
tent CaOOs OD .. total roaM bailie, 0.1 per oent di8eolved SOLUBILITY DATA AT lOOC
alblinlty (filumd M NaOH), and a b.lanee of wa ter. One
SYSTEM: NaNOrNaCi-HIO
thousand toN per day of thill 81udJC is fed continuously lop
two thiekenerto in eeriea in whicD it it wllllhed coUD~rt1.Immt.ly M_ %
with 200 torw/ day 01 neutral. "ater. The thi~ken.ed pulp , Solid
reJDOvtld from the bottom of each of tbe thiekenera oonWIW NaNOs N.C1 p",",
20 per eent .oJids.. A filtl'r takes the pulp from t be last thltk- "'.1 0 N&NOa
ener a.nd ooooent raw. t.bt.tOlids to.50 per tent, retumina the 00.' 2.8 NaN~
filtra~ to the 'Y8tem 1M w.uh wlI~r. w.
,.,
' .0 NaN~

"66.7..
Cakulate the _ per cellt alkalinity (M NaOH) remainillC 67 .6 NaNO I and NaCl
in the final CI.CO, After it bu beell oompletely dritU. 8bt.eb ' .8 NaCI
the eQuipment and aho ... flow ~,na. ratee, and oompolitJona. 6.2 N.C1
M.2 '.6 N.ct
7. A oountercu.rrent 8XUaction t.ttery ooneiItinA; t1f IIi..r: 60 .7 7.7 NaCI
Don thickenel"lJ ia to be WMKi to Ieaeh 20 tollll/hr of material 48 .7 8.' N.C1
... hlah llOIlt.&ina 10 per emt moiIIture, 3O 'per _ t inIoluble " .0 10.2 N.ct
pnp, and 60 per OOIIt IIOlub\e ah. A ...turaUld. lOIution 83.' 18.4 ct
_tai ... .o per cent of alt at the Ie.c:bias ttmpera.Ulre. The ".0 17 .6 N.<>
material to be )eaoDed ill red to thiekelw No. 1. Thiebntt- 0 ".6 N.CI
 SOLl()"LlQUID EXTRACTION
9. A oounteroorrent extraction be.Uery conei~ting of five t~ 8treamtl have the foUowing oompoilitioJUI in IlllUIII per Cl'1lt..
DOrr thieken.era gives tilf': foU'o wing tellt dill e. "'h~n useS 'to
luch t . soluble n.lt from an inert IIOlid, "'ith wat er II~ I. &,,] wnt. t'nderflow
SoUd feed OOO!aiM 63 per cent inll<>lubles anu 37 per cenl Fe! to Strong F Leaving
all and it supplied at the ra lt of 10 tonB'/ br to cell ~o. 5. Thickener. Sol\ltion, System,
Mothe!' li'1uOl' containi ng 8.75 (X'r cent salt ill. introdnced lIS % % - %
intermediat~ feW Ul ceil ~o. 4 at the 'rate of 8.1)7 wM/hr. CuSO, 6.10 6 . 69 I..
Water ill tupplied at the rMe of S.73 tollll/ hr to cell Xu. 1.
Under th~ <\Ondi tio~s, the e.~trl.cted solids contain 3.35 pm
Gan~
Water
i . In'
78.98 93.3 1
>
."
)DD.G
oont salt arill/" dryin g, and IhI! extract product in the (orm of
(0) Sketch the fIo ....shcet for t he e u tire PI"OOel>$, and inolude
a aturated IIOlu tion conlai ninlt 27.5 per cent sal t it <lcliv<'"red
th",' " Dorr ~ick<!n~ra. .
. t lhe ratt of 16 toM/ hr. The salt content of t h.. evcr/luw
(b) lk1.ermine the oWI~r oIequivakmt '-"Iuilibriwu .t.aga
atru.InII ia .. foUoW1l:
and .the q\lll.lllity of wll!llh .... lIter llIIIId.
v, 3.75 % Mit
11. A leaching hitttery . for' wffi6 reuon, operate.!! Il.II ShoWn
V, ' 9 ~ 70 .
it the flow dlagrorn below. Tru; eolid .foed, oric..hBJr'of which
V. 10 .60
is to ~ tage 1 and one-h~lf to ~ '3, contains 50 per ccnt
V, 19 . 30
,- eolute nou 50 pcr (Xm ~ incrl sol i\k. _~
Tn vie ..' of t he reialiV<'"ly hiRh IOI!II of salt in the t:J[~meteo,l The solvent is pure ..... \.er aniJ M fed to Bt.acl"2 a t " rate
IKllid.<!. th. operation is COIlIlklercd \<1 be u!U!ll.li1lfll.cllry . Sug- cfJu&1 to the tub.! feed rnte. The ttllgel prodUl'C 81urric8
&eIIt !lny chn ngct which gbo uld be flClll.de, and estimat<J. th" ..... hich contain I lb of BOlutiou pcr po'u,r"d 9f ""lid. The BIllt
I. . of 5II.lt in tbe ext racted !!<>lid..... hich you wllulu CxIlCC~ from forms II. 811.turnteli lIUlution with " ,.. ler oon'ti.ining /\0 p!:lr cent
\he :~ll'li , unit. 8I>lt.
Calculate t ile co~ tion of ,ti l BtrealTllJ 1Iho'll'n io the Bow
10. The orebotly of t he Union Mini~re d u"H:o.ut- l{ntl.rl~ in
d iagram.
the BeI,;ia",Congn is cumpo.o!e(l of ma~hile (CuC<4Cu(ORh) S
and gangue. Copper is extracted by crushing the 0",''16 - 20
mtII,h,J'gitli\ting with 1\ dilute solutio,n "~f sulfuric Olcid, f,,\lowed
,~y. mulLiplo-oontac t crn.IIl u.~reurrent wa..~h.inl!l -,W wash tbe
pngue fme of the oopper-bcaring iI(,lu t ion. Tho rich IlUlution
fl'Olll tho "'uhing II)'3tem ia-tn:a.ted for removal of uillotulv.,u iron v.
.and a1Wll,illUm a Ol.i thell !!eM to the eleclrolyl),: ecJIs for
precipitation of the ~, TIle ~ute acid 1IOI1ition ,i)pm
the . cell. i:a ~yc1ed W ~be ag!tatOni for trl'lI.tffi!.n.l ~ rDOl!'
raw ore. ." ' t" ,"',
The i'!otmt.ereurrellt wiUhlng operation ,UlItlI ~r ~hickeI}et.l\
foe t~e recovery of tm. rich eolution. The sluny f"?fl\ ;t he ,.
aci~ ......i,!.h. l he eopper ill tolu tion u copper sulf.te, is f\...
1.0 the thickeneD at the ra.le of SOO.toos per hour. ~_ feed. F
Accordin, to opcruting rcoorUri, the UllderflO... frqm <-~I ch
tbiekener retaillii 1.22 WM of solu tion per tun of gangue, 1I.1,u

"

.,'

-, :oi.. ""

'

.
J: '
, . , '

 ,.

CHAPTER

22

Liquid-Liquid Extraction

'QUID-LTQUID extraction i8 the term applied 1. The components are relatively nonvolatile.
[ to any operation in which a. material dissolved 2. The components have 8ub'stantially the same
in onc liquid pha\:;e is transferred to a second volatilities from the mi:tture.
liquid phase. 'fhe solvent must be insoluble, or 3, The components are sen sitive to the tempera-
i-Oluhle to a limited extent ~nly, in -the ~ution. to tu~ required for the separatlon by distillation.
be- extracted. tf the solvent and the ::Kllution Were 4. The desired less-volatile component is present
completely miscible, there would be no opportunity in the solution only in relatively small amounts, In
ior transferring the solute from the original solution suc~ a case, the less-volatile component m~y be
to a EIElOOnd liquid phase. The degree of solubility extracted int.o a second solvent, ~roducing a more
of the IIOlveot in the solut ion , and of the solutioo llnd concentrated solu ~ion from which it may be re-
ita componcnta in the solvent, are important con- covered more. economicalJy ; OJ; similar economies
siderations in the selection or. tbes.ilvent and in the may be accomplished with a solvent Iesa volatile
operatioo of the extf(1(ltion process. L'lan the desired component, e ven if the incresse ill.
Liquid-liquid extraction COOflisl8 of the same basic concentration of the desired component is !lot par-
steps 88 solid-liquid ext raction: ticularly significant.
1. lntimatc mixing or con t.ac~ pi the solvent with Usually the different di!'ltribution of the com-
the solution to be t.rf>..&ted, 80 as to transfer the soluteponents of t.he f~ mixture between the two layCfll
from the solution to the solvent.. at equilibrium is dejl('nded upon to effcet t he desired
2. Separ.a~ion of the liquid solution ph~ from separation. The layer contruning the great ~ r con-
th" liquid ~vell t phW:IC. centration of th(l solvent and the smaller concentra-
Thc {'ompletc ex~raction proees.!:l may involve other tion of the feed liquki is referred to as th(' "extract'"
operations Bueh Il8 the sepa.ration. and recovery of layer, The other layer, oontaining !,he greater con-
the solvent from the,solute an:d of th,e solvent "'hich centration of the, feed liquid and the smaller concen-
.-nay be dissolved in the solution. The removal and tration of solvent is referred to as the "raffinate"
l\~overy of the solvent ma.y Pfl n;lore . impo~ta.nt in layer. These terms are arbit.rary and are used in
determining the succClIsfu\ application of the J!Xtrac- different ways in different countrie!'l, so the reader
tion proce"Sl:! than the. dcgl'ee of ~xtl'action and sepa-, of foreign literature should take care not k be con-
ration accomplished in tiU'l tW(i basic steps, par- fused.
ticllhl'iy when s~ial 01' 1)IIfIt.ly iIolvenl1! are em- The sol....ent is said to l:'C selecti ... ", for the com-
ployed. The scparaLinn alld re(\OVl!ry of" tJj(~ sI)]wnl ponent of tilC fcod which is found in greu.ter ratio
may he accomplished by va rill1l3 methods ,su<:h ~ I" the other compoDcnl3 in the extract tban in either
distilla.tion or simple h~al i n g \II' I11IOli1l1{ to d iminish
1.11(' mffitUJir. or the origina.l foed , The 80lvent i.u

the,lIOlubility of the solute or IIf till' I#J1w!lt. scle<'t ivc f(lf cOInlll)nen t .'\ if (x,,/ xs )p < (Y" / Y8) J
hquid-liquid ~xtmc l ion ilt wi<h'ly u;"I1,- for the > {X,dIN ) ...
separation ,>f the compuucnt.'i of a 1#.lul ioll, par- The rctiidl'nl materials remaining Irom the extract
ticularly wllen : alill raffilla te laY(l1"l1 after thc major part of the
 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACflON
solvent is removed are frequently referred to a8 the
extract and the raffinate, respectively.
In operation either layer may be the upper or
lower, depending upon their relative densities.
Either of the liquid phases may contain dissolved
solids. In some operatiol18 more than two liquid
phases may be formed simultaneously, and solid
phlLSel! and vapor phases may also ~ involved.
The extraction may involve only the phySlca.i process
of IIElparation by solution, or chemical reactions
between the extracted substances f!J1d the solvent
or other materials dissoh-ed in the solvent may take
place. . ,--oens.lIuid
Liquid-liquid extraction has been widely used for
the removal of the naphth.enic and aromatic con-
stituents from the paraffinic constituents of lubricat-
ing oil stocks by means of a wide variety of ~ven~
and solvent mixtures.lt. The recovery of acetiC acid
from dilute aqueous solutions,' the IIElparation of
unsa.turat.ed constituents from vegetable aile such
as soybean oil," the purification of butadiene,1I and
the recovery of penicillin are other examples. A
combination of liquid-liquid extraction with frac-
tional distil1&tioo known a8 "extractive distillation"
has become of increasing industrial importance in
recent years for the separation of close-boiling com-
pounds'and aseot.t'opic mixtures.'
EQUIPMENT
All extraction equipment attempts to 1leCUJ'e a
large contact area between the pha8es since the rate
of ~ransfer of the distributed component is directly
proportional to this area. Differentiation between
the various types of equipment is based on tbe
method employed for contacting the liquid phases.
Mixing the two phases by subdividing and djs..
persing one phase forms new surfaces with rapid
transfer of the solute IlCroM th(" large contact area..
The ' ease of mixing depends upon the interfacial
tension between the two phaaes, the relative densities
of the two pbases, and the viscosity of each phase.
Separation of the two ph&ses after they have been
brought into contact may be accomplished by gravity
or, less frequently, by centrifugal force. The ease of
separation of the two pbases depends primarily upo~
the difference in density of the two phases and their
viscCJ@ities and may be appreCiably affected by the
presence of impurities which may stabiliu emulsions.
11Ie biblior;rapby for ou. cbpter appe&l'll on p . m.
_..
....-....
t
- GI-
MIn - ~
~
- \1,,
........... - J ~
More-dellH liquid CXIIIds
on tra)'S .nd, 15 it
"". G -
spills eMf the edge
flows IIlrou&h and.
mtx.:I with IeM; - " - pIIM
-J G
..._-......
Flo. 303. lJiacrammatic _ fledion of . baftle plate column
for liquid-liquid extraetion.
An alternatiVe procedure for obtaining a large con-
tact ~ is to bave one phase flow past the otber
but without any attempt tQ mix the two phases.
The equipment used to contllCt the two ph.ases aJso
acts as the eeparator, and mixing of the two phases
is undesirable. This method depends on the in-
creSBed length of the path of flow to obtain a large
contact area and usually requires less energy con-
sumption than when the two phases are mixed. Such
an extended contact area -between phases may be
obtained by flowing the two liquid phaaes oounter-
currently or concurrently in borisontaI tubes or
. ducta with the less deMe pha8e flowing in the top
aection of the tube, or in ve.rtical tubes or ducts with
the more deMe phase Howing down the wall of the
tube while the less deoee phase flows upward through
the oenter of the tube. The term "wetted-wall"
klwer is often used for the vertical type. In both
the horizontal and vertical type of equipment the
extended contact area is obtained by having the
equipment of sufficient length .
 The baffle-plate column (Fig. 3(3) is a modification
EQUIPMENT
of the simple vertical column which provides an
increased contact area without greatly incrcasing the
length of the column. Solid baffle plates which
ex~nd partially acros." the oolumn cross section are
placed at suitable interva.ls in tile column. Each
baffle plate may he provided with a short lip SO that
each is subtltantially II. tray. The lighter liquid flows
upwa.rd around the batHe and til rough the free area
between the t ray and the imooe walls of t he column.
The heavier liquid Rows along the hame, overnowlI
over the lip, and then flows downward to the next
tray.
The capacity of such eqjlipmcnt is limited by the
fact that the Aow ratcs of hoth phases must be low
enough to prevent mixing of tbe phases since both
the conl.acting and the separation . of the phases
occur in the same pie<:e of equipment. If cen-
trifugal forro is utilised to prevent mlxmg of the
...
phases, higher now rates may be used. The Pod-
hielnia.k centrifugal extmctor (Fig. 304) is bBl!ed on
this principle.
Sulxli vi~ion and dispersion of one phase in the
Second phase may be accomplished by various t~
of mh:c..-s or columns.
Mixers include air agitatorll, mechanical mixers,
alld flow mixers and are used to mix the phases in
one vffi5e1 wi th t he separation accomplishro in a
separate vel!l!CI, exl."Cpt. in batch operation when th"
sarne vessel may be used first for mixing and then
fOI" lOCparation.
Columns may be of t.he sprny, packed, ur p late
type and ure usually operated with countercurrent
flo w of the phases. Separation of thc two phases
takes place within the column il;l;elf and not in a
separate vessel. The heavier liquid pha;;e enters at

FlO. 304. Diagre.m ol a centri(ugal toUntercurr~nt. extractor. Contllcting or tw .. liquid phMeS ill. efl"ecl.ed oonti nuously And
coulltef(:urn'"lltly ill tho " nnula r I<pIletII of Lt.., rowr p:l$IIf\gf!Wlly while the fUtor is revol ving at higb speedJs. The lighter of
Ih~ two liquid phll9L'!I i. "d milled to the outside of th" rowr, while the henvier lilluid pllA.lMl ent.,,,, the t:(lnter as shown. Bmi.,usc
of the density difJ",nCle lx:twoon the two liquid phase~. "t he huavi er phase will lIow to the oUlllide of the rotor, displacing
the lighter phaec .. nd Cilusing it to lIow wwaros t.he !:Cnter. The !let ion of th" cont acting dements wit hin the rot()l" is
to produce a llerMleIy many intilJlll tu dil!penliolla allhe liq uid ph.15et i nlo f!4eh ol her anti the immediate ..eva-mtion tllC""'f.
&\CII.U9C this process is carried out in a .oootrifugll-l force fiel d raJlging from 2000 t.o 5000 times gttvity, t~nd encie8 to emulsify
are i/:teatly reductxl. Ry mll-inta.ining a back IIres8Ute on the "liht liquid out;" the Interface b.:!tWCfi Il the two cont&ineti
liQ.uids in th~ rotor CIill be oontrolld at any deairod oositioQ. Capa.ci t.ietl are f rom 25 ,ph to 1500 gph. (P~ Inc.)
300 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
the t.op and leaves at the bottom; the lighter liquid lion depends l1pon thl' subdivision of the dispersed
!)hase flows upward in the opposite cl ircrtion. phase into small droplets. Coalescence of thcse
T he $pray CO/limn is the simplest type of equipment droplets after they are fo rmed tends t o decrease the
and comi:>t:> of 3. ,;tlilable vessel, mmully cylindrical effectivcness. Coalescence is favored by a high
intcrfal'ial ten.~ion between the liquid phases and
Less - d!f15e
liquid out by hiZh fl ow rates of the dispersed phase, that is,
when the numocr of droplcts per unit volume is
large. Proper design of the spray entrance, so that
the entranl'f' is of the gradually expanding diffusion
liquid In type (funnl"! type) rather than of the abm pt orifice
type, will allow operation at higher rates of flow
without coaleSlcnre of the droplets.1 If the column
cross serl ion is cunst rieled at the entrance by the
introd1lctiun uf t he 'dispersing nozzle, the counter
current w locity uf the continuous phase between the
droplets may Telld, to promote coalescence instead
of keeping t h{' droplets apart.
Th e packed cuhm!ll differs from the spray column
Swing joint,
flexible tubIng. Of in that thc v{'SS('1 i~ partially filled with suitable
other devIce for packing, cit her solid or hollow. The packings used
is dispersed i adjustIng the heIght
continuous mGre-dense ohase of the dir.charge hnve a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Thin-walled
hollow eylindel'S of the same length as diameter
(Raschig rings) ano saddle-shaped units called Berl
saddles are frequently used. See Figs. 328 to 328d
(pp. 323 and 32-t) for a diagram of a packed column
More-dense liquid and phowgraphs of packing.
The performance I)f a packed column depends pri-
I .?arily on the large contact al"ea p r~ uccd by the
I packin>g and les.'l on the subdivision of the dispersed
'@ phase. It is important to support the packing and
to locate the distributor head properly with respect
to the ptwking support, so as to avoid interference
with the flow of the two phases.!
Either of the phases may be dispersed in spray or
packed. columns, although it is usually desirable to
make the phase flowing in larger amount the dis-
persed phase.3 Separation of the two phases occurs
continuously within the column in suitably provided
settling seetions at the top or bottom of the- column.
(") Instrument -operated tj'U\ In~rlace levtJ The Icvel of the interface may be maintained at
t:II:I control valve I(J indicator
any point in the column although it is usually at the
@F1OWcontrOller Q Pressure wp or bottom of the column. Figure 305 indicates
1..2;.1 contrOller
methods for controlling the level of the interface.
fo'H-/. 3OZ,. ~rh('Il1:\lic tiiaK"'1ll ind icating methods for the
oonll'ol of the inINr,,,,,, levd in NIh",,,,,, u"",1 fur liquid-liquid
A plalc cwumn consists of a series of plates, spaced
oxlme!;ull. at regular intervals along the column, whieh serve
to disperse one of the phases. Circular pipes extend-
and considerably huger in length than in diameter, ing above the bottom. of the .plates arc used for the
and equipped lI'ith nozzles or dist ributors for the flow of the continuous phase from plate to plate
phase to bt: dispersed. The cont.in uullS phase fills the (Fig. 3(0). If thcre is marked difference in the
vessel, and the dh;per.;ed phase flows through the wetting of the column by the two liquids, successful
continuous phase. The effectiveness of the extra.c- operation is obtained only if the nonwetting phase
 I\U."IHODS OF OPERAnON
is the dispersed phll-<>e. Separation of the phases
occurs in each section between the plates, the inter
fste level being mainlained hy the length of the
downpipe!:l through which tho cont.inuous phn..se
flowB.
" the enel"I!:Y consUlr..ption for this type may be can
Motelfense liQuid
f\QW5 acrOS$
l;quid flows
liquid
More~nse
liquid out
Flo. 306. Perforated plate, Of' sic\'(! plllle, column for \illuid-
liquid edra c~ion. A A ~huwn, liquid flo ...8 downward through
the pip!!IJ or 9C1I:JIl<Jnts an.d upwurJ through dIU perforation&.
CoIumrll!l &re . I!IO constnlcto..~ 1 "';11, the p1H.tel! invl'rted , in
wbich CIlII8 the B6w it< upw,u"" (h"Mlgh the pipe or ae,;ment
and down through the pcrfumtions. The II.J"!uHlI:emcnt
depends upon which phage ilS to be , l i~')(,I""iII!d ROO is oft.. n
determined by lhe inl eMI. cial pro,K'rlies of l.he nuid8 aud ~be
m!\t eri.~ls Qf (~"'struc Li(>n.
The aiere-plale column C()r l"elip(mdll, in a sense, to a
series of short spray columns mounted one above the
other. The dispersed l)quid recomhines above the
plate and is then again suhdividod and re<iispersed
in passing t.hrough the perforations of the next plute.
Since it has been shown lhat for single drops an
appreciable amount (40 t.o",5 por cent) of the tot.ul
extraction occurs as the drop is formed and before
its release from thc nozzJe," it is possiMe that t he
reported effectiveness of thi!! t}'Ilt: of equipment i!!
due to the frequent formation of new surfacl'lS at
each ' of .the plates. Decreasing lhc plal.e ,spMing
improves the extraction efficiency but dCCreMC!! the
allowable throughput over 0. range of pla.te spacings
from 3 to!) in." The recombination and redigpersion
of the di:;persetl phase which occurs a1.li!Iorbs energy
whi!'h t:an be supplied only when the difference in
dcnsity of the t wo phases is ::!Uffic;ent to overcome
the increa.<;t.-d res; st.an ~ at the sieve pl.a.tes, so t,hat
siderably greater thaD for a !!pray column of the same
height.
The bubblH:ap plate column, Fii. 327, widely used
for liquidYllpor eontacting ha.!s bAen found unsati&-
lact-ory fM liquid1iqujd ex trac~on as ordinarily de--
signed. l t The higher interfacial tension octween two
liquids 0.0> compared to that between u. liquid and Ii
Vllpor, nnd thc lower agitation obtained due to higher
viscosities when two liquid phases are contacted,
probably ~count for the poor pcrfonnancc of bubble--
ellp columns when used for liquid1iquid extraction.
'rhe flow rates of the liquid phuses in oolumns used
for liql,id.liquid extraction are limited by the fact
that after ccrtain limiting flows hayp. ix.-cn reached
the column will no longer functi,m satiilfact-orily.
Thi!! limiting flow is ca.lled the " flooding point" and
depends on tbc flow rates of bot.h the phases. At
the fll.Miing point "he dispersed pha.'iC is h;wked 001
of the column and carried along with the continuous
phil&'.. In general, the allowable yelocit.y of 0fIC
phlUle de<:rease5 as the velocit.y of the other ph~ is
increa.<;(!d. Th~ phY8icni properties of the liquid
phases, the type and size of packing (for packed.
f.,o\\.f'I"R), the size of d rops (for spray towcrs) , the
!!ize and l()('ation of perforations (for plat.e columns),
as well as the clltrance conditions, all will affe<:t the-
limiting rates.
Although considerable data 00 the perfofmaooe of
mlrul-walc equipment are availa.IJ1c, little infonna:;
l.ioo is available on the perfOlmo.nee of large---scale
equipment, and the design of such equipment &t
prct;ent is La!'Cd 0 11 empiriral procedures and . .
specific information fOl the liquid being extracted
and the type of eq llipmcnt being lI!ICd.
l\Il<.THO US OF OPERATION
The ~me met.h,ods or operation that were used
for solidliquid extraction may also be applied to
Iiquidliqu id extract ion, namely, (1) single contact,
(2) simple multiple-con'tact, and (3) count.eicurrent
multiple-contad. Countercurrent mu ltip l~taet
operation may be either batch or C(mtinuOlls. Be--.
cause of the greater eaSe in ha.ndling liquid phases,
302 UQUID-UQUID EXTRAcnON

"t'' 'f.=;;:;;;j,-,-:,~,-l~.....
c..
"1 v,
I L,
.....
2
Yo
L,
; [ .....
L,- I r--' ~"T7'
r?fl
L,

UtrKt reflux
E.drkt, D feed, L, RaffiMle, L .
Fro. 307. Schematic diagfsm ilItqtrat iog countercurren~ multipJo.eont.act utnctiOD with u lnu:t re8ux, stream ~

..........
VA. I ....'''''',
,...
L, II-I L. _l II L.

continuous operation is more commonly used in larger quantity of solvent per unit quantity of feed .
liquid-liquid extraction than in solid-liquid extrac- Reflux may also be provided at the end of the
tion. system from which the raffin8.te layer leaves. With
In certain cases, the use of "reflux" with counter- such an operation, termed "exhausting by reflux"
current multiple-contact operation may be advan- or " raffinate reflux" (Fig. 308), a portion of the
tageous. When countercurrent muitipJe-eontact raffinate layer leaving the system is mixed with the
extraction without reflux is used, the maximum incomiri g solvent 80 that the resulting liquid (stream
concentration of solute that can be obtained in ' the y _+1) is usually sa.turated with respect to the major
extract layer, even if an infinite number of stages is raffinate component. This liquid is then introduced
used, is that corresponding to equilibrium with the into stage n. The feed (stream L() is introduced at
incoming feed . U the concentration of the solute the opposite end of the system (stage I), and the
in the feed is low, it may be desirable to obtain a ' extract layer leaves t-his same stage. The use of
higher concentration in the extract layer than corre- raffinate reflux has been said to improve the degree
sponds to equilibrium with the food. This may be of removal of s')lute from thc raffinate.'t1
a.ccomplished by taking a portion of the extract layer Both extract and raffinate reflux may be employed
from which some or all of the solvent has been simultaneously. However, the use of reflux is not
removed and returning this to the system at the generally applicable hut is limited to certain types
same stage from which the extract layer leaves. of ternary systems as will be considcred under
This type of operation has been termed "enriching equilibrium relationships.
by reflux" or "ext.ract reflux 1.11 (Fig. 307) . The
feed (st.ream t,) enters at. an intermediate stage of
METHODS OF CALCULATION
the 9}'8tem. Fresh solvent (stream V.+.) enters at.
stage n, IUld ~he raffuu'l.te layer (stream L.) leaves Ai5 in solid-liquid extraction, the basis of calcula.-
from t.h.ie stage. The extract. layer (stream VI) tion is the ideal stage. Since the two phases leaving
1ea.ves stage 1 and is sent to the solvent removal unit an ideal stage are in equilibrium with each otber,
where solvent. is removed from the stream. The the "stage" includes that portion of the equipment
result.ing material is then divided into two port.ions, which contacts and stlparates the two phases. In
the reflux (stream 1..0) which is ret.urned to stage 1 the case of liquid-lilLuid extra.ction where separate
and 'the extract. product (stream D). The use of mixing and settling vesaels are wed,each combina.-
extract reflux allows the extract. layer leMing the tion of a mixing vessel and a settling vessel consti-
system to come into contact with material .,hich tutes a stage which mayor may not be an equilibrium
contains 8. higher concentration of solute than that stage, depending on whether or not equilibrium exists
of the feed, but a.ix:omplisbes this by requiring a between the two pbases leaving the stage.
 METHODS OF CALCULA n ON
U the erlractioo equipment is of the type where
ODe phase flows past the other phase without mixing,
"or oC the spray or packed-column type where the
phases are continuously in oootact throughout the
equipment and llepar&tion of the phases is not
aooomplisbed until the outlet is reached, tbe equip-
ment 'may be equivalent to a number of equilibrium
stages. In such cases the effectiveness of the equip-
ment may be expreseed 88 the height or length of
the equipment which is equivalent to an equilibrium
stage. Other metll(xls of exr-rosBing the effectiveness
in terms of the rate of m&88 transfer, such as the
hei&,ht or length corret!ponding to a "transfer unit;"
will be discussed in a later chapter.
In the present methods for calculating the number
of equilibrium stages required for a liquid.liquid
extraction, it is assumed that only the two liquid
phases are present, and the sy8tem consists of three
(or more) CIOmponenUi, the two (or more) compo--
nents preeent in the original &oiution, and the solvent
used for the extraction. The presence of small
quantities of impurities may be neglected as far as
the equilibrium relationships are concerned. Any
single stage operatee at a C()ll8tant temperature.
The calculation of the number of equilibrium
stages required for a Iiquid..J.iquKi extraction is based
00 the two principles of (I ) material balances, and
(2) equilibrium relatioosbips.
Energy b&la.nces are generally not made becaWle
of the lack of data such &8 he&t.s of 8OIutioo, beat
capacities, and surface energies, and these effects are
o 1.00
.."
\ .., I"'-
0." \
La
~
0.,,\
/ ~
I
..,
,f." H
~
n 020
n
UIO
o .., 0.40 0.60 OJI) 1.00
o 0
.... FtICtion FwfInI - -
J'1Q.lI09. EqWlateral ~ phue diagram ror diphenyl-
beza~wittnl a'~ C aod I atm.
neglected in most C&8e8 88 being unimportant in
liquid..J.iquid transfer.
Material baLmct.I for the total streams and for
any individual compooent ma.y be made lUI was
done for solid-liquid extraction.
EquiUbriurn RelotiomhlJN in Ternory Sy"tenu
Acooniing to the phase rule there are three degrees
of freedom (three inde pendent varia.bles) for a ter.
nary (tbJ-ee.component) IJyt!tem consisting of t.wo
liquid ph8Blll! at equilibrium. A L any temperature
and presaure, therefore, only <rill degree of freedom
remains. II the composition of one of the liquid
ph88efl is specified or fixed, all the independent van.
abies are fixed, a.nd the oomposition of the second
liquid phase is also fixed a.nd is not an independent
variable provided tha.t equilibrium conditions exist.
A ternary system composed of components A, B,
and C may be rega..rded as compoeed of three binary
systems-A and B, B and C, and A and C. The
most common type of temary.phase diagram is that
for which two of the hinary systems are completely
miscible liquids and the trurd binary system is one
in which the liquid! are only partially miscible. The
phase diagram for euch a ternary sy8tem is shown in
Figs. 309 and 310, which represent the data for the
diphenylheX&llMi~urfura1 sy8tem at 4.') C
and 1 atm.t Figure 309 is the equilateral triangle
pba.ge dia.gra.m customarily U8ed, and Ftg. 310 is the
right triangle phase diagram for the 88IDe system as
represented on rectangul&r coordinates.
1.00
~
1"-
i
Ii 0.60
I
1"-
pD,
~o.40
~ F
H,L. J-...... L,\
~
~
""
~
D II
0
JI
0.40
""
FIG. 310. Pbue diagaDl (or dipbellY~UJ'.
"" .., 1.00
Jttnlat f3 . C and 1 atm, plotted on ~r coordinates.
 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
overall mixture in c r~ The point corre!!ponding

~ I"- . to a tic line of tero length, that is, for which the two
li.quid phases in equilibrium have the Me composi-
0." tion, ie; called the "critical" or "plait" point and is
1"-
1t 0.60 1"-
1"-
represented by point P.
The influence of pressure on the equilibriilm in
liquid phases may u.sually be neglected unlcss high

, 6

', 0.40 1/
45 " C

.yet--- L"-
pressures are considered. The effect of temperature
is usually much more important as i~ may change
the t)'lXl of phase diagram, increase or dllCl'P.ase the
~
~
.,.
2 /
V
. V
1"'-
J1S'C
r--
I::':::,
area of the tlV~phase region without affecting the
type of diagram, or chnnge the slope of the tie lines.
111e cffed of te mperature on the phase dingrlUTl for
~ diphenyl hexune--f.locOMne-furfural is shown in Fig.
31 1. .F or this l:lystem, an increase in temperature
1/ N:\-
140' C

0.20 0.40 0.60

Mas:$ FrK\iQn Flulural
O.!IO 1.00
decreases the area of t he t\vo-phase region as indi-
cated. Thf! effect of temperature on the tic lines
F IG. 311. PhMe di"l!:raJU for diphen ylhoxHnr.-docONanc-fur-
(not shown), on the other hand, is slight.
furill., at 4S o C, 80 C, find 11 5' C, at I atm. Another type of ternary-phase diagram which is
not encountered so often is that for two binary
At 4~o C, diphenylhcxanc Land d O(,OStIJ'lc Il.re com- Hystems which have partially miscible liquids and a
pletely millCible liquidti, d iphe ny lhexanc and furfural third binary system in which the liquids are coa\..
are oomplctcly mi.scible ii<IUids, snd docosane and pletely miseible. The phase diagram for the system
furfura l arc partia lly ml>:lCible liq uids. The d ipheny l- metlly leyciopentane-nonnal hexane-aniline at 25 C
he.ane. ~hcrclore, may be considered lUI being dis- and 1 atm 4 is iIIulltrntffi in Fig. 3 12. In this case
tributed Lelween two liquid ph8J:!C8, one phase con- the solubility curve is ' not. a continuous curve but
sist \ng primurily of dOCOllBIlC, the other phase cOllllista of t<vo hranches, MN and QR, respectively,
consisting primarily of fUl fural. However, since which extend frum the side of the t riangle to the
dpcosane and lurfuralarc pa~titJ.ly miscible, all three ' hypotenuse. The two-phase region lies between the
!..0mponen ts are p!"CSCnt in each ph6$C:. . ' two !>rnnchC8, whereas the single-phase regions are
Any point inside the triangle represents 1\ mixture
of all th ree oomJXlllents. The curve MPQ, called 1.00
I,he solubility curve, separates region I of the t riangle
representing mixtures which exist 98 s single Liquid
ph ~ under ec::uilibrium conditions, from region I I
which representB mixtUre!! of t wo coexisting liquid
'"
I-' /:
.,0.80
~ I"
'""" 1"-
phases under equilibrium conditions. Any straight
line slIch as HI, FG, DE, or MQ joining two point.! 1-"
on the solubility curve which represent the com- 160
positionl! of liquid phases in equilibrillm is called a
F ~
"tie Iinc." Point J in the two-phase region of the
triangle represents the overall composition of a 140 I"- -. "- [\.R
m ixture of two liquid phases which, 4lt equilibrium, I"- '"'-
will have the compositions indicated by the inler- ;! 020 D
"-
I:IeCtions of the tie line t hrough point J with the
solubility curve (points H and I ).
M
~~ Q
Examination of the tie lines shows that the length
of tho i;)c lines decreases and that the can>' -ositions o 0.20 0.40
. 0.60
Mole FflIdion Aniline
o.ao 1.00

of the twu liquid phases in eq}!ilihrium approach FlO. 312. Phue dillgram for mllthyl-r.yclopentane.normal
each otht;lr as the di phenylhexane content of the MlIIn_niJine lit 25 C and liltm.

outside the two brlUlches. This particular diagram
is or special interest because it permits the use of
extract reflux. The equilibrium relat.ionships for
this sysWn are very seLSitive to temperft.ture in the
range from 26 to 4ljo C. If the tempel'lltllrc min-
creased to 45 C, the phase diagram (Fig. 313) ill
1.00 " material in liquid-liquid extraction corresponding to
'"
f='"",
-
r- _'~
i---" i'.
- i'.
H V
---..;
I'"
iZ.
r- F
-- r-- --" "'r--" r....t~,
:-...~
D /I
o k
o 0.20 0.40 0.00
Mole Fraction Aniline
Pm 313. P)11l8t: dial{Taffi for methy1cyciopentan&-Dol1ll&i
he:utfle-:miline at 45" C and I atm.
s,imilar to the type first diacu!!SOO, as the methyl-
cyclopentlUle a.od aniline are completely miscible at
this 'temperature.
If 8. separat ion is to be elTected by liquid-liquid
extra.ction, the overall composition of the mixture
in lWy stage must lie in the two-phase regioD of the
pb~ diagram..
Graphicai M.uhods
Any liquid-liquid extractioo problem can be solved
by the repeated use of material balances aDd the
eq~ibr ium relationships according to the arith-
metical method illustrated for solid-liquid extraction.
The graphica.l method is simply a grapruca.l repre-
sentation of the ~terial balanO('s and equilibrium
data and is simila.r to tbat used for solid-liquid
extraction. The symbols used for liquid-liquid ex-
traction are similar to th08e .used in Table 28,
Chapter 21, and are given below.
The representation of material balances, the con-
cept of addition and differenoe points, and the general
proper~ of the triangular diagnun are the same in
both cases. Consequently, aU the relationships that
METHODS OF CALCULAllON
have been derived (equations 236 to 245) for solid~
liquid extraction apply also to liquid-liquid extrac-
tion. The main dist.inction between the two opera.-
tions is that the overflow in solid-liquid extraction
consists of only two components whereas in l iquid~
liquid extraction all three components are uSllslly
present in the overflow. Also, there is no inert
the inert solids in solid-liquid extracti~.
NOMENCLATl'RE FOR LIQUID-LIQUID
EXT RAGrlOIf
L The qUlI.lltiiy of ODe liquid 8tream, umail y that stream
consisting primarily of component C and designated
!loe '"raffiTl!l.t.e" pbase.
Tb.. quantity of the other liquid Mnam, WIUaII~' t:...
Bt rmm oonfIifltlng primarily of eompooentS and delli."
t
nated the "extraet" ph&8e
% MMS fraction in atrc&m L of tbe component designated
z,.
by a letter aubeeri pt., &.8 %A, ZC, or
Ml\laI fl"llCtioo ;n stream V of the oompooont designated
by a letter llllbeeript. l1li V.. , VC. or lIS.
~
OJIO 1.00 In the diphenylhexane-docosane-furfural system
at 45 C (Fig. 310), furfural may be used as the
solvent for the extraction of 8. solution of diphenyl-
hexane and docosa.ne. The furfural will then bt-
designated. as component S. The equilibrium data
show that the ratio
M ass of diphenylhexane
M8BI! of (diphenylhexane + dooosane)
is greater in the extract (furfural) phase than in ~be
raffinate (do6oe8Jle) phase. COWlequently, the fur-
fural is selective for the diphenylhexane. The
dipbenylhexime will therefore be designat.ed 8.8
component A, and the docosa.ne &8 component C.
The quantity of the extract phase from any s .
will be designated by the symbol V, an appropriate
subscript being u~ to indicate the stage from which
the stream flows. Similarly, L will represent the
quantit.y of raffinate phase leaving any stage.
Continuou1.Covntercurrent Multiple- ~wc,
Operation.
The schematic diagram of a liquid-liquid extrac-
tion system using continuous countereurrent mul-
tiple-oonta<:t operation shown in Fig. 308 be may
simplified by omission of the mixer, in which case
V _+1 fePWRf'nt.fl rresh solvent.. When the system is
 L1QUID-UQUID EXTRAcnON
opera.ting under stea<iy-etate conditions, the mate-. POINTS IOOATINO THE SOLUBILITY OR SATURA-
rial balances over the whole system are represented T ION CURVE ENCWSING THE TWO-PHASE
REGION IN TJ:lE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM I
by equations itlentical to thoee obtained for solid-
liquid extraction (equations 241 and 242). M _ Fra.ction M_ Fra.etion M_Fr&et.ioD
Furfural Dipnenylbexane ""'-
Total m&terial balance:

La + V,,+l .. L" + VI (241)

0.040
0.050
0.070
'.000
0.110
' .200
.....
'.000
0.670
0.100 0 .375 0.626
Material balance for any component: 0.200 0 .474 0 ....
0.300 0.<87 0 .213
0%0 + V ,, +IY,,+1 - L"2:,, + V'W" (242) 0 ..00 0 .... 0. 132
0.500 0 .<23 0.077
Ma .erial balance for component A: 0.600 0 . 3.16 0.044
0.700 0.274 0.026
1..0(.':")0 + V,,+,UlA),,+l - L,,(%A) .. + Vt(YA Ji 0."" 0 . 185 0.015
(242A) 0.900 0 .000 0 .010
0."" ' .000 0.007
Similarly, the equations defining the quantity and
EQUILIBRIUM COMPOSITIONS FOONG THREE
composition of the difference point are the same. TIE LINES'
b. ... Lo - VI = L. - V~ - ...
(243) Doooea.ne PhMe Composit ion Furfural PbNC CoDlpOO!lition
-L.. -V,,+l Mill! Fraetioo. M ass Fl'&ctioo

Lox.J - V,Jll - Llz 1 - V 2Y2 - ...

""" ""-, ....

.. -'" .
Di l);.
- L,.z" - V ,,+111,,+1 (244)

.. .
,...!,

'"
phenyl-
f>ooo. Fur-
'woI,
"
......,
,-" f>ooo.

0. 100 0 .852 0.008 .{1.011

L"z" - V ,,+IY,,+1
.....
'.048 0.891
(245) 0 .... 0 . 245 0.690 0.736 0.242 o.m
L.-V"+1 0 . 133 0 .426 0 .439 0.523 0 .068

The graphical solution, therefore, will follow the

same prooedu~ all that described for solid-liquid
extraction.
lUu. t r. tl ...... & .u nple. Diphenylbeune ill to be llep-
arued from 8. mirture OOlltainiol 0.200 _ rra.cliuo di-
pbenylheltalloC and O.to) I'DBIIIiI fract ion dOOOMCll:l by eJ[~
tipn with furfural at 45 C .in a oontinUOWl oountereurrent
multiple;,oontact extraction aystelo. The IiIOlvent entering
the symem contain~ 0.005 Ill&8I:I fraction diphenylhex&ne, the
t.,1&nee being furfurAl.
If the raffinate product 1eavi~ the syl!t.Cm is to (Obtain
0.010 mass fraction diphCnylbeu.oe, detnmi~:
I. The number of equilibrium slap required when the
nllll8 uti<> of IOlvent to feed ill 1.66.
2. The mMII ratio of solvent to .food thllt muet be WlO!d if
The enmpo!lition of the entering food (stream LtJ lind the
~ompo!litinnof the entering lI01vent (stream V.+.) are given
and may be Joca\ed on the tri&nguillt diagam 1/1 poiot.B ;l:f
and h-tl in Fig. 314, aiDoe
For feed stream,
(ZAH - O.:JJO, (2:")0 ~ 0.00
FOI" lIOI~nt .8tn!&m,
'The raftirw.e pnxtuet leavina: tbe IJ)'ttem (8U\".&ID L..) i. iD
equilibrium with the .e xtTaet phll8ll (iIt.reII.m V,.) lea.vm,; tbt
equilibrium stage, and the point %., repie8entinll the com~
.tion of the raffinate product, may then be lOOllted on the

......
thfJ ul.nu:tioo. appuatu8 ill equiVJJent to three equilibrium

3. The maximum ooneen1rat ion of dipbenylbeune that

uubility or equilibrium CI.lI""Ve since the rna. fl1letioo. of dJ
pheaylhexane is given .. 0.010, tha~ ie (:rA). - 0.{\l0. The
t'OllIpoeitioft, W-" of the e.xtraec. phase ieaYiO& t.be.,."".tem. \beD
can be obtained in the exU"IIet product. ranaiM t.o be de\ermiDed.
 :\fETHODS OF CALCt;LATION
IUMtrated in Fig. 3 14. The equilibrium compoBitiol'll (or each
tta&e 118 80 oomputed Ille ae followl:
M &.$II Fno.ction-Inphenylbeu.ne

.''''
Number
",,""
Pha.!ie, ..."
ilaffillaU!
Phase, z...
1 0.1015 0 . 104
2 0 .051 0.053
3 0.027 0.028

, 0 .ot3
0.0075
0.0135
0 .0080

~ 0.24
,
"Q2Q

!t ""0.12
~
, 008

N ~ 0.04
,.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
M
o j~ O~
o OJ 0.2 G.l o
0.04 0.Cl8 0 . 2 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
Mns FrKboo Dlptltt1y1Ile.<aI'le. "'.... Y... Min Fraction Oipllenylhexane In Docoslne Ph.SII
SA'

101(1. sa. Graphical dcterminatlort of number or equilibrium 1'10. 3 Ui. Equilibrium diatribur.ion or di pbenylbeune be-
stag... required wben t.be solvent-to-ffled ratio i. 1.66. t1reefl furfural -.nd 0000Mne a t 45 0 C .

Port I . The addit ion point 7.J (Fig. 314) is louted
line joinioC pom u:re and .--+1 110 tha.t
1be point VI ill tbeD Io<:ated at the intcnect.ioo. of t.he stniJbt
line t.hrough point. z .. and ZJ wilb the equilibrium C\.Il'Ve.
Tho oompo6ition ill ('-Al! - 0.1016, and (.-.'Ih - 0 .882. The
difl'erenoe poiIlt, ;q.. ill located at. t he m\e:neetion 01 the male-
rial boi.lance or c.pera.ting line through poinl.8 z:o and lib and
that through poin t. z" and V" ... I ae indicated in Fie. 31*.
The nurobel' of ~uilibrium stages required is determined
by makin, the equilibrium .. nd material ~re calculations
&.a de&cribed unwl Ule dellired valUII for (ZA) .. _ om i, ob-
00 lhe Pan t . When the number of equilibrium IIt.apIt La be..-l.
~fied. a trialanderror 8OIutioo is neoetIIIaT)' in order to
i.e
determine the IlI!oeee&lY ma..s
ra tio of solvtlDt to feed and t.be
compoSition of the e.x1Aet. proU-..et, 1(1. The ai..nple;it. pr0-
cedure is to _ me It. value for t~ oompcet.ion of the estraet
product, 1(1, and determine the number of equilibrium IItqee
required. Thill proeedure b ropce.u.d eeveraJ UtDI'JI SO I.hat.
the number of &quilibrium stages requited may be plotted
against the solvent-to-fe(,d ratio used, ae in Fig. 316. The
required soIvenwo-l'eed ... tio q then ~ from ~ clw1. (or
tho Bpeeilic number of equilibrium ~tacea.
,
0

,
tai.nOO.. From the equilibrium d,u. plot ted in Fi,. 316, {or
(VA)t - 0.1015, (Z,I)t it! found to be 0.104.
The material bal&nce iI made by drawing the s t.ralgbt. liM
\
(Fic. 314) joining pointa z l and z". TI>e intenleCtion Q( t.ha "-
, "-
..
line with the equilibrium curve at point 112 [(",,)1 - 0.051)
IPves the oomposir.ion of the e",U'act ~t.ream bving IItII&e 2.
The prooelI8 of equilibrium calculat ion to find Z'! and lDater...aJ o
btJs.nce to find 1/, ill repeated until a point ~ ,i, obtained which o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 s.o
bae a composition (.:E,.) equal to or lol'l"el' than (z ... ) . - 0.010. MaS$ IbOO of SoIverlt to Feed
Approxim.tely 4.6 101.100 llteps oorrosponding to abou t 4.6 hypo- FI ll. 316. The number of equilibrium .ta~ requi red u a
thetical equilihriwn stage~ lUll ruquired to reach tbiIJ poinL $II function of the IIOIvent-to-feed ...tW.
 UQUID- LIQUID EXTRACTION
I .1 gruphical Mlluli"n in Fi,. 317. ThO! num/x-r of equilibriwn
~ >ajI;"~ !"f!quire.J for ... jtiV1)n scpal"llt i"n i n ~n.1~....." .... t he ratio of
I.o ",,1V('nt lO feed d(~<:reIl!leS.
'
\' ~ .
, \ z... ,,- ~
T he limilu'K.eund itiOI\ of lUI iulin il(> I\umb"r "f equi librium
BUlges oo"'-'Sponc\!! IP I I", uliniu uuu 1lI1 io "r IIOl vent t.u r.......1
w al may I>e ueed. l"n<.k,r Ihe!>(! '~ 'lI< li li"n~ or
in fi nite "'agI"',
t.he d il,hen)' lhe)(&nC c'.m 1<- ut <VA). 01 1he '.~ t rll(:t pha.'IC ill Ihe
"(,,..~ H~

/~
lnIlXimum (hal CIilIl be " h," in(-d fur t he !fiven f~"d e.. nditiWl8.
The oond itionr; COIT8Ilponding 10 &II infinit, number of equi-
7 libriu m 8IJlgt$ are ro POC:I) ' oU in F.iJt. 3 17 i>y <le.termining lhe
J
II 1!\w,.o<I ..,....
, equilihrium t;e li ne l or XI IIntl lll which whe n extc nded 0I'lSeeI!0
through xtI. T h" diller-enre poiM %4 lice on a WRight line
connecting ,,~ anrl Il l> II.Ild An infini te numoor of stages (no
5
\ / change in I.'(}m position) i~ indicatt.'(i when X, &l$O lie!! on truB
litle. Under t heole'tondit kmll th~ mll.terial balll.rtr.e (operating)
r( line {XI - !I I) is identical wit h t he equilibrium line (Z I - !lU,
and !I, - !II - ~, Clo .

o.l / \ , The composillon or t he ellt raet layer III for infinite ~

is determined on Fig. 3 17 by a triuland-error procedure. A
I composition 1/1 i6l!elected, the corm>lflOnding equilibrium com.
o.2 position of the raffinflte laycr :t1 is dct crmirl(!(:! from cquilib--
rium data (Fig. 3 1S), and the t;e tin e is ellt cnded til _ if it

o1
'/ \ pa.S5C8 through :lIj on Fig. 31 '7 .
: ,RllliIIol~ p/'IKOo
0 " '.
o 0.1 0.2 0.3
Min rrK lio-n Diphenyl hexlne, "'<I_ Y..
Flo. 317. GmphiCII.\ ca.]oul ation of the minimum 'IOlvent-to-
feed .... t io reqllired fo r part 3 of ill U.'lt rative e >.lllllple.
From the infonnatbn obtained from part. 1 it is evident
Lot a !IOlvent-to-feed ratio greater tluw 1.00 must be W!ed if
3 equilibrium ,tAp .-ro desin,d . Thill rorlBllpOOl!.. to. corn-
poei tion , (Y .. h, Ieee than 0.1015 maBII r~ion dipbcnylhexane
in tbe exuaet prod\l~. If .. val ue of <It.d \ .. o.07O -iS !ielccl.ed,
ihe number of equi librium etageS required is found to be
approxill'Ul.tely 3, Bnd t he mus rat io of solvent to feetl i.~ 2.72.
ParI.~. Con:ti<Jer the e1Tcet of ...::\ding vlU'ioUll quantit.M. of
80lvent IJ) the ayatem per
unit quantity of loed. A~ an ex_
ample, " pPOIie tha t t he mhS ratio of lIOivont j.o fee<! i~ 2.0.
If ~ denol'" tlli~ liddition point for ~treallU! 1..0 a nd V,,+, on
the dia;r&m (Fi,. 8(7), it m ust fullill the eondition ~
:\1a.ss of solvent .. z~ .. 2.0
,, MIIoII8 of feed :l:'J II"1-1
A etraight line through t he Iklint %8 .. nd J, therefore, inter-
osccts the oquilibrium curv e in th e point 111, which rcpre..::nu,
the composition of cx tra.<:t atroam VI . For II. IUa!<II mtio of
IIOlvent. to fll6d o f 2, th~ ~om p(lI!ititm.tl ror III and J are
(YAh - 0 .0\11 (Z A)J - 0.070
(y.sh - 0.8\14 (.t.s)J - 0.665
H the quan ~i ty of eoIvl.Ill t u"ed per unit quantity of food is
Jemo.ued, t he I'ILtio %o:tJh"n. ... 1 ill amal ler ; the addition point
~ i4 10<:.1.0<:1 nca.rot :. on \he linti joining !.be poinla ~ and
V.. +I; and tJ.., compollition of the ~lttnM:t layer leaving !.be
equipmea\ VI in~ in diflbeoylbuaoe as indicated by t he
For the fnud ciJm p<'!ition specified (:to _ 0.200 on Fig. aI7),
the oomp<lllit ion 111 i6 found t.o be
(!lAh - 0 .194 (lIs)1 - 0.'786
shown on Fig. 317 &8 point III (llWIi mum). The maximum
diphenylbexane conocntra.t ion t ],a t CII.I) bI'! obtained in the ex-
tract product ;. t hercfOl"e O.11J4 ma&>I rract ion.
The 8lnLight line joining poinla z~ and III (maximum) inter-
9CC18 t he line joining poinl8:. and V. H . at t he addition point
:r,/'. The minimum llW'II I'ILtio of 80lvent to rll6d, d e termiDed
from Fig. 317, iB
Ma.>JI 0I1101vent iOij:
M IIIlS of feed - :t/lI.
==== +1 - 0.83
Eo;e..cise. Diphcnylhouoe ill to be eeparated from a
miuUl'll conl&ining 0.20) I\'eill:ht fractioD dip~nyl1nr..ne and
0.800 weigh~ fraction doco5!o.noe by e)l;t noct ion with furlur&i. "
45 C. A Hi'lIplc multir>le-oontaot ext~tion system ill to be
used . The furfural u~ conta]M O .OO~ weight fn.ction di-
phenylooxane. Th"", equilibrium ~t~ lire t o be used. The
tot"l furfural U$ed i.e to 00 2.7 Ib/l b of feed and is to be equally
divided among ",.." h ~tI<lIie . De te rmine the qUlLlltity and com-
position of all 8treAms leaving the ey stcro bll.8ed' on 1000 Ib
of feed "ntcri~ the system. Cumpa.re till! compoeitioD of the
railinaw product le"ving the ~y stem with that obWned for
the lI\ustrll.tiv" k:x"mpie, PRr~ 2.
IntcTlllooiate Feed. A Iiquid.liquid extraction
system may be operated with more than one feed,
using more than one solution from which it if! desired
to extract a given component. The feed stream
containing the highest concentration of the dis-
t ributed component is introduced into :tage I and
is designated 4J. The feed stream containing the
lowest concentration of the distributed component
 ME1HODS OF CALCULATION
.~.;intrqdueed at a later intermediate frtae. Th~ For component A: . ( I
8tage into which the intermediate feed Is introduced I ".

t~ .:feled
stage/. The quantity of intennediate food Lo(z.. )o + L,(x.t ),. + V,,+ I(Y,,) ..+l
18 designated by L,.
t.. ' .. ,.1
Under steady-etate operating cpoditions, the mate- - L .. (x,4 ) .. + VtUl,th (247.4)
rial bal&Dcea may be made graphically as shown in These equations are similar to cquaLions 241, 242,
and 242.1 bUt inelude one m~re term because oj the
-M t. rt .... "" ~
'.'
additional intertnediate 'feed .
The material baJan.CtS. fqr st~ 1 W f - 1 in
clusive are : ,... 'h
., Total"material bslance;
, to + ":/r - Lj_l' + V I - (248)

For any component:

, 1 "
(249)
.d. Fbr rlompopeni'.f: J' J )",u-.IJ' 'tl'l. j ~/; ,:.f .!!.l'
1,1 I ",1",.0 1 ,I .lu~ , .,j .." < A
Lo(x,t.)o+ V,b/.t)/ - L/_ I{ZA )i.t~ +- ~l(Y'\h (k (24M)
EqulI.ti01lll 248, 249, and\249A 1Day lie uaed to define
a 4!fferrn~ point .1." , ~"ll. \
.1 -

-
-.. .
to -
1..1_1 -
VI ... LJ - V, _ . .

VI (~

4ro ::LlV1VI - Lizi - V'lh - ...

'l~' ~~~"~ Loze - ,Vira

- LI_1%1_1 -

Laxa - VUlt
V J1I1

i~ ~~~~~~~~~ XD,-
Lo-Vl
-
LI-V~
_ ...
.!
i o. f.\-+-+1+4;,q""'l-.J-~cI-...J J_

.'
- ~ o2fi-j.o.~~~-i--~--~~",!~~~
",
'. o'~~~--~~~__L-~-J~~l ' I "';t t!1
- i Q ao'l ~ )Ii: ~ ' sa !::I ~ . '.c. '"\' co ~ In the same manner, the material balances for stages
a a add d d .d , 0 f.+1tona.re: \11 ,~":t
MA" Friction Acttoll4
FIo. Sla. Grapbial materiaL ~~ I to loeat.e dilferenoe
< .l Point, for Jo.u!~i&t:e feed. -~.
Total material balance:
Fit 11,. 'fi 'I. ' t ,",r (,~

,Fig. 318, or by the folloWing 'algebraic equa.tions.

lIn fact, the following equations are simply the ruge- For any component: "
brai.:l-expressioll8 for the points and linefl on Fig,,318.
Total material ba.l.ance: . t LpI + "'.. + ly ..+1 -- L .. z .. T Y/ +1Y/+1
,
-(254)
,'
Lo+L" + V.ofl - L..+ VI (246) for component A :, " '.' , 1

For any component: 'tAxA)/ + 'v';'+1 UtA),, +1

. \1' ,
"
Loxo + L,-%, + V..+1YII+1 .., L.z. + VIMt (247) (2S1A

"
SIO UQUlD-UQU1D EXTRACI10N
Equatiorul 253, 254, and 25M may be UBed to define have. been written.,- If XJ il!. the- addition point '&8

a aeoooo difference point Il'. definedby the followiD~equ6.tiOlUl: ' /<

V'+l -
. " ,
ti - L, - L,+ 1 - V,+t ... 1..0 + L, - J ,-,..,-" , (260)
- L .. - V'H..1 (255) " " ~+L,z, ... Jx,r ' '~1" : (261)
.1 , 1 ' ;"uJ., ."

Lpl - Y'+'IY'l+l ... .'Jje;

Li+ lX/+i - ' V/+211J+2 equations 246 and' 2b may then be written as
Ih' "'," -, "j
follows. '~
- .. ".r-,?..x,. -; Y... +1VII+1 .(256)
J - VI -= L .. - V II +I - A'
'~ ,
hJ - VIYI '"" L,.z... - V "+1YHI - (A')(;4')

_ L/+1%/+I - y,+,,,'t.:a j~
., By dividing one equation by the other
L.. x .. - V II+IY.. +I
L/+1 V!+I (262)
L.. V II +I

- L,.x" - V ,,+111.+1
L,,-V"+l ,
U
. (257)
'!
Therefore, the difference point xt., / represent.s" the
subt raction of stream VI from stream' J, and a
The re1a.t.iOlll!bip between the t~o ~~~ p'oin~ straigp..t)i~.,tW;p1J.gh tbe points XJ and Yl interse<:ts
.4 and 6' may be obtained by rearTangemeot of the straigbt"'line 'through the points :rIO and .1/..+1 at
equ&t.ioos 246 and 247. ~.' . ' the difIere~, point %4',
1.0 - Vi -+ It, - L.. - V,,,+1 (~) E~ Show t.hat. the dill ee' point ~ ill determined
by the inrenection of the 4tcai~ine through the pointll Ze
LoZ n - Villi + LFxl' "" L .. z .. - V"+ly,,+'j '(247) and Y1 with the. straight line through
, the point&: 2".4' Bond ~,.
Since When ,the quantity and ' composition of each ter-
po - 1.0 - V I (equAtion 250) minal stream and of the intermedilLte feed II.re fixed,
and the number of equilibrium stages required ....ill vary
depending 011 the stage in which the intermediate
., Il+L,-/J.' (258)
feed .is introduced.: However, there III one. stage for
which the ~umber of~uilibnu-m stages required is
Division of eqI,Jstion 247 by equation 246 gives II. miniillum. ' This stage "ill be designated as the
"correct rn.age for introduction of, the intermediate
Lozo - Vlrl + Lpxp L..;x.". - Y"+IY"~I feed."
The graphiool solulion may be- started eitner at
stage 1 or stage n....- If the graphical solution is started
By subs\itutiog from equations 250, 251, 255, and
at stage 1, ~the procedure is t~ same as that pre-
256 in the above ~uation viously;;ouUinEKt- (illustrat ive 'example, p. 3(6),
, ' ...," '! i ~: ': '
diJTe~nce point Xb,' for ' this section
.:1(%4)
A+L,
+ L,x,
, '
- (L\')(xt.' )

E9,.uatioos 258 and. 259 represent the mathematical

A'
(259)
conditions for the fact that the' points representing
the compositions of streams .:1, !J..', IWQ, ..L, all lie
on !.be same straight line.
Because of the p~ce of the intermediate feed,
two difference points are ~ . One difference
point, %4, applies to the BlageS up to but not including
the intermediate feed stage. The other difference
point, %4', applies to the stages after the intermediate
feed' ttage. The location of these difference i>oints
may be detennined from the material balances which
usin:g the cotrecl.
of the system ( F'tg. 31~). ThiS procedure is followed
urit.il'ttie stage is! ~#hed w.bere the ~uilibrium tie
line for the stage crosses the straight line joining the
pointa 2'4 , XF, and Xoll ' . If the point :t representing
the composition of the raffinate phase leAving this
stage and the difference point Xtr. are uecd, it is Been
that the change in composition effected .by the 1J.ex:~
stage will be less than if the point x and the difference
point x",. 9.l'e ueed. Cpnsequentiy, this represents
the s~e where the in tennediate feed should be
introduced and the change from difference point X.4
to" the differen("" point :t"" is made at this 8~. The
same procedure is followed, but usini the difference
 ME1lIOOS' OF' CALCULATION an
point Z.'..
until a raffinate phaae eompoeitiOil is (BinlanI L,) to feed (etreNn L.) 0.1, poin~ ~J (Fir;. 31~ is
kieated on the .sttti.B;ht liDe.Joinina; ~ loUd z, aaeh that
obtained whicb ia equal to or lea!! than-the specified
value. I
!!2 _ 0.10
m . . . .tIft. ,La-pk A aoun\emlr1'eDt. multipte..etap
utraotioo IIY"toem at 25 9 to be \lied for the ~ of
"'''
The dlfFerenCll point .:l4.' illocAted by OODIItmetfna: the stn.i&ht
acetoIIe from an"foq\lllOUll 8Olut.ioo eonwJnint; 0.200 II1MS frao- line thtoUflh the poinU! ~J and ~I &nd determinin, it. ,inter-
tioD ____ M~ bu befta -aMcted AI the
ieet100 With the ttraight liM-~t&-pointa ;E. and V.+I .
..w-~ The ~ . product iI to oont.ai.n 0.010 wei&flt The: diJI~ poinf-jf<I. II nen looated by detenniD-iDl; the
fra.etioa .oet.one. ' _ -inlenJection of the .traight line throulil:h the poinIA z, and Z 4.'
w..

-.
A _~ ..ter pha.te. 00Ilt.&iDi1ll 0.060
aaet.oaIliI _'" fl'aetion
to t. tl'eat.ed in the ~:rtJ'aCt.iOO. q.t.em ., ..
rue ul o.~ of IOllltion -taininc D,D) __ fractioo. number
with tbat through tbe' pointe z, a nd 111.
The uaW graphical procedure is followOO to OOWWhe lbe
,

of equilibrium.tt.aaes- St.utIq: from poi.nt 111, the

, point if, ill obtailled from tlUl equilibrium data. The point orl
If the extract product ill to con:t.toiD 0.140 mMI f.faCtion iii 00lllIeeted with the diffuonCtl point or4, and !.he u..~
-wne, dIitezmine: , of Jobit line with !.he .BOlubility ~ detel'fl1ini.' )'I.. ThiA
1. The oquilibrium Irt.ace iII whlch-tbe..wr.t.ed _ter pbue
Ibou1d be introduced. , ,
prooedim: is ~ to locAte or, and VI The %f ;.Point
fOUild too be 011 the eolubility eurve below tbe poiitt 1z" th. t
2. The Dumber of eq~brium itWcM required. / the Ue line joininc' VI and ~ mleriecta
\he line Joiaio&
a The weicht of ~ ~ per powad of II, poiDte Z" ZA, and ,%4'; Ooneequeotly, '1-be point ~ is j~
().2)0 weicht rr.ct.ioD _t.oae IIOluUoIL to the ' dilfeft!noe point z",. to loeaf.e the pOlnt VI. - ~,
, The equilibrium d&t.& 11 fOt the ,.txi-te symem .,.., ciV$O. The complete .olUtiOD ill mown in i Fi&:. 319. 'rpe amn-
W. Table 12. ! poiIittons of the .st.reamI -vtnc \be equilbrium .......
_ TABLE 82. OORRDIPONDlNG EQUILIBRIUM POINTS
ON THE SATURATION CURVE ENCOOSINQ THE
TWO-P~ AREA FQR THE SYSTEM ACETONE-
WATE&-M:OilOCHLORBENZENE AT 1 ATM PRES-
. SURE AND 26- C"
~ .. foUows.

N~bu
s_
Equilibrium Ertrict PhMe,
M.... Fractioo
A.aetoIle,V~
RafIina\e P~,
Maat ,Frarlioo
AcetOne, %,1.

~;..'JOomJlOlitiOiii Iil- Mill Fn.ttiOO- ,

. . ,
1 . 140
O.OS'III
0.'l30 ~,
0.'"
S' 0." " 0 . ~11

W.... L&,w ., """........ L&,w ,

,< 0.0310
0 . 0146
0._
o.oao
. , 0.0030 0...90211

,-. )Vater,
tone.zJ. .., .....,
M_

..
~,
j M&-
tooo, rA
J I Water,

"
.
M ....
,),~111'-
~,
The cOrrect'~ for tlie InUOOumioo. 01. tbe In~te
feed II equilibrium Btase 3. The rtwuber of equilibrium 8""""
required W lIightJ.y greaWl w.n
6 and Ie. thaG 6 . ....
.
. "
~

~ poundII o( I'DODOOhJorbeme required per powid of

'0.200 'tN.as fraction _uwe (stre&n\ Lo) may be det.erm.lDlid
0.00 0 ..... 0.0011 p.OOO 0 . 0018 0. _ .. foUo...
0 ." 0 ..... O.O)1S 0 .0521 0._ 0 .9447 Equ.t.iooe~, 267, NId 267A mar be u.ed to deb M-
0.10 0 ..... O.OO'.U 0 . 1079 0.0049 0.1!872 other addition polnt ~'. Thill ~~ 1iee ~ tM.,ttraiIht ~
o.is" 0 . 8478 0.0024 0 : 1620 0.0003 0 .8317 thrquah poinUi ZJ and Y~+I, and al80 011 a IItraight line through
0.:10 ' 0 .7'1169 0.0031 0 :2223 0.0079 0 .7698 the pointll z. and l/l, aDd ill i.henlIoni the intereoctm of tot-
O. ~ 0.74&8 O~OIH2 0 .2901 0.0117 0._ tiro li_ By . IAki.o the ratio 0( ~ aloq; the tino
0.30 0._ 0."" 0.3768 0.0172 0 ..... ZJ, V.. ';-I, .'
0." 0.6422 0. 0078 0.4328 0.0233 O.~ ~ _ 16.7 _ 0.910
O.jO 0._ 0.0136 O.4Ho1 0._ Q.47Sl. V:-+I 18.3.5
0 ." 0.5276 0'.0224 O.M92 0.04.28 0."" .8i.ntJeJ/Lo _ 1.1/ 1.0,
0." 0. _ O.o:m 0.6919 O.om 0.33.57
0."
0 .60 I 0._
0 .2741
O.tIOM 0 .2S66
0.0631
O. "'"
O. lm
0.6119
0.6107
0._
0.1383
0.2285
0.""
0.2438
0. 1608
0.1376
( V.+
Le
_(V.+
J
(!..)
Le
_(_'
0.910
) '11\' _ ,.:lOll
, 14_ _ . De~ine the effect of introduclna; the inter-
mediate feed at equilibrium BUapI 2, " and 6 00. the total
The lim Itep_in 1b8 eohItJoIlo of tb8 ~ ie the Iocatioo number Of BtapII required, ~B&: tbe CODditioni &i- in the
01 !.be difference poilIu, ~ and Z4'. In order to locate \be iHu.t.tative eu.mple OD this Jl"IIl.
diIIen!IlOe , poiQ~ ~', the point ~ All deADed by &qu.tiOlUl
~ 361 ill 6nt JocaUld. Sipce: the-,.w of intermediate feed
* ) E.enMe, DetermiDII the number of equilibrium IIt.apI
requirtd if 1b8 o.~ ~t fraction KIIIWnt .oIut.ioo. Uld \.be
012 LIQUID-LIQUID. 'EX'llUCTi,ON
. T"" 4 .
T"., '_: ''':i.;~~~~ .
~

"
.0
~
".
"
I Y,
-t "."
'.

'\ \ '
,,, ,
,
\
, \""
.1_
,

,I
,
I.
,.)(1"
"
~"'~
I

~;:
( ~Mth
nqI;&it>ll''''''.... ~.
lilt ~

1<.
;'1 .'
a.!I,

<.~.
,
1
"

\
I
I I ..
I
'~" <l _.j,
~K ~.'
,
:ii\ . " ...-Hypoletluw

'.I t-Hf-'--l--\l--+~'-~h>-S--1~--+~
I ,
OS I
,

,
I," . I I
;, \
"'-' .J.!1f-'~' ~J---"'-'-"'-I-I---1
I
, ., I I I
I -
,, I
0, 1+" , I'" ,
'i I
1\ I
-' ".

,. , :X ' . I
I
". -
"
,
I
\' I.
I 1\ ,'" ".: f ,,':,n~N,
, :04wlI+H:,\-,:j;:...:('\-++~:"-+-!';'-1I
. " - " I "., -"\~,,
' +"-'-"-'+"-:' " i-~'":''-'~'~'+.I\.,'l:,C',:;,"\\-:-"f-,.-'.-'--1,.,:"
,"

r' ",;' .\
"

~ f '

-;-j
, , '1

02 '
1"
I
i--
i \, .,- I:
"
,,,,~

"
" -\
y. "j , \
,,'
.,r!.1 J" 1'!"1.,lH .,...-;. '_ 1,\ <:,

i'
'I\t " ;:':~~\
,
I.
L, ,
I
I
I
, ', I'
' I"
\ I
I
I
'. ,
I , I)' ,
I
o <'.
".02 " .04 0.06 0.'" 010 0.12 0.14 0:'16 .18 o
M3SS Fraction Acetone
, Fit]. 319. Complete graphical !lOlution for iUUlltrativ~ example, p. 31l.
,"'
0.060 weilbt &action I!.oooone IOlhtion are ml""d' &nd the mix-
'
p. 311) and eqtiations 246 tnrolj.gh 262 may be
ture it tbeuexuacted in,,,, I'l(lIlt.inUflIa ~,~t multip~ usedt..:
_1!IOO~,t V ,lItem. "II ~-~itioN. a.te to ~ ~ SIUfM' ~
i.a \he ih~~ve example, p. 311 , . . .,
When I operaing With refl~, it will be assumed
that; '~.~ ,~ .., .
,Reflux. The use or extract reflux as d~ I . The stream V leaving the solvent ! removal
'Wider Methods,of 6peration,(Fig. 307) is uSuatfy o unit eootains only eomponenlJ:! A and S, with com-
~o practical importance or a temary system in ponent S being the main constituent. . '
which two ;of the: binary~ ~ms are completely - 2. The att'eAllU! t:V 'f,d d; which: hllov~ the same
mialSble liquids (Fig. 3(0), :amce ilie overafi-compoei- cOmP&iti&5~ are saty,r&ted ~h'ases sci~th~ ~e;.Point
don of the mixtures "O:lOth phases) , ~ s~ '1; to Xn, which represents their ,COI)lposition, Jies on the
}'Il1ich the ~'ti.ux La is ';t~med, is'-ly.ery clq@e. to ~ branch MN of' the< Solubility curve (~e Fig; 312
phaAC boundary curve, making separation of. the or 320), , - \ (,
two phases difficult. Tjtis limitation does not occur
in a ternary system in which two of the binary Under steady--st-ate operating conditions, the tmate-
systems are partially mitlcible, as illustrated :in rial ba.11\D ce8~ written for the solvent removal unit are
Fig. 312. , Total material 'balance:
The solVent removal unit shown in Fig. qo7 may
VI i V + Lo+D . (263)
include various means of separating tbe solvent ';Om
the' extract phase, depending upon the system con- For any component:
sidered. Regard~ o., meaps pf, separation, the V1YI - .Vy Lozo + + Dxl) (264)
extraction system shown in Fig. 307, (exclusive of the For eomponentA: ;,". '" '. ., ....
solvent removal) is identical to operating with inter- , ..,,'".
mediate feed withOUt reflux (ilhllitrli.tive example, V1(Yih - ' V(Y..t} + l<d\XA)O + D(ZA)D (265)
 METHODS OF CALCULATION .\3
Under nonna! operation, the solvent stream Y from The .r..tio of stream Dto stream. Vmay be"deter-
tlre solvent removal unit is recycled to the extracti911 mined 8.l5 follows.
B}'!Item, and t he composition of stream V _+1 i!l ,t he
wne as th"t of stream V. Equations 2M and 265
mAy tben be 'written:
. -V+ (; + l)~ _ (~I)V (:103)
VIIIl - VJl~'+1 + Loro + Dzo (2640)
Rearranging and dividing 'by D,
V1W,,). .. Y (YA) ..+l + Lo(ZA)O + D(z,,)o (26&1)

The ratio of the quantity of stream _Lo (extract

reflux) to thb.t of the stream D (extract product) is
often called the "reflux ratio" since it is an operating
variable. The minimum value , of this ratio corre- (266)
spo~ds to an infinite number of equilibrium' stages.
'I'he rna.:'(imum value where the ratio is infinite (D
is zero), termed "total reHux," eorresponda to the
TIle difference point z~ may be loca:ted, .using
minimum number of equilibrium stages for the sep&-
equations 250 and 252, and, by: equatiOll8' 263 &n"d
fation considered."'" The value -of the reflux ratio
actually usea for & given extractioo. must be between 264,
~
'
- L., - V, _. -(V + D) (267)
~ linuts and ~yJ ~. determined from economic
eOOsideratioOij IJO that the total CQ8t of the operation
(268)
(fixed charges ,on the equipment plus operating cost)
illl the minimum.
ElleralH. Show from equation 2ft8 tit :t.t. alwaYB liM
Consider the CASe of eitraction where the (oUowing within t.be triancle or 01] the hypotenUM.
variAbles ha_ve been set: Graphically, %6 may be located on the line %01/,,+1>
L The quantity (L,) and composition (%1") of the SO that
reo<!.
2. The
aJso %D -
composition (XD) of the extract produCt;
Zo-
--= - -+1
D,
1:" - )
.:1 - %oY,,+1
Y,,+1%4
('
D,
3. The composition (x,J of the raffinate product. since the airection of measurement "(sign) is immate-
4. The coinposition (Y"+I) of the solvent; also rial wben calculating the ratio of distances. 'I.'OCre-
V "". v,,+\ fore,
6. The reflux Tatio (LoID). )
(269)
The composition of stream V h VI may be determined
by constructing the line "through the pointe Zo and I
V - 1/,,+1 and determining .the intersectiOll of this 'The second diffe~Doe point %4' may be located in
line with the branch QR- of the solubility curve , the manner previously described'! Fieure3ro is the
(Fig. 320). From equations 263, 264a, and 2600, complete ' graphical solution for the following
the point 1/1 lies on the strajght line joining Zo and exa:mp1e.
)I , since :to represenl8 the composition of both
tutl~ Lamp.... It it propoeed 1.0 I!ejWaloe miJ;-
Lo and D. It also lies on the solubility curve, since t~ru ....
Qf mothyl(lyd.opeD~e and rt-hext.ne oonta.iniq; 0.40
it is a ~ream leaving an equilibrium et:age. Hence mole.... fl9.Cwon methyl~clopent.&ru! IIlId 0.60 . mole fraction
the intersection represents the composition VI ' The n.-he'Xane by extnetion followed by - fraCtionation. The IU-
ratio of Vito V may -be- determined as follows. traetion is to be eondueted at as-c, with IIOlvent (0.9911 molll
fraction aniline and O.tX)6 moIB fraction met.byleydopen.t&De)
IUI~, 'The...m..te produet " to contain 0.150 ~
f~ methylcyclopenl.ane,. and the extract produet ie to
....- OOIltain 0.116 mole fraction &nilil~ aDd 0.700 mole fra<:~QQ
!14 UQUID-UQVID EXTRACTION
mec.bylqeiopeo1&De. A eontmuoue OOUJI.~t multiple. Tiae equilibrium dMa if. ~ abo" t.enwy .,uem at %6- C
CODtad enraction I)'stem with enn.ct rellu;ac ia to be I*d. ~ siven ill Table 33. .
1. Determine the number of equ.ililXium staces required if Provided that no chemiea1 reactiollll oeeur in the ~
.. ~WI ratio (LoID> of 10 mo_ 01 extract re1hu: pili' mOM! of eo that the lIumber of moles of material in the cnterina Itream:l

..
g'net product i8 WJed. ill equal. to the Dumber of moIea of material in the IeaYin,
2. Det.ernUne the minimum reflux ratio (Lo!D}..1Io that may 1It.reamt, all qut.ntit.ies and oompositiODll ma,. be I!I~ in
"""- tenn8 of mo1N "" well all in terms of ma..
8. Determine the maximum CODCIIDtntiOD of methylcyclo- The rono.rdol valuet are eet by the Btatement of the prob-
pentaoo tha t may be obtained in the extract product willi
the .arne feed composition and the _me raftina.te product
"m.1. Composition of the feed: (ZA )' - 0.400 and (:rc), - \
oompoe;it.iou but .,.ithout the me of extract refluz. 0.600.

'"
7. +1
_1_
1.00

Q
,- ~I": (.)_
~ ~" Id.-I stIfIS NqUind - 12.7 or 13
fMC! mould be introduced In ideal stili No. 6

~ -'!."~' :.~
o.ao !:"."' ... ~..~.
~l'.
~\!0-. I'"
,\1\\ I, 1"'-
~I\~ 1\
1\ 1<\
:~
1"'-
\\11 r.,\ 1\ l'\ D
,\ \~\ \ \ \ 1" 1"'-
\\\1\ l\ 1\ 1\ l\ I), r- thrDU&h points %D - 1:, and Y - ,... 1

,\ ~\
1\ l\ ~~ 1\ 1\ 1\ \
V , 1"'-
1"'-
. \ 1\ ~ 1\ 1,\ I" 1"'-
\ \ \ \\ 1\ \ \
\ 1\ \\' \
\
1\
\ \ _\
I,
'" "I"
\ '\
~
-,
" ~
I
020
V,
,2~,
... ... I",
FIG. 320. Complete (!:MlphicalllOlution (or part I of iU u.etrative example.
 METIlODS OF CAWUbATlON SIS
2. Compollilion of the extraet produet: (Z'.li)D - 0 .700, pf\Me. Tbla intenloel.ion cor1"e8pOndt to (/o' A)1 _ 0.132 ~
(ZlI)'D _ 0.11(1, II.nd ED - ;roo fn.etion &nd (v.l! - 0.833 mole fraetion. By meMUl'ement of
a. Compotlition of the raffinat.e product : (%:.)..... O.USO. diet.anee!! atong the line z;y::;j,
For AD equilibriulIl mp,. z" mlt!l rlie 1'11'1 lIOI.ubitity eurve to ~ ,. , ,.
that (~) .. ill fixed. ~.., '....; VI %4'_+1 ,",O uniI5 '
4. Composition of .~ IIOIvetit: (..,d"+1 .. 0.005, Uld (,...) .. ';'1 -Y - .- i;ft - 36.7 urutll
. .... 1.323
-O.~ . .
5. ReftUlt ra~io (L.ID) - 10. v (LtI D) 1 *"
11
(266)
D - ' (V 1I Vl-l - 0.223 - 49.3
TABLE 33.' SATI::RATED AND EQUILIBRIUM COM
POSITIONS FOR THE TWO PHAS~ IN THE SYSTEM .9 unit.s
METHYLCYCLOPENTANE-NHEXANE-ANILINEi .... + 101 .. (1 + YID) 50.
- 0.93 llIIit (269)
' TEMPERATURE, 2:i- C'
Sjmi l~ly. the point ",,"' ill located by t he into:>~ion of tM
. Iinu joining points U &nd 2'4 with the line joining the poinlol
!WI'OM UJ<"
,.hilioo t.yot ;/;. and 10'.. +1 ( Fi,. a2Oa).
- " Tbe UllUal Cf1IPbIcai prooed\lre ill followed to determine t.be
101.... ' ........ N .... It.o ... w.. "....... },I_RoW oumber of equilibrium 1ItaI>lII, Tbe eQmplete lIOIution is Indi-

---.. , '-.
---',- - -- .- - -.
w- -.
cated in Fig. 320. The e.pprol<imatc compOllitions of the
...., .....-,
----...
IItreams le!I.vin, the equilibrium 8~ &re sh01l' 1l in T able M.
e
.H..- A~;'
K, TABLE 34, COMPOSITION OF STREAMS LEAVING
~
W...

"
I,
~ n " " EACH IDEAl. STAGE

........ ........ ....... .. .... , .:;

'

'. 100

O.MlO' 0.5L4
'.071

.....
.. ~
,

.......'" ..... .
a. De7

O.lM
. ........ ....-
.6.41 UN!
G. .su f.IOU
0.0711

..
o t l' a..u
~
o,~
0.014
G.1I1

...
-
0'.07'
. G, m
O:ilO

"'7'
.
' .110

...........'.M .......- ..,. ,....... ......... ...........,, .".,..... ....'.M'.M'.m

..W O.'IS ..W
uta.
1:1117
11.10
11. 10
' .m
. m
.....
1'001

Number T
Extract PhA8e

"
~

Y","
.
n...ffioow Phase

,.. X.

..... ... .... ..... "n ....

' . 104 . " . '. U41 '~UI '.141
O,n. e. IUI 0 .. . 1

..... ..'" .'"

~ ' . 117 0.132 0.797 0.641 0.710
0. 1.12 '1.ft2 ,e. 1111 0.,11 ~
o.tU us 2 0 . 109 0 . 725 O. !l59 0 .620
. 0...7 '.143
:r 0.493 0 . M3
0.076 0.588

..."'""" ..... .....

0 .471
Pan 1. The "poinUlllh %4, and Z4' ~' first loca~ on Fi,.
320. ThEo point"l repreeentinc the compollit:on of the 6tn.et
<V '.064 0 ,629
0 .'198
0 ,385 , 0 ,422
' .389
phue leavins: equilibrium stare I is determined by the inter- 7 '.327 0.3.~7

8ection of the line joinin, pointll :t:D - ~ II:D-d ..... /o'''H, with 8 0 ..047 0.429 0.295 0 .322
the ' bn.neh of t he IIOlubility c'.Jrve reprieentm, the 'extract
0.042 0.264 '.287
.. .,.
" 0 .390
10 ' 0 .036 ' 0 .351' ' .232 0.251
>1
,.
..
~ II 0.031 ' .200 0.216
".' 12 , , 0.()26 0.266 0. 167 1,180
.1' 0 .021 ". 0 . 141 0 .152
.
1\ "
UIO , z" .. mok frael.ion lDI'lihyieyclopentaae iII raftin.a.te (f.-be:.-
y .... - , ane) phue.
.... - mol.e fracLion methyleyelopentane .in e.tn.ct (aniline)
.~ """'.
~ ". "...... . XI. - mole n.tin of methyieyelopent.ane to melhyle.y rlo-
pentone +
hexane 11'1 raffinllU! (n-helUlne) ph>lll\!.

1,\ ::< Y" _ mole ratio uf metbylcyclopcntanc tu methylc.vd()-

+
hexane in exlrad (aniline) phase..

"" "," " 1~ ~

pentane

FlO. 3'lOa.
M.
o
,
0.Q2
1\ 1"-1"-
O.()4 '"
,,0.06
Mole Fl'lICti!ln Melhylcyclopenl_
Enla.-gOO "".&Ie til!l ....illl: locD lion of points ;z"
- Ideal ~t~' 6 Is the corr&ct stage for tho introductioo
d the feed.

ParI t. Whenever lhere is &D infinite number of 8~

there is no clu!.l1lile in the composition of II ~Irum' WI it paaae!I
frum maIO to~. Tbi.ol condiwn i8 i .... lit:.. t(~1 by the eo-
incioknr.e of .. tie line with Kn operatiuJt Ii"".. The required
anti %,!" it, ~il' 3'20.

1
316 UQUlD-UQUID EXTRAIlTION
minimum I'IlftUlI ra/;io (~D)_ ill \110 maQrnum vai\MI ol .....> ill .'i.53. With tbe _ pI""OOG(IlIJ'e at other Intel'-
WD computed by ~ of lbe ooiDCideDOC or any tie line medi&t.tI poeiUoDIJ and .~ the coda 0{ Lbo I)'IWD., other refbu:
with Ar. ope:ra tina lioe. The coincidence of an optftt ing line ratioB Uu found to correspond to in.finit.e ~ in tboee poeio
with . tie line does not OO!.(!l'nune the minimum n!8ux for !.be tiooa.Sinee i ... 1)0 eaee .. a retlu:.: rauo &rc&ter tb.t.n tbe .'i.b3
SYltem but &imply indicatea the required reflull if ibere iD no indicated, the maximum reflux ",,\.io required fOl: All infinite
ehAnge in eom pol!i.tion from Map W .st..,e at that ~nt in number of .~ 'AIlywbere in the elttraction IlY'lIooI it 6.63,
the 8yfJt.cm. and this is thfl true "minimum reflux ratio" Irw the operaUq
If the 0pllrating line at the feed Bt&go Q to ooilleide with. conditions OODSideted.
tie line, it ~n do 110 only if the extcnaion of the tie line paMei!I - Pari 3. If extract reflux iB not II!led continuol1ll counte ....
throt!ih z, . This tie line may be found by tria.I &lid omur to cumnt multlple-oontact operatiOli of the extraotion .y.tem
pai!II throu&h the points .nll be followed . The muimum oonoentratioo of ruetbyl-
CyclOpeDtaDe ill \he exlJ"aot product ~ill be obtained when the
(Z.4 .. 0.368), (Z8 .. 0.(84)
minimum .-oIve:n~~eed rati<J ill employed.. Thill minimum
(rA. - 0.062), (vs .. 0.880) .xven\.-t()ofeed r&Uo OOI"1'elIpoud8 to a ay.tern tequirill& a.n
infiDite Dumber of at.aree (_ pIIl1. 3, illlllltrat.ive lIxamp)e,
The N WMion of thi. line I'o-;U a)lJQ pA$II tbf'OU&h the pointe p. :JJ8) and ill det.ennined by the coinciOOru:e of a d e line with
%4 and %4- for these Oper1'UnIil oonditiODlJ &8 t h_ point. are an opetatina; line.
011 the operad n, line at the feed atae. %.a M the inte~tjoo Tbe extraet produe1. eompoeition det.erm.i.ned by .. be line

\ lI4'
which, when txtlnded, p&fiIIe& thrnllKh the point x, hu been
determined in p&t1. 2 ..
.
, "A .. 0.062 "8'" 0.880

~
In the ceneral eaee It may be poMible that a value of "A
lower
than 0.062 may be obtaine4 by tbe coincidenoe of another tie
line with All operatina: line. In the pi"'Mlnt cue 110 other tie
llne 'Jeade to vall.lell of 11.1 _ than. 0.002.
Cornpan.oa of the maximwn value of (r&)l - 0 .002 when - ......

_.
1.00 extract ftl8Ul1 Ie not uMKi with the value of (fA)1 _ 0. 132
y.u"y which ill obtained _beD e-.:tzaet rethu: i. u.ed ilIustratee one
01' the rea.tIOM fOf the WIt of IlItnlct teflu:l ~_ \hou&h it re-
. ~ quirul weer arnotmte of dvent per unit maa of feed. In
the preeent illunration., it extract refhur: it not UIIed, the ruse
~ of IIOIvent to feed n.tioe which may be UfIed is rather IimiUd.

~ " , A. already det.etmined, tbe lower limit ill !let. by tbe rt!quire-

"" \ ).; ""

,,' rnent of an in.6.nlte number of stages. The upper limit ill llet
"" by the fact that the .ina:iIl-phaI!e region of the equilibriwn

... o 0J)2 0D4

\ '\. I"'.
0.05
. . . frection Methyk;)dapenlanl
diagrani is"pproacbed-.. the !J01vent-to-feedr&tio "In~.

Mou or Mole Jtatio D~lJ"Om

In many ca8e8 it is convenient to use oompoejtioo
Flo. 321 . Gnphieal lIoMioo for .dill[ ~ eorl1lllflOWiin& unita baaed on only two instead of all thre.J com-
to infinite ~ at the feed 8I.age, (w iUuatntive example.
,.,,1 ponent&.. For this treatment the same eqliations
may be uaed with the minor modilicatioIlll necessary
of thililine with the line ;ZoY_+! lIS indiC&ted in r'1I- 321. The to make them applicable to only two components
rel&tive distanees along ~may be Nbltltuted in equa- of the Btrealrut. ThUB,
tion 260, givi .!
L' - m888 (or moles) of two components in
:l'0!i~+1 .. 44.9 .. 30.3 .. 1 + ..!. (269)
st~am L.
" .. ~1:r4 1.48 D
V' ,. mass (or moles) of two components in
v
D'" 29.3 yv, .- 1.223 ((rom Part 1) stream V .
X _ fractional composition of a component in
V
D-
(LJf))
(V i/V)
+1
1
... 29.3 ... <L./D)
1.223-1
+1 ...,., st ream L 00. the basis or the two oom-
poRents included in L'.
Y - fract~onal composition of a component in
~ ... 5.63 stream V 6n the basis of the two com-
D '
ponents included in V'.
Thflrelore, the Teflux ratw required when there ill no eh&n~
in oomposition from elqe to .etage a.t the feed IItAce (infinite For example, a mixture containing 20 Ib of A, 30
 1\IE111005 OF {CALCULA110N 311
Ib of C, and 50 Ib of S may have ita oomposition t he quantities of the two eompOD.ent.s in the ~
expressed a8 follows. tive streams are inversely proportional to the dis-
tances between the corresponding points.
For example the rectangular diitgram (Fig. 322)
corresponds to the right~triangle diagram (Fig.
S Free Ba.o!iI! A F!'ejI Ball. 312) with the 'comp08itione expressed as mole ratios

XA -
zc ..
2:g _
0.20
0.30
0.50
X .. +
X c - 1 Xc + X g .. 1

X A - 0.4
X c - 0.6
Xg _ 1.0
XA
XC"
- 0 . 2$
O.37:r
on t he solvent-free basis.

Xs -
%A+:rC '
. ;
Xs - 0.62.5
YA y, Ye
Y A- Ys - Ye -
1.0
liA + Yc 11.10 + Ye llA + Yc
1 XA + Xc -
The mass ratios of the two components may vary
from zero to unity, but the third component not- Y I! may have values up to infinity for pure solvent.
included in L' or V' mlLY have lllJlSS ratios from zero U:nder these conaitiollll the material balance equa-
to innr.ity. Th!;! closed tI;angie which includes all tions are most conveniently written in ~rmi! of the
W , solvent-free material and not in temis of -the total
quantity of the streams:--

L'o +_V'.+l L'" + V' I . (Z70) or (241')

where L' moles of components A and C in the
stream L.
V' "!" m~ of ~ponenU! . A and C in the
stream V.
If V "';' I is pure component S~~ the value of, V' ,,+i'
is zero. Similarly equation Z,12 becomes
L'oXo + V'''';' IY'' ';' I = L' .. X .. + V' .Y I

(271 ) <>< (242')

M sOw.""" ,. .........
lIIu ltrat lve Example. PAttI! J and 2 of the provloue
illustrati ve example (p. 313) are to bo 8OIvoo by In<;an8 of
the n:<:tangul&r moleratio WIIKf>UlI.
Pwt 1. All the koowlI ....,mpoeitions, which am IPven in
mole fractions, are COlIvened to u)O)" I"tI liros.
1. Con.poei\ ion of I.be feed. Since the foed CODWIlS I\It)

XA 0( YA
0.',. ...:,"t- ,
~~"";;;)

anilioe,
(X s) ... _ 0
. ' 10. 322. PIwIc equilibrium dillgrnm on 11 mulo-ruUo bru.is
for the lY8tem m"thylcye\o" ~ltanc-norma\ hexan""{ln iliuIJ, 2. Composition of the extl"Mt produot: ... 1"
Ilt 2~ C. ,"
O.7 0.110
(XA)D .. 0- - .... 0.792; (X8 )D" -0 .- .. 0 .1312; XD - X.
positive values of comp06itions expre&M!d as mass .884 .654
fractions (:t, y) is not adapted to treating "alue5 t>p 3. CompOOtion ollhe raffinale product:
to infinity. Bu.t a rectangle with olle side (usuLilly
0 .160 , 0.073
the top) at infinity includes ILIi positive compositions (X A) .... - - .. 0.1618; (-X 8) .. - - - 0.0788
0.'" 0.!J27
expressed as mass ratios (X, Y). As in the triangu-
lar diagram, the cOIDI,ositions ofJhc thrt..>e l: ltrcams 4. Cum(lQ!ition of the lJU\vent:
when plottffl. as cOordinat.cs of m~ ruti,) on the 0.~~15
tc(;Ul.ngu!ar diagram n!so lie on a straight linc, and ( Y.,)">1 - - - - 199
0 .00.'>
318 UQUID-UQUID EXTRACTION
vcnicnL to ute Ulan !.be mole fraction diaram.moe the differ-
ence point. XI.. snd XIl' &r() DOt erowded to&etber (com.pare
with Fi,;. 820). T he I'lOlllpollitio~ of tM 8tr'ea.m8 1eaviDc; the
equilibrium ~ ~d wio. thoee given in Table M.
The lWDe number'oC ideal sta.geI (l3) are computed as by tbe
150 triaqcular diagrun of the emDlpie ou p. 314.
PI1 t. Tile determination of Ute minimum reb ~ ill
ilIuttl'ated in Fig. 3U. For t.be 800\ion to the right of X"
eeriet! of tie lines (dll.Shed) and their f1)8J>I:!Ctive intergeetioDB
f 100 wit h the line X,f l . " , shown. 'nle tie JiDe ft colTellpGnda to
!.be tie line whicb wllea extended JlIIIIIII'II through X,. The
I coordinates for this tie line are (X .. ) _ 0.401, (Y A) .. 0.616.
The intezwc:tion of Wsline with t.be line XeY" pomt " repm-
eeots the point X. oorte!IpOt"ld.i", to t.h:a t.ie !inf). The value
50
of (X,!}", for this tie line it the hlgheet. v&lmfof (Xs)", for any
~. t.ie line in thlI!I eeetion and ill the lirniting cue detennining
Q Y, the reflux requirOO for an infuli\.e number of ~ (eo-eaIJed
minimum relhaJ.
" 0
X. X, XD-X Fc.- the Ieciioo to the left of X" similar 8erifls of tie linea
are IIhoJwD I.o@:etbeI" with their int.enectiona with the line
X~Y"+I' III thia CAlle tbG intemectiona mpn!8ent the COlT"&-
6pOndillg XI.' pointe for tbG reepective t.ie linea. TbG lowellt

0.6
..... 1II11l11,qc~
X .. y....... ....."k:;.lop."- .. _
Of
To Y.
Flo. 323. 0veral1 paphleal c:oIIIIt.r\lct.on 00 .. moI~t.io
dia&:nw for iUuetrative eumpie, put I (p. 315).

20
The point Y 1 illloeat.ed by det.ermiJlin the iol.eJ'!I!Idion. of

-.
tile lme- }oWng tbe point. AD - X .. ADd Y _ Y,,+!. with
the extract phase bnuleh (om 01 ~ IIOlubility eurve (Fig. To Y.
128) at (Y A )l - 0.797 &lid {Yah - 6.
The diflerenaa point X Il may be fOUDd .. followl by llirnila:r f
10 , 0

V'1 x;r (r ,) - (x"lD 199 - 0 .131

--_-
V' ADrl (rill (K,lD - 6 -0. 131 - 407
.

11
(40.7 _ 1) - 0.27& (266,)
o X. j
, I. -
V' l'DX.i. . (X,).!. - (X,lD (XIJ)t. - 0.181 27
D' - 'r.Y - ( r.s) (Xm,," 1911 (xa4 - O. 6

(266'.4)
SolviDc, ex,,), - 43.1. -20
p
smc. the diflez'eAoe point. XI>. _ (1). IItIai&bt!me X;V,
point X ... ma.J be Iotated. Tbe "alUII 01 (X ... )" II fOUDd to be
0.8M.
The IeOOCId difreftrlOll point maoy _ x". be Ioeated by
IDdmc t.be interaect.loo of lineI XAX, and Y" ..IX ...t point - 30
(I 0.1 Q.2 .0.3 QA. 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.a O.J
(X,Il/l' .. -39 % arY
..
..... ..,Ir,.,' ,
A ..... ...,.". ' . "'"" ........
Tbe crapbieal aoJution for t.hII oUJnber of equilibrium IIt.apI
required .. Ihown ill Fit;. 826. For the tMrwy IJ)'8Wn UDder Flo. 324. GraphicallIOlution for miiUmum reflux for iUuatra-
. ~, the moJr, ratio diaaram .. *>lneWb&t more coo- tift exampe, pM. 2.
 MEl110DS OF CALCULATION

,I
....
,-
, ,I
~.
Ib...,.u
To r ;,"1

,,y
J jf-
,
"
/ !A ~
~1/
K Y, Iy. /J /
J./ ,./
xv, rJ~ ~ v., ~.z, ~/.
,
0 x, .x,
~x: I~. "
" A.

ill I~
r
-10

@
-'" .
_..-
0.' 0>
x .. Of y.. , ..... ~ .. "*-
...
Fto. 3'l5.. Graphical eouiut.ioD of illlI5trati ve example, pu1. 2, on. mofe..ntlo bMi&

intenleetion; point m, when oonl\6llt.l!d with X"., ,ivllII the this illustntive problem, there are two liuUUq: OODditJOr.. of
hit;heet value <Jot" (X,,}... Tberefore, ~bia tie li na indkates the operation. One extreme requirel inlioite ownher of .c..-
minimwn m8= reqWmd with an hdinite number of .tac.ea ud .. minimum reftw: n.t.io. Tbr: other extmne ill !.be miPi-
to prodllQfJ thr. l'IK(ulfed resUlt. IDWD. nwnber of equilibrium Rap requirod which ourr.
The poiDt l iiu the ~D&teII; .ponds too total reflux, i.e., DO product witbdn.WIl. ..... !.he
reftWl mtio I n _ , the value for (Xlll.. ~. n.e
!{X.<l)4J.- - 28.3, [(X .oil,,!.... - 0.83] muimum vrJoo of L'. and dill minimum value 01 D' ~
..be.. D' - 0, (lillY - .). By. material. ___ 011
Subei1tutil'l( 28.3 'Ot" (X.do in equation 266'A Above and IlDlYelIoHnIlI bRae correepoodiDa to equatiocl _

""- V'
-_
D"
By equ&t.ion 266'
28.3 - 0.131
199 ,.;. 28.3
28.2
- -- -
1'10.7
0
.1668 V', _L'.+V'+D'

and, aince D' _ 0, to - U . - V'I - '-V', aid X.t.-~

wit.h Y. Fi&um 325 ~ thu thiB 00Ddid0D ftqQirw \he

( L'~)
D
_($.7){O.l658) _ 1 _ 6.58 - 1 _ 6.58
rninimum Dumber of equilibrium .~
The oonditiOllf of "minimum reIIux r-Uo" r.ad of "total
""flux" are the liuUtII of operation. Any practical. opera.tioIt
For particular extl.ction, au<::h M hM been coo.idered in must lie 'lrithiD the limiu .,t by lheae twO extftmeIs.
 UQUID-UQUID EXTRACTION
BIBUOGRAPHY
G. A.",u!.D, G. R, and C. A. Coco}!t.Uf, '"Toluene Extl'action
with Water," Ind. Ertf. CW., U. 177- 182 (l950).
~. BENEDICT, toL, "Multi.eta&e Sepwatioo~" CMm.
E..,. PTog., U. 41-00 ( 1947).
1. -_ Bl..I.MDlMG, F. H and J. C. ELGIN, ''Limitinr; Flow in
Liqwd-Uquid Extraction CoIunuur.," Tnuw. AM. IML
CMm. E . ... sa. 305-3.S (11M2).
2. BRJOG&, 8. W. and E. W. Cl.'oIINO&, "ElfllCt of Tcmpcl'1l-
at ure on Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium," 1M . Bng. Che", .
II; 411- 17 (1M3).
a. CoLIIVIJ.IoI, A . P . and D . G . W2UH. "Experiment.a1 Study
of IndividuAl Transfer Resiltanoee in Countercurrent
Liquid-Liquid ExtraetJon, " TI'IlN. A.... Iml. Cltem.
sa.
En{/T' " 179-201 (1942).
4. D.UWENT, B., and C, A. W,NW.u.a, " Tbe SylItcm 1'\-Hax-
ane-Methyleye1opent&ne-Aniline," J . PA",. CMm., '7,
-2-54 (1943).
5. ELGIN.J. C., and R. WTNS:OOP, Section 11,ofJ. H . P.UY,
C/ltmit:al EngifllW" Holtdbook, Srd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Co. (19.50).
6. Ibid., pp. 717- 718.
7. ~'LoIN, J. C., "Design and AppUeatloDli of Liquid-Liquid
Emt.ction;'; CMm. Md. e..,.,
ie, No.:;, 110-16 (1942).
8. ELGIN, J. C., "Solvent Extraction," 1M. E..,. ClMin. , as.
-26-7,37-8 (1946).
g. GUlNO'!', H., "M~thode D'Extraetlon et de CoooentraUQn
de L'Acide AreUque de _ SoluUoo. Aque~ Diloo...s,"
ClIi",i" .t i~, 21, 243-61 (1929).
10. H uHTEll, T. 0., and A. W. N o\&lI, ''Cbemieal Engineering
Design of So1vCll.~ Ezt.taetioo Unit. for Relining Lubri-
cat.Wc Oil," TI'OlU. C.v.. E1tIJ. e~ of W""Cd P _
n.
CDfI/-. l.ofttIIm, 409 (1004).
II. MALoNEY, J. O.,..,d A. E. 8cJtURaT. '~Application
of Rectaacutu Coordinate Metbods \0 Solven~ & tl1loO-
lion Desip," Tr'/l!&f. ..t .. 1..... CIMm. B.... 16, 741 -57
(UKO)~
12. Mu.t.l:tt, a A., aod C. A. M..I.MN, "~t.!.tion of ~
Phillie Syatem. of IDlIIliIeible Liquida," TrIIM. Am. flu"
e . E'II{fr'., 4D, '109-43 (1944).
13. 0"111''', D. F . R. E. WHIn, and E. 1'liurollK, "Liquid-
Liquid Ext.r.ctinn Da..... " '1M.. E..,. C-'tm., II, 1240-48
(1941).
14. RA.NDO\LL, M ., and 8. I.oN01'IM. "Separation Proa..r.e-
~ OOtW'elm Ab.orption. Extnction, Di~tillation,
Heat Exchange, aiJd Other Separation ~," Ind.
E..,. CMm.., 11, 129&-00 (UI39).
15. RoGi:.s, M. W., and E. W. TIIt ELJ:, "BubbJ&.Cap Column
as a~Liqtlid-Liquid Contact Ap,Par&t.wl," Ind. E1IfI. Cmm.,
tl, 629-30 (1937).
16. RUTHRUl'J', R.. F:, and D. F. W n.cocJ:, " Solvent Extmo-
tion of Vegetable Dryinl' Oil.," TrGM. Am.. I IUl. Chem.
EIt9"., n, MIHl6 (194l). ~
17. &u:.wooo, T. K, J. E. EVAHi., and J . V. A. LoNocoa,
"ExtI1loCtion in Spn.y and P~ltod Columns." Inti. E..,.
CAma., 11, I J44-{iO (1939).
18. Sr.UTH, A. S., and T. B. BRA I1H, "But.... i<loe Purification
. by SolveQL Extraction," l ftd. E..,. c.w ...., ,." UY7~
(l9U).
W. R. E., a nd F. E. DUMOULIN, " Liquid-Liquid
'fiEY1I.u..
Extraction in II P~... fo.rated-P1&le Tower," 1M. En 1.
CMm., h, 709-13 (l 9~ 2).
20. VALENT' N!l, K. S., IUId G. r.hcLJ::A N, Section 17, of J. H.
P&RR!', Clt<!miml E"9i_~' HIPIdbooIr, 3rc! ed., MeG""._
Hill Book Co. (1950).
21. V" KT~Il~ ...N, K . A., &nd M . R. F~;s&lt ~ " Liquid-
Liquid E.":/raction- E ueL QUlIlltitative ReI&ti0n8." Ired.
ER{J. eM..... !t8, 13.-00 (11)36).
22. WIGGINS, W. R., a Dd F. C. H AI..4 ' 'Solvent l':xtnu:tJoo
ProoeIiees," J . I .... PtboltlUft T ediltOi., no
18-98 (1936).
PROBLEMS
Diphenyloozane j!! to be IleparatOO fl'Om 1000 lb of II mixture
containing 0.20 m&S!! fraeLion dipbl.mylhe_ &nd 0.80 ITlM8
frnct.klO doooI!ane by OXtr$.ct toD 1II'ith furfural oontllining
0.005 IUaSIIlraction dilfflenylhe xsne a.t 4:; C.
1. Compuw t he compoilition and qua.ntity of the exuII,Ct
a.nd ralliullte, when t his IlOlution is mixed with each quautity
of 10, 100, 2000, 10,000, and 100,000 Ib of 1lO1veot.
2. What il the looI!t qulntity of IIOlvent _ r y k> f orm
twop~?
3. What is the mazimum amount of solvent that 1riU form
two ph&III'JII?
4. The IIOlution i8 cootacted I UC:fllllively witb t1ll'O bakile!l
of aolvent, 1000 lb each . Compute the oomf'Ollitioo and
qUll.lltity of all intermodia.1.O and Ii.naI product.a.
s.. Re~ Problem 4, but for t hree baklbes of 667 Ib, four
batchea of 500 Ib, and ei,bt. bAtcbee of 250 lb.
6. n.e IIOlu t.ioo ill extraeted in a countereuneQt. e:litl'll.Cl.or
UBing 2000 Ib of M\'eIlt. wi!.h t wo equilibrium lltages. Com-
........
pute the comJX.itMlDII IUId quantitiee of too extl1U;:t ..,d
7. Repeat Problem 6, but wit h throe oquilibrium ~
and five OQuilibrium 1Jta..
8. Repeat Problem6, but with an infioJ\e numberol equilib-
riu I stageB.
9. Compal'(! the raffinaw .co mp.;..itioDII oI Pl'Obkrn& I, 4, 5,
6, 7, and 8, by preparinll: a plot with I'lI&III\ fraetioll diphenyl-
benne &8 ordinate lind number of It&i61 II 1Ib8cisae.. The'll
will be one line for multlplo-oontact extraction and one line
for oountercurrent extraction.
10, In the extrll,Ction 01 alcohol from an IIloohol. benzen.e
IIOlution by water, \.en extra.ction vesaels al'(! UlIed in continuoWl
countercurrent extradiQn of :; t.ona / hr of feed COntN.nil1l1
0.12.5 ffiII8II frac1,ioo alcohol.. Tbe extract contains 0.400 IIlAIIIII
fraction a.1coboI, and raffinate it 0.09 mMS frat:ltion benRI'II!.
Four of the ve!l'lCls lire pOt out of ecrvtoe by an accideot.
What is the roDoeotraUon 0( aIcobol 10 the n.ffinate, aod
what is Lbo mt'rllMe in I. . of alcohol when the llix _ I s
a re used, compared ...it h t.be qual Len? (Boo _Appendix
for equilibri,UD data. )
 PROBLEMS 321
II . Six toNI of a 25 per eent i!IOlutlon of acetic acid in w!\t.er returning tht. eth&r at 0.004 ma. fraction &.retic acid for
ill ttl be ' extllU;ted per hour with pure lIIopropyl ether in a re~. H"ffin!iw leave!! a t 0.03 IlUI8iI f no.el.m acetie t.cid,
ooun1.erw.rrent multipJe..eontad. system H<l":' many ideal uagos will be rolJui ~ f?r the lIe),o.l'&tionf
If iel!II than 5 per rent d the acetie ""'1 ill to be bit in \he At which lltage eliould cnch at.rea1Jl be~ inJ.rOOueoJ1~ ' ..
raffinate and tbe .. mount of IIOlvent WIed ill t.o be kept within
. A lubriCllling oil . took having II mooe.ity-gn.vity oon_
2li per cent of !;be minimum lJllount pcrrnillsible, bo...., IIIJilly
8\.D.nt equal to 0.874 ie to be extracted wilJl ~benzene in a
ideal ~ 'Irill be required for !.be en~?
countercurrent multiple-6t11&e 1I)'l1l.em ope~ at 100 G.
12. A OQWl1.ereurrent mtlltipl&-etllp eX\01lctioo IIy$f.em is It is proposed to use 100 volumes d nitrobenzene peT 100
to be ~ fOf' the recovery of ..cetic t.cid from .. n aqueous volllllle8 of llloe\;. Determine the number of stages required
i!IOlution oonl.t.inin, 30 weight per cent uetic acid. Isopropyl if a nUtinate product havill& .. vlaoosity-gnnity ronstant
ether b.u been llelected 118 t.he801venl to be ueed fortbeextrn.,. (Vee) of !l8lS ill del!il'ed. Tbe following data ...ere 0b-
tion. TIle raffil'\atC ill t.o contain no~ more t han 1.0 ...eight per tained from experimental ei~tagc batch extraeoons of
_ t _tie ..cid ,
(0) Wb .. t ill the muimum acid eoncentratiort (mMli peT
MDt acetic llcid) tht.t et.n be ob~ inJ~ eX\ract tf'I?ID the ~
.yst.em! How mllny irl~1 dgetl'<wiu be' requjred1 WhAt. if.
the required ratio of ether to feed?
(b) Determine the quantity of ether required per pound
Lhe oillltock with different VtI1umeI! of 8Oh1'.nt.
S<J1~nt Vied,
Volumell .pef ,~; ~nate P.hue
lOOVolullY)il
of Stook
volume %
I!Olvent VGC
volume %
-p-
IIOI""nt VGe
of feed and the oompo!!ition of the extract if four idesl.sta&'lll
are Ul!I!d.
(~) tffltermine
~Y,.f
the nwnber of
I )'t
idoallt&gcll~. ~ the
"
intact. is toi;mtain 10,Ii 'wclgh't per c:!hi acetic acid. - , j
C W' 1lq l~l /l1l'l .... u !--.f()('.1\\/' I "lI:l~','
13. T'f';fl roF.'~ ot ~~UJ ~1;Ition " of' ~tie ,~ 'f'
ll.Vailable I"'.ehCnuc~ plMl, olle ooMisting of 114,000 IbJhr
Of 0:29 mMS fraclion uetiel ~ad tild OM cOnsisting of .3QOO
Ib/hr of O.lZ mt.88 fraction acetic acid,": r, ,
Tbe acid is to be oonCElnt".ted by exttactioll. with iiIopi'Opyi
~r, 1\\D1()vin& the .~fOOtI: extrac~ a' 0.08 n_ fractfoD -
atlI!t.ic .0.:1, oonoent.rat.in& i~ in a fractiona~ oo1umn, aDd
~ '. u. _
C .~~ 0" (I '" ." 11 .~j /", ... '"p_ )' - I~'
, 'T: I " j
I

-,
.' 1( .'1 .1,)

-o';H ,. ,
-!!' ",'

l'

.....
L I
 . ,.,.,-"
CHAPTER
23
Vapor-Liquid Transfer OperatiQ.ns 1
T
HEI difference ,in equilibrium
' comlV'oOOition be-
t"yy
! tWflen :liquid and vapor phases ma.y be used
, to separate individual comPonents or mixtures
in much th~ same manner as the difference in com-
position betWeen two liquid pb,aaes is used. in liquid.-
liquid extraction. Similarly tt:eindustrial equipment
for vapor-liquid t ransler operations has as ita main
'p~~ ~e. int~te contact and subsequent sepa-
ratlon a.nd handling of vapor and liquid phases. In
typical equipment, vapors may bubble "through a.
continuous liquid phase, droplets of liquid may fall
through a continuous vapor phase, an extended inter-
face may provide oootaet between the two phases.
or theee methods may be used in combination.
~ is specifically the prooesa of driving
off vapors from liquids (or solids) as by hest in a
retort or still, and condensing the vapor products
therefrom.. It includes evaporation lLlld condensa.-
tion. Vapor-liquid transfer operations that depend
u~ distillation for creating the vapor and liquid
out of the material being treated are abo referred to
all distilIa.t.ion.
A blOrpiion refers to an operation in which the
significant or desired transfer of mawrial is from the
vapor phase to the liquid phase. It usually, but not
exclusively, designates an operation in whlch the
liquid is supplied as a separate stream independent
of the vapor being treated.
Stripping is the tenn applied to an operalion in
which ,t he significant or desired transfer of material
is from the liquid to the vapor phase.
These three classifications are arbittary. They
are carried out in the same equipment frequently
at the lWlle time and are governed by the same
fundamental relationships.
... duit known as a downspout is provided 10K passin,
,
I. ,',
"
..
EQUIPMENT
The simplest means or ~ubbling ' y~ 'through
liquid i8 a vapor sparger or perforated pipe laid in
the bottom of a ~k containing t~ . liquid . The
vJ'POf' bubbles through the liquid during its pa.asage
to the surface where it is Ii~ted and ~parated and
leaves the tank through an overhead vapor line.
Liquid may be introduced and withdrawn from the
tank continuously if a continuous operation is de-
sired. In general, such equipment is adaptable to
smalHcaie operations where highly efficient contact-
ing is Dot DeCeSBary. Ita greatest limitation is the
fact that the advantages or countercurrent 80w are
not obtained, and only one opportunity to approach
equilibrium is given. Such spargers are used fre.
quently for heating or stripping the more volatile
components from organic liquids, or for abaorbina:
volatile components of thta gas in the Equid.
A spray chamber eonaist.s of a vessel through which
vapors are passed, usuany from bottom to top or
from side to side, Md into which liquid is sprayed
through nozzles or spargers installed at the top or
side. The liquid after contacting the vapor collects
at the bottom of the chamber and is withdrawn.
Such chambers are used chiefly for humidificat ion
in air conditioning and dust oollection applica.-
tions.
A much more efficient apparatus known as a plate
tower pennit.! the use of countercurrent flow of the
vapor and liquid phases. A typical arrlt.ngement
may c(JDsi~t of a vertical shell in which are mounted
a large number of equally sPaced circular plates &8
shown in Fig. 32ft .At one side of each plate .a eon--
 ".

EQUIPMENT

tilt t
, -
liquid ,
Flo. 326. ~ Diagnmm.!tic repre:eenu. FIO' ,:rn. DiagrarrunllUa ~Dta- ; FIG. Jig. Dfacrammlltic I'l!pl"l!S8nl&-
tion qt ~Ol1'ted.p:!ate tower ebowinc tion of a bubb~8p piate tower Bhow- tiOO of packed tGwer .
',';.? ",""U~lL ~ inc me;'" dO. . Dllpouts, and CllpI, both .
~ .Jotted &nd I'JerrateU.

liquid 'from the plate to the plate below. At I-he
opposite side of the plllie a similar conduit. feeds
liquid from the plate above. . SUw: plGU, are those in which the hubbJe..cap
A bubble-cap plate is a plate pierced with a number
of hole~ intQ which are 'fitted risers or "chimneys"
through which vapors from the plate below may pass.
Each of the risers is covered by a bcJl..shaped cap
which is fastened to the riser by'means of a "spider"
or other l!uitablc m~nting. The eaps are mounted
to provkle sufficient space between the riser and the
cap 'to allow passage Of the vapors. 'The lower edge
of the bubble cap may he scrrated, or the "skirt"
of the eap may be pieroed with a Dumber of slots as
shown in Fig. 327.
In operation, vapor- rises through the chimney
IUld is diverted downwards by the cap, discharging
as small bub~ from, the alote or notches at the
bottom of the cap beneath the liquid. The liquid
level is malntained"on the plate by means Of a weir
80 that the liquid surface may be 2 to 2.!1l in. above
the top of the slots of the bubble cap. Liquid is fed
to tbe plate and pasaes across it and down t hrough
the downspout. to the plate below, while the vapors
pass upward through the plate, mixing intimately
with the liquid OIl the plate because ol the dispersion
produced by the mots in the bubble ci:t.pe. The vapors
then separate at the liquid surface and pa!!I' to t.he
plate II.Uove. Thus approximately countercurrent
How of liquid pa.ssing dowoward and vapor ~
upward through ilie column is obtained.
assembly is replaced by =11 holes in the plate, a
typical dimension being :M'f1' in. in diameter spaced"
00 ~in. ' centers. The passage of the vapoMi through
the perforations prevents ',liquid from draining
through the holes. The construction of. weirs and
dowospouts is identical to that used in bubb~ap .
column.s.
The operation oJ a sieve or perfOI'Sted plate column
in vapor-liquid transfer is similar to that. in liquid-
liquid t.ra.nsCer llS illustrated in Figs. 306 and 326.
TM paclud tower consista of tl. vertical shell which
is filled with suitable packing material. The yquid
flows over the surface of t.he pllCking in thin films,
thereby presenting a large liquid surface in contact
with ascooding gases. The pllCking is supported
on a 8ui~ble grid. The liquid is introduced at the
top of the packing by means of a distributing plate
(a perforated plate) and tlH! vapor is introduced
beneath the grid which IIllPPOrts the packing, The
advan~ of multiple-eootact. and ~ntercurrent.
80w are obtained in packed {.owens, althouKh the
efficiency of COfItacting is usually not equal to that
obtained in tJle plate-type towers. Figure 328 shows
a typical p8l:ked !.olver. Figure 32& is a photograpb
showing a tower packNI with RaschiK rings.
 VAJ'OR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1

32!!a. Rasch., rinJl: ~cking in place, 9.~ dumved

,>lICked to"CT. (I.o.pp f111O.(WM Co., Inc..)

Fla. 32&. Cut,way vie,, uf ~pira' paJ1.iUOD rinil. Vll.riOWl

I
W pe!l lU1d numool1! of turJUI are ava.illl.ble. Theile ringll are
staekcd mllnua.Jly . (U. 8. SlonntOClff Cit. )

FlO. a28b. V..riou. viewe of Ber! 8Il.ddll'jj used fOJ pa.eking.1 FIG. 328d. V ~w of 5tf1eked partition riniB (1..'. S. dUm&-
ware Co.)
 CALCL"LATIONS BY EN"THALPY-COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
FlO. azs,. Grid packing. This p9.cking is Btacked m&lll\&Uy.
(U. S. SWMware Co.)
Reboil heal ma.y be ;rupplied to the base of a frac-
tionating tow,,: in many ways. Heating coils
il18t.alled in Ihe bottom section of the colwnn are
shown in" Fig.::\29. The heat exchange surface may
become fouled ,,ith long, continued use. If the
exchanger is arranged so that circulation of the
liquid from the bottom of the tower through the
exchanger is obtained !Jy thermal convection, fouliAg
FIo. 329. :&ttom Iioe<luon of a 4-f\ diameter oolumn, ahuwing
hektinl!: coila. (S. Bliekman. 1m.)
may !IO restrict circulation that the liquid baeka-up
into the column. For this reason external reboilers
')r heat exchangers are widely used as they are more
convenient. to clean and maintain in an efficient
operating condition. The mixture 01 vapor and li-
quid i~ returned to the base of the column, the liquid
recil"(...tlating through the exchanger and the vapor
passing upwards through the tower. Diroot-fired
;;ube stills through which liquid from the bottom of
the tower is pumped at high velocities are occasion-
ally used for high-temperature operations.
Condensing steam is wideiy used as a 80uree of
beat, particularly where the material at the base of
the column is sensitive to temperature, or the desired
temperatures may be attained conveniently at avail-
able steam presaure.
For higher 'temperatures, condensing Dowtherm
(diphenyl and diphenyl oxide) vapor, mercury vapor,
or high-boiling liquids may be used. The petroleum
industry often uses hot oil streams from some other
part of the process to heat the bottoms of fractionat-
ing columns operating 011 more-volatile material.
CALCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY_
COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
The calculation of the eompooitions of the ;..por
and liquid resulting from a contact depends upon the
attainment of equilibrium or the use of some factor
representing the departure from equilibrium. For
the present only the simple case of the equilibrium
contact will be oo(lS.idered, and the calculations
represent the nl!mber of equilibrium stAges required
to effect the desired separation. The basic concepts
for calculating vapor-liquid trantiler are the sume as
those for ca.lculating liquid-liquid transfer. In rruu I
cases the energy differences between liquhl IUld vaJ or
are so great that they constitute a major factor and
cannot be neglected as was done wit.h liquid-liquid
calculations.
The energy term which is of liignifieance in a
liteady-flow operation is the enthalpy H of each
stream. The relat i v~ enthalpy of each stream may
be readily incorporated with the com06ition of the
stream in an enthalpy-eompoeition diagram, F ig.
330, which shows the enthalpy H per pound mass of
liquid, or vapor plotted vertically, and the oompooi-
tiOli of tho liquid or vapor plotted horoontllily.
Figure 330 is similar to Fig. 324 or 325 with the
enthalpy pe:r unit m8B8 of solution H substituted for
 VAPOR.LlQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
the motes of aniline per mole of aniline-free solution
~8 or Ys and the composition of the solution :t
or 11 substituted for the composition of aniline-free
solution X A or Y A The enthalpy H is independent
of the composition ' of the stream in Fig. 330 in the
same sense that the mole ratio of aniline X s is inde-
pendent of the compOsition of the aniline-free solu-
tion X A in Figs. 324 and 325. The enthalpy-
c.omposition diagram, Fig. 330, may be used in a
manner similar to that demonstrated for Figs. 32-1
and 325 to compute the number of equilibrium
IItages and qUlUltities required to accompli8h the
desired separation.
Enthalpy.Compc~ition Diagram.
:n,e enthalpy-eomposition diagram shows the
relative enthalpy of mixtures- as a function of com-
position along lines of constant temperature. In
many easee., the 'chart ill limited to a single pressure,
but differen t pressures may be included if desired.
The enthalpf may be expressed in any convenient
unit such as Btu's per pound or Btu's per pound
mole. Where the enthalpy is plotted in Btu's per
pound, the com position is given in mass fraction
units, and, where the enthalpy.ilI given in Btu's
per pound mole, the composition is given in mole
traction units.
Figure 330 shoW'S the enthalpy~mposition di-
agram for the system of ethanol and water at I
atm pressure. The reference gtates of relative
enthalpy for this" chart are pure water at 32 10',
and pure ethanol at 32 F. The line labeled 160 in
The equilibrium compositions which determine
the terminal points of a tie line may be represented
most accurately by the so-called :t-y diagram, which
is superimposed on the enthalpy~omp08ition di-
agram of Fig. 330, BS an "equilibrium line." This
line shows the relation between the mass per cent
of ethanol in the liquid, :t, plotled as the absci88&.,
and the mass per cent of ethanol in the equilibrium
vapor, 11, pi(}tted BS the ordinate to the right.
Th~ conttrwction oj em tnlMlw-JIO#ilWm.dsarlf~ a binary
minure u. II simple procedure when the following data an!
available.
I. T he heat capaci ~y Cr - (aH/ dTJr U II funetioo of t.em...
pt!rature and oompoo!!ition.
2. The hCfI,t iIbJorlx,d 6H, on mixing t!>e two component.
aL IIOme convenient tem perature ... a function of composition.
3. 'fIlot! initial vaporiution (aod freeWtg) temperatures ...
a function of composition at the desired pnlI!8Ure.
4. The latent hellt 6H of vapori:tation (lind of fUllion) b&-
t ...een the two phues at known temperatw'e8 fOt different
compositions.
VApor pl'ell8Ure!I of the IIOlutione lind d~itiell an! allIO helpful
in extend in, and checking the data.
For two componen .... two refenmce atat.el! of dilfcrenLrom-
positions mullt be ch08en and usigned arbitrary valuCII of
enthalpy. The arbitral)' VIlIUl!ll are \UlUa Uy Laken ... aero for
the pure comp<menta at the same temperature, .... tor example,
32 F in COOSU'Ucti!lf; Fig. 330.
The valllCl!l for the lIMe illOthenn lire obtained from the fol-
lov.-i n& e(jUlltion
H - H ... +
H" +11I1~ (273)
where H,l - enthalpy of rnA mIllS uni UJ of A at tempera.-
ture T.
HB - enthal py of m.
mall! unita of B at tempera-.

Fig. 330 sllows the enthalpies br various liquid ture T.

mixtures nf ethanol and water at a tem perature ofJ 6H, _ mthermal hea.t of lIOiutlon (heat ablJorbedl of
rnA + rn. at-temperature T.
160 F. Similar lines are plotted for other tempera.- H _ e nthalpy cI rn ... +
"'If m..,. IlnitB 01 "'utioo at
tures. '
The solid line labeled "saturated liquid" indicates
the enthalpies of liquid mixtures of ethanol and water The
.
temperaLllI'f! T .
.
entla.lp~ of the pure oomponenta (H A and H.l an! ob-
ta.ined by Integratinc heat capacity data from the ",f~ce
at their saturation temperature corresponding to 1 te mperalun) TGto T.
atm pressure, that is, at their atmospheric bubble
point. The solid line labeled " sa1urated vapor"
indicates the enthalpics of vapor mixt ures at their
H .... - "'AJ,T."(C,.)A
- dT - J,",.. (OH
- ') dT
;,T ,.

saturation temperatures corresponding to I atm

pressure, that is, at their atmospheric dew point.
HB .- - clT - J:.r .(O
m.J,r".(C,.l. -H T') dT
;,p
A line connecting a liquid composition on the The beat of tolution data may not be in the desired form and
saturated liquid line with the equilibrium vapor must be wnverted. For emmpie, i\ ill of len liven in the form
composition on the saturated vapor line is an of tJlslm ... lUI" function of m.l m ... , where tliftl/m ... ill the
~ilib"'um tit lint. There are an infinite number itotherma.l beat al:leorbed per unit of II\U8 of ....... For ute
in connection with equation A it i, ~ferable 1.0 conYelt the
of tie lines which connect al1 points on the saturated data to 6H8/{m.!. + "',,) ..... function of "'A /(onA + III,,),
liquid line with the corresponding equilibrium vapor where 6HIJ/{ m.!. + ,"If) ill the beat of lIO)ulion.perunit m&M
CO!TIpoBitioru OD the saturated vapor line. . of ..... ulion.
 CALCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY-COMPOsmON mAGRA:\f 327
uco

1100
"' ~
~~
"-.,.
1000
~ ~, , /
9CIO " ')\ It'
"-
'"
t'---
"'r--L
! f"-"
I
Ii-- / ,,;:: f':::
11'f.:::.<
"> ~~~ ~ ~
V
V
~~
V

~f',
.IV! r'f
'>
f'.,
1')<
f',
$4 /
V
"-.,. If"K f', V "-
V ./ /
.i rI I "" / 1"-.. '"~ ~V V hL 1/ ~ ,/

,
i'- if W-. v--, L...
'" '
/ II
.~ -2
bZ
r"-

~
V
/
JL: pc-) r-,
LL -L
b
b
t--
0.50

/ II N i'- ID'"'
l4 ~ iL If t-
'1: U II 1'-- ta S;

,.,. WI r;
Ij.!,
I/,

v 1/1/
/
VV
L v
,
/
v
.... ,....
I
)
I
a::
~
~- -- rr ,

r- -- r- ::=, --
,
f-- -
~
I'
,.
""" I1JlJMB5S Fra~:~ Eth,nol ~~ .. ~..t"-' M~lur150.1U ~ . "~

FIG. 330. Entha!py-eom pollition diaiJ'lIom for the ethe. nol"at.er syat-em, mowinl liQuid aoo vapor phaeea in equilibrium at
I aoo.
 328 VAPOR-LIQUID TItANSFER OPERATIONS 1
By dividlng equation 273 by (m.~ + 111.11) and lotting :t" - which corresponds in form to equation 237 represent-
mA./(mA + mD), ing a material be.lance when no other materie.l is
H H" llB t.H., added or subtracted.
:::--:;-=
101,,+1118
- x "'''
- + (I - x) -
"' 8
+ ::-''7'=-
I'll .. + ," 8
En...,;.... By proeeeding in II manner anaiogoufl to thlll
lhe de!<ired ordinatA.'OI H /("';, +"'8):U"C readily obtained f~ employed in deriv!", eqWLtion 238<1, &how that for an .dia-
different cOlnposit.iom; ;r: for the bMc isotherm. blltic opera.tion
The other illOtherms a", oompuu.-d from the b~ ;""therm
and hct.t CIlpacity data. A particular oompo!lition"'l is ch(wln, L Hv -h,
(27)lb)
..... the enthalpy at fIOlDe otber l.empcrature T, i.s given by P- Hv - Ill.

H
::C-7c:::(at
m;,+mB
%\, Til - - H- - (at
"';, +mE
%\, T) + J," Cj. dT
By combiDing these relationships (274b) with
l' equations 238a 8.nd 238b, for an adi8.batic operation,

- -
whe", Cp is the heat C&pe.city of II unit m!l.l!II of material of Hv - hp hp - hI. Nv - hL
oon,potition :1:\. This ealeulation is repeated at other valuel (274<)
of % until the <.Jcsircd ilIothenNl are obtained. 11 XI' XI' Z y-x
The btJi/iAV !l ...l f~iRV CllntU can be oonst.ructed from the
iIIotbcrrfUI lind boililill &rod froetin~ point dat&. Equation 2'74c shows that the three points having
Ttx. 11(111'0'" ilOl./lw... eIIn be COIL!!tructed II!! straight lillell the coordinates on an enthalpy-eomposition diagram
(Mlluming icklaJ vapor eolutinm) from the known flH of vapor- of (1/, By), (X" hl'), and (x, hL) lie on a straight line.
iution of the pure oomponenu and values of CP. Therefore a straight line on an enthalpy~mposition
The .a.h'l"(lltd IlaJI(K line CAn be:! ounatructed from the vapor
iIIot.herms and the known btlilingpoiPt dllt4, and the 1inee of
diagram is a graphical solution to equations 236, 237.
r.lelting IlOlid from /Ji of fll!lion. and 274a. Stream quantities are proportional to
vertical distances between pointe, as indicated by -
!;toteMl Gnd Energy Boloncea equations 274b.
If a stream F is split into the two streama V and L For convenience the points on the enthalpy-
(or eonveraely iltrea.m.s V EUld L cOInbined into concentration diagrams will usually be designated
strear:-l F) as demonstrated for aoJid-liquid extrat:- by the composition alone, using z to del:ligru!.w Ule
tion, a material balance gives .'point (x, It), 11 for (y, H), ere.
. For the general case of nonadiabatic aperatWn the
F_ V+ L (236)
quaittity of heat transferred to the system of fluid
-- Fx, -
VlI ~+ fA; (237) streams ms.y be expressed as the quantity of heat
added to the system per lunit of anyone of the
and the subeequent relationships, equat~D8 238, I!treams as: ..../"-
. 238A, 239, etc. (pp. 286 and 287).
By an energy balance for such a flow system as
conllidered in Chupter 12,
c-q-Fm- ~m-~m
mgZ mv:l
L>.H + 6g,- + . -- - 1i-1D
q-FQp - VQv-LQx. (27')
2(g,)
where Q - beat added to the system per unit quan-
If there is no significa.n~
change in elevation or tity of the stream indicated by the
velocity and no shaft work involved, t:.Jl - q. , subscript. . -
With the symbol H representilJg the enthalpy Per
In many C88eS the heat may be added. at diffef'Cnt
unit rnllS$ of a vapor ( V ) stream and h represent-
points in the system, and it is desirable to identify
ing the enthalpy per unit mass of a liquid (L) stream,
these separate quantities by an additional subseript.
equation 274 represent.'! an eMr{JlJ balame fur c0m-
Consider a fractionating column with the Quantity
bining o...eam. V and L 10 form 8tream F when the
of he8.t q. added to the still at the bottom and go
beat q is added during the op3ration.
added to the condenser at the top (-qc removed).
Ph, - VH + Lh + q (274) The stream quantities are feed F, bottom product B,
.-nd distillate product D. By an eoergy baLwce,
For a1iobolic operation, when DO beat is added or
rel!loved (q - 0), equation 274 may be written Fh, + q. + qc - DHD + Bi&B
Fh, -'yH+Lh (2740) Fh,.. - DHD - qo + BhB - q.
 t.:AU:ULATIONS BY ENTIlALPY~COl\lPOSITlON DIAGRAM

~) + B ( htJ - ~)
The point (X" , hI') in Fig. 331 repreJCnts the
Fh... ... D ( HD - propertics of the stream formed by the addition of
stream~ I' and L when a qU8niity of heat is added
Ph r - D(HD - QeD) + lJ(hB - QSJj ) equal tu !'Qv = [ ,Qf. = FQp.
+ QCF)
F(h, => DHD + B(hs - QSB) The point (y. Hv) repl1'~nt.s the properties of t:le
str('nm for'med uy the subtraction of I>tream L from
.'i'(h, + Qs, + Oc,..> - DHD + BhB stream f' tpoint ~ :r and rp) whc n thc quantity of
Substituting equation 275 for q in equation 274 heat VQv = FQp = WL is Bubtractcd. Simi-
gives larly the point (x, lid rep Tl'&m! s the dHference 01'
P(II, - Q,..) - VH y + LhL (27Sa) Ilubtraction of stream V from slr('sm P when the
SIlme quantity of heat T.Q,. is subtracted.
'" Ph... - VHy + L(hL + QL) (27.5b)

'" Fh, - V(lly + Qv) + LhL (275c)

These equations are general for the addition of V
and L and their subtraction from Pi anyone may
be used. All of them reduce toO equation 274a for o Q,
an adiabatic operation.
]'
Lereiee. By I'.OOIbming f!qu&tioM 2700, b, r.nd c (irat.ead ~ .,.lr
of equation 2740) ",ith equaWoM 236 a.nd 237, show that
Y (h,-a,)-/iL A,-(hL+<lLl /i,-hL
~ ~ (kL +fl.)
I - Bv (II, -Q,) H,,-A, (11'1'+0,, ) -'"
I
",&l) Q, I

,-
V (h, -Q,) -hL
H" -AL
1I,-(hL+Q.c.)
I: v (hL+ Q.c.)
h, -hL
(Hy +Qv) -4L
(27St) Mus frKtoon of ~-Volatile Component
.:- L
-P - Ifv - (h, - 0,)
H" -"L H,
H" - II,
("L + Qu - (H" +Q,,) -II,
(H" +0,) -4L
('Zl5f)
FlO. 331.
oompollition

Energy and mater"! bo.llLIlel!lll on lin enthlllpyw
dilll;ranl com~ 1.0 equation 271}.
!

The ordinate of a point rep resenting the Cflmbina-

ExerellHl. By oomblnilll these rclatiolll!hips (27M, e. lion of an entering stream and energy added to a
and I ) with equations 238a and 238b, lIhow lba~
process is obtained by adding the energy per unit
II, - ilL _ (H" + a v) - II, tHv + 01') - ilL (276a) mass of the entering ;;trerunQ ro the enthalpy H
of the stl"<'''JIl. If the s.pecified stream is leaving
A, - (ilL
7;, -
+ QtJ
z -----
II" - it,
V - z,
Hv - ~AL +QJJ
, -. (27&)
(subtracted from) the proot;sa, the energy Mlded to
the process per unit mW:l8 of the stream is subtrn.cted
from the enthalpy H of the stream t.p determine the
()&, -0,) - 11" - 4L
z, -z
AL II" - (II, -
11 - '1:1
0 ,)
---- U -:ZL
"'&l ordinate of the point representing tk-.t strna.m.
If the stream F is dividt:d into streams V and L
Ti,e equation of the straight line on the enthalpy- which are removed,
COIDpoiIition diagram representing the operation of
adding streams V and L to form stream F is either q - M1 = VH" + LhL - FhF (277)
2760, b, or c, depending upon whieh Iltream is the and the equation of the straight line fcprescnling the
basis for heat transfer. These cqUltt-ions ar~ plotted operation will take one of the following {onn8:
as indicated in Fig. 331. In order to produce a
stream of properties Zp, hI' from streams of proper-
ties II, Hv and %, hL it is nece68Ary to add a quantity
of heat, q - LQL - VQy - FQ" which may be
expressed as QL Btu/ lb of stream L, oJ' Qv Btu/ lb of I/v - hL
(27&) .
stream V, or Q, Btujlb of stream. F Y
 VAPOR-:t.IQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
liquid and vapor leaving the st.sge, aod therefore
tbe vapor V I and the liquid L, are repre6ented
by the terminaJ points of the equilibrium tie line
which passes throUgh the pointP. The fractionation
(278b)
accomplished by the stage msy be expressed either
as the change in vapor composition produced,
Y1 - 112, or as the change in liquid composition,
Y %F Xo - XI. Both a liquid and a vapor stream must be
fed to the stage in order to produce the fraction-
(Rv - Qv) - hL
y-. (27&) ation.
The difference between the liquid Lo and the
vapor V I passio~ one another above the stage is
ElIera.... Plot equatiollll 27801, /), ADd c, all W&II done f
equaLiooa 716 in Fig. 331. equaJ to the differenoo between the liquid LI and
the vapor V 2 paMing one another below tbe stage.
This difference is represented by the point XI:., which
Saturaled is located by the in~rsection of the lines %IY2 aod
'I
%0111' The quant.ity ratiOB LdV" and Lo/ V1 are
""" Y,

I" v'l ~

~
c
equaJ to !be distance ratios X/J.Y2 /XtJ,XI .and X411.1%tJ,%o,
respectively.
Platt 1

I', v.l
. ".. Saturated
Severol. Equilibrillm PloulI or Stages".
~ " " A system of plates plaoed one above another, BB
~ shown in Fig. 333, constitutes a plate oolumn.
Th~ point ro represents a satUrated liquid feed to
the top plate, and the point YII represents a saturated
vapor feed under the bottom plate of the column.
Mus fraction Mor.~VQ/atile Component The sum of the feed streams, La and V e, is repre- _
sented by the point P, so located on the straight line
FlO. 832. Graphkal representation of the qperation of a
liD(le Idoallltage on an 'enthalpy~mpositlon diagram. z.ollto that the ratio of the distances. PYII/P:xo equals '
the ratio of the feed quantities Lo/Vto. Since the
Colculotioru/or Ideal StOgM "'" ... sum of the feed stre8lru! equals the sum of the product
strellJll8 Lr, and Vj , the point P is also located on
Figure 332 represents the operation of a single
equilibrium stage or plate or a plate fractionating the straight line %.sY" and the ratio of the distance
Plld Px" equals L5/V1 .
column. The saturated liquid 1.0 and the saturated
vapor V2, represented by points ro and y~ , re8pOO-
~ve1y, are fed continu01..IBly to this stage where they
are intimately mixed. The mixed pbases separate
)L-.v,1
4!to the vapor VI and the liquid L 1 , represented by IL"v,j
pointa 111 and :1:1, respectively, which leave the stage
in equilibrium. The point y, represents a ss.turated IL"v,j
vapor feed tQ the stage and therefore lie8 on the
v&por saturation line; the point %0 represents a
)'" v.j
I!Aturated liquid and lies on the liquid ss.turation line.
The point. P represents the sum of the liquid and
IL" v.!
vapor feed to the stage and is located on the straight
line YaXo 110 tbat. the ratio of the distanoos P1l,/ PZo
equals too
ratio of the quantities of the feed streams
J~ v.1
Mus Fraction Mot.-yoll~ ~
Lo/ V, . The rum of the liquid and vapor feeds tQ
the stage must equal the sum of the equilibrium FlO. 333. Graphieel rep..-ntation of the operation of .. mul-
tiplHtap iodeal plate colunhl on an enl.h.lp)'~p<*Uon die.-
The bibliOiTBPhy for thiII ~h&pter appeue on p. 395. l!iram.
 CAlCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY-COMPOSITION DlAGRAM
The difference A between the liquid feed Lu and
the vapor product VI! which pa88 one another above
the top plate, equals the difference between the vapor
feed V& and the liquid product Ls! which pMS one
another below the bottom plate. The point Z.ll.,
whidl represents this difference, ilJ located at the
intersection of the lines %oll.!. and Z5Y~ .
The difference between the liquid and vapor p88&
ing one another above the top plate and below the
bottom plate il'l also equal w the difference between
the liquid and vapor passing ooe another between
any two plates of the oolumn, i.e., between Y 2 a.nd
Lt, Y s and ~, V" and Ls! etc. The point Z4 ls
therefore the eomroon point of intentl'etiOn .for tbe
straight lines drawn through all the pairs of points
representing the liquid and vapor p888ing one an-
other between any two stages of the_column.
The li9uid Ll leaving the top plate is in equilib-
rium with the vapor VI leaving the top plate, and
the point %1 in Fig. 333 is located at the end of the
equilibrium tie line from the point Yl on the vapor
811.turation line, representing the vapor product. 'The
point Y2, repreoen'ting the vapor rising from the
second plate and passing the liquid E I ! ' is located
at tbe intereection of the line Z6%1 with the vapor
811.turatioo line. The liquid ~ leaving the second
plate is in eqUilibrium with the vapor V; leaving the
second plate IlDd is represented by the point Z2,
located at the end of ~e tie line from the point y~.
The point 1/3 representing the vapor rising from the
third plate is loca.ted at the intersection of the line
Z4Z,' with the vapor saturation line. The plate-to-
plate conatruction is carried out in tbis manner
\ Solution. The feed ill ft.!pre8ente!l by point r, (H,. 334);
until a liquid composition is obtained which is equal
to that of the bottom product.
'Ibe tie line %6116 terminates exactly at the point
X$ , which was located by. the overall material and
energy balances atoWld the column. This is entirely
fortuitoWl. In most ca.ees the end of the tie line
will not terminate , at exactly the bottom product
composition, indicating that it is impossible to
obtain the separation specilied with an integral
number of equilibrium plates. Although the tie
line could be made to terminate exactly at the point
X 6 , determined from the material bal8.lloo, by adjust-
ing the ratio of the feeds slightly, it is pointless to do
80 since the number of actual plates required is
determined by . dividing t he number of equilibrium
plates by a plate efficiency. Therefore! as a general
rule, the platc-to-plate construction is continued
until & liquid composiLion is obtained which is less
331
than that of the bottom product composition and
the fractional plate esiimated by a linear interpola-
tion along the liquid I!8.turation line.
Stripping Columns
A column u.sed to remove the more volatile com-
ponent from a liquid feed is known as a stripping
column. The vapor stream necessary to accomplish
the desired fractionation may be generated from the
liquid leaving the bottom plate by means of a still,
as indicated in Fig. 334. These vapors generated in
the still (by the addition of the hcr.t qs in the sLill)
ptl88 upward to the bott()m plate. The desired
stripped product B is withdrawn from the still liquid,
or in some cases from the still vapor or the iiquid
from the botwm plate. The feed F is introduced on
the top plate, II.lld a -distilla.te product V I is with-
drawn from the top plate.
The csJculation of tJle number of equilibrium
plates required in 8. stripping column is indicated
in Fig. 334, which is the '-:Jlution to the following
eXlUIlple. \..,
Illustrative E:umple. The ethanol content of '" feed
eootainina 60.0 mll.l!ll per cent ethanol and. t.he brJance water
ill to be IItrippedia a pla.i.e column c'Wipped with a still to pro-
duoe a bottom product containing 1.0 maS!:; per cen t ethanol.
HeAt is to br, l!U.pplicd to the atiH at tbo rare of 440 Btu/ lb of
feed . The feer!, at 70 0 F, ill introdufOCt.! on the top plate, and
the overhead V&pon are OOlIUeIl8OO. to !live a di~tillate product.
The column is to- upera.te at I ILtm prel!6Ul'e. The bottom
product is withdrawn .!l.I! II liquid from the still.
C'"ompUIA\:
\. The number of equilibrium pJllt CII required.
2. _The 'llJ&ntity of distiUllu, product per pound of f08d.
the bottom produ~l by point fB on the liquid I!II Lul'&tjnn line.
The point z,' represo"nU! the feed plu~ t he eocrc added w
the system in the still, t he distance Z,, 'Zi' being e<JuaI to 440
Btu/ lb of feed. The point Ie,,' also-. represent/! the sum of the
bottom product B and the OVl'rAn distillAte vapor VI > 8.Ild
therefore the poiol VI is Joc..ted by elttendin& ~he line zp,'
to the vapor II&turation lin~ .
The ~tripping column ~ho\\'n in Fig. 334 is , imilar to the
continuous 1-<>e:eS8 .of Fig. 333. In ~he JlrooetIII of Fi,. 333,
the YapeN' tt.ream V. was known or apecified, whereas in this
tlUllmpie the quantity of heat a pplied to the still for generating
VApor is apocified.. Since the feed stream j' "ntering the col-
umn equalll the rum of the disl.iD .. te product VI and the
botwm product B, minU3 the energy a dded in the suD (q!J -
BQsBl, tho point 7<\8. having the coordinatu zs WId hs -
Q!JI<, lies on the It rai&ht line drawn th rough the point. z" and
)'1 to the staled value ZB _ 0.01.
The pOint f4S represent./! the difference between the feed
entering the top vlaw and the distilla(.(lbvint: ,he t.op plate;
the differoooz bet",eeo the liquid and vllf.'Ol'!l&I5IIil\4 each
othec betWf'm any two plat.ee of the eolumn or ..hat rrJ,M.
 v APOR-LiQUm TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
1200

r---" r---
1000
I --..
I
I
!;f
800
----- --- y
I
I
I
I
I

/
/
/

rl . /
/
T/ V
1--:,1,
I ---.. i'---..
I / / ';;r'- /
400
/
-t
/

~/ V
I !---:"/
I
I~r--
//
I
200
" " r /
.~

0
.
II" /' V"
'/ I /
I

/ 1/.
- 200

Ft ~v, ~

- 400 ~

II W r--
r--
- 800 Ii
i?"
c-

'L' I F:.'''''''
c=~-~=::
f) B
- 1000
I~,
-1200
o 0.1 02 o. 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.' 1.0
M.S5 FrKtion of EtMnoI
FIG. 334. Graphica! ropl'l'llcnt&tion of the opeta~ion of a stripping column on an enthalpy-oompoe.iUon diagram for t:re ethanol-
water Bystcm at 1 atm.

be caned tho "net flow" toward the boltom of the onlumn.
The plat-,...1o-plate oonsl l'Ur.tion i~ ~ ...rri".j out AB dl'SCribed.
The number of ~'<lllilibrium p\atcal required is c&lculated &II
3.8. The vaponl l~avinK the lItili may u!IUII.lly be &!I!Iumoo to
be in equilibrium I\'ith the liquid in thu !Jtill, and thcJ\d'ore
the number of ~'QuilibliU!n p\atcll ... bieh mull. be provided in
the oolumn equalJ 3.8 - 1.0 _ 2.3. The qllll.lltity of distil-
I&te prud~r ~nd of feed is equ.l to the ratio of the
dist.&ncu!l %,r4/1/ :r41/'/1 - 0.782.
nJe distillate flrodue~ bom a auipping colum n must, of
necellity, have . oontpoe;t ion dOfJe to t hat of the feed 00In-
poeitioa, anee t he d ~illat.e vapon &rUle fram the plat.e to
whieh the feed il int:oduood. 1I0WflVCT the feed plate liquid
composition is not equa.l ~o the feed composition, all MOwn
in Fi&. 334 where the foed oornpoeition z, is 0.50) -and t.be
food plate liquid oompus ilion :1:, i, O.US weight fra.etion 01
ethanol.
R ectijyin& Colum ....
A column used to remove tile less-volatile com-
ponent from a vapor feed ill kno ....'n as a rectifying
co1umn or absorber.
Consider the case where it. ia desired to increase
 CALCULATIONS BY ENnIALPy..coMPOSITION DIAGRAM
2400
/%D
2200

2000 !s- ., v. 11
- IV
u'"

lOX)
-
-
~
LQ ji/I
1400
~

P~ t- O D
/)1
i'~1200

=,
'- Ii , Of
I I
~ .j
.fj '
1000
r--- /
K ~

1/ V /
/
- N
/
/
_h hr-- .

400
j /
/ / /
/
/
/
/
/

/ r-----..
f/;// 1--/ I

i
/ I
/
.fj / /
200
" /

..
0;
~( i,\~.
';
0
(.., >w
o 02 0.4 o.S 0.6 os 1
" IOs$ FrQon r:I Ehnol
0.7

Flo. 835. Graphical repreeentaQOIl of the operation of a rect.ifying column on an euth&l.py-comp!llitiOll diagram for the et.lw:Iol-
water Bystem at I atm.

the concentration or
ethanol by removing water Usually it is impossible to obtain such Iiquida from
from a vapor mixture of etbanol and water (such as independent sources, but they can 00 obtained
VI of Fig. 334). Smee the compositioo of the readily by oondenaing and returning a portion 01 the
distillate vapor product from the oolumn is largely ' overhead vapors to the top plate. Liquid eo re-
dependent upon the eompol3ilion of the liquid sup- turned is called reflux. A dia.grammatic illU8tration
plied to the top plate, a low concentration of water of a rectifying column equipped with a oondeneer,
or any, other undesirable component is required in l'E'OOiver, and reflux pump to furnish reflux is mown
the liquid La supplied to the top plate of the rectify. in Fig. 335.
ing column (Fig. 335). U such liquid is available it 'The overhead vaporB VI from the top plate paM
may be >.1pplied from an independent soUrce. through the oondenBer where the vapors are ooa-
 334 VAPOR-LIQUlD TRANSFER OPERA nONS 1
densed. The OOlldensate is collected in the receiver
and divided into two par1:.ll, one constituting the
reflux 4, which is pumped back to the top plate,
rmd the other constituting the distillate product D.
In this way a liquid reflux is obtained which is
substantially free of undesirable components.
The calculation of the number of equilibrium
plates required in a rectifying column is shown in
Fig. 335 which is the solution to the following
example.
E:.ample. A vapor mixture containing 35.0 mass per /lent.
ethA.nol and the bftiJlnre waUlr IIOJpplied II.t" tempel'1ture oor-
~ponding to an enthalpy of 1000 Btll/lb ill tI.l be rectified
in plate column equipped with 8 ronderucr, receiver, and
~ux pump. T he disLilla.to produ ct desirod conl.D.iM 85.0
IJWjI! per oont etlwlol, and the bottom produ ot is to contain
6.0 mfLSII pI)r rent etbll.fl(l\. The vapoJ' f~ ill to be introdur.ed
under the bottom plate. Tll(! distillate product anti reftlll[
withdrawn from t he receiver ",illbe cooled to a temperature
oo.rrespondi ng to an enthalpy of 22 Btu/lb. T he column will
be Opel'alcd at. I atm prc!lB\lre.
Compu to;
1. Tho number uf equilibrium plate!! required .
2. The qlWlt.ity of heat. transferred in the 00Ildcn8er per
pound of feed.
Snlut;on . The feed is n-pre!ICnt.<...:I in Fig. 33.~ by point, orr,
t.bt! botk>m produel by poin~ %/J, and the distil.bU.e product
and rnftux by point "'D- The poiM z,', mpre8ell~iDg ~he
BUm of the ;digtilb.w a nd bottom prod ucts, lief! oi, ~be O<\.f8.ight
line i8iD .a.nc:I on the ordinatr. of the point %1, since t he
material cnterint; in the feed must equa l !.be sum 01 the mate-
- ri&l Jc..ving in tim produnts. The point .x".' ~ repl'el!ents
the feed pl us the P.11crgy added in the condenser. Tbererore
the distance z,'zp repl\!8(ln ts the quantity of beat transferred
in the conoonaer, <or S88 Btu/ lb of feed.
The point YtlD, havi ng too coordina toR ZD and hv - QCD,
repreeents lIW! d~tiUa\.e product minus the eoofl[Y added in
the IlOOdcnecr per pound of d istiibl.e product, and &180 the
differenC8 . betwocn the vlO.por and liquid pMSing esch ol.her
betl'..""n Any two pla.t ... of tho column (or below 1hc bottom
plMe) or the "nc1. Bow" up the eoiumn . The dift"~nce poi nt.
I14D is Iooa.ted by extending the lioo ~ to tbo ~tated value
:I'D - 0.8.5. The pla.tc-to-plate r.oll.'ltruction carried out lUI
deseribed previoU$.ly IndiMUll t he required number of equi-
librium platllt to be 01.01.
Comple'e Frncti.onadn8 Column3
In mOllt commercial operations, a relatively com-
plete separation between two components is desired.
This. requi res a column which is capable of producing
from a single feed II. diatillaw product containing
only a very small amount of the 1ess-votatik com-
po:.ent and a ootwm product .:ontaining a very
small amount of the more-volatile component.
A stripping column produces a bottom product
which is relatively free from the more-volatile OOfll-
ponent, and a rectifying column pnxluoos I!. product
which is relatively free from the less-volatilc COM-
ponent.. The features o! the stripping column and
the rectifying column may be combined in a single
unit by placing the rectifying column on top of the
stripping eolumn. The cOmplete fractionll.ting
column include!! B rectifying section above the feed
plate (similar to Fig. 335) and a >!tripping sect.ion
below the feed plate (similar to Fig. 334). The feed
enters the fractionating column on an intermediate
pJat known as the feed plate, which constitutes the
top plate of the stripping section.
The operation of the stripping section is essen-
tially th at of the stripping column shown in Fig. 334.
The to\'al liquid entering the top plate of the strip-
ping section ia oomposed of the feed_liquid and liq uid
overflowing from the rectifying section above the
food plate. The purpose of the stripping ~tion is
to remove the more-volatile component th)fll the
wW liquid entering the stripping section in order
to produce a bottom product substantially free of
the more-volatile component.
The operation or thE: rectifying section i8 esaen~
tially tha t of the rectifying column shown in Fig.
335. The wtal vapor entering the bot~ plate. of i I
the rectifying se<:tion is oomposed of the feed vapor
8J"!.d the vapor rising from the stripping section below
the feed plate. The purpose of th.e reetiiying section
is to remove the \ess-volat.ile component from the
total vapor entering the. rectifying section ~ order
to produce a distillate product !Jllbstantially free oi
the Iess-vo lai ile component.
The calculation of the number of equilibrium
plates required in M ordillAry fractionating column
is shown in Fig. 336, which i8 the solution to the
following illl1Strative problem.
nhutratlveElla .nple. A ooIumn containing 10 platee and
equipped with a .till and a pparatWi for returning reflull
produ<:ing a diati.llam product. c:QDwning 00 maw: per rent
ethano). And a ootWm product oontaining 1.0 111M! par rent
ethanol , (rom II; feed oootaining M .O mlU!ll per rent e~hanol
and the ba1a.nce watl!r. TIle eo1umD o~ at a p~
of I at.m abitolu te. The reed is introduood into the down-
spout of the aevenUl plate at II; temperature of 183.01 0 F and
f.t the rate of 1000 Ib/hr. The d istillate product. and reflux
are wi\hdrawn from the reflull a.oeumuJa.t..or f.t 114 9 F . Re-
flux is supplied to the top plate of the column &t the rate of
1170 lb/h r. It i8 desin...:I to oompu te the overall plate effi.-
eieney, the n.\A:! of heat. tn.nsfer in thf! lII.ilI and condenBer,
and the faU! II.t which Vl!.pOr is produeod from 'he Btlll.
Solution. The feed it a mi:rtllr"l! of liquid a.nd vapor hav-
ieg an eut.baIpy 01 150 Btu/lb, Ibown in Fi,. 836 by point z~
z, _
OIl. the equilibriUl tift line [or 183 . F at 0.35 (_Fi,.
 CALCULATIONS BY ENTHAlPY..(:OMPOSmON DIAGRAM

FIo.~. Tbe application of fin enthalpy-oi:J;l1:lJ>O$ition d~m for the ethanolWflW 8)'1ltem to the determination of OfJM*tiq
conditioJU! for lractioJU&tinl oolumn COJntaining Btrip;:rin, and rectilyina lII!etioDl).
 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS I
330). The botWm product, .... ithdrawn all .. saturated liquid and the qllllntity of heat added in t.be still pt>7 pound of
from the .till, is re~nted by ~he poin t ZD. The d istillate bot lom product eq~\e. the ordinate of point 2. min.. the
product and reHu K a.re both. repmeented by the poin~ XIJ , thll oroi nate of point ""B, or hit - (h. - QaB) - QaJl - 179
enthalpy ooordinat,e of .')(1 Btu / lb being [ocatoo by the 1\4 F - (- 993) _ 1172 Btu.
isotht:rm. ThO! Q\'erhead VIIJ!Ot'l!l \()aving the top pIAu, have Therefore, tIM rate of heat tral1!!ler In the ..mdenBer iI
the IMUTM:l oompo!lit>OD U I..he distillate product and are repre- (1%0)(382) - 746,000 B tu / hr. Similariy !.be rate of heat
IIIlOt.ed by the point 1'1 on the satu rated val)Ol" line, at the trn.wer in the atlll ia (1172)(618) _ rn,OOJ Btu/ hr. The
intencction ...ith tbe ordinate ZD, wrueh is ,,1110 4 heat added in the still per pound of feed may be doterrnintd
T ht! number of -equilibrium pilloWs required to accomplish by \OOfI,ting XI' on the line 2BY,),D. The ordin.to nf point
thil! IIIlparation is calculated by the construction shown in ZI' minUli the ordinate of point z, eqU3E h, Q/J r - hr, +
Fig. 336 The t wo d ifference points, idc1lLi6ed &8 l'.4B ....d which equals 0.." the heat added in the BtilI per pound of
'!laD in Fip. 334 a nd 335 for the stripping and roetifying feed. Similal"ly the heat removed by the oondeMer per pound
roiumlUl, relIpectively, must be, located in Fig. 336 for the of food equah the <lniiJlll.te of point z, minus the ordinate of
$trippinlt and rectifym,; 8CCtiOIl&. point 2," which dlffelClloe equab - Qel.
In the reetifying eeetion the diffenmec between the up"'an1 I( t he diII1.illat.c is remnved.u a aturated v&poI". " from lUI
8owinr; vapor and downwud Rowing liquia between any two operation ueinc a partial oondemer 00, or in pIaoe of, the top
plate!! equals the difference between the overhead vapors VI plate, the condition of the distillate is repteeen.ted uy point i'1
IlolId reflUl [-0, arid aIao equal.!! the di!itill&te Ilroouct D leaving rather than ZD, 8.nd the qUllotity of beat remover! per pound
the open.tion mimM! ~he eTIe"C ~ to the operatk>n in the or diatillo.te by the oondenaer would be the Ilr1liIate of poin'
conden8er pnr unit of distiUat.e QeD. Therefore tbe coordi- I/.ID minllB the oi-dinate of point /II, or :nil - 520 - 1.f80
nate!! of the difference point for the rectifying 9OCtioo &l'Il B lo\I. Similarly if the bottolTlll product i8 removod M a 114tu-
rD. fLD - QeD. This difference point 114D ratber than ZD there- l"l'lted vl't.por, ita oondition ia repl"elJenteO I:>y point YB and an
fon! oorreetly ~~pl"CO!Cnt& on thie buill the Pl'OperUea of the additional quantity of beat mUlt be added to Vlporize the
diflt.illate. and poinLe 1'1 and zO ' reprellllDt the OOITeIIpollding bottom product equal IA) the ordinate point of point ". min..
~ie:t of strealJlJ VI and Lt. re9pC<::tively. The relative the ordina.te of point rll.
quantitiefl L./VI -.re, therefore, repre"ented by the relative The required number of equilibrium p1al.ell ill ck!t..nnined
lengt~ ~/1I4D~ Sirnil&rly the relative qus.ntitiea LoID by the plate-to-plate oolllltruction on Fi,. 836, be&ianing with
&l'Il n!~ted by the relative 1engthll l/4D" 1/ YJ:4 The dir. the point !II repreeentinc the roDliitions of the VI40F f tviOi
ferenoe 'point Jf4D in Fig. 336 may be Iocat.ed on the ordinate tho top plate' I. The conditions of the equilibrium liquid
:tD flO thu the ratio of the leflllhll vaDfIlI;;;:;;; equals Lo/ VI. l%ving plate 1 &l'Il indicated by the point 21 located. a t the
The quantity of distilla.te D iB caleula.ted by an overall mat&- inrel"llOCtion of the equilibrium. tie line connecting point /II
rial b.llo.n~e (O.M - 0.01)(1000)/(0.00 - 0.01) - 3S2 It- / hr. orith the 811.turated liquid line. The conditions of vt.por rWq
The quantity of roe/IUll t.. ia ~ven l1li 11"70 Ib/ lu-. Smee from plate 2 ani repre8ented by point IfI 01) the saturated vapor
VI - f) + Lo - 382 + 1170 - 1M2 Ib/hr, t he ratio L./ Vt line at t he inter800tinn ...;th the line t hroud> Y4i)ii, lli.n.oe the
_ 1I7Q/IM2 _ 0.757. The point "aD 110 located has the eo- differenoe point IIl>D repreeenta the difference ~tween vapor
<lniinlltee 0.00, 2000. and liquid PfiSl9ing each otncr betWOO.D "lata! of the rectifying
In the .tripping eeeUon the differenoe between the down- !leCtiOlL This procedure ill eootinued l1li cte.eribed until the
wan! Hooring liquid. and uJl1l'&rd Howinc: v&pOl" between any line ZaB%l1/aD is croseed lioii in 10000000tilli point ZJ. .'hill point
two platell equab the bottom produet B minUll t he energy TOptellent8 a oomposition which nonnalIy should be found on
added in tim still per unit of 8, QS./l. The ooordinatea of the a plate hollow the feed pl1't.te in the strippm,; Ileillion. The
differenoo point for the .trippi", IIOOtion an) ZB, hs - Qu, l1li differenoe point I/.ID i~ W!8d for rnakiDf: enerc- aDd maWial
indicated in equ&t ioa 278. In Fig. 336 thil diff~ point ill ' bala.noee above the feed plate only, and if ~ ....ere joined
identi60d .;" z... . with 4, it foUows tb.at 4 ",ould be lQCB.ted ft.bt.v", the feed
Since the feed F eq uals the III1I'n of D mmUII the energy added plate. Below too feed plate, the difference point ~, is used
in tho condcnlllCf (reprMented by point 1f,a,D) and B minUli the for energy r.na material balut'A!l'l. Therefore, Z4" ill joined
eDeI"Ja addod in the still (repreeented by point 248), the three with 4 to eootinue the paphjc:a.l lIDIution beJoor the feed
pointa l/4D.z,. and %.l./I lie 011. a IJtr&igh~ line. In thiB _ the plate until !.he COIllpo;eitio; l of the bottom product ill
poin~ %4JJ illloo&tod by elltendinl tM line y;oz; to the Inter- reaehed.
IICCtioo with thu venieal line through :rB - 0.01 at hB - Os. Aeoording to doe COflIItntetion of Fia. 336, tht equivalent
_ -993 Btu / lb of botlolll&. Thill line OONJtit.utell an en of about 7.8 equilibrium plalt8 is required. with the feed intro-
I.halpy and m.teria.l balaooc over ,he entlre fraetiooating duced about midway between the fiftb a.n d sillth pt.!., oorre-
ooI.umn with the ordinate of point lIaD repreeenting the en- spondinC to about 5.5 equilibrium plalel down from tbe top.
thalpy euried out the top of the column par pound of If the still produces equilibrium vapon, it ill equivalent to
distilla te, a.nd the ordi nate of point .EaB tepmllellting the one equilibrium pla.te.leaviDf: the equivalent of 6.8 equilibrium
enthalpy carried out the bottum of the column per pound of piau:. in the column with an. indicaled 0ftft8 plate efticieney
boI. ...... ms. SilK"(' the d i!ltilla.te Ioavee the operation with the of 6.8 + 10 or 68 per cent. The Jocat.ion of the feed plate ill
enthalpy of point 7 D. the qua.ntity of heat removed by the OOlTtlct a~ 6.5/ 0.68, the eightb actual pla.te from the top.
condenllCr por pound of distillate. equal. the ordinate of VaD If the aetul't.l feed plate location did not oorrespond to the
nr.inUll the onliM.t.o of :rD, or (h D - QeD) - I.., - -QeD eorreet. ioI'.atiun in termI of equilibrium pIa\ea., otbu ~~
_ 2UIJO - 50 _ 19M Btu. The bottom prOOllCt IMvca the rium feed plal.e Iocati008 mllBl be aaauned and. \00 ~
operation M satun.tnd liquid with the enlhalpy of point "II, BpOPdina nllmber of equilibrium platol computed.. The
 CALCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY-COl\1POSITlON DIAGRAM 337
~tinl overall plate efficiency ill thell ueed to check the all- equilibrium tie line from the food pla.te ikjukl." coin-
8Wlled food plate loeMioD. cides with the line to the differenoe point xu. The
A tie line thrwch the point rs interaeeU! the vapor liI~ a.t
too point ~ whieh repreeent.e the ooodit.iool!l of the Vll.pOl' rising column will not opera.te under the oonditions fixed
from tbe still a.od PMSing lobe liquid rrom the bottom pl&t.e 7 if the feed is introduced outside of these limits.
re~ntOO by point Z'/. Since point Z~B repreeente the diller- In the dillCussionB of distillation problems, it. is
mile between the rising vapor y. and the liquid %,.
the ratio of WlUally II.88tlJDed that the feed is introduced on the
tbe~zU"") /(4;y;) - V. I I., aod, sinO!! L, - V. B, the + optimum plate unless otherwise specified.
ratio (~)/(YI%'I) - V,I B - 1.'U. 'fbua V. _ (1.24)(618) -
TlO Ib/hr.
Rejlux Ratio
Feed Plt.u Location.
The term refiuz. rolla may be applied to the ratio
II the oomposition and thermal condition of the
feed, diatilhte product; and bottom product are fixed
La/ V" as detennined, but it ill frequently used to
describe the ratio of quantity of liquid pumped back
and if the heat transferred in the still or in the con-
denser is fixed, the energy and material balances
to the top plate of a fractionating column to the
quantity of distillate product withdrawn (Lo/D).
around the column and the location of the difference
The overhead vaporfl entering the condenser V I are
points 1/I!.D and Xu are fixed. Under these condi-
equal to the sum. of the reflux liquid Lo and dis-
tions the number of equilibrium plates required to
tillate product minus the energy added in the con-
efft.ct the separation specified is a function of the
denser per unit of di.stillate QeD. As explained in the
feed plat~ location.
preceding illustrative example the ratio
In Fig. 336 the feed is introduced between equi-
librium pla.tee .5 and 6. This is an optimum location
because it requires a mailer number of equilibrium La ~ YI!.DIII (hD - QeD) - HI
plates than any other location. If the feed is intra- VI - La - D - JitXO - HI _ hD (279)
duood on equilibrium plate 6, the composition of the
'Vapor ri!in.g from equilibrium plate 6 is determined The liquid reftuxcd to the top of the column is some-
in Flg. 336 by the intersection of the line li6.s%s times indicated by the symbol R .., well.., by I.
with the vapor saturation line at lis'. The fractiona- The ratio Lo/ V1 is sometimes called the internal
tion oocurring from plate 5 to pla.te 6 is then less, reflux ratio, and the ratio Lo/D the extt!rnal reflux
and consequently the wt.u number of plates required ratio.
is greater. Similar:y, if the feed is introduced on Fqr the column whoee operation la represented
plate 7 instead of plate 6, the composition of the in Fig. 336, 41/ D - 3.06.
vapors ri!!ing from plate 7 is detennined by the inter-- If a distillate product of a given eompoeition is
eection of the line 1/I!.DXs with the vapor saturation to be produced, the effect of increasing the reflux
line at Y7' . . The rractionat~"OeC~ from plate' 6 ~ ratio is to inCreR86 .t~ value of hD - QeD. With a
w plate 7 IS then lelll:l. The optimu~ feed loca.tion fixe4 thermal conditIOn of the feed, the greateJ; the
is on that plate wboee liquid compol!lition is less than value of hD - QeD, the leea ie the value of hB - QsB
or equal to the compoeition indicated . by the -m~r~." fl?r a given ?istillate and bottom product. The
section of the I)verail balance line Xt.BXf/'YtJ.D with the. _:. ~ater the dIStance that the difference points Yt.D
liquid saturation line. . ,;. ",~d..,2:I!.B are removed from the saturation lines, the
There are drfinit.e limits to the location 'br the greater will be the fractionation accomplished by
feed plate when a definite 8epa.ration ill specified and each plate, and cori.sequently the greater the reBux
the overall ellergy and material balances around the ratio. ~n general, the greater the reflux ratio, the
column are fixed. In oIuch cases the feed must be smaller IS the total number of plates required for a
introduced at least a certAin number of plates above given operation.
the bottom and at least a oertain number of plata!
below the top. If the feed is introduced 80 far Total Rejlrl.%
down the column that tbQ equilibrium tie line from When all overhead vapors are oondeMed ~d
the feed plate liql.!id coincides with the line to the returned to the eoIwnn as reHlJx i5C) that no distillate
difference point 1IAD, the total number of plates product is witbdrawn, the column is operating undf..r
required is jnfi.n.itely large. A similar ease occurs total reBux. If no distillate product is withdrawn,
where the feed plate ts so far up the coIlWlD that the no bottom product CAll be withdrawn and DO feed
 'VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1

--
1200

t---
"'" ........
I
----
I
I
I
I
!

"
""
"
--'"
/
-- ~
r--', -,, -
,," " / 1''.-------
I
"" " I I
I
I "" " I I
" ""
I I
200
/

o "
'S"'. " " "
., " '. ' . '.
o 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Q.8 0.9 1.0
M.lss f rxtion 01 Ethanol
FIo. 837. G,?phieaJ ~t.ation on an enthalpy-oonoentration diRgra.m of the operatilij!: oondiUolI8 of /I. column . t total reflux.

Fio. 338. Eat.halPY'<'OO1paeitkm d.iacrIw. for the e\hanoi- ter _)'litem at 1 abn iudtea\inc a ooIwnn ~ at.' miniloum
rdux (infinite~) . t point. A . I
 CALCULATIONS BY EN'I1U(J'Y -COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
can be introduced to the column. Thus the capacity
of ilie column becomes zero although a definite
separation is taking place.
Under w tal reflux, the reflux ratio LoID is infinite
(L j V is unity), and the qU8Jltity of heat removed
in the oondcIll!er per unit qUaDtity of distillate is
infinite. Thus the difference points MiD a{1d X.i8 lie
at infinite distances above and below the liquid
saturation line as their respective OrrlilULtes are plus
infinity and minus infinity. 1be composition of the
vapor leaving any plate is identical to the composi-
tion of the liquid overflowing from the plate above.
Total reflux conditions are indicated in Fig. 337
which shows that, at total reflux, the minimum
number of plates is required tc effpct a ~iven sepa.-
ration. " The six ideal st&gel or plates indicated in
Fig. 337 accomplish the same separation under total
reflux 9.8 the eight ideal stages in Fig. 336.
Minim"um Rf!jlux .
All the reflux raLio (Lo/D) decreases from infinity
at total refiux, the number of plates required to
produce a given separation increa.ae from the min-
imum value at total reHlix t.o an infioite number at
the minimum reflux ratio.
A.one ~ ~ infinite nymber of pJates (whe~ tJie
change in composition, f':OOl plate to plate is zero)
develops wherever the extension of an equilibrium ,
tie line passes through the point Xu or the point
Y(j,D . This condition frequently arises when the line
Z(j,sZFII;, o 'coincides witS the equilibrium t.ie line that
~ e through the fi!ed point XI'. In Fig. 338 the
reflux ratio is somewhat greater titan the reflux ratio
which woold give infinite ~lates at the feed plate,
but the fract.ionationsper plate Dear the feed plate
hM become very small. ; , ' " ' . ,...
A WIle 'of infinite plates in some systems may
develop in the rectifying section at reflllX ratiOl'l
higher than tliat "'hich gives infinite plates at the
feed plllte. This oCcurs when one of the equilibrium
tie lines in t.he rectifying section inwrsects the ordi-
nate Xo at a greater enthalpy than the equilibrium
tie line through the feed point (2:,,). This is illus-
trated in Fig. 338 where the line Ay;,o, the extension
or Ule tie line through A , intersects the line Y;,oXD at
a higher point thlUl any of the other lie l ines in the
re<:tifyi ng section including tha t through the feed
point. Here th~ zone of infinite plates deVelop!! at
point A before it deVelops at the feed plate lUI reflux
ratio is decreased.
Such a zone of infinite plates may also develop
below the feed in a system such as benJene and
chlorofonn.
Optimurn Reftwt Ratio
The choice of the proper reflux ratio should usually
be based upon an economic bala.noe. AA the min-
imum reflux ratio is approached, the number of
plates required approaches infinity, and therefore
the investment and fixed charges approach infinity.
On the other hand, the operating CO!!ts arc at the
minimum since the duties of the cOllde.nser, stili,
and reflux pump are at the minimum.
ReftUJ: Raoo_
FIG. 339. CCIIIt 01. operation, indudinl; fixed. ehupllor dil"-
, few.nt reflux rati9l'.'
~ the reflux ratio istincreaSed Nom the minimum
the column dia.meter must be increased to tTlaintain
constant throughput, but the 'number of plates is.
reduced. Accordingly the investment and fixed'
charges dcereue with increasing reflux nLtiOl'l, go
through a miaimum, and- agwn rise to infinity at
tot:al reflux when a. column of infinite diameter is
required.
The operating~ costs similariy rise to infinity' at
conditions" of total refillX, since the duties of the
condenser, still, and- reflnx pump approach infinity
for a finite amOunt of product. Thus, the u,tsJ
charges of the column per unit of feed miJst plL!B
through thc minimum value from infinity to infinity
as the reflux ratio is decreased from total refiux to
the minimum reflux for any glVf-.n separation. This
is iUustrated in Fig. 339 which shows a typical east
analysis for a given separation.
Partial Coruknurs
A partial conderu;er at the top of a oolumn corre-
spond~ to a ~tiIJ at the bottom. The partial cbn':
 ,.
VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
denser condenses only that part of the upftowing
vapor stream required for reflux yielding the dis-
tillate in the form of a vapor. The still vaporizes
only that part of the downflowing liquid stream
required for operation of the stripping section yiekl-
ing the bottom prOOuct in the form of liquid. The
coordinates for the difference point "troD are exactly
the IIIW1(! whether a partial or total condenser is used.
If the partial condenser prooUOOl! a liquid in
equilibrium with the'vapor pa8li!ing through the COD-
denser, it can be considered as the top plate of the
column in a manner equivalent to the treatment of
the still as the bottom pla.te of the column. If the
column considered in Fig. 336 were used with a
pa.rtisl condenser to produce the same composition
distillate, point 1/1 in Fig. 336 is also YD and repre-
sents the vapor dist.illate product , and point %1
represents the liquid fonned by the partial condenser
and returned to the column as reflux. The reflux
ratio RID equals the ratio of too lengths YADY2/ 11:Z-1'
1f the reflux condensate produced by the partial
condenser is not in equilib rium with the overhead
vapors, the composition of the reflux must be known
or &sBumed, and XI located on the saturated liquid
line at tbe known composition rather than at the
end of the tie line a8 shown in Fig. 336.
OpenSt_m
Instead of still or reboiler at. t.he bottom of the
column to generate the vapor stream necessary for
operation of the stripping section, the vapor may
come from aD externnl source, provided it it! rela-
tively free of the component to be stripped from the
downflowing liquid. Steam is a very common 8tri~
ping agent.. Open steam eliminates the expense and
maintenance of the reboiler which is usually su})..
jtcted to the most severe cot'!'OSive conditions. It
is readily availlable free from the component w be
stripped, and introchlceB no difficulty in t he reoovery
of an immiscible distiDate product as a liquid because
steam is readily condensed and removed from the
vapor phase.
When water is one of the componenl:ol!l to be sepa-
rated, the computatioWl fur a column may be readily
bandied by the construction ' shown in ,Fig. 340,
which is a solution of t.he following problem.
IlIu.t,.tive hample. Compute the number of equi-
Ubrium plate. requirtld to aepan.te a miKt ure of 42.2 per cent
etbaDol in w.w into .. distiUa l.e oootaining 90.0 per ceot
etbanlJ and a bou.om product oontaillin& 10.0 per centeth&nOl
by. \,l1li of open IIte&i11 havinl an enthalpy of 1:8) Btu/lb
fed undor tbe bottom pb.te at the rate of 0.416 Ib of eteam
per pound of feed. FI!Ild ill SI,Ipplied with an enLhalpy of
200 8tu/lb and distillate is to be dcli 'fflred witb an enthalpy
of 50 8tu/ lb by a wtfll condenaer.
Solution. In F'II. 340, oouditkwl of the open steam 1Up-
plied below bottom plate n are reprellented by point ".+1,
conditiOl1ll of the feed by point ~" conditiOl1ll of the diat.illate
includin, the heal n!IDOv(,'d in the coadenaer by point l/4D,
oooditloo. of the n!lI.ux by point %<I or :t'D which rcP~D "' !.be
diBtillate excluding the heat removed in the condenaer, .rnI
tM bott.oml! product by %B, . . stated. The IIUIlI of t.be
.team and feed OODStituting t he total feed to t be column is
repnwmted by point 0 110 located on the line ~ that the
ratio of the ~bB Oz,/Or.+I equals 0.416 lb of !lte.m per
pound of feed. ~ point 0 .110 repreeent/l t he aum of the
bottom prodllet re~nted by point :t'B and the di~tillat/l
znIoWi the enerv added in the ooOOell8el'. The straight line
%II) extendo:od to %D - 0.90 inl.el"8eetB the ordinate :tD .. t &n
enthalpy equal to hD - QeD at represented by point V4D.
The dilI'erence point between t be down60wing Uquid &n'd the
U~1lC vr.poI' in the IlU'ippin, .-.cUou ",p~ntll the differ
enoe between the 8te&m a.nd the bottom produot . It there.
fore DB. on !.be exterWoo of the line through the pointll ".+1
...d Z B. It iH abo t he difference point between tbc feed and
the dilltiUnte minus the energy added in the oon.denaer and
lherefore i~ k>t:ated at the inter8ection of the linea extended
throut;h the poin tll Y4D, r; and " .. +1, %B at :1:48, havin, the
ooordinal.ell (0.168, -508).
The p!n.1.t." w.-pIate 00Il8tructJ0rI ill made in the mannCl'
indicated in Fi~. aID m o"ing the equivaJent ol7.7 equilibrium
plates l'(lCluire\l fVl' this Mlparation.
n.c, eoordin at.ea of the point 4B IIl'e 3:./ (1 - SJ,
(Ir. - SH ,,)/ 0 - S) wbereS is t he pound, of ~telJD. pet pound
of bottom product and J!~ i~ entMIpy of steam in Btu per
pound.
Comporiaon oj Open and CIoHd Steellft
H the same feed were to be 8eparated into the
same distillate, with the sam.e reflux ratio and the
same 1088 of ethanol in the bottomB but with a still
or reboiler illiItead of open steam, the oompoflition
of the bottom product would be that of the point
%llJj - 0.158 mass fraction of ethBnol instead of
XB - 0.10 masil fraction.
The effect of th_e open steam is that of & diluent.
Because of this dilut.ion more fractionation and a ,
greater number of platetl are required wjth open
steam (7.7 compared with 7.3) for too case shown in
Fig. 340.
Entroinm,mt
The separation or the vapor from the liquid on the
plate is never ahsoIutely complete as the vapor
rising from a plate will carry with it some liquid as a
fioe mil:!t or spray. The mass of liquid 80 carried
by a unit mass of vapor is the entrainmtlnt designated
8.. Since only equilibrium platetl are under conaider-
 CALCULATIONS BY .ENTHALPY.COMPOSITION DIACRAM 341
-
'000
, y.,
'400
AJ

1200 " I
L~
\\ /(//
1000

800
'"1\ / ''" ,
t-
~
,

.,
V IV
1
11\ V """ r:if"
1
/
1
\ if
/ 1\ - // v; I /
/ / I ~

~/, Iii
1 ' III;',
I ); /
1 I I',
200
1 / 1/
-' 1
" ,
'! "'1
" " " "'1"'."'.
0
I / -
"
- 1
I
1 "
I .
,

/
"
I
,I
- 400

-"'" o 0.1
"'r 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mass Frection of ~noI

F lO. 340, 'I'bo operat.iOD 01 (raetionating oolumns usiD open ami cloeed stearn "i,tb the 8ft.1TIe IOSII 01 eths'IOl in the boUonlll
iDdic:at.ed on an ~nlhalpy~nt ...t.ion diapan. for
the ethanol-water ')'SteIU a~ I atm,
 VAPOR-LIQUID TRAISSFER QPERATIONS 1
2000
,-, , - ,

, 1500
,
--
/
V)l
V 1// . 11
; /
t--
1// 1 1/ II

4
1000

t-:--- --1/..:: ~ d / /
f--

~/ IT" ~t.-::: b
/'
i! -7,
.,i I . . /
i" ! vr> / l,?>
II/~ k~ 1/',/
c~
'"
/ /<,
/";
t/ ~ 1/
IF" 1/
- ." " fl ..
-
/ V/ ,

!/; -- ,- ''\i - ,-
, , -
- ~IJ,

;,V -
.

~
FlO. 3~ 1.
-- ,.
Enth.!t.Jpy-COWJCnt.ration diagnm for the ethlUlol-water aystem at I atm, ahQWin~ tbe ooll4troct.ion when ooUlliderill&"
tbe effeet uf entroiwnent o.tl the number of .\ages.

ation, the 'e ntrained liquid is in equilibrium with the 'its effect can be -readily inoorporated in the calcula-
vapor, and a point on II. tie line, such as elO in Fig. tion by colllltructing a wet vapor line I.u replace t he
3-11, represents the combined vapor and entrained saturated vapor line. By plotting points e along
equilibrium liquid rising rrom plate 10 as it is an the tie - lines' 80 tllat the ratio of the distances
addition point for the saturated vapo:>l' 1110 and its ey/u -
e, the wet vapor line is determined as the
equilibrium liquid ZIO' The point elO is looated on locus of the point.8 l!. The computations are then
the equilibril,m lie line .1" IOY , O 80 that the ratio of the made in the urual manner except that the wet
distances e,oilloi el oX lO - E,o. vttpOr' line is u!!ed instead of the B&turated vapor
H the enlt"ainment is known or can be estimated, !ille as indicated in }'ig. 3U.
 PROBLEMS ,, 343

Plate Efficien cy n - 1, in this case the bottom plate next above the
In actual operation each plate seldom operates II.S still, is represented by %. _ 1. The point representing
an equilibrium plate. The departure from equilib- the equilibrium vapor, 11" ~ _ I, is on thc saturated
rium may be expressed in a number of different ways. vapor line at the intersection of the equilihrium tie
Th~ Murphree vapor plate efficiency is defined: line from Z .. _ lo The vapor actually rising from
stage n - I, however, is not of this oofllpotlition,
. y~ - lI~+ 1 but lI~- I , located on the saturated vapor line 80 tha t
Vapor effiCiency _ (280)
y~. - 11-+1
Jt~Y._1 .
where y has its usuall!ignificanee. - (Vapor efficKmcy) .. _ 1
1/ indicates the compoeition of the equilib- 1/. 1/ "- I

rium vapor (the vapor that would be in T~e calculation may be continued as indicated,
equilibrium with %..). provided the efficiency is known or can ,be et!timated.
If the saturated vapor line ,is approximately
This plate efficiency may be incorporated in the
straight as in Fig. 342 tJie total vapor rising from a
calculations to compute the number of actual plates
plate may be regarded lis COnlposild of two.portiulls:
as distinct frorn the number of equilibrium plates,
ODe portion a vapor in eqitilibrium 'with th~ liquid
as indicated in Fig. 312. When dealing with the
learing the piaro, and the baJllnce. a va~r 'passing
1200 through the plate without any change in composi-
tion. The fraction of vapors bypassed in this way
. :.",. 1100
would'equal the ratio of the dista~ces y"Y""/~n+11I "",
f'-- Or the Murphree vapor plate efficiency might be
1000
goo
, .
",p""",,"
Vapor efficiency - (1 - rf (281)
800 f'-- )'.-1
where" - fraction of vapors by-passed.
700
II" ':!;:'i
Q ,
j600 '"
. f"
~+-
~~
PROBLEMS

~500
/ /
l. A feed at 10 F, 1 atm. cont.aining W.O IlUIIIII per oent

,
=E-400 IF et.h&nol aDd the ~O& . \t.. l.Cr, ill to be ' lrippedd n a ~te
ooIumu to prodllO& a bot tom ~ut\ contalwlII 1.0 rna. per
" 300
/ cent _~thanol. Oftrhead vapof'll a.re,..ithd,.wll-IUI a dilililtate
prod"",-

200 10:::- / / (a) What ill the minimum '-t req~ pel" pound of

00
-" ~-I
-". _1 s......_..., bottom product to e1Icct. lhillep&ration!
{b} What is the composition of Ule ~te vaPOr'll for
j.hi.s operation!

- I00
0

I I
.II
' T~/
-2()()
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 l .o -L corn. .",
Mass Flllttion' Ethanol I" Et1lanol-Water Mixtures
FIG. 342. Entlllllpy-eoncent.ratlon, diqram, Ihow iD'j{ coO- ,'
B1ruetion when c::on~idering tOe e1Jeet of Mwphree vapor etfi-
ekooy on the numbe!- of .\&pI.
vapor plate efficiency the ~cal culati0ll8 are usually
started at the bottom. In Fig. 342, v. represents
the Vapol'8 rising from the still and are l88U,Dled to
be in equilibrium with th~ still liquKl or bottoms %8.
In this sense the still is the bottom equilibrium
stage, n. The liquid leaving the next bigher stage,
(c) What ill the minimum ratio of v.piX! Ieavm,; tll . till
pot to bottomB product!
(d) What effect will coolilll tIN! feed 'to O F have on the
'aItllwof:l'!! to qlWlltiQllfJ (I., b, and c7
(~) With feed at 10" F. nd V./8 _ 1.5 time. the minimum,
(I) Heat requl(ed per wund or" bottom product.
I
(2), CompoBition or distillate v.porl. .
.
(3) Number of ideal plates (including atill) required.
2. A vapor mixture at 1 atm, oontaininlli &5.0 DlafII per eent
ethanol: and the balanQ! water (enthalpy - l{.l()() Btu /lb),
ill to be ~tified in I. plate column ('WI th eondenaer, nieei'fer,
and reflux pump) to produce a dia~ilta~ product at 100 F
coota.inin 8.5.0 ~ per cent ethanol.
(G) What ia the minimum reBux ratio (tol D) a nd minimllm
coodenaer duty (Btu per pot.IlId of distillate) roecesMI"Y to
achlevI! this aepan.tioaf

,
 VAPOR-UQUlD TRANSFER OPERATIONS I
,(&) What ill the COlTCllpondilll oomflOlSition of the liquid
bot\(JQl product and quant.ity per pound of feed?
(e) If the reflUli ratio (4J/ D) it inerea.sed by *6 pet I'eOt
over the miniDlUlU, oompute:
(1) Condell$er duty in Btu per pound of dmilla.te.
(2) N wnber of Ideal plAtes.
(3) Compolli.tion of bottom product.
a. A rraetionating eulumn ill openu.irc at 1 .tm to produce
a reflux and distillate p"roduet at 114 F containing 78 mole
per ccnt ethAnol and the balancc water, and a bottom product
containing 0.4 mole per cellt ethanol. The feed oontainll
17.5 mole pel' cent ethanol and ill introd uced a t 183.4" F at a
note of 43.5 moletfhr. Re8.ux.~ It .. " F is ~turned to the
top plate of the column at a rate of 2!U ll'K>lee/ht.
(a) How many actual plAtes {in addition to the $till} are
required "'ith an overall plate efficiency of 70 per cent?
kIIume the etill ill equivalent to one kieal plate.
(&) What are the .... tee. 01 beat t.ran8f~ in the IItm and in the
......".,,'
(c) At what rate do the vapol"\l leave the still, and wlia.t ill
their oompoBitiQn?
(d) To the downapout of which plate sboo.ld the feed he
introduced? A.Nurne equaJ plate el'licieneies in the atripPing
and rectifying ~tio,..".
4. A loed 01 22.2 mole per, cent ethanol 11.1,'11, tbe ba.!lUlce
water, at 1 atm and IllI cuthalp'y or 4860 Btu/mole, ill to he
~rat.ed by di!tiUatlon in a plate ooIwnn with open 1It.eam
at an cllt.halpy of J200 Btu/lb and a partial amdeMe.-. The
bottom product ill to conWIl 3.8 mole per oent ethanol, and
thll di,tiUate product (saturated vapor) 78 mole per cent
ethanol. IO.llb of steam are,UIId pet mole of feed.
(a) What is the condemer duty per mole of distillate
prod....,
(6) What are !.be CIOOIdinatee or the IJ. point MIOciated with
the botiom of t.be cotumn! Whlit do thele valueI repl'eEnt?
. (e) H ow many ideal pla.te!I Me required (ineludil1l still and
pN'tial ooaden8er)? ,! ,
(i) HO'IV iDBny .~tual platee are - . y aboVl! the :rtillf
A.wne that the still opel'lLtell at. 30 pel' oent. efficiency, the
Iy.utial condemter is equivalent to one ideal. pJ.te and if)
8Cparate from the column, and the rest or the tow", 'h as &
plli.te efficiency or 75 'per cent.
S. A.C(III.tiII_ Iabol1l.toIy fnw:tioMtiDg uni t eonWllB the
equivaJe.ot of ru: equilibrium platee .lId in oper&tion 8Uppliea
'.,~ ~flux to the top plate Ilt IOO~ F. It is heated with clO8ed
st.e&m. A Icod oontaining 40 weight pet oent eth&no\ 9.lld the
bal:owee ",.. ter ie divWod into two portions, one colllliating of
ro pal'll &!XI tbe other 60 p&rt4 pe' 100 parte of origin&! feed.
The ,maIler port.ion is fed to tbe IICOOnd pUl.e from too top.
anj the iar&'er portion k> the fifth plate. 'The temperature
or the food is 130' F. If the column it operated Ilt 1 .. tm pre&-
eu'll at a re1I.ux I'Il.Uo (RJ D) of 2.0, and the distillate aDd
b:M.t.orn products are withdrawn at equal rates, what ill the
COlIlpoeition of ,hi! produel.ll that will bt: Rroducedf
6. A bubble-cap column operated at &tmOllPhefi~ p!'elllurt
baa been uee4 foc the oontinuo~ fractionation of an aqucoua
l!IOI.ution of et4nol. The ooiumn w'" \!quipped with a total
~ aDd a ~boiler. T he rol.lowin& tell. data were
obtsiood durinj: &n 8-hr period, duriq which llteady... tate
COoditiOll4 existed. ..1.
ColUIllD:
Actual number of plates, 16
Plate 5paelng, to in.
:fo'eed introduocod on twdft h pla.te down rrom top:
Complll!ition, 0.300 IIlMEl fnict.ion ethanol
Raw, 24,000 Ib/hr
Telllpemture, 53.6 0 F
Overhead produ ct: 0.900 Ill&3S fraction eth .. nol
Bottom product: 0 .005 ~ftact.ion ethanol
Condell9llr:
W..w rate, U,OOO gal/hr, .. II'IIl&IIllI'ed by meter in water
line
Water temperature: Inlet, 50 F
, ." Outlet, 12(16 F
,
Condensate temperature, 80 0 F
Determine:
...,.
{OJ The overall pb.te e fficiency of the ooIurnn dlll'ing the
(tiL Thttpoint wh!-,te the na.ximum v&por rate is found, lind
the quantity in pnUnWI per hour.
(e) The cll&ntre in oomposit.ion of the bottom product if
this !II<.Ine oolumn ill open-ted wi~h a heat exchanger to recover
8Orn<l of the bellt IooIt in the bottom produet by preheating
the feed to ISO' F, with the top product unchang&d, the
refhix ratio unchanM and with the a88uinption that the
plate efficicnciel will be unellanged.
7. A oontinuoua, bubble-eap fractionating oolumn, equipped
with reboiler and partial eono.len.oor, ill to be uaed to recover
ethanol from two strelWlll: P, 0 ..50 rruis8 fraction etbtwol a nd
r t.he bal&noe water, at SO F, 20,000 lbJ hr; and Jo", 0.060 nlllllll
fr*dioo e~ and t.he balance_tel, &t 1200 F, 20,(0) Ib/hr.
. 'The eth&nol. ia to be reco~ ",a vapor oontai~ 0,91 rna.
fraet.ion e~l The bottom pnxIurl ill tn contain o.clllxn
rn&II! fr.action ethanol.
The ooiumn ill to he operated at stlOOl!lp heric p!'elllUtl'!.
The va.pIM' streamll leavin@: the pla.tee will entrain 0.2 lb of
liquid per pound of Vllpor, except for t be V'llpIM' from tbe top
pla.te ..-here entra..inment will he negli&ible. C&.Icula\e:
-(a)" TIle ~nimum reflux t'atio (Lt:,/D) rOr the opemtion,
(&) Tbe number 9f ide&! pla.teII required and reboiler
heal duty wben the refll.lJI. ratio is equ&l to 1.5 timM tbe
minimum.
(el '!'be number of platfl8 mquired for the IIIll"ne reftUI:
ratio &l!I that ~ in part. (&), if the t'll'O atreAmll 'a re mixed
r before intro!1uctlon into l.he column,
a. TeD tboUl6lld poundt per hour of a 1I01ution at 60' F
C(III.taining 40 _ per _ t ethanol and the b&laru:e water
.re fed to a oontinUOUlll Jract.ionatinc ooIumn operatiDI at
atm('Jflpheric pl'lll!lure. The solution ill to be &eparated Into
three product. containiq 90, 66. and 5 per oent eth&no~
~i-vely. The stream cont&ininl 66 per tlI'!Ilt ethanol ill
to he witbdra1lm at a rau 012000 Ib/hr.
'The oolumn ill to he equir'ped with a t.ot&I. oondeMe.-.
Water from 1\ cooling to'll'et" available &t 86 F as a cooling
,rnediUlll ror the conooD$lll', Tentatively, it estimated that
a reflux ratio (Lt/D) of 2 will he Wled. Open .te&m.at 310 F
~ to supply tht. beat required 101' the operatiQll..
 PROBLEMS
SpooiI,. the foUo'lll'inl inlormaUoa:
(4) Number of idl!al plateR required for the eolumn.
(6) Loeatlon of the feed plate.
(e) LoeIltion of the plate from whleh the 66 per oent produot
ill to be removed.
9. An aqllOOUll aoiutiotl of 0.15 rnue fraction ammonia is
being fed to the top plate of a stripping column at the rate of
21,000 Ib/ht. The temperature of the feed is 140 F. Heat
is IIllpplied to the reboUer by meana of l~ psi ateam, the
345
_delVlfl,tfl 1eaving ..the trap at a saturated liquid. U the
cohuna it operatfld at 80 psia, delermillCl:
(a) The maximum CQnoon tration of a.mmonia vapor
obtainablo.
(6) The number of ideal plate<! requirW in the column to
obtain a top produet containing 0.70 lIUIIl8 fractioo ammonia
and a bottom product containing 0.005 JnaIIII fl"lCtion
ammonla.
(e) The steam requirement (pounds per hour) under U-
conditioM.

"
"
 CHAPTER
24
Vapor-Liquid Transfer Operations 2
Design and Control of Fractionating Columns
HE physical design and layout of fractionating
T
equipment is dependent largely on the judg-
ment of the engineer. The b9JIic information
concerning proce'IS variahles such as temperatures,
pressures, energy quantities or reflux ratio, and the
!'umber of equilibrium trays required is subject to
more or less e:mct calculat.ion, as has been indicated.
The proper design of fractionating equipment in-
cludes not only the number of actual plates but, what
is even more importAnt, and without specific expe-
rience more difficult, the dimensions of the column
and its component parts including risers, down-
spouts, and spacing of plates, or packing and its
support.
BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS
An e!TOr in estimating the num ber of plates is
usuaJly not so serious as an error of equivalent
magnitude in estimating tower diameter or down-
spout capacity. Once the tower is erected, these
latter Items cannot be changed eeonomica.lly, whereas
an error in the number of plates can usua.lly be com-
pensated for by an adjustment of operating condi-
tions, A primary consideration in column design is
the provision of sufficient capacity fM' both the liquid
and vapor strromlf, Present information 1,11,111 .. indi-
cates that the plate efficiency, in m08~ cases, ill not.
l:Ien.sitive to minor variatidns in standard tTay la.youts
if ample fluid h'lmdling ca.pacity is provided,
Til e Number of Actual Platu
Although the OVO'all plate ej'ficiency, defined as the
number of equilibrium stages required for a given
Tho bihliography rot this chfl.plcr apvears onp, 396,
316
separation divided by the number of actual plates
required, leaves much to be desired. from a. theoret-
ical point of view, it has pro"Fed to be a convenient
and in most cases a reliable method of correlating
practieal operating results. Other definitions of
plate efficiency based on IJlAS8 tra.."Isfer theory 10
have made considerable progress.~" nut such
theoretical methods bave not. yet. rcach.I the point
of development where they can be employed to
predict actual plate efficiency either conveniently or
with con6dence.
Since overall efficiencies are based upon perform-
ance data, the values reported not only include the
effect of the actual plates and materials treated on
the a.pproach to equilibrium between tbe liquid and
vapor phw, but also reflect any errol' or inaccuracy
in obtaining the data or in calculating the number of
equilibrium stages required. When using overall
plate efficiencies reported in the literature, it is
important to make proper aUowance for such errors
and for differences in the methods of culeulatio'l, par-
ticularly in multicomponent mixtures whcre approxi-
maw methods of calculation are frequently ;;-.;ed,~
For properly designed and normally operated
columns, the overall plate efficieney is largcly de-
pendent upon the properties of t.he material being
fractiona.ted, The viscosity appears to be the
most important single property affect.ing the )verall
plate efficiency, For colwnns operat ing on petro-
leum and similar hydrocarbon mnwrinl!!. the follow-
ing relationship" was found reason/I,bly satisfactory
Overall plate efficiency ~ 18 - 60 log I' (282)
where I' - molal average viscosit.y of feed at the

average column temperature in centipoi&es. The
molal average viscosity of the feed is the 8Wll of
the products of mole fraction and viscosity for eaeb
compooent of the feed taken at tbe arithmetic
averagfJ of the top and bottom temperatures of the
column.
Columns of model'8.te diametet1! operating on
volatile hydrocarbon columllB such as natural gMo-
line sbow overall plate efficiencies of about 100 per
cent. Low-pressure bydrocarbon absorbers operate
at about 20 to 45 per cent plate efficiency, high-
pressure absorbers (from 100' to 600 psi) at about
45 to 65 per cent pJste efficiency, and a1coholwater
coI:UIlUl8 at 70 to 100 per cent overall plate efficiency.points (1); the pLs.te8, and the formation of relatively
La.rge columns providing multiple contacts of up-
Bowing vapor with the cross-flowing liquid indicate
overall efficiencies up w 50 per cent higher than those
given.a
Figure 343 is a similar correlation r. which in- begins and the vapor tends tAl ''cone''-the liquid away
BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS 347
these values must be used with caution according
to the judgment and the e":perience of the engineer.
Column Diameter and Vapor Copocity
The efficiency of the contact between the liquid
and vapor on a plate depends largely on the agitation
caused by energy supplied by the vapor in passing
through the liquid on the plate. At very low vapor
.velocities, low plate efficiencies are obtained. This
may be caused by a decreased liquid level on the
plates (a greater proportion of liquid passing down
through the drain holes), tbe channeling or the vapors
due to sligbt. differences on liquid head at. different
large bubbles cf vapor. Higher v1l.por velocities
produce higher plate efficiencies because of thorough
contacting of the liquid and Y~por. At very high'
vapor velocities, entrainment of liquid by the vapor

. .,
cludes an lidditional variable, the reLs.tive volatility from the slots of the bubble caps," by-passing: the
liquid on the platefl and prooucing low pln.t,e effi

ciencies. .
Maximum plate efficiencies are obtained over a
range of vapor velocities centered approximately
~50 at those calculated by the following equat:on, t'l.e
form of which was derived by application of equation
~30 14 to the motion of liquid droplflt!! in vapor.-

1100.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10
(283)
Relative VollltiUIy of Key Components Ie Viscosity where G is the mass velocity of the vapor [(lb)/(hr)
of Feed (It Average CoIwnn Conditions)
(01 ... ) ( ....... in centipoiRs)
(sq ft) of column cross section].
C is a parameter depending upon the plate
FIo. iW3. Approlliln3te overall plate efficiency M .. fWlction
of the prodoo of relativ!! voi&tility of !.be key components spacing and the surface tension of the liquid
multiplied ~Y t.be ~ of t.be fee;d in (!IlDl.ipo'-.- on the plate.
Ph p., are the densities of the liquKl and vapor,
of the componente be~ ~ted, and is applicable respectively, ..It the column conditions
to a wide range of materials' 8.s well as to'eornmefcial LI1<" (Ib/ cu ft).
sieve plal.e columns frsctioiui.ting acetic a.cid-;"'ater
mixtures, beer, IWd alcohol~water mixtures. The values of the para.meter C may be determined
The overall relativJ volatility is obtained by divid- - f;om Fig. 344 as a function of plate spacing and
ing the equilibrium moial ratio y/z of the more- sUrface tell8ion ..a A suitable column diameter may
volatile component by t:h~e equilibrium ratio, lI/Z of . be selected by using the maximum vapor load in
the leas-volatile component for which' definite limit- ' the column in poundS per hOur. The mass velocity
ing concentrations have been specified in' the dis- per square foot. of column area at which the pla.tes
tillate and. in the bottoms, at the arithmetic average ' will usually operate efficiently may be computed
temperature and pressure of the column. For PUr-~(' from equation 283. 'The quotient of these figures is
poses of correlation this average relative volatility is the total cross-8Ci:tional column area which should
multiplied by the average vi8cOOty of the feed,!UJ.d be used. In making this calculation it is nll."CCSSary
the product used as the abscissa in Fig:. 343. to assume arbitrarily a plate spacing. Suhseque!lt
The exact description cf what are norrn8J operating calcuilitions for liquid capacity determine whether
conditions is subject to wide variation, and therefore or not this assumed plate spacing is satisfactory.
348 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
700 the risers of the plate above. Ordinarily, spiashinl!;
/' entrainment is important only at very high vapor
,/ velocities and with small plate spacings.
600 Variations in plate efficiency observed in ('.om.mer-
ciai installatioIl8 cannot be explained entirely on the
/ ;:;;; wis of entrainment. In one case, entrainment of
/ ./
- 0.4 Ib of liquid per pound of dry vapor was observed,
Al / V' which theoretically would have reduced ~he plaIA!
efficienoy by 2:5 J)"Jr, eent. Actually, the plate effi-
-'/l ciency was reduced two or three times this amount.

/11,11; ~.f,
I/, V
/ Apparently, baaic: changea in the type of contact
between the liqtQd and vapor 00 the bubble-eap
plates such as "coning" occur before entrainment
~ 1,(., seriously aJiecte plate efficiency, and the most
/&:
/Of'" 1 . / .....
/ important effect of entrainment is an increase in the
liquid loads carried by the downspouts.

100
1/ ~\""
1/ V'
:..--
.' Where rigid speci6cationa with respect to oolOf' or
impurities must be met by distillate producte, snfall
amounts ,of entrainment may be very serious, en-
tirely apart from eonsideratton8 of plate efficiency
or capacity.
,IV'
10 15 20 25 30
Oistll'oOe bet'o\leen PllttS. In. " Vapor Llnes
'I11e V&jXlr lines from the top of a oolumn must be
lio. 344. Vallie of C in eq ua'ion 283 for di1Jeren\ pla~ sufficiently -large to pennit pa8SII.ge of the vapors
8pAcinp and liquid M1l'f_~.
witlwut exoessive presstae drop. The pressure drop
may be calculated by methods of Chapter 12. The
Plate efficiency is relatively insensitive to vapor following figures U represent usual commercial prac-
load over a wide range with properly designed bub- tice :
bl~p pla\.eS,' and ooluml1 diameters det.ennined. by
the above procedure provide a reasonable overload
Operatinc Pn.un!
Atmo.pberic
10G-50 mm D1e1'CIlry
......
Vapor Velocity, fps

caplM!ity so far as efficiency is concerned, since the
vapor velocities so calculated may be exceeded by
30 to 100 per cent without a signi6cant decrease in
plate efficiency,
In rare cases the vapor lood in different parts of a
column will differ so markedly that a column oon-
structed of Scctioll.8 having different cf'Ol!lHleCt.iooal
area may be justified.
Entrainment
Equation 283 WII.9 deve.'oped on the concept of a
maximum vapor Joad that wpuld just fail to ~
significant cntrllinment by the suspension of a mist
of liquid in the vapor. Where smalJ. amounts of
entrainment are significant the vapor velocities com-
puted from equation 283 sho'uld not be exceeded and
the d ist.anoo from the top of liquid (or froth) on a
plate to bottom of plate above should be used a.8 the
distance between plates. ' Entrainment mayal80 be
cau.<;ed by splashing of liquki from one plate into
100-150
Below 50 mm mereury 15<>-200
Liquid Capacity
A column operating nonnally ia illustrated' dis.-
grammatically in Fig. 345. In order that the vapor
from pla.,.te 2 may pass through the bubble caps ~d
liquid on plate I , there must be a pressure difff:rential
P2 - Pl . Further, in order that the liquid on ..,late 1
may pa88 through the downspout to piaU! 2, there
must be a liquid head in the downspout above the
liquid on plate 2 sufficient to balance the pressure
differential producing the vapor Bow lUId in addition
to produee liquid Bow through the downspout.
The first observable effect of exceeding the liquid
capacity of a column is &n increase in too quantity
of liquid on the trays and in the dmvnspou t&. When
the downspout becomes filled with liquid, My slir,bt
increase in the liquid or vapor flow incfelU3e8 the
liquid level on the plate. The increase in liquid level
. on the plate increases the pressUIll differential lCf088
 BUBBlE PLATE COLUMNS
(
:: .. .
. . .. ..... . .
FlO. 346. Diagram illUiltrating liquid heads in the Bow of liquid down a
the plate which, in turn, causes more liquid to back
. up through the downspout, producing It. lurtJaer
increase in the liquid level on the plate. The result
of this accumulative cycle is that the column fills
with liquid and ceases to function as a fractionating
unit. This phenomenon is called flooding.
When tbe column becomes fiUed with liquid 88 a
reatllt of flooding, the pressure differentials between
the plates disappear to a large extent, while the pres-
sure in the still or reboiler will continue to increase
if the temperature of the heating fluid is sufficiently
high. Eventually this pI'e8i!ure will become great
enough to blow liquid over the top of the column
tbMUgh the vapor lines in more or less violent
slJ8BDls. This is known as priming or puking.
During such periods vapor generated in the still
bubbles through the column' of liquid in the column
intennitteiitly. While vapor is being generated no
liquid 80ws to the stiU or reboiler. When vaporiza.-
tion ceases, owing to the inereue in pressure, liquid
flows to the still. A flooded, or partially floodPrl
column cannot fractiunate efficiently, and it is
essential that the plates of a column be spaced at a
sufficient distance so that flooding will not oceur
under the nonna! .variatioos in operating conditions.
WherejrolJi'/lliquida are involved this ~ect i~ more
.,' .
", . .. ... . "" .
bubbl~ap column in normal operation.
8erious a.nd the rlooding occurs more rapidly. When
the free surface of the liquid in the downspouts is ' .
weU belQW the entmnoo there is Ilufficieot surface
along the walls of the downspout and over the weir
for the entrained vapor to disengage from the liquid,
and the downspout will operate properly. As the
liquid flow increases nod the downspout begiIlll to
fiU ,,; th liquid, this surface is decreased, and the
point may he reached at which the vapor can no
longer disengage from the liquid, thus passing down
through thc dowIllIpuut with the liquid. Since the
density of this frothy mixture of liquid ind vapor ill
less than that of t-he liquid alone, a higher head of
froth is required to maintain the seal between the
plates than is required. with li(luid alone. Co~
quenUy the entire cycle described above occurs more
rapidly. Thus it is essential that ample liquid-carry-
ing capacity be provided in the oolwnn for materials
that tend to froth or foam. A top baffle placed in
front of the downspout weirs so that liquid must p98fl
beneath this baffle before passing over the wei'1:ha8
been found helpful in holding the froth out of the
downspout," and in preventing the liquid being
"blown off" the plate at bigh vapor rates. This
baffle should extend to the level of the slots if it doee
not seriously restrict liquid Bow.
350 VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
Ample disengaging spa.oe for the vapor should be Lereloee. Show that the pnMUte drop ~uired fo.' Yapol

provided between the downspout weir IIJld the
entrance to the downspout, as shown in Fig. 345,
allowing 8. minimum time, for vapor liberation
between the lBBt row of CApe and the overflow weir,
to fklw upward through the plate ~ \0 tho !eYe! cf liquid i.o
downspout (P, - Pu is given by the follotrinc equat.inn..
P1 - PI _ [<Zl _ Zz) + lis (PI - I)]!..g. .+ iwy (285)
~ ~

of 1 aec/ft of liquid depth on the tray,- wbere liDV - friction bIJ in vapor 8o'lrin& through riactI,
Liquid Height in DoWIUpouts. The ma.ximum bubble caps, and eIou (fMb foroef\bol vapor).
height HDA%. olliquKl in the d()Wll8pout from plate .. - beiJb~ of liquid 00 plate 600- rJota OJ" ft(>Or
outlets from C:&pII, Of ISUb~ (Il).
1 above plate 2 in Fig. 345 is equal to the plate 8p8C-
'ing plus the height of tbe weir on plate 1. The ac- Multiplying equation 285 by (P./p{), and substi-
tual height H of the liquid in the downspout above tuting for (Zl - Z2),
plate 2 may be calculated from the various factors
cootrlbuting to pressure differentials in the flow paths ., p [H-h .. -h... -h,) -,
pI + ]
and the dimensions of the weirs areording to equation
600. which may be written lor the 80w of liquid down
the downspout from plate 1 to plate 2 as follows.
.,:' ' - [ +'" (", ::.) + z:t:.) (286)

P, - P, l>("') (-" ) - Putting equation 286 into eq,uation 284,

'-'--;-'-' - (Zl - Z,) - - - - IWL (00a)

[
(h' +h"+h')(~)+
PI' 2g g
]
H("::} +"'( ,,:,.)+ /,;;&:)+ ~::.)
Neglect.Wg changes in kinetic energy,

Zl _ P, - PI + z, + (~) lw,
PI' g

where PI - preesure above liquid in downspout (lb
force/sq ft).
P s - pressure Above liquid on plate 2 Ob
. fOl'OO/ sq it).
ZI "" height of ~ surface of liquid in down-
spout abOve plate 2 (ft).
Z, ... height of liquid on plate 2 surrounding
downspout (ft) . ' orifices, and the friction IClBIIe8 lw may be eetlmated
lWL - friction loeses in liquid flowing down
and under dOWlUlpOUt (ft-lb force/lb
ma.sa-of liquid).
PI' - average speci6c weight of liquid in
downspout (lb foree/ cu ft) .
Rewriting, with the following nomenclature,
H - height of liquid in downspout above
plate,
h.. - height of weir on plate,
h~ ""' height oC liquid over weir -on plate,
~ - hydra.Ulic gradient (liquid "head" tend-
-ing to cause horizontal flow of liquid
BCr088 the plate),
Z, - h,.+h..+h,
H _ PI - , PI + h. + h_ + ~ + (~) lw, (284)
, C
1
Simplifying by dividing by (PI - P ..)/PI
h.! + h.+ ... +>.+
(287)
H - [ +lWL(-, PI ,)+IWv(- , P. ,)
\;1 - P. \;1 - P.
Except for higb-pres8UJ'e operations, DO significant
error is introduced if (Pi' - P.')/ Pl is astmmed equa l
to unity. The downspouts operate as sut. .wrged
by the orifice equation as
lw - O.06(vL)' (288)
where VL - maximum velocity of liquid in 01" under
'downspoGt determined at narrowest constriction
(minimum croes-eectiona.l (area. Dormal to Row) (fpe).
Similarly, the value for the friction loss in the 80w
of vapors through the bubble caps may be approxi-
mated by the sa.me formula but with II. larger con-
stant .!.II the vapor changes its directioo of Bow to a
p-ea.ter extent in passing through the bubble CAp'
than does the liquid in passing through the dov n-
spout.. The value for the constant will depeni upon
the design of bubble cap: The following is lIIlg68ted
88 a fair average .
ItoI' - O.086(vv)' (289)
where Vy - maximum vapor velocity through riflers,
caps, or slota (Cps) .
 B UBBLE PLATE COLUMNS 351
The "head" required for t he flow of liq uid across
the plate, hI" is rclatiw!ly small in columns of small
diame ters and may be approximatf'd or nc~lccted
except ill t he case of large columns which may be
cai(lUlated by more r.ompiex equations II, It or esti
mated in the manner described unde r Plate Design
and Layout, p. 354. The height of t he weir h", is
known a~ it is fixed by the designer. T he suhmer
~~noo hs (see Fig. 3..\5) varies djredly with the height
Over the weir 11_ and for the upstream side of the
plate may be e),..prC!!!!~ as
hs-h.,.,+h'!"+hp - x
where x = diBhlOce from plate to top of :llot.
T he height of liquid in the downcomer H can then
be estimated if the value for hou is calculated or
estimated. Sub:it.ituting in equation 287, H ..,
2(h .. + ho", + h,,) - J: + O.OG(VL)2 + O.085(t'v)2(~)
(290)
wbere Iiy is the velocity of \'upor passing through the
upstream row of caps. 1 Ul' iil taken as the average FlO. 347. A typical bubble-e., p plate witb circular over60...
maximum "elocity Lbrough the Clip:! nn average ,,cin<. (TM / ,l.1l11;m," Co.)
\alue for hp (such as h,./2 in Fig. 345) is indicated.
The head of lilJlIul at,.-er the weir hQIl! is directly pro- change!:! ill liquid load and is preferred for that reason.
portional to the quantity of liquid paAAi ng over the Weirs m'C usually of two t,y]X!s : (1) circular pipes
weir and is invcr.;cly proportional to tllt: length of extending through the plate w the plale below, l<'igs.
the weir. A given liquid level for a particular liquid 346 aud 34i , the edge of the pipe serving all II. weir,
load Howing 3.C1'CIS$ the plate can be maintaineJ by a. and (2) flat plates e.'(tcnding nc rQKS the chord of the
long high weir, or by a low "hort weir. The long eol\lmn circle (chord.type wcinl), Fig!:!. 348 and 349.
high weir gives lcss variation in liquid level with Frequenlly the downspout is fonned by the space
betweell the wall of the column and t he extension of
the elum:l-typc weir below the plate.
In the equations u.lxlI'e the heads have been ex-
pressed in feet. In prnct.ioo t he he-ad of fluid over the
weir is usually given in inelic::!. The const..ants in the
following equations (through 302) are chOBCn to give
the hend over the weir h~", in inches of flowing ft uid.
At low flow rates, with ample downspout enpadty,
thl:' liquid flows over the weir at 0. low head h~ .. and
passes down the walls of the downspouts Wj a fi lm.
The dow nspout is largely empty of liquid except for
the liquid St'.a.i at the bottom of the downspout. In
such C!L'ieS the flow of liquid over the weir may be
computed by the Franei.s weir formu la.~
(29 1)
where (J "" discharge (d!:!).
IV - length of weir (in.).
Flo. 346. V"'w of bubbl<:Kl&p oolumn ~howiDg typical iu.-
,tallatioo of roundetL))!I I\itb circular oownOOlUen!I ami weirs.
ho., Q head above edge of weir (in. of flowing .
(S. BUckman, Inc.) liquid).
 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2

Fla. 348. A Ia~e bubl>l&-eap p1a.~ with eireul&r e&pEI aDd dOWIloomel'!! &lid .. cbOl'd-type Wilir. (E. B. Bad~ and &m. CD.)

This equation is applicable to circular weirs provided based on tne following fonn of the weir equation 291.
that the diameter D of the downspout is greater than
four timel:l the h('ad of fluid over the weir. If the h - 30F (~). (292)
ebord-type weir is relatively clooe to the wall of the "W
column, the wall exert.s 11 constricting effect on the
How, which makes the c.a.leulation a trial-and-error
procedure.
p-(;,)"
where h_ = height. of liquid over weir (in.).
L = liquid load (Ib/ sec).
W = length of weir (inJ
IV, - "effective leDl!;th" of weir (in.).
PI = liquid density (lbleu It).

1f the value for F can be obtained by a di.rMt solu-

tion, e<\uation 292 can then be solved directly :or h-.
The geometry of these weir equations is indicated
in Fig. 350. Application of the Pythagorean theorem
to right triangle ABC results' in

(~- U)' + m'-G), (293)

Similarly, an analogous treatment of triangle AGE

gives

(~- U,), + (:'y -(~)' (294)

Fla. 349. Chord-type weir. in .. ~m&I.l bubCI_p 001=. Letting K = WI D, eql'ation 293 may be solved for
(SlrotAtrl Wtllf Corp.)
Uf D.
Chord Weir"
A convenient method for est.imating h_ for chord
U - VI - K'
(295)
weirs directly I which avoids the trial amI. error is D 2
 BUBBIE PLATE COLUMNS
. And, combining equations 300 and 301,
I
, '" G. _~ _[VI - K'IF' - VI -K'j"
,,
I
I
I
t
I "
/.;';

1/:::-:'--
A C
\lW. w
PIW- S 60KP
Equation 302 is shown graphically in Fig. 351.
(302)

Since L, W, and K are all knolVn -in advance for a

given tray design, Fig. 351 may be used to obtain
1~r--rTTnTm-~-rnTrrrr~~Tn
12 0 r-+4~~-+-H++11~~~1
1 - - - D'----1--H .
1.1 5 f-+-i---'HI+I+I\--+-H-
~1.l 0
.. !~' I J $/ ,
u
1.05

"XI
---- 0.' S
- .... "..,~"'OO r<:lg~:i3 ~~~

~,,~p)'IO'
FIG. 350. Piacram 1U1lllt.rat.i.ng "'tionehip amoDl YRriable. Flo. ~t. Correction r.(WI' ~. for constrictions 01 col umn
in cbord-type -u equatiOI'lll.' wall in a chord-ty pe weir fonnuIa, equ.tion 302.'

And, observing that. V, - U - h.., equation 29"- directly the value of P, which may then be
~y ,be 9O"'ed tor VdD. substituted in equation 2D2 to give hoOD ' The original
reference' should be consulted for alignment charts

--
V,
D
I_VI_K2
2
ho..
D
(296)
for rapid solution.

Plote Spadng
Combining equations 294 and 296, [0 order to insure adequate liquld capacity, good
practice requires that plate spacing be madc .equal
W. _
D ..
[I _(2h..D.. + VI K.. )'] " (297)
to 2H as oomputed by equation 00. This gives an
overload capacity for nonIi-othing liquids oompariable
to the overload capacity for vapor incorporated in
thc application of equation 283 and Fig. 344 when
small quantities of entrainment are not significant.

PlGte Design ond Layout

Substit.uting F for (W/;f!~Y'~ One of the important considerations in the design
of bubble-eap plates, particularly on la.rge-diameter
F-K~[l "'-e~" +Vl'. K2y]-~ (299) columns where the liquid cross flow is long and the
gradient across the plate is relatively high, is to
maintain all bubble caps in operation. It the liquid
Solving equation 299 '01 h.../ D, seal las equals or exceeds at any point the drop
in pressure of tbe vapors in passing: through the

--
A_
D
VI - K'/ Ji" - VI -
2
K'
(300)
plate, the caps at that point will cease bubbling. No
vapor will pass through these caps and the liquid will
tend to Row, .or backtrap, through the slots and down
Solving equation 292 for LjW2.Ii, the risers to the plate below. Such a plate i8 said
to be unstable. . "

PI
L (h..ID)"
wtJ30KF- (30I )
In exceptionally large r.olumns the bubble cape
may be arranged in cascade or tiers, the plate eon- ~
 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
18 vapor velocity in the oolumn " (fpa), vapor density
p (lb/ cu ft), cap ooncentTation N, average liquid
1.6 , = +
aeal or submergence (hSflV.c) 8", hpj2), and skirt
clearance. Liquid seal is defined as the depth of
1
; ....... , clear liquid above the top of the bubble-eap slots a,
indicated in Fig. 345. Figure 352 gives h,. (in inches
,
2 ,X.
0'
, of water) d irectly for a flow of 1000 gal -of water per
hour per foot of width for a. rectangular plate con-
, taining twelve rows of caps across the path of liquid
.0 ,
< , flow. The average width of a plate carrying ciroular

-
\.,,'

" - bubble caps is the arithmetic aVerage of the width

of the plate at the longest and shortest rows of caps.
N is the number of 3-in. ca~ per square foot of
6 t-~
, 6~'" t
", column cross section 00 which" is calculated.
OA
iHffl

To calculate the pre8SUre gradient in inches of
water across a tray containing n rows of 3-ill. round
caps across the plate with varying liquid rates, the
02 "'~,.- value of h,. read from Fig. 352 is modified as follows.
-i I
0
o 0.08 0.12 0.16 GPh/ lt)
h,. - ~(ehwt) ( lOCO 12
(n)
~
N
In calculating the gradient, first assume & gradient
)':10. 352. CorrelatioD or liquid bead differentiah actoIII
to eetimate the average seal hlJ(a'fr). The correct
.bubble Clips."
assumed gradient is that whioh checks the calculated
wilting 'Of a series of different levels, the liquid level gradient. Usually only one or at the most two trial
being maintained in each section by means of an are DeQeBB&ry.
individual. overflow weir for each section or tier. In The maximum liquid flow per row of 3-in. round
this way the liqutd gratlWit is milch less aet'088 each
tier than it would be across tlle entire plate if all of
ooe level. Another expedient which may eometimes
00 employed is the deliberate use of bubble cap!>
which offer "s high resistance" to the flow of vapors, --Trolley ber
110 that the average pressure drop of the va.pors
paB8ing through the plate exceeds the maximum
expected liquid head above the slots. I. A .. Chimney CIW!1,p
B .. Skirt e*rwIte

The liquid gradient h.,. across a plate is not reAdily

oomputed. u It. is reduced by increasing the liquid
level on the plate and by increasing the skirt clear- I ~c.,
ances of the bubble caps, and it is increesed by in- !
creaaes in vapor velocilY,. in liquid. fl ow rate, or in
the number of rows of caps f!.Cro8II the path of the ,,- ,.-
,
:,:If.~-
liquid How. It is directly proportional to the cap ~
, 1"~ ....l
i .
N
c.)Ilcentration, i.e., the number of caps per unit.
3OSIok
column 9r08S section.
,.'~ ~
These relations determined experimentally for
round caps 3 in . in diameter spaced with centers on
.~~in. equilateral triangles are correlated., in Fig.
362. The cap and chimney dimension.<! are given
in Fig. 353. The liquid gradient h,. in inches of
Pille"" B
t-'
: :.
___ _ _ f--Ctlimney

Flo. 363. er-ctional detail of t.hll slotted bubble eap aod

water is indicated as 110 fWlction. of linear superficial itt IlUpport &II UBed in obWainc da ta for Fig. 352.-
 BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS 355

bubble caps for plate stability or balanced operation minimwn resistance usually occurs near the overflow
with all bubble caps functioning is indicated from weir (downstream) aod is ~o +
8... The maximum
experimental data in Fig. 3M . +
seal is h, 8... For. a stable plate with clear liquid
on the plate
100 aP, + s,. ~ h,. + s,.
Actually the liquid on the tray i8 aerated by the

..
90 upflowing vapor at the side near the downspout
(Fig. 345) and ofl'ers less resistance than indicated
by ita depth. At tbe opposite side lit-tie or no vapor
ill risi~ and the liquid is proctically clear or un-
70
I aerated. Therefore, the equation for a Itable plale ill
aP, + oS. ~ h,. + s,.
",
.!
E
50
.P, /: h,. + S.(1 - 0) (300)

-
z 50 whereaistheaerationfactor = (~2 - 6. Pl )/(S2 -81)
or the increlUle in pressure drop through the plate per

J~ unit increase in depth of clear liquid above the top

!c'"
20
10
0 which the plate becomea unba.lanced and BOme of
0 the bubble caps do not function. It is common
FlO. 354. MuilJlum liquid Bow per 1'011' of 3-in. round CIII
(Fi,. 3$J) ror plate .ttability.-
~ U.mc the dimellIdoo. liveD in Fig.. 3.53, Oil
which Fip. ~2..oo 3M are bA.ed, oompuu tile rela.tiVl! lineal"
ftIoc:itiee of npor: (I) throocb rier:r" (It ehimDey, (2) bet_
chimney aDd bubblb cap, ud (3) throu&h slou, -=iDg DO
u.pw'fIoQ under the eap.mt.
Eaercl.e. U_1lI dimelltlll:OOIIof Fig. 353, derive a oonveniioo
fac1m by whieb the va.luee plot~ alona: the abl!eissaB of
Figs. 352 and 3M (,,'>'tN) nay be multiplied, to give OO~ ,
8pOIlding va.lueB .of ~.pH wher.! ~. i, linear velocity through
Illata, aMUming no vapor flowt under the ~kin.
In a later correlation ~ the liquid ~ow is expressed .~ 2
in gallons per minute per foot of plate width normal
to liquid flow. The vapor -flow rate is eXDressed in <I
oithe cap 810ts. In practice, a is usually about 0.7,
so ~o must exceed h" by about 0.3S... for stable
operation. Since deep seals are usUally employed
when handling high liquid rates, 8".(1 - a) may
sometimes influence plate stability as much as h,.14
For any given rate of flow of liquid across a given
plate there is a defini te minimum vapor rate below
practice to design plates with vapor rates correspood-
ing to values of II_PH' as high as II , particularly when
band1ing large quantities of liql~id . At higher vwues
olll.p.li (abOut 12.8 or 13.0), the energy of the v::qY-lJ"
streams issuing from tile slota is sufficient to "cone"
liquid away from the caps.
Figures 355 and 35&, b, and c represent data ob
tained with caps similar to thoae shown in Fig. 34.6 or
...r-- I
.,
tyO,-
~3
~ v:
~
".,
"
40

20
,
terms of v,pH wbere II, is vap6r velocity th-rough the
~q
MOts and p is vapor density. The pressure drop in / ...-
head of clear liquid at sero 8ubmergence (the g&!i
1"-
Cutwol~
"
pressure drop through. the plate with clear liquid o
level just at top of slota) l!lPo, wthen a direct funo-
tiro of II.pH.
2 4
10 12 1.
Fro. 355. Plot 01 II" IUId 1lP. all Ju"ction of ."pt.i M IIItd in
For the plate to be 8table the minimum resistance
prep!lrilll Fie. 3664." Sixt.eeD rowt of 30m. C&pa. JlIlIIh. 011
to flow of vapor through the plate mwt exceed. the , 4K-ip. equilatenPJ 'riancular eerokrl at COIIItant minimum
mAximum hydrostatic pressure or seal,~. The . ~ -s;. - 1 m. q, _ pJJ(IIlin){h of widtb).
 V'APOR- UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
359, using wl'Lter 88 the liquid.M The hydraulic
gradient h,l in inches of fluid flowing across the plate
is almoet independent of the density of the liquid,
provided the rate of flow of liquid is expreseed volu~
met rically. These fi gures may, therefore, be used
Cor other liquids by making a proper adjustment in
40
flP" or in v,pH. for t he different denSity or the liquid.
This adjustment is made by multiplying the value
of v,pH. 88 read from the charts by V p';pB.~ for
comparison witb the II,PH: for the vapor passing
through the plate. Conversely the value of !I.Pj.oJ
computed for the vapor should be divided by

30 - -/
f- ~_I l ln.
0
[7 7 [7 17
/ [/
5
II II
0
J I 1t.. _2;n.

5
4 - ,
_ q,.IO 20 30 40 so 60 . lj('!!jU ft of ooidtll)
3
2 4
8
!I.p4$
10 12 \4

(0) 4.!4~in. (le nten!, minimlUll &Ilal s.. - 1 in.

" f-- h , .. 0.5 In. 1 tn. 1--- U In't - 1<:';. - 1 in. 1.5 in. _

30
. / 7 f7 I I' _~ II
I ',1 '01 1/ [/
1/
I, /
I : /1

,
-
It" i I I I! AI Ii Ilf

0
/
I
1/ I I II I /
8 j"
+--
' r- "
, ,
r-I- ~ Y+f
? I- .~
'r- E
- b-
r- f
- "
- ,>'
. 8 ~ ~
0
~ ~ ~
r
1-1
1---
f--t
<> -I
2 ~ ~ ~~~s
i I I + -+--+---1
3
o , I I

I ,I 1 8 10 I" \--~-c.~-1--~'C--L--~8--jl~I~0-.J
"' P~ ... p )s
(b) 4~-I.n. centers, minimwn _I S'" _ 1 in. (t) Hi-in. tenter'll, nlllllmum _ I S. - 2 in.
FIG. 356. Liquid-handling cape.elty ch&rtll for- ltable 'operation -.ith 3-in. bubble ca.pII mountOO fiueh, on lIquilat.er.~ triangular
_t.en.... ,..
 BUBRLE PLATE COLUMNS 357

v'PI! ~tO to obtain the value of lI,p U to use in the side of the plate may be entirely inactive. In general,
,hatUo. these two difficulties are opposite in their effect on
tray layout, since layouts which tend to produce
lIIu.tntlve Enmple." It L. deeired to deeilll a tower rot' even distrihution of liquid flow ser088 the plate may
stHpPlfiil .kohol out (If dilute aqueous eolutk>ns. The vapor produce excessive liquid grad.ienlB.
load fIi.;te&ln COnmIllptioo require. II. oolumn with I. diameter Figure 357 shows diagrammatically several of
of 84 in. The littuid IIowIIlJ &Cf"OIII the plate (the ..... m of con-
dented IIteIun and of ..ater ClIterina; .,..Ith t~ feed) is 230 &:pm. tbe common tray arrangements. The area of the
A. a first tt1&J, a.ime that the a.m. bubble eaps are. used, t.r&y which tends to beoome inactive as the column
mounted ftush on Hi-iii. equilateral triangular ocnte.... There diameter is increased because of by-passing of liquid
Me illS tapll per plate in thirteen ron. The plate width at is ilhaded. Figures 346 and 347 show simple cross.-
the abortest row of cape;8 fIT in. The &ver&&e plate width is Row arrangements of round caps with circular
{84 + 67.1 /(2)U 2) .. 6.29 ft, and the liquid rate L i, 200/6.29
downspouts also IJCrving as weirs. Note the liquid
- 36.6 gpm/ft of plate width. Tb.. ~a of the eloU in. a ei~e
eap L. 3.12 IIQ in. 110M for eACh plate the tot.l llot area. L. baffies at the ends of the middle row of caps to pre:
198 X 3.12/ 144. _ 4.3 aq n. /" is computed l1li7.2- vent liquid by-passing the middle row as indicated
. F~ 356b fot tbIIcap IIlT&n&ement and a minimum eeal in Fig. 357a. These plates are welded into the
s... of 1.tl in. iboWB that a~ 1'11'14 _ 7.2 and for thirteen I"OWIJ column sections. This arrangement is satisfactory
tJwi liqiJid.:bandling C4J)ad~1 u. only 27 IPm/ft of width.
Therefore !.he plate .,..ill be unstahle. AooonUng to tbe ebart.,
ror rel&tive1y small columns up to 23-i to 3 ft in
the a;mdient will be slightly more than 1 in. UBI! of .. minimlUIl diameter. For oolumns in the range of 2 to 6 ft in
-.l 01 2.0 in. would make this plate ~le ae Fig. 35& indi- diameter, it is preferable t o include an exit weir, 88
c&.te8 a liquid eapacity of 37 gpm/ n at s.. .. :1 in. indicated in Fig. 357b and as shown in Fig. 348.
However, I.e of 4-in. bubble e&p8 ill usW eiLher in WKe To obtain satisfactory croes-ftow distribution in
towen (Fig. 360) or where more than mode!1l.te liquid re.tea in
emaller towen are uea:asary. The plate layout, 84 in. in
larger columns it is necessary to eliminate a dispro-
diameter, hll3 Bl!ven roW8 of 4-in. bubble elI.pe, mounted flU8h portionately large amount of tray space to include a
on 5~_in. llquiJarerai t.rianguw center., uainl !IO cape per sufficiently long chord or wedge-type weir. This
plat(!. With 6.1 &j in. dot &rea per eap, the total $lot area is disadvant~ge is overcome by the use of the arrange-
(90)(6.1)/144 .. 3.8 IQ ft, or 0.098 of th~ tower area. At a ments 8uch as indicated in Fig. 357c, d, and 8, and
minimum eeal of 21) ill. a nd ...p'" _ s.:t ttli. Uw.'er .should
handle II!I.tillf~t ' "'"3 a Uquid rate of 60 gpm/ ft at It. (r&dient
iUustrated in Figs. 358 and 359, respectively.
of 1 in. Since the 8.vera&e plate width ill now 6.75 ft, the The arrangement shown in Figs. 357c and 358 is
Iiquia-baodling capacity of the plate ill 40Slpm of water." quite satisfactory from the point of view of liquid
distribution, but it increa8C8 the length of the liquid
TM plate layout may vary widely hut should be flow path and tends to produce excessive liquid head
such 88 to avoid short cireuiting of the liquid flow gradient across the plate. An important p recaution
acl'(lfl8 the plate which reduces the effectiveness of !D this arrangement is the removal of some of the
the bubble caps not in the direct line of flow. It caps at the end of the baffle in order to a.void undue
should also aVQ~d build.iI!g ,up excessive liquid level constriction of the' liquid pa.th at this point, as is
differentials .'croI8 the plate which, as bas been illustrated in Fig. 358.
discussed, may cause the vapor to flow through on1y- In the radial Bow arrangement shown in Figs.
those caps having the lower seals. This condition 357d and 359, the liquid flows to and from the oenter
produces spouting and excessive cnt rairuqen t at t he on alternate plates. In exceptionally large columns,
caps with low liquid seals while the caps on the other BUch as in Fig. 360, the arrangement illustrated in

,
--
0 0
/ \ I

\
- 0
0 +0-
, 1
0 '

.d 0 0
('J it) , 1" (. J
FIO.357. D iagrammatic illustration of several oommon types of bubble tray Ia.youts. Shaded ~113 tend to become lu.cti",
113 \.ower diameter is inucllll6d because of by-pauing 01 Jiquid.
358 VAPOR- LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
Flo. ass. BuLbie-eap tny sho';\ill,l baftle lIorrangemE:n~ of
liquid distribulion. (Th-e LummUi Co.)
Fig. 35711: is effective, particularly when combined
with the feature of cascades.
Bubb le Caps. A bubble-cap a.<sscmbly consists
of a chimney or riser, the cap which is mounted over
the riser, and the means by which the cap i.s held in
place. This is illilstrnted in Fig. 361 as an "ex-
1'lG.dS9. Radialfiow type of bubble-eap tray.
plDded" view of a typical removable castmeta.1
assembly.
Although a brge number l)f difJerer.t types of caps
are used, the most common type is the round bell-
shaped cap, ranging in diameter from 2 to 7 :n. The
caps are cast iron or shoeL stt.'d, as shown in Fig. 362.
" ' here necessary for corrosion resistance, other mate-
rials are employed :mch Ill! copper or nickel. The
advantllgc of cast-iron caps over steel caps in corro-
sion resistnnl'e is lIot so important:lS might appear,
since the major area of corrosion in a fractionating
column is usually at the vapor-liquid interfucc at the
shelL The sheet-metal caps arc lighter anu may be
more closely spaced because of thei r smaller bulk.
Another type of cap (',ammon in the Pl'troleum
industry is the 5<H!allcd tunnel eap which fits over
rcct.angular chimncys from 3 to G in . wide and from
12 in. to several feet loug. These caps are casy to
install and to maiutain hecnuse of the fewer parts
involved. However, better plate efficiency, lellS en-
trainment, sud more stable performance is usually
olA.imcd for the round caps.
The spacing of the caps on a plate should be such
88 to give ample turbulence to the liquid around the
caps but not so close as !.O produce spouting or jet-
ting between the caps. Tn general. round caps are
spaced on the vertices of equilateral triangles, usually
giving a wall-to-wall dis tance between the caps of
(V~ Coppc- and Supplll Co.)
 BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS

FlO. 360. A .ection or a 33-ft diameter eueade tny. Each \ray hAll over 5000 bubble eaP4 4 H in. in diameter. (Pritz W.
Glil.lch and &M.l

1 to 3 in. Particular care should be taken to avoid
locating the caps too close to the -weirs or downspouts
because of spouting of the liquid over the weir into
the downspout.'l, UDsteady liquid flow over the weirs,
and the possibility t ha.t vapors may discharge under
thc downspouts. It is some.times desirable to blank
off the slots in the sides of the caps nearest the down~
spouts. In small oolumns it may also be desirable
to place baffle plates from the plate above in front
of the exit weir to prevent splashing of liquid over
the weir.
In general the design of the cap is such that thtJ
area of the chimney is equnl to the area of the

FlO. 362. Typical removable ea.!!Hron bubble cap~ (upper

FIo.361. Exploded view o f a removable cut--iron bubb\&-cap row) aDd ty pical preeeed sheet-metal bubble e&ps (lower row).
&IIIII)fl)bly. (E. 8 . Bad9 and 8o", CD.) (8. 8. BIMlgn lind &n. CD.)
 VAPOR~L1QUlD TRANSFER OPERA nONS 2
F lo. 363. ~howing idet and
Cro6I!-flow tra}' outlet mn.
(Vulcan COPP" and Supply Co.)
annular space hfltwecn the cap and the chimney.
These areas are also approximately equal to the area
of the slota. This relationship provides a path 01
uniform cross section for the flow of vapors and
reduces the pressure drop tt.rough the cap to II.
minimum.
As a rough design figure, the velocity of the vapor
passing through the risers and slots should rangt
from 9 to H fps for columns operating at atmospheric
pressures and above. For vacuum columns, the
pressure drop per plate becomes exceedingly im-
portant, and designs should be based on calculations
for minimum pressure drop across the plates.
Ri5eflorChimneys. If the plate is cast therisera
may be cast as a.n integral part of the plate. Other-
wise they may be welded or brazed to the plate,
or they may be rolled, screwed, or clamped into
place. Sheet-metal caps are often fastened over
the chimneys by tack welding or riveting the skirts
to the plate. Where it is desirable for maintenance
purposes to have removable caps, they may be bolted
to the plate by using a spider, held down by meanB of
"trolley bars," or enD by their own weight in some
rather unusual cases.
DownSpoUlS may be circular conduits through
which liquid passes from a plate to the plate below,
or chord shaped where the raised edge of the down
spout serves as a weir. In large columns, where
liquid is removed from the center of a plate, the
downspout may be formed from two parallcl plates
extending across .the diameter of the column as
shown in Fig. $.57t. In all cases the downspout must
have an adequate liquid seal on the lower plate to
prevent vapor from flowing up the downspout.
Usually in moderate-size ~olumns the liQuid on the
lower plate retained by its overflow weir is considered
the best liquid seal if the proper precautions a.re
taken (Fig'. 346). The use of a weir to distribute
the downftowing liquid (F:,;s. 348 and 363), n ece88aJ'y
in large columns, limits the liquid seal to that liquid
behind the weir. A surging column may readily
blow -& JIllaU seal.
In some cases, downspouts are tapered at the
bottom to facilitate the maintenance of a' liquid scal.
In other eases, the minimum cl'()f&SeCtional a.n:l&
occurs betw'een the bottom of the dOWlU!pout and
the lower plate, as for example with the downspout
shown in Fig. 364, so constructed 9.8 to prevent vapor
from the bubble caps from discharging into the
downspollt.
Fm. 364. Cutaway view of doWllBpout coJ\$tru~tiOll to pre--
vent VBpon from the bubble cap" from dillchar&:ing into the
"'-
As a rough design figure where there are no un
usual constrictions, the linear velooi_t.y of the liquid
in t he liquid.filled part of the downspout should be
from 2 to 4 in./sec. It is probably good practice to
over-<iesign downspouts since they constitute a
relatively unimportant cost item but are an illl--
portant faCtor in flooding.
'Il!e Final Column De5ign. It haa been shown
how the diameter of the column may be Nlt1mated
for a given plate spacing, and how the plate spacing
(2H) may be estimated for a selected plate layout
IlIld column diameter. Many different combinations
of these factors (plate layout, plate spacing, and
column diameter) will give satisfactory operation.
The optimum combination is that corresponding to
the minimum cost of column, assuming that the
operating conditions have heen de~rmined as indi
cated in Fig. 339.
The most economIcal design is indicated by IJlot--
 PACKED COLUMNS
tine the tower cost against plAte spacing (2ll)
estimated for a number of different designs. The
fol1 owing designs were computed for a "de-isobu-
tanizer" of 53 plates handling 4800 gal/ hr of 55 per
cent isobutane and producing a distillate of 95
per cent isobutane and a hottom product of 95 per
cent nonnaI butane.'
361
heights and wider cross section is more than com-
pensated for by the greater flexibility of the column,
since at large spacing overloads can be absorbed
without serious consequence, whereas with low plate
spacing careful attention must be paid to conditio~
which might produce ftooding.

""..
Spaein&,
001,=
DilImet.er,
CoJ=.
COO
PACKED COLUMNS
i~ As in the design of bubble plate colwnns, tbe
12.9 "
1M
12.0
m,coo engineering design of packed towers requires con-
13.5 ",COO siderat.ion of the factors inBuencing the efficiency and
14.4 10.0 37;000 capacity. The height of packing required for any
15.3 8.' 29,500
particular separation is a function or the number of
20.' 7.5 25,000
25.0 7.' 23,000 equilibrium st.ages nooessary and the efficiency of
30.' 6.76 24,000 t.he packing material. The efficiency is, in tum, a
'M 6.' 25,000 function of the size, shape, a.rra.ngement, and surface
characteristics of the packing material, of the rates
As plotted in Fig. 3M, a plate spacmg of about
of liquid and vapor flowing, and of various physical
26 in. is indicated as the lowest cost column for this properties and distribution of the two ftuids. The
job. relat.ion between the packing efficiency and these
ILl variablee is not simple, and this subject is discussed
1\1 later as a phase of the rate of mass transfer.
The approximate ranges of the height of packing
,
equivalent to an ideal stage in vapor-liquid transfer
are given in Table 3.5.

., TABLE 35. HEIGHT OF VAR lOUS PACKINGS

EQUIVALENT 1'0 IDEA L STAGES

2S i' Paeklnp
Height Equiv.Ient to
ldeBl8ta&e, ft
'" 10 " , ..; ~35 Wetted-wall oo1u.m.rI
Rings, saddJe., tpeeial tilell
~X~iu.
0.1 - 5

0 . 1 - 0.6
Fro. 3M. Ett"ect. of \.ray apaelng 00 origin&! ~ of a r~ .!-lin. 0.2.a- 1
UonaUIlI ooIUUUl." 1 in. 0.3 - 1.2
2 in. 0.6 - 2
Plat Spacing 3 in. 0.6 - 3
Other faetors than the eoone-mies of design enter Drip-point ,rid tile
0.5 - 4
X U in.
Single-tum heliotl, ~
0.1 - 0.6
into plate spacing. Columns which f9r various
reasons are to be houlled are frequently designed with Fibergl.a.s
S"""". 0.06- I
1 - 10
dose plate spac.ings of 12 in. or less to save headroom
when a large number of plates are required, and it is Colu m n Diameter and Capacity
preferable to minimize height at the expense of T he limiting capacity, or flooding point, of a
cross pection. Where oolumns may be placed out- pked tower is thq Otlndition at which the liquid
door!' the column height is no loc!Elr of prime im- begins to accumulate or back up at any level in the
portanoe and the plate spacing is frequently set at packing. Such a condition ma.y result either at a
24 in. 01" more, simply to allow the installation' of constant liquid rate by an increase in vapor rate to
manholes on each plate, an important maintenance the point at which the net liq,uid Bow downward
feature, since it permits the use of cheaper materials begins. to decrease, or at a cooslADt vapor rate by
of 'aooatruction. In general the cost 'of increased an increase in the quantity of liquid flow to the
Jle.ipt and smalJer CI'068 .section as compared to lo~ point at which the net liquid ftow downward becomes
 VAPOR~LIQmD TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
coosta.nt or liquid_begins to accumulate in the pack- tion OCCUf$ at the packing support. The methcd of
ing. Thus, for any given system, liquid, vapor, and supporting the packing should be so designed that
packing, tile locus of flooding points can be repre- the support ~ a. Clipacity for passing liquid and
sented by II. single line on a plot 01 liquid rate versus vapor ~t least equal to that of the packing.
galS rate (Fig. 366).
TABLE 36. CHARACTERISTICS OF COLUMN
"',000 I
PACKING
JOJlOO Packin&: M aterial VII.lueof(;. )"
Floodirlg lOne
120,000 }{-in. RMchi& rinp
J+in. RMcbig ringll
23:10
406

!~
Nonf\oodi ng zont ~ -ill. RMchig rinp 214
I-in. Raeehic rinp IS'
10,000
',000
Hi-in. bchig rinp
2 in. Raachi& rings .,
100

...
~

!6.ooo
. U -in. Berl ll&ddlea!
)i-in. Berl saddIee
Ji-in. Bed saddJea
(approx) 4200

185
1-in. Berl saddB 130
Hi-in. Berl flll,ddles 71l
G - lIUrlaoe area. of packiD& in equare Jee~ p!'C" cubic
foot cl packed volume.
X .. potOBity of bulk pr.ckin&.
IJlOO
100 200 300 500 700 1000 :ltXXI 3COO The pressure drop through a packed column may
Nr Rale, Ibj (hr) (sq ft touItr cross sectiOrl)
be estimated by the methOOs of Chapter 11.
Flo. 300. I..oeuII or liqui d and vupor I"IiI.ell at the flooding
point of a tower pad,eel with I-in. RMchig Mil! (alX' _ ISS)
and operaUq with water a ru) air at 60 F &Del I atm.

For a particular I!ystem, any combination of liquid

and gas rates which lies to the left of tile line in .Fig.
366 is physically operable. Any point which lies
to the right of the loClI.8 represents an impossible
condition.
The flooding point for towers filled with dumped
packing, i.e., with random orientation of the indi-
vidual pieces, may be estimated by the oorrelation
in Fig. 307. Ttus relation if. based upon a study of
the performance of a III.~ number of packed
Lowen. 11._ and genera.l\y will allow the prediction of
flooding velocities with an aceurncy of about :t: 10
per cent. k&
In the absence of actual data, the value of the vV-i\
packing characteristic (a/X3) in Fig. 3131 may be Flo. 367. Correlation of flooding ve1oeit.ieB ;0 packed towe~
taken from Table 36. If the diameter of the packing where a .. lKI uare feet of 8Urface of packin& per eubic foot of
is greater than one-sixth or one-eighth of the di- packed. volume; X .. fraction of voide ill packed volumeot the
porvIli~y or packing; r .. IlUperfici&l. velocity of vapor (feet ~
ameter of the tower, a. correction for wall effect may IIeOOOd}; .and I' .. vi1lcollily of liquid (eent.ipoi_); L And V &nI
be made by a method such 8.8 that suggested in mllS.'l ra.I.eII.
Chapter 7, p. 19.
As the liquid and vapor utes frequently vary INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OF
oonsidcrably throughout a column, the diameter FRACTIONATING COLUMNS
of a column will be cont rolled by the point within The general procedure is to establish controls 80
the tower at which the severest. conditions of liquid that (1) each in.dependent variable is controlloo by
and vapor flow exist. Too frequently, this constric- one and only one primary control, and (2) suffident
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OF FRAcrIONA'nNG COLUMNS
flexibili ty is allowed for variations in food and speci-
fications of product . It is necessary to control
either dirtdly or indirtJClJ.lI the rate of flow of all
_ streams (material or energy) to or from the column,
and the com}J06ition of the desired product. The
available impetUlle6 or activators are:
1. The rotc of flow of the streams.
2. Temperatures of the streams, or poinUi within
the column.
3. PreefJures of vapor stre&m8, or points within
the column.
4. Liquid levels in How tan.k8, eeparators, re-
boilers, or bases of towers. , liqilld capacity of the column. The quantity of
In general, the point of control l!hould be where the
volume of material flowing or where the change in
temperature is relatively large. When taking over-
head a nearly pure distillate the temperature gradient
at an intermediate point in the oolumn is steeper than
at the top of the column, The control instrumen~
Mould bd selected and located 80 that the speed of
their response is at least equal to the rate of change
in reed but not greater than the response of the
8tream being controlled. For example, if an attempt
-is nUde to throttle quickly a loog line full of rapidly
\ flowing liquid, the inertia of the liquid tends to
\ maintain a constant velocity even with considerable
'throttling. Finally the velocity of flow is checked,
but only after the motor valve is clO8OCl beyond the
point at. which proper flow could be obtained. The
controller then opens the throttle valve and over-
. - llhoots the mark in the reverse direction for a similar
reason, causing surging in the operation.
Steam ratea' are frequently controlled for a given
rate by a flow controller which may ~ hand reset.
The feed 8lream is then often controlled in the same
way. The rejlux may then be controlled by the
or
temperature of the product of the column, insuring
adequate reflux for varying condil',)os to gil'e the
desired distillate product.
The steam flow rate is often cont~olled by the
temperature of the bottoms or of the column to
iI18ure a eatisfactory bottom product. In this case
the pressure of the vapors in the lower Earl of the
column roay be maintained constAnt by a' pNlSSure
controller vah'e on the overhead vapors actuated
by the column pressure.
The operating temperatures are usually controlled
directly at one point and indirectly at other points.
Figure8 368, 369, 370, and 371 illustrate a few
methods of control that are giving satisfactory serv-
ice. Other combinations and methods may be more
S6S
satisfactory for other conditions, as the8e are in-
tended simply to be sUggest.ive,
Figure 368 illustrates instrumentation used in
controlling a fractionating column producing a
bottom product of constant vapor pressure. Since
this vapor pressure is defined by the temperature
and pressure in the reboiler (or kettle), the tempera.-
ture connection and the pressure tap for control are
each taken from the reboiler. No attempt is made
to cont-rul the column-lop temperature. The reftux
is controlled at a constant rate by the flow-rate
controller 2, at a value which is consistent with the
bottom product removed from the column is con-
trolled by the liquid-level controller A with the
motorvalve located at 7, downstream from the heat
exchange with the feed. When the bottoms are
to beat the feed 118 indicated, it is necessary
that the IMearns be maintained &8 nearly constant
in rate &8 possible in order to maintain the heat input
to the feed at a constant value. It is therefore
advisable to use a valve positioner in valve No. 7
with a eensitive liquKllevel_cootroller A. The ~e
precaution should be followed if the bottoms are
removed direetly from the oolumn and fed into
another column. In some cases flow-rate controllelll
are used to operate the motor valve, such as 7, the
flow-rate controllers being reset by the liquid-level
controller or tbe temperature controller.
In ail these figures the feed is shown controlled
by the feed-rate controller F. This is neccss&ry if
the column is to be operated at high capacity with
high efficiency, but under some conditions of opera..
tion it is n ot applicable.
If substantially all the overhead is condensed and
withdrawn to valve 4 with very little gas relea8ed
through valve 5, the pressure control will be poor
if the arrangement of Fig. 368 is followed. In Fig.
371 the pressure control is applied by the motor
"alve 9 on ~he vapor line to the conderu.er, which
insure!! a.dequate pressure control even when all
the overhead is completely condeMed, PrcsI!ure
controller E may be regarded &8 optional.
If the oolumn is making a substantially pure
distillate, the ,",verbead products composition is fixed
and the bottom must be allowed to vary with the
feed compoe.ition. A coostant column pressure can
be maintainaC, and the controls must be arranged
80 that the bottom temperature may vary to accom-
modate the variation of the feed. Figure 369 shows
' one method of accomplishing this l'8I!ult. Tempera-
 VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATJONS ..

BfC ad: tMU5Ure rec:ordIr

FRC Flow ~ controller
PRe Pre$$ul'lt reeoJder eontroller
TRC Tempnb.lreleCOI'dercontroller
u.c Liquid-level controller @
PRe
9"--
,
---0
: I
I ",~,...,p
FRC

L-______~------------- ~
o
FIg. 368. Contl"Ol.~tem for a fraetionatin& tower producing bottolllll liquid with a co.tanL v"JIIlI' pnlI!IIIW'e. ",l'bf) oves-bMd.
vapors are partially eoade!lled.u

ture controller C has its temperature tap located located 88 shown in Fig. 369. Under these conditions
between the feed and the bottom at a point where it is better to use the arrangement shown in Fig. 371,
the temperature gradient is steep. Ir the liquid controlling the temperature by the large volume
distillate withdrawal through valve 4 is very small reflux stream rather than by the steam supply to
wiih respect to the amount of reflux, large variatiol1.ll the reooiler. It should be clear why the temperature
in pressure mfl.y resu l ~ with the pressure control tap bulb or controller C ill placed below the feed when
operating on the reboiler (Fig. 369), and above the
feed when operating on the reflux (Fig. 371). In
either case the pressure-control tap should be locat~
,,r------- at or close to the location of the thennometer bulb.
:,
,
.... Figure 370 shows the temperature bulb located
between the top of the column a.nd the feed when
operating the motor valve 3 controlling the heat to
,: <1) the roboiler. This ty~ is 88.tisfactory provided thert'l
are not so many trays between the point where the
'I'

:
--.IFilei temperature bulb is located and tbe kettle as to
cause a lag between the control point and the point
J L-
.C'-'G:-=::';:-"'1 of beat application. In any case the lag will be
greater than in the arrangement shown in Fig. 369
or 371 , which causes this control (Fig. 370) to lack
sensitivity compared with the other method.
The pressure control indicated in Fig. 370 depends
on flooding the reflux condenser so that only suffi-
cient surface is exposed to vapor condensation to give
FlG. 369. COD\tol.yetern for a. fractionatin& to1l'eI" producing the desired condensation . This methoo of pressure
pure overhead produdl.l control, as well as the method indicated in Fig. 369,
 ,
PROBLEMS
,-
,

----l
II
!l!
,I ~

-... -
"" I ~ "" 0--
'h
,, '
1-'---~~-""~"::%,j "ue
....
w:
_------
. ~
._' *"", ~

@ - -
_ . --- - (j)
Il...;""---

FJo. 870. f;kmtrol lyWtem for a fractional.ina; tower produciD&

,. pure pyerhead ploduat."
is satisfactory and where ~ rate of liqu\4
Be~itive
withdrawal through valve 4 equab Of exceeds about
15 per cent of the liquid reflux to the top Qf the
column. U there ~ oonsideraJ:!~ excess ~aoe in
ftul reflux condenser and water templ"l'atures are
Jow, the reflux going b&ck to the column will be
oooIed aubetantially below its bubble point. This
_ results in converting some of the top trays in the
column . from ractiooating trays to heat.-tranafer equipment.
tr,,~ With the overall result of reducing the tQtal
number of effective plates in the column.
The &y'8Ulm illustrated in Fig. 371, in which no
at~pt is made to cootrol the temperature of the
reboUer, ~ the column to operate with a eon-
atan* be,.t input and aubet.a.t!.tjal!y eoostant vapor
rate; ltrespective of normal cJuw.ges of feed rate and
feed COIDposition. The auxiliary pressure COI!troIler
E operat.in& valve 8 &erV8I t9 rpaint&in a presaure
FIo.371. Control syat.em for a"[/'to('.tioIatina; tower producinc
pure overhead producL U
a rew pounds below the column pressure ~ the reflut
floOOumldator. The temperature in this accumulator
is raised above the temperature of the liquid ooming
from the m8UI: condenser by, the hot vapors from the
top of the column. By thia me&ll8 a constant pree-
s.ure differential is maintained across the reflux valva
9, giving more uniform operation to this piece 01
.
PROBLEMS
I . n...dp a bubble-eap coIWUD. civina: all aipificM\
~ficatioDa iD cluding number of plal.a!, pl&te 1Ip&Cina:,
coIWUD. di&meter, number, dimeneioas, arraDCtll"lell.t of rapt,
and doWlllpOU~ for the operation deBcribed ill plOb1em 8 "
&be end of Chapter 23.
2. Spocify all aigoifieant dimensiollll for a paeked tower.
aM for a bubble-eap tower to operate .tWact.orily uDder
the OGIlditiona of ruoblero Qb at the end 01 Chapter 23.

,
 CHAPTER

Vapor-LUjuid Tramfer Operatioas 3

Calculation of Ideal Stages Assuming Ccmtant

Molal Overflow

HE U88 of the enthalpy~centration diagram If the enthalpy-composition diagram is' plotted un

T 88described (Chapter 23) for computing the

numt>er of equilibrium stages required is 8.
rigorous method and gives proper emphasis to the
\ energy relationships involved. In engineering prac-
tice other methods are mm'e widely used because of
their greater convenience without serious loss in
accuracy in most cases..
".000
.oil'.'
J/~tn
the mole basis, sucb as Btu's per pound mole versus
mole fraction, the Baturated liquid 8lld vapor lines
frequently appear 88 approximately straight parallel
lines. This condition Is usual with hydrocarbon
8Oi\1tione at low pressures and is approximated by
alcohol-water mixtures 88 indicated in Fig. 372. The
significance of these lines being parallel ~_ that the
moW overffow L, expressed in moles, and tbe vapor
, load V, expresseq in moles, are each constant
througbout the ~tjfying section. Likewise, J/, the
moles of liquid, and V', the m9lee of vapor flolll-ing
in the stripping !leetion. are constant throughout the
stripping seetioo.
['hese statements may be readlly demonstrated

7
VI
-..# II, ..,
by the application of plane geometry to Fig. 372.
The ratio of moles of liquid overll.owlng from plate It,
L... to the moles of vapor rising from plate n + 1.
~ equals the ratio of the- leDgths Y.6.DY,,+1 to
Y.6.~.. whiclt is the ea.me Cor all plates. Therefore
;f,A /' / I the ratio of liquid to vapor PEl8Sing countercurrent

tl,// '/
between plates L/V is a constant. By a material

bif/
-. F Ii
/
I b&lance around the top of the column,

Y ..+1-L,,+D (3Q.I)

0 ~-
-.
o 02
&. _L

. . ..
h_1

Male FrKtIon of m-.I

1.0

FlO. 372. Diacram iII'18trat.ing fractionation m lwlatlons 011

Therefore, the ratio L/V may also be written 1\.8
L/(L + D) which it oonstant. Since D has a definite
constant value for any particular fractionation, L is
constant; and simi'.arly V is constant if the saturated
liquKl end vapor lines are parallel. The same i' ~tm
an eot.halpy-mo~r.etion diqram for the ethanol...ater .,...
tAun at 1 at.m.
...
of proof ill applicable t l the stripping Beotidn ba'-ed
 GRAPHICAL METIfOOS
on the material balance around the bottom of the
column,
V'..+I - L',. - B
The sub8cript m is u.sed to designate a. plate below the
feed plate.
It is frequently implied that consLant molal over-
flow is to be expected if the components of the mix-
ture obey Trouton's rule, an empirical approxima-
tion which indicates that the molal latent heat of
vspori.za.t ion divided by the absolute temperature
of the normal boiling point is a constant. It seems
'better to regard tlie condition of constant L j V .as a
simplifying assumption which gives rt880nably re-
liable results in many ca.ses.
If L j V is constant, energy balances atOUIId every
stage are unnecessary; and only material balances
and equilibrium calculations as used in solid-liquid
and liquid-liquid extraction need be used in com- .
puting the number of equilibrium contacts required.
The energy balance need be made only once around
the entire column or some convenient part thereof
to detennine the moles of extema.l reflux R or
the ratio L j V from the known heat supplied to
the still or removed from the condenser, ~r to deter-
mine the quantity of heat required in the still from
the selected L / V ratio.
GRAPmCAL METHODS
The simplest case is that of two volatile com-
ponents and constant L j V. If the compositions of
the saturated (equilibrium) vapor and liquid at the
colwnn prell8Ure are plot't.ed &II is done for the alcohol-
water system in Fig. 373, the com~ of 1M
mpor and liquid /wing any equilibrium lfiage an
~ by 4 point on the equilibrium liM. The
material balance or operating line giving the relation
between the compositions of the vapor and liquid
passing each other at any point (between any two
plates) in the rectifying section of a column is repre-
sented by a straight line having a slope equal to
LjV as follows.'
A material balance for the more-volatile compo-
nent around the top of the column gives
L D
1/.+1 - yx,. + y%n
~ The bihliography lor this chapter appcan!l on p. a9l!.
367
Similarly a material balance around the bot.tom
of the column gives
(305)
(307)
L' B
y .. +1 ... V'z ... - V,XB (307.)
where B - moles of bottom product per unit of
feed F or unit of time.
D - moles of distillate product.
L _ moles of liquid Bowing down in rectifying
scctioo.
L' .. moles of liouid flowing down in stripping
section.
m - a plate or equilibrium stage in stripping
fteCtion.
n - a plate or equilibrium stage in rectifying
section.
V - moles of vapor flowing up pa.st liquid in
rectifying section.
V' - moles of vapor flowing up past. liquid in
stripping section.
% - mole fraction of a component"{tbe more-
volatile component in a tW<HlOmpo-
Dent system) in the liquid stream.
1/ - mole fraction of that component in the
vapor stream.
TheBe material balance or operating lines have the
slopes L/V and L'jV' and the intercepts on the 1/
axes of (D j V)(%D) and -(B/V')(xs), respectively, &II
indicated by equations 306a and 3074.
The compositions of the vapor and liquid streams
passing each other at any point in the column are
represented by a point on one of the straight operat-
ing lines, equation 306a or 3074. If the reflux bas
the same composition :t(I as the vapor rising from
the top plate 1It, as is the case when a tot&! condenser
is used (Fig. 335), the point representing the com-
positions of these two 'streams, VI and R, lies on t".he
diagonal 11 - x (Fig. 373) . Since the equilibrium
compositions between 11 and x are given by the
equilibrium line, the composition Xl is obtained by
following the horizontal line 1/1 to IW .inten;eetion
with the equilibrium line. This value of 2:1 js then
used in connection with the material balance or
(300) operating line to find the value of 1/2, The graphical
construction as illustrated in Fig. 373 constitutes a
(306a) series of steps. The compositions of the streams
leaving an equilibrium plate are reprel!Cnted by the
points on the equilibrium li!le. The compositioM
 "-
v APO"-.....'QUID mANSFER OPERATIONS 3
I. -
1/
, LI
- V
o.8 / !:7
" '~""" ~,...,J
b.J;;? bl'~"
o7 b ,. "I' (1,. "I'
y . +! -(tL .r+ .g. .." b" Of. ' - I>" ?b.
(infini!e~) I '

I.,:II.,
b ~
~

VV
V ~3.X.J
, A ~ #~:v
fJ>:'?'t&-s..
i7 ~ .:[, 1 ~~ t/
Vi/
~

b . "' I

II
1-1..r:., v - fY lI.}

i/
,
o3 / ..'" I
1/
,.
!Zr
"""J 0\' ,
b1,~,t

tV
.' :"\
~

V
1/ -

0.1
. "
"'rA!.. II. J
I
I
I
I

O~""',J.,I :i.,
"'. " fI.5
., o.s ., LO

Flo. 873. Fractionation caloulaUoml Qt! vapoNiqWd (y verI!UI z) di'lJ'&lll for ~ etbanol..".ater ayatem .t 1 atm, ...umin&:
OOIlI!It.ant lllOlal overflow.

01 the vapor and liquid streams pa88ing each other stripping 8OOtion ~!>Mds upon the condition of the
be""" a plate are repreaeoted by the pointa on the feed. This relation may be expressed as :
operating line below the corresponding equilibrium
point, and the compositions of the streams passing
L' - L+ qF (308 )
each other above a plate are represented by the point
on the operating line to the right of the equilibrium
'" v - V' + (1 - q) F (300)
point. where q - the moles or 8fl.turat.ed liquid formecl 00
The relation bet ween the qll&fltity of liqWd and the feed plate by the introduct.ion of one mole of f:...d.
vapor Howing in Ule rectifying IIOCtion to that. in the If the (eed is saturated liquid of the same compotli-
 GRAPHICAL METHODS
tioo and temperature &6 the liquid on the feed plate,
q _ 1.0; if it is saturated. vapor similar to the vapor be seen by substituting x, for % in equation 311 and
rising from the feed plate, q ';' 0.0. With cold multiplying through by (q - 1).
liquid feed, q > 1.0. With superheated vapor fee.:I,
q < 0.0.
By substituting (L' - B) for V' in equation 3CJla
and then substituting fot' L' from equation 308,
L+qF (310)
'_.+1 - L+ qF 81;.
BZB
L + qF - B
Equation 310 gives the slope of the operating line
in the stripping aeotion as (L + qF)/(L + 'IF - B)
which may be determined from the known operatin6
variables. One point on the operating line may be
located by substituting %s for x.. in equation 307
aod &living for U_+!. By substituting from equa.-
tion 305,
and.
and it followa tl!at the point QIl the operating line
represenilllg the compositiOllB of the streams LB and
. VB +1 lies on the diagonal aOO bas the coordi-
nates ZB, YB. The operating line may then be
drawn through this point with the known slope
(L + qF)/(L + 'IF - B), The vapor from the re-
boiler is in equilibrium. with the bott0m8 product
(Fig. ~) and ba8 the composition represented by
the intersection of the line ZB with the equilibrium
curve. From t.hia point. the stepwise construct.ion
may be continued up the stripping column.
A more convenient. methoo when treating a c0m-
plete fractionat;ng column is to find the locus of the
intereection of the operating lines at the feed plate
(equatioo 311). This may be done by eliminating L
from, equati0D8 3060 and 310, giving the locus or
points common to both operat.ing lines. Substituting
from equation 304 for V in equation 3O!l,
L(1I - x) .D(XD -11)
From equation 310,
L(II - x) - qF(% - II) + B (II - %B)
Since B = F' - D and BXB - fI%, - DXD,
D(XD - y) - qfl(z - 11) +
1'" - VII - Fz, + DZD
Simplifying
Xp
- - -x - - - (311)
q-l q-l
Tbis line giving the locus of the intersections of
operating line is frequently called the q line and
depends only 1m q and 'x,. 'The slope is qj (q - I),
and the line intersects Lbfl diagonal at. y" z" as may
The iIlU3tl'Utive example on page 334 ill rooal..
culated on a mole basis in Fig. 373. The distillate
product oontains 77.85 mole per oent, the bottom
product 0.393 mole per cent, and the feed 17.38 mole
per cent. of ethanol. From an .mergy and material
balance, the feed of 43.7 molesj hr contains 42.68
moles of liquid. Thereforeq - 42.68/ 43.7 = .0.9766,
and the slope of the q line, equation 311, is - 41.4.
From an energy and material balance around the
top plate with 29.4 molesfhr orreflux at }14 F, the
"internal refJulC" LI is calculated 88 32.9 moles/hr
and the vapor rate V, as 42.46 moles/hr. Tbe slope
of the operating line repreeenUng a material balance
around the top of the column (equation 3(00) is thus
L/V _ 0.775. The intereeetion of thi.s line with the
q line (equation 311) determines one point on tho
opera.t.ing line giving a material balance around the
bottom or the column (equation 307a).
The ealculation of the number of ideal stages is
made by drawing the steps 88 shown in Fig. 373.
The point WI, xo) on the material balance line
(equation 30&) represents the vapor stream rising
from the top plate and tho liquid reflux to the top
plate. The composition of tho liquid XI in equilib-
rium with the vapor VI is determined by drawing a
horisootalline (11) to intenect. the eqwlibrium curve
at Wit ZI)' From point (y1J XI)- a material baJanee
is made to compute II, by drawing a verlicallioo to
intersect the material balance or operating line (equa.-
tion 306a) at (112, X,). This stepwise graphical
calculation is continued, uaing the equilibrium curve
and the line of equation 306a which is a material
balance around the top of the column above the feed,
until the q line is cfOB8fXl. From that point. OD down
the colWlUl the material balance is made including
the feed, or around the bottom of the column, by
using the line of equation 307a 88 indicated in Fig.
373. The completed calculation indicates almotlt
eight equilibrium stages in close agreement with the
results of Fig. 336.
At total reHux, L - V IUld L' - V', that. the
80
operating lines coincide with the diagonal line. As
the reflux rate is decreased, the operating lines depart.
more and more from the diagonal line until at min-
imum reflux at least ono of the opera.ting lines
touches the equilibrium line. In the above example
88 reflux is reduoed the operating line becomee
tangent to the equilibrium curve a.t point A, ~
37. VAPOR.UQUID TRANSFER OPERAnONS S
. .

clueing a zone of constant composition at that point
eorrespooding tQ that. shown pre\'iously (Fig. 338).
Where there i.I! no point of inflection in the equilib-"
riurn curve, the zone of constant composition de-
velops where the q line intersects the equilibrium
line or, in oUler words, at the feed plate.
This procedure, known 88 the McCabe-Thiele
method, is widely used. It is a simple, rapid method
which gives results usually sufficiently accurate for
Calculations in the dilute end of the 7r1J diagram
may be 'made by el!:panding the scales, but in general
this is not convenient.. A more satisfactory pro-
cedure is to use a plot of log y versus log x, as illus-
trated in' Fig. 374, which shows the calculation of the
number of plates required to reduce the ethanol
concentration of liquid in the stripping section of a
column from a mole fraction of 0.02 to 0.0001 with
reflux ratio and other operating conditions the II8lJ)C

.:.:aB$
as in the illustrative example on pp. 334 and 369.
When the quantity of the volatile component.
0.04 _ _
transferred is rela.tively very !IDlall, as in the case of
dilute solutions, the operation approximates isG-
..-" thermal conditions. For dilute or ideal sblutions at
.02 "
.,,<;i ,
!.e y I a constant temperature the equilibrium ratio (y/z,).
is a construtt for each compOnent. This means that
1

~
0.0'610'"n'
0.006
0"",
-
~~
"iI-.'<>~~
<'
the equilibrium line on an x-y diagram is a straight.
line passing through the origin with a slope equal to
,,/x, and on a log:&: - log" diagram the equilibrium

:~v.:I
_ I' .~
line is a straight line with a slope of 1.0 for isot.hermal
conditions. Thus one point on the equili~riurn liue

I .....
~ 00006
Moll Fr.Jttion a/ lNrIoI .in. ~
FlO. 314. Fnu:tiol1&tion Cll.icul.(l.tione in the dilute regiun on II
logariUunic vapor--liqllid (y ve"W1 z) diagram for t~e ethanol-
water BYlltem at I atm.
engineering work. In most cases, it b not necessary
to oalculate the number of equilibrium plates with
great precision beea.use of the tmcertainty of avail-
able data on overall plate efficiency and because
additional plates are UlIUally provided 88 a factor of
safety. The method may lead to the unwarranted
888umption of COll$t.ant molal overflow in cases
where it may not exist fUld where the assumption
may be critical.
mluw SolutiON
The McCabe~Thiele method lli accurate and pILl'-
tieula.rly advantageous in fractionation ca.lculationB
involving extremely dilute eolutions where the
aseumption of constant molal overflow approacbea
actual conditions more closely, as, for example, in
reducing the et.hanol content of !l water solution to !L
Lole fraction of 0.1)001.
(:I: - 0.01, Y - 0.104 for Fig. 374) suffices to deter~
mine the equilibriuJJ;lline. The position of the oper-
ating line is calculated from equa.tion 307a.
Three Com.polU!n.u
If the temperature is constant, 88 in Iiquid-liquid
extraction, equilibrium relationships are the arne
for all stages, and calculations for three components
in vapor-liquid transfer may be treated in exaet.ly
the same manner as tbree componenta in extraction
(Chapter 22). Except for 'dilute solutions or for
solutions of components having approximately the
same boiling points, the temperature is not the same
for all stages in vapor-liquid tnwsfer, and other
methods are employed. to allow for changing equi~
librium conditions from stage to stage.
ANALYTIC EXPRESSIONS
Where the liquid is an ideal solution, the equilib-
rium between vapor and liquid may be written in
the form
where K A is the equilibriwn constant.. The " relative
volatility" of component A with T(l8pect to com~
ponent B is
0J/ X)B Ks
and is frequently designated by aAB or tUB .
 ANALYTIC EXPRESSI ONS 371

T-wo Component. of the operating line with the equilibrium line, be.
For a binary Bystem where A is the more-volatile con~e (0, 0) and (1, 1) on the new coord inatet! (Fig.
component 375).
The pointe (xt, vr) and (%U, yn ) lie in the z' plane
KA _ a _ /~)(~)
(Fig. 3150) and the pointe (0, 0) and (It 1) lie in the
Ks \; l-Y
t' plane (Fig. 375b). The transformation from the z
The equation of the equilibrium curve, Fig. 373, plane to the 1.' plane may be performed by use of the

.-
may be obtained by IIOh 'ing for II

-
1 +(0 -1)%
The equation of the operating line is given by
(312)
equation

"-:'--", (z
(1.11
-~ )

rr}

where 1. may be used to represent eith-::f the x or 1/

coordinates. For examf,.,le,
(3 13)

equation 306a or 3070.

If the molal overflow is constant , L/ V is constant. (3 130)
If the relative volatility KA / Ks is constant, 0 is
constaht. These conditione are approximately true
in many cases, particularly when the temperature is y- "
y' - -"--''-- (313b)
approximately constan t from plate to plate. The 1/11 Yt
equations 312 and 306a may be used in the ~e
manner e.s the graph of Fig. 373. 'The starting point 1/ - III - I/'(YII - yd
is the known or desired distilillte overhead, or the Substituting for y, 1II, and 1II1 the corresponding
desired bottoms product. T hc solution is obtained values from equation 312,
by \vorking from one of these products to the other,
or, iil the case of intennediate feed, from each of these ax ax,
products to the feed . 1 + (a - l)x 1 + (0 - l )xt
The use of equations 312 and 306a is simplified if
the coordinates are transfonned 80 that the points
(.l'), Yr) and (xu, YIl), rep~nting the intersections -
,; [
I + (aax" 1)2'11 - ., + (0"'"
- 1)ZJ,
1
1,

tq~tJon 312
trlnsformed Into
t, eqUltion 314

- .1
- Equation 30611
tr, n,formed Into
,1~.1 .s~

-- --- -- i

(.,,- '. o
,'-
(0'
1

Flo. 376. TTanafonnatioo of ooonIinateol in ooonectioo with equatio.. 312 aud 813.
a72 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANsh;R OPERATIONS'
SolvinK for y' and BimpliIying, The number of stages required biJow stap Ii tof
a deflired separation is
i/- z.;:..:e,; {l+<a-l)XU] xo' (1 - r')"
XII - XI 1 + (a - 1);t log
x,,'(1 - x')o
n- (315)
-z' -:: '
.1 c:+-,("~-..:..:,I),:",:' loge
1 + (4-1),r The relation between x and r' is given by equalit...i
Substituting r (rtl - ZJ:) + ZJ fOf:t and simplifying, 3130. The values for :tJ: and XII are the two roots of
the quadratic equation obtained by eliminating 11
. [- l+ {a-I);tu ] from equations 312 and 306a.

.-
1/' - ;t'
1 + (a - I)[(Xll - XI)X' + %11 EK .....,i..... Show that (or the rectifying section the .alUM
11 + (a - l}xnlx' of %1 Bnu %11 &re the two maUl

.
1
( ::t:~[~ -
1 + (0 - l )zr + (a - IHzlI - :t):)z' -[~-.+ (.-,) ~ ,.l
Le"
1_..:+_(""_
C-- ' -...::1):::""::
I + (a - 1)X(
a + (a - I)~ %D
L
r- 4:zma - I)

then 2(a - 1)y

Cx'
v' - (314) A similar proot:dure mBY be followed, giving lrimila.r equ ....
I + (C - I)x' t~oni for the .rtri ppillg !eCtion.
The operating line (equation 3060) is a. st raight 1" 1M 8peciQl aue oj loUd rejlu.r., D ,.. 0, Lj V - I,
tine between points zr and Zll and transforms into a. and %J and xu become \(0 - I) =t= (a - I))f2(a - I),
straight line between points zr.' and zu' which has respectively, or Xl - 0 and .tn - 1. Also, under
a slope af unity and an intercept of O. Therefore these conditions C - 0 "" K,tlK,B. This makes
equation 306a becomea simply equation 315 particularly convenient for determining
the minimum number of stnges required for separat-
ing a binary mixture. But it may be applied with
Dividing equaHon 314 by I - 11 gives equal e83e and reasonable accuracy to the separation
between two components or between one component
~
1 v' - + C (~>'_ I)X')(I _ Cx' )
and all others in ideal eomplex mixtures where the
I
-temperature is approximately constant or changes
1 (C - I)>' +
linearly with the number of stage!,

- c(~)
This analytical method is most satisfactory when
1 - z'
changes in composition from plate to plate are small
or the temperature iB fairly constant, and it is par-
Combining the last. equilibrium equation with the ticularly applicable to those separations requiring a
operating equation 11'. +1 ... z.' gives l&rge number of plates.

The Abwrption Facto,. Method

Another approach involving eimilar assumptiotltl
including that of constant temperature, which treats
- C..,..t C",+2 (1 _ z')_+2 - etc. each component individually , is known as the ab--
sorption factor method.T, .. ",, "
The number of equilibrium stages required for the By a mawrial balance around any plate m of an
change in composit ion from Xo to z" (st.ages 1 to n, absorber,
inclusive, hut not indluding stage 0) is the value of n Lo (X, ~ - X ... _ 1) - V,,+r(Y... +1 - y ...) (316)
in the following equation.
where X .. _ moles of component in liquid from
(.1:')0 (x') .. plate m per mole of liquid .entering
log _ n logC+log
(l - %')0 (1 - z'). absorber (or reflux).
 ANALYTIC EXPRESSIONS 373
Y.. _ moles of component in vapor (rom plate If an average effective value may be uaed for A
m per mole 01 gas entering abeorber. inatead of the individual valuee AI. A" etc., equation
.~ _ moles of liquid entering absorber. 320 may be simplified to

-A'-I)
V,,+l - moles of vapor entering abeorber.
The vapor and liquid 1ea.ving aD equilibrium plate
Y
( --- Y .. H + ..4.,,- 1 __
_ A-I
L, X,
V"+l'
are in equilibrium, and ..4.,,+1 - 1
t'.. - K.,;:.
" - 1
where ~'" and r ... - mole fractioDll in equilibrium
vapor and liquid, respectively.
Y,,+I("', - I) + "',,-I(A - 1) ~Xo
Y" _ _ V .. +1 -'(321)
X..Lo . A,,+I -1 '
z.,---
V. . 40 .By a material balance around the absorber of 'I
plates,
Y ... _ V", tI_ Y".Lo .. K .. Lo V.. X. (317) Lo(X. - Xo) - V,,+I (Y,,+I - Y1)
Y .. +1 z .. L.. L. V,,+I
Substituting for X" from equation 317,
By eubstituting in equation 316 for X .. and X .. ..:..l
from equation 317
40_, Y
_Y",+I + .-1
y. -
____~K~.~-~,~y~.~-~'-- L, L,
40 - Y , , - - - XO- Y"+I-Y 1
1+--K.V..
K .. V" V"+l
DoIIDino A - ,LI KV 80lrilig forr Y. aod. subetitutinl A. for L .. / K .. V..
,
,y~.~+~,_+,-,A~.=-=,~y~.~-", L,
Y.. - Y.+ 1 - Y1 + --X.
1 +.4. .. ~ V.+1
For a OD.~plat~ absorber y, - (322)
L, A,
y,+ -'-X. Subatituting the averace effective value A for A ..
V,,+I
(318) in equation 322 aod equating y. from equations 322
1 +.4. 1
and 321,
For a two-plate absorber L,
Y"+l-Yt+VXo
Y .. y~
"
) ..:+"A=;:.'Y",
', (319) ,+,
1 + A,
- I)A + A"(A .- 1) ~Xo
S
_Y,,+l(A
Substituting fo~' YI from equation 318 in equation
3!9, and rearranging,
" . L,
- __________~~--c---~v~.~+~,--
..4.,,+1 1

_
(AI + l)Ys + A)--X, .
y. - __~~~~--~V~'~+~'-
AiA, + A, + 1
Simila..-I.y, for a three.phite abeorber.
, L,
(AlAs + As + l)Y, +,AlA, -'-X,
V .. + 1
Y.--~~--~~~~~-
AIAsAa + AtAs + (i,1 + 1

(320)
314 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
Equation 323 gives directly the moles of a com-
ponent (per mole of entering gas) not absorbed, YI ,
'us a function of eompositions and quantities of the
(!Olering streams, t.he llumber of equilibrium plates,
and efiective operating' c.:ulldition~ Il.!! incorporated
in the absorption factor A .
.~rd"". By a 1li00iiar procedure for .. IItI'ippinc eolumn, (325)
aho'" l lutt Y. +1 - Yo A,,+ I - I
. >(S-I) v,,,( S' - I)
S~"'T"":'\ + YH I -L;; s~+1 _I
.\ ~ - .\ I (324) where Y. + 1 - YI moles of component absorbed
-
per mole of entering gas . .
whero S ... U/Crt\.gtl ~ff(), Ii"",
stripping f .."tor, KV / L.
X .. _ molell of & cvmponcnt per mole of Cllt<.:rin!,; liquid Y" +1 - Yo' ",. number of moles that would be
IIfA Ktn I!pcu , lliJ&lrbeci" if it were possible
to IJrmg the gas leaving the
From equation 317, ass.uming an average effectiv(,
abtloroor into equilibrium
va.lue (or A - L/ KI' ,
with the entering liquid.
Similarly, from equation 324
Xo - X,. S,.+l - S
(326)
Xo - X~+l S"+l - 1
Figure 376 p~oviJes a convenient graphical solu-
tion for cqus.tion 325 or 326.

AIc:Iptoca/ of AbsoI"ption Of Strlppirc

Flo. 976. Solution of Abaorpt.klD. and atrippi.nc fr.ct.or. eq~tionI 325 and a26..
 TtfUL'J1ICOMPONENTS 375
The absorption factor may be applied to absorp- for the equiliurium constant K are then used to
tion, stripping, or fractionating multiple components. compute the composition of the liquid on the plate
When using the convenient relations based on an below. The temperature is ohecked by summing
average effective value for A, the accuracy of the the mole fractions, x's, for all components. This
results depends upon the value chosen lor A.tl, sum should equal 1.00. If not, another temperature
is assumed and the correepooding values for K used
Muhicomponent Systems to compute a new liquid OOIDpoait ion from the same
The absorption factor is W1!ll adapted to multiple vapor composItIOn. In this way it is po8Sible to
component systems when the compositions of the compute down from the top of the column and tIP
streams entering the column are known or can be from the bottom for 0. limited number of plates, or
computed and the use of an average value for the until the presence uf the less-volatile components not
absorption factor A is satisfactory. These condi- in the distillate in significant quantities musl be con-
tions are fulfilled in many absorption and stripping sidered. It is then necessary to introduce these
operations.- 2u1 In this method each component components into the calculated oomp06itions in
is treated separately. The calculation can be baaed order to attain the few. plate compoElition.- A
on the desired absorption 01 one component to similar procedure is used with equations such as
determine operating conditions. The ahsorption of 307a, computing upward from the bottom. Special
the other components brought about by these procedures for simplifying such calculations are
operating conditions may then be computed in- available ... a
dividually.
The analytic method using equation 315 is al!!o lIIullratl.e f.J:ampLe. It it desired to determine the
applicable to multiple component systems Wider minimum D.umber of p1atel!, and t he minimum ~Rw: requited
cert.a.m conditions. The compositions of one com- to pnJduoe .. ItabiliBcd peoline hllVing a vapor pre!IlUl"e
(Raoul t'. law) of 28.4 peia at 100' F from the raw gMOIi.,.,
ponent at the extremities of a column, or column
of oolumn 2 of Table 37. There ill to be no detectable loss of
secti-:.n, are represented by Zo and %". Thus the Pentane in the overhead gaa, and 07.0:>er cent of the nonnal
colllp<mition ()f the liquid at the wp and bottom of bubne in the raw gB80line is to be recovered in' the stabilized.
the column in t enna of one compont:nt must be pBOline. .
known. The relative volatility a is then the vol&- It iB 61'1't - . r y to determine the composition of the
lility of the particular component divided by the nabi li&ed paoline.. T he vapol" preMUfeII of the hydroe&rbone
volatility of too balance of the stream. The ba1a.nce at 100' F may be found in the tabuliltion given below. I.,(, t
of the stream is of different compoHition at different X _ mokll of ~tane in the ltabiliced peoIine (bottomll)
per mole of feed. Tho moles, of ",-butane in t he bott.oms will
'parts of the column, and its volatility is not readily be (0.1936}(0.979) - 0.1895. ,
appraised. Equation 316 is accordingly applied to
two components of the complex mixture which are Mo1ee in 8otto~ Vapor Prea!ure,
present in significan~ coneeL~rations in the liquKl. at Component per Mole of Feed psia at 100 F
each end of the column. The relative volatility a i-CtH Il X 75.8
is then the ratio of the volatilities of these two com- ...c,H,. 0 . 1895 51.8
ponents. The mole fraction of the second CQlnponent ..c.H" 0.0732 20.'
is then substituted for (1 - x). This method is n-C.H1I 0 .1208 IS.4
eenerally satisfactory when applied to a column C.H,,+ 0 .1716 4.84
where the temperature is reasonably constant or at 0 .5551 + X
Tot"
least linear with the number of stages.
In fractionating coIumll8 for complex mixtures 7UX + (O.I895)(SI.8) + (0.0732)(20.6) 1
sucb as natural gasoline, the temperature gradient { + (0.1208)(15.4) + (O.l71 6)(UI4)
Ilhanges rapidly near the kip or botklm or near the (0.5551 + X) - 28. 4
feed plate, and it is generally desirable to make plate-
tl>ple.te calculations Wling equations sucb 88 306a to From this, X, the number of molea of i-C,H,o in bottonu per
mole ';If feed, ill found to be 0.0368.
calculate the compoe.ition of vapors rising to a plate In Table 37 the \(Ital mole. in the finilJhed ,MOline per
of knowu liquid compotlition. The temperature of mole of feed i. gi'ref\ in the fourth column. After subtrf,ctjn,
the vapors is &88UUIOO and i.he corresponding values the mole. in the botwms from the mo1e6 in the feed, the
376
TABLE 37. COMPOSITION OF THI:: RAW GASOUNE
rEED, OF THE Df.lSIRED BOTTOMS PRODUcr
(S'TAB IU ZED GASOLINE), AND OF " 'HE Jt&<;lDUAL
OVERHEAD OR DISTILLATE
VAPOR~LlQUJD TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
~ vapors can be eooled to 100 .'. 11 the ditlillate is to be
removed &8 a va por .u ",hen a p"'rtial ia emlJloyed cnndctuK:r
1.0 form reAux, the minimum opei&ling pn-..n , i~ computed
1.0 be 100 pili-. ItS the de"'-point p re8l!\ll"e of t he overhc-ad va.pors
at 100 F as 10110",11.

8ouo,..,. o--n..d ou.~IJa'" TABLE 87A. CALCCLATION OF DEW-POINT PUES-

G_
s..t~ .... k<I , SURE OF' OVF.RHEAD'PRODlTC;'I' OF' TABJ~E 37 AT

-.
,....
Liq~id
,
"
100' F'

--- .,...
Com~"," Molo atoloo of
M~ Moleo 0/
F ... . -
a __
Diotirlo.", , ._-
r.... lion Fr;,otio" "AoIU<ln..

,....
;,
or ",Oloo. ;, ~~011 " Mole Try 20ij pKia Try 100 pllia
O1.\l.IIo ... Mole '"
au ,"'ract ion
Com- "

,'> ., ponent
;0
Dist illate K at
II / 1\ Kat
I IK
'" '" t"
'" Ou 1000 . ' " _ oJ! 100. .. II - :r

C,",
CIH ,
,....,
0 . 2714 ..
......
.. ...
O. t lllD
0.0&00
0.08lI0
,(1.2114
p .21RO
01----- - - - -- --- 0 .0677
;-C, II" ,.~ O.0I5:!3 0."" 0 . 1013 1).007 C,H. 3.0 0.0727 3 . 22
.-e,H .. O.I!!3.5 0 . 3201 0 . 18113 (U)OIl7 O.()(IIO c,H. O.66!iO 0.95 0.009 1,.001) 0.600
;.e. .. 0.0732 0.l2'38 0 . 0732 .. .. , ' , i-C 4RICI 0.1073 0 . 42 0.2.57 0 . 411 0.2415

, ,,..
-e,II " O.l:lQ8 0.20-\0 O. I:108
..-etHIC 0.00!l7 0.3 0.0323- 0 . 3105 0._
c.,H,, + 0 . 171 6 0 . 171 6 ... ... ... ...
T. . .. I ..=
~ 0. 611111 .. = O. C081 Total (,000 1.0610
"
(,000

:</.."': 1104 C.H .. + fradK>o b.. _ _ ",ell 10 h. .. ..... _

wridl ..,.., ...p<>ndUr,c 10 "'-. oIl>01101Oll ",",,_. The correct .olution for the dew point Qf a vapor 01" !.he
bubble point of a liquid is obtained ", h~D ~he !!Ultimation of
\A)tal moJ..s or ea.eh component ill the ~ d is\i.IJaIe is the computed mole fT1lC\iOO!! Of ..11 eomponenu in i.he oc.hcr
~iY .. n in column 6. T he oomP5llli lion or mole fraction in ~he pONe equ.u. unity. Since " - KI:, <>t <f'" , I K , ...hen
oycrtlCMl distillate is ioDvcn in ooIumn 5. !:(II/ K) - 1 the MlT<lCt ""JuLion fur a ,jUl<' puint is obtained
In, th is way the ma.teria.l balance (Of the oolumn can be !let (eee abovl! calruJation), and when ::::'Kr - 1 the OOrt'C<lt !!OJu-
up aeaumi n" itv.t the high boiling fn.It,terials desired in 'the tion for a bubble point is obtained.
bolt(JIn8 product are absent from the di.'lti1late. T he average operating pressure i3 fk:lcctt-d M 215 psia
The next ~tep is to detennine the operat ing preImUe of the (200 ptliil 1.0 ~now for ,m>l"ll in ""kUhation and &\W for a
column. If the eooling water 'empcta~ure ia 85 F, the over- rea.onable drop in pre8I!Iure from ,he bottom to 'he top of tOO

TABLE 38. STEPWISE CALCULATIONS FOR TOTAL REFLUX (MINrMUM PLATES) FROM PI.AT~ 1 TO 9

,-...
~, ."
I ....
" ro
. ..
... .-.
.... ... ,. .
.-..... .-w
... ,. ....
"
,. ''''''' ,.
"
FfOClOooo ~, - rt . - ~
;~ K.
VOj'Ot
,- i. Liqo;d

,. ""''''' ,. ,. ..
"-' '"
, 1 ..."
"' ~,
.....
~

,~ ;. Uquid ,
.
. "' ,..... '""' . . "' "' """'" ". '""""
K. ~
I. Uquid i. Liquid
rr ..o.iooo
1ft LIo;,uid
". .... ..-
i. I.iquid
in Liqllid in" Liquid

,.- "' "

"".
I'lalo
F....w,., '"
.. Mnlo
0< Vapor u. ""
~

!'o<v<!.I~ "
Ei,htlo
~

I ""
in I.iquid 1
, rom. Tot, I TW.
1'101.
"'" ,."
"..
"'. "'. "'"
Ninlb

"'.
'" "I'~-
., ,. -

-... ..... ..- ....- . .. im "01

to( to( lie) ell) tn,
'"
(t) (II t. ( I~)

......-I",.
(14) Ut ) "0
.._ - - --
(", II, ' .01_ U

....-.. . m .- .. 0.0011 U
, ..... .
...,
- .. .. . ......
... .... -
. .....
C,II, 0.P7~

. ..
' . Im 0 ._1 I. tl W 0.""


- ,- '.000 00..51.
.:.c.H,
...,
O.DU to.tlS t .3121 0. o.~ I .IIM 1.01 0. 7'0 >.W 1.11

r- I0._- ,...
,..( ' , U, 1 0. 0JIlI 0 . 411 . 1."'17 O . I ~I 0.18M ~ _ O.$~
.. I-- I--
1',1ol jI.WM ,.- , .. I.OOM 1:0001 1.00 ) ~

"
 MULTICOMPONENTS 371

TABLE 39. STEPWl SE CALCULATIONS FOR TO'fAL REFJ.l'X (M INIMUM PLATES) FROM THE BOTrOM
UP TO PLATE 8-7

...... ,..... . . ......... I

,
... ....
- _
....
m - ~ ~8_ , m~ m~

, ..
yalt FrocUo.
... ... , .....
..~

"-
- <8_ . -.~
.. Roboo_ ,
.- ZB ... M.1t 'a
......
........ .... "-.. "...
272' F F, .. tiocI
C""""' ... ,

...
~

...
I.
'" ....
Vapor .. Wole

. ~io.
. 2U"F io""'~
""., Lillaid 215 "
K" h~
in Liquid
<0.
io Liqold
K" I. \.iQIoid
to" r
K"
IOII' F
..
i. Liqwd
<0.
mo, u,.;.
l.iqWd ...
T~ird ,~.
nl~
....
Si.\~ So.",th

.,
(B-1)

., -;;;;-

-
~

..
1<) 10) m 10) (II) (14) n.)
'"1'1 (10) (12) (L')
'"
..... '.W .. . .. ...... .... .......
- .....- - ...-- ...- ..- ....-
......
-"
;..c,B"

..c..H ..
CoH .. +
,~
0. 1238

,.~

I. '

' .H
.
....." ......, .... .. .* ....... --
0.1201 I.U
0.'1Ot

....
o.lm
O. IM
........, ......
...... - ...... .- ....
... -.....--
0.$1. 1.21

1.1i11
0.1"

O.IINT

I . ter.
I.U
I."

1. 41
.
.m
I . t~ O.OIU
u
0.01
~ I. US
O. U
.. 4211 .
1.1100

. .....
I.OO LO
,
O. tU

UUO
0. '
0.11)11
.. ... .
---
I.'"

column. At thm preeIIure the temperature alld oompollitiOIl volatile eompolll:llltll are miMing in Table 38 bt.'C!l.\W) they weft!
of the liquid 011 the top plate are ozomput.ed aa folio"". II.SIJUIIled to be abeent from the overhead di~tiUate. The more
volatile oomponenta are miaing in Table 39 bec&USl'l they '1ieI'f!
AllllUmed to be abeellt from the bottoms.
Mole Mole n- ~buted components CII,D be eoMidelcd in
Component
Fraetion Kat 215
pllia. and
"".Ioa
in Uquid
the ~ . bown ill Tables 40 and 41. The i80pentADe waa
arbitrarily illtroduoed at plat.e 6 at a com:entnt.tlon of 0.00026
DiBti~ " 1()90 F 00 Plae.e I, &lid ""1l'OOt.ane at. a oonOlell.tnu.ion of O.(l(J(I()4,8 aa indiC*ted in
'VIK _:e oo.Iurnn 2 of Table 40 compared with oo.Iumli 12 of Table 38.
" The CtH I1 + aboV!i the food is pm!ellt Ut lUeh I1DAII oonoen-
tration that it may be neg)e()ted.
CoH, 0.2180 3.08 0.0708
C.H. 0.6650 1.00 0.0050 TABLE 40. STEPWISE CALCULATIONS FOR TOTAL
i-C1H1O 0.1073 0.458 0 . 2348 REFLUX FROM PLATE 6 TO PLATE 9 AFTER
n-C,H1Q 0.0097 0 . 32 0. _ IN1'ROD UCING PENTANES ON PJ.ATE 6

Total 1.000 . 0004

_. .-. .- .
.... .-. .....
,.....
.....
,.....
w

.........,.
II " ' "
, 1'_

...
<>0- h K
.. Liquid III" i. \.iQIoi~ Ill'!' . i. Liquid '" u..;.I

., ....'" '"
1M" j.
Mj"ftim_ ;II'IoUI1'I"Ioe&ftII ""tal reflUJ( or D _ 0 a lld B - O.
UDder t.beee oo.witione .JqUaUon 30f ciWAI V..+i - L.. I.IId
_ 1Ii.U.
d-
...._Hi"""

tquat.ioIls 306 and 307 become ""+I -:eo. and 'V-+I - z.,.
,.
---
..... ,..
m m
Ullinc the composition of the liquid on the top plate, :el, &II
'"
the compoe.itioll of the "apur rising from the IIeeOlid !Ute, tn,
the temperatUJ'e .md eompollitioll of the liquid On the IIeCOlid
plate roIlY be computed in the rnanneJ' outlined. Thil proceM
' ...
;..coUll 0.1070

....... - .... -
O.ottl
'.M ...... ,....
1. 11

t.G IIt
O.~lgo
... .......
.... .....
L.II
-
- - ..
lIlI.y be J'f!pe&ted for ee.eh llUooe!!IIive plaIA!! .. lhown in Table ...coU,t O.lm 0.3N5 . W O. 4W o.5:t111
SS for DIne ideal plata. >-CoB'l '.OOOZI 0. U8

O. ~ 5 8.00111
..
The sum of the mole fractionlt ill lIot eaotly unity in the
e&!culatKma of Table 38. Generally thlt Ie DOt ~ 110
1on( M tbetoe lUII'LIaver"llp within ::i:l per oea.t '0 [ unity.
...coB"

'''' ..
- --
0.00014

..
- -1.OOles
--
o.n
-- - -- ....
0."11

A eiimiLar pf'o ol."d ure startillg w;th lbe liquid bottom product.
(the rrtabilised paoline) of Table :n I.IId compql-illl upward
lor .evell plat.e. is followed in Table 39.
Compan.on of 1M liquid on 'plate U (TaNe 38. ooIumli 18)
with the liquid on plate B - 7 (Table 39, coIumll Ie) Indicates
that ~ cornpoeitiOIlS are approximat.,ly the arne in 110 far
.. ieobutane lUld nonnlll butane are oonoemed. The J,es:,
III lbie way the composition!! of plat.e 9 (Table 40) MId
p1&1.e B-7 rfablc 41).", bl'OUgh~ in"" Il&"'Cment in n:epeet to
all oornpooentl Illt'ept the two dilst.ribut.ed or' key compo-
nellt.s, itobutane aDd 1l-but.a1lC.
TIle data reeulting from theso oomput.atiollA of Tab"'-
38 to 41 are plotted in Fig. 377 which .howl! tho cnmputcd
 378 VAfoOR-LiQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
TABLE 41. STEPWISE CALCUUT:IONS FOJi 'l'OTAL; REFLUX FROM PLATE 8-3 TO P,LATK B-7
AFrER INTRODUCING PROPANE ON PLATE B-3

.~
.Mole F'metion VIl_I ... ZB ....... Yll-t. -Z8-t VB- l -:I'D-II 8 ....... ZB_1
Com- in Liquid on K" Mo. K" Mole
ponent Third Plate
K" Mole Kol Mo.
207' I" Fraction 201 " F Fraction 198" F Fl'IIAltion 197 F Fraction
above ReboiJer in I.iquid in Liquid in liquid in Liquid
or PlRie. 8-3
---
(I) (2) (3) (0)
.
_ _ 1- (') (6) (7) (6) (0) (10)

C,H~ 0 .00052 2. 18 0 . 00113 2.09 0.00236 2.'" 0.00181 2.02 0 .0007

i-c.H,. 0.2385 1.2oS 0. _ 1. 195 0 .3573 1.17 0.4180 Ll5 0 .4810
1t..Q,H 1& 0._ 0." 0.6500 0.94 O.8IIM 0.91 0."" 0.' 0 .,.".
i-C,H'I 0.0496 0.635 0._ 0.495 0 .0132 0.48 0.0063 O.47.s 0.0030
,,-C4H 1t 0.0450 0 . 42.5 0.0192 0.4 0.0077 0.385 0.0030 (Loou
0."
CaHl'+ 0.0008 ...... .... .,

Total 0.9994 I . 0044 1.0008 0.9961

, 1.(1)18

D. I whem ("" ) ill the mole fr&Ction of iIIobm6ne on the p1&te

O. 31
d.
4; .. c,
. indicated by the IlUbscript.
. (T.,j) ie the mole fractwn 01 n-butane .
'';>'[..- K.aDd~ are a~ equilibrium COlII!la.nts for itobutaoe

fi ~:,, :1
B-
9~~ _ C. H II
~c'li..
and ft-but&oe, n:lIlf)ecijvel,y, oW!r the r&rI~ 01
temperature in the ooIuDln.
If this equatioo ill applied over the entire co[umn UMg
C. H" . ~
S-
S- :~ ~. H,
i~C.~" ,#C.'f" i- ff. .. eompol'ition data taken from Table 37 and equilibrium 000-
!!.tanu, aven.pd between 109" F and 272 F, the remit ill

S- I
o 0,1 02 0.3 0.4
Mole FrllCtion in ~id
0.5 0.6 ., .- 0,
I
(O.J073)(O.3~l)
(O.0623)fO.OO97)
]otI: 0.458 + UI4
FIG. :In. ComflO$ition of liquids on . various plates at total .0.32 + 1.62
re8Ult for 'he iIlustnltive example of Table. 38, 39, 40, 1100 41 .. Ioc (56.9)
loe 1.236
compollition of the liquid on each ideal plate "hen operating 1.75511 . .
at I.<>t.a' reflux . It can be s:!eIl !.hat the composit ion of plate - 0.002018 - ID equwa\cn\ I~I p},.\es
9 !Table 40, ooIumn 8) ill a1moBt identlca.l with that of plat.c
B - 7 fill liven in Tabltl 41, column 10. By interpolation it Si nce the eo~ tions W!ed were thOllO of the dhltiliate and
woukl appear that a composition identiea.l UI that of ideal b"ttoms, eIflli taken &II a liquiq, the 19 idea.! plate. mtlude
plate 0+11 would tle computed at an ideal plate equivalent t ,e partial AOndcnaer and the reboile~. Since each of thelle
I.<> B - 6.7. Therefore the minimum number of plates re- i8 calculatt'CI. as oneidcal plate, the result of &p.I)lying ~quation
quired fur tm.. ",-,pIU"Iltion of Table 37 would bG equivalent to 3 1S over the en~re column is H) - 2 .. 17 equivalent ideal
+
,j 6.7, or 14.7 idC&l atageIJ including the partial oondenser plate!! compared "dth 13.7 by the tigorou~etcp~i8e calcllllltion.
wt not the rcboilcr, or 13.7 idCl!.! platee in addition to the :'Iluch OOtw rosuIk .Ill&y he obtained if the vallK'll for
partial oondell9Cr aud roOOilcr. Q - K,IK~ over the ,temperature tIInge II.rI; a vct"l&(ed rather

M ~ above, eqlUtion 315 nv.y be applied 000- than usinK the .v~ of the K '.diIWlLIy. In th~ _equ.- .
tiOl"l 315 ~e. ,
venieDtly t.o t ...o oomponenta 0111. complex mixture 1.0 estimate

A,.,-. log
;~~~1~~(~"~'3)~~~
the mi nimum number of ~ plate.. in this _ 01 I.<>ta.I
.-.t1ux equation 315 beeomeI!I , (O.458/~.32 : 1.0:.4/ 1.62)
klg (:rJ'(:r,tl ~
(:r. ).(:l,I)u ]og (56:0) 1.75511
n _ -log:{I.314) - ~
..... 14.7 equivalent ide!!.l pl at8!\!
 MULTICOMPONEI"'TS
1 ceontin~y the number nf <!Qui valenl-Kksl $I.&pe eomputed-
for ~I.., onIumn itaelf ia 14.7 - 2 - 12.7, compared ..... ith 13.7
oomputed by the rigorous method.
For beost results equs~ioD 3 16 ehould he uaed only over that--
portion of a oolumn ..... bert! the temperature cradient ie linear.
V,uaUy t his oondition exists under QQDditioN of total reflux
below the third or fourth plate below the top, And ..hove
.. bout tbtl third 01' fourt.h pla.te r.boV1'c the bottom. The pia\&-
!,Oopl-.te eal.cub.~ioll8 shoukt therefore be m-.de for I t least
t ....o but not more t ....n three or four ~te!l at eaeb e nd of !.he
:..olumn befOl'l'! applying eqUAt ion 316. If ~he aup\\'1.8e wcu-
latioru! In! carried too far en'(>1'8 may be introduood ~UIJe
of nealect of nondistributed oomponents.o
For the pregent prohlem equation 315 will 00 applied be-
tween plates D+3 and B-2 uslnl): data from eolumll& 7 and 8
in T ..ble as and coiumll8 8a.nd 9 in Table 39.
(0.:;08){0.628)
.-~
379
foc t.he 8epatalinn of T able :fl. the ininimum reflux is usumed
to be 0 .65 mole of liquid per mole of food (~pondiD \.0
0.408 mole of distillate or L t V _ 0.61 6).
The t(lmporature nf t be con~tan t oompoilition Inne for the
a.ssumed m inimum reflux is al80 lUlSumcd and t hen chcekQd
by tbe additional relation4h,ip that lJ: .. I. T he oorl'~ct
temperature ill indicated when the aummat.ion of all the vII1Ul)l
for z eomputl.>d by equation 327 0If 328 equals uni ty . As a
guide in usuming t he tempenilUte, equat ion 300 indicate.
that too va lue of K equals L t V if ~D is tem a nd z is not ICro.
If ~he mole frael ion of .. -but.ne in the d iJ<tiilat., ....,1'\) lero,
the value of K for n-.but a ne ;1\ thcl oonl\llnt <:om"""iti ...... :wne
would be eqU>t.l w (LI V).. orO .615. Actllruly t he value for K
will be some ..... hll.t IIll)!;er than 0.615 !.Kit:""I"'.' crn;$ gn'ster than
lero. If K is fJJ!!umcd to hl\ve a vu lu'l of 0.62 a temperature
of 100 F il indiClloted for th i~ lone. l'~;n~ eo templ'ratul't! 0'1
tOO F for t.b8 sane of co~t.nn t eomJlO5it ;nn . t h" composition
m.
of the lOne is oompu led by cq'uII, ;" n

log 14.35
2
Component.
Kilt 215
pIIia
100 F'
.r~mE
u,Ulltion
339 fulVl"",d
~

- log 1.3
1.1668 ,
- --
0 . 114
-10.1 c.n, 4 . 2!'> 0.0232 0 .0232
Co.. I.'" 0 .2U2J 0 .2625
The to.l equivalent ideal plates 80 rompu ted inelude plate i-C.H. 0 .711 0 .236 0.2300
B-2, T berofon:: 10.1 + 3 +
I tH' 14.1 equiva.ient ideal plates n-C,H II 0 .622 0 .500 0 .4.7113
are oompuWd by this OOITeCt UIIe of lIqu&tion 316 over that
Pllrt of the ooIumn when! the temperature cradient is approxi- TotAl 1.0217 1. 0000
m .. tely linear. The ratio of the .... verage valuell of K for each
key eotnpl'lnent is not QQnstant unless the temperstufI) gradient
i~ appro:rimatdy lineat. Th e vOlJ I.II)II fnr Z from equation 327 are high . A sliKPlt
Miniltt4m rtjlu:l. is obt.a.ined .... hen the n umber of plalet! is change in l.empel'll.ture or in K (or nbut ADC JM.k"" 1l1't!1at,ivo{y
in finite. With all in fini te number nf "latee the~ m~t he II
lOne in tho! column "' he~ then': ia nO. change in composition
from one pl&l.e to tM next . Equations 306 and 307 may be
written tor ideal 8~
...
IIlJ'lll change in mole fl1lCtion of n-b Ulll IIC. T herefore , t hi!<
mole fraction 01 n-butape is reviacd u gi""n in t he Jut, oolumn
~.
The \&at oolumn gives the eomJ"'lllition of the liq uill
O'l the
plat ~ in the .onP. of 'eonstllnt compo6i tion when thl! n :fln s
V"+ IK,, +1Z" +I - L..r..
- '
+ D;zl)
. ~,
ratio (L / V) il 0.6\5 lind no. pIlh tllne8 liTe pn,..'nl in Iho
dilltHI&U! .
V'.. UK.. + IZ..... I - L";',,,," - &B
In the nf OOnstlUlt e&ompoontion "_+J _ :r. and TARLF. 42. CO~IPUTATTO:-l OF CO:\ IJ>OSlT ION OF

.-,
.oDell

J
LIQUID IN WN E OF CONSTANT CO:>OlJ"OI:iIT IO;>.;
q(D + L)K - LJ - DXD or 0,"","
KD +""7'S----,,,
UK - I)
(327) BEI.OW THfo; FEED

z[(L' - BlK - L '] .. - 8 7,11 or :z _

B:rll _
KB + [/(t - XI
1328)."'-
~ ~=~\ "'."
,__ "',II ,w"" Kal " ,_, LL'
"_') j-;COI.4!
._ +" rol. ~.,
The eom p<ll!ition of t.hO:! ~ne8 of ronstant com~i tinn can be '<>I I ,...! m.5r (,oI.G~ ,
oompnied diroot.ly if thoe l ollO'l'ing information i~ avallable.
1. T he c:ompuorit ion nf the distillate and bottom.
2. 11>0 " min imum rellu:r" {L/ V)mti. a:-<i (V'lL i ...l....
3. The tempcl'lltu~ of t he iones for evaluatin, K .
'" ::-1
- -----
J

-
Ibll

ZJ
~- -

(J) I
-- - -
C4J I tl ) I (8) i .n
---
--- - - - --_.t_..--- -- . - t'-'---
III
I

n.e oompo!Sitiont ol; the produets are

~ven in Table 37
o- ,:.c,H "
..c, H"
' 0.03-88
O.!~ I " I!.
1.1505
It. $4'~
1. 1I4l
- o.,:li ' _ O_illl
O_14:I.J
-1. 1" I-O_!;~ U.4 ,'8$
~
0. 44:.'11
IIOOOI'ding to the lI&'!umptiofl of wro 'onnamttMion of t he i.(:,II ,. O . 01J~ 0. 118 10.tO) U 1 O.5~! 1 g, !I3 1 ' .0111<i
undi,tribut.cd compoT\()ntft in one product. Thie lI&'!umptinn .. c , II" 0. 1!Of O,K'l 0,:1:1' f 0,431 O ' 7~ 11 1.1l.\~ 0. 11<3

1----- --I ---I -~~-r--1"':'F';;~

C, H,,+ a, I111 O.I IS 0. 070 O. 81l l ,t6 I_~ 0. 11''0
intrnduOOB no CrTOr in comput ing minimum roflux.
The minimum reflux ill IUlllUmed and the IllllUmcd value is ,.~
d.ecked by romputation: For computing the minimum reflux
380 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
A aimilar calculatlo:m. for the stJippin,.ection Ullin,; equation
S?8 and L' _ 1.66 (col'l'C$pondi~ to L .. 0 ,65 and liquid
feed Ii' - 1.00) and temperaturu of about 230' F &iva the
oompa!ition for the aone of OOIIIItant oompo!litioo below the
feed crable 42).
The two IOne8 computed above bve different compoeitioDs
alld also different ratio!! for the dilltributed oomponentl
Ci..bu\J!.lI.ej,,-butanc), and neither .one hu. the IINTIII ratio of
di$tributed components I!.II the feed. Theee facts do not lead
to the conclusion that the AllBUmed minimum reflux ratio
I.LJV - 0.615) bdofl1'liteiy not the ~ value. In makin,
t he ClIk-ulatiorw for the &OlI!!II 0( COMta.nt compoailion the
elferts of tbe ,,-"volatile oomponenta in the reet.ifyina eeetion
~ of the more-volatile oomponenU in the ~tripping IleCUoII
have been ~tly neil:1cc:ted. T he feed plate oompo!!ilion ia
then obtained by 4(ldinr the nondistri buted componenl8 to
the cUcul.t.ted qwwtiHes for the .ones of constant rompo-
sition.".alld conlinuing the e-leulatiora plate by pIale toward
the feed plate--u.in Tablel43 and . The e.uet. quanlitiN
-.dded arerelatively unlmpol1.a.nt in compUtation for mini
mum reflux &II the numbnr of plates is not of intL'l'el!t but
I'&tlier the OO!'J'eCt oompollltior. at t he fClod plate for L/Y _
0 _615 wilh infinite pla.\.tlII.
Figure 378 repru!ll.!nU paphically the numb., of moo of
e&cb eornponent in the ".por riallg from eath pblle &II eorn
puted ( I) .u-p".... do"... from the top .nd )!P from ,he bottom

TABI,E 43. PI.ATE.T().PLATE COMPUTATIONS BETWEEN UPPER ZONE OF CONSTANT COUPOSITION

(PI,ATE n) AND FEED PLATE WITH ARBITRARY INTRODUcrION OF PENTANES AND HEXANES FOR THE
ASSUME D MIN IMUM REFLUX RATIO, L / V _ 0.615 (L _ O.60S, V - 1.0581)

,
I , -" r- "
I ...I ..,I
...

Flu.
T__.",.. ..,.,
,... ,
.
III1l' F
-
I
,,+3

,.,., .-

Co",_~, ... ,
......
~.
v_
Lc.+~1>
_Vh.,
....
...
K U 21$

I, , ,
V,

X
LiooJuid
~
V_v, Liqllid.

'"
V_v, Liquid

'"
C,H ,
CoH,
;-e.H,.
_-e,If"
i<:o.lf ..
~.(:.H"
C,H,,+
,.-
0 . 2714

,,.-....
O.Dln

,.~
0.01~1
0. 1101
O. IAS

,.......
O.IIOS
_.ooom
O.IOtI
0.4422
0.11170

........
0.2,n
'.ooom
'.e
"y
' .H
,.~

0.21
o . lUa
,.-
. - .... ....
0.0204&

0 .,.Il10

0 . 1lOOfI82
O.lIIJOZiI'
,
0.0151
0 . 1"1011
0 . 1i33
O.II~

0.000171
0 . 10n
0 . .,2
o.lm
,
0.114$

0 .000171
0.01~1
0 . 1108
O. l S33
o.al05
...,.
0 .00105
"
O.IOtI
O. H22
0 . 1970
0. 3 1U
0.00105
0 .000128
0.0151
0 .1701

,.....
0. 1M3
0.31IM

0.00107

...,., ..,...
,.~

I .-
I ..
I~
To.. t

.....,
~

...,
1.0571
""" O.Mla 1.05-'i13 0.6528

~qJ""for~
I I .WJII 1.0611 I . OM ' 1.0l8 1 0 .6.-.00

, .
.....
T_,.....,..
"
.H
1111' P
"
.
.+0

1M' "
"
I
"
...
I""P
" " "
,....
+,
" "
,
.....,
.
n

V_, -
Componeo.t
Vapo,
v.
.....'" Vapor

"
...... ,.-., ,.
",.W .....
+~ .... KU215 V,
,.
Liquid V._
.. I'll, .. ,
HIli' P X
"
CoH, O_lot l 0 .0'50 0. 10t0 0 .01. 0. 1030 ' . 0 141 0 . 1037 4 . 41 ,..... 0 .0 144 0 .10S4
".
-
C,H,
0._.
O.U H O. 17(1tl 0 ..... 1$ O. let. 0.4_
~
O. U71 0.4. 0.4,,"

,.....
0. 1513
;.c,H,. O. g70 o.n

-..
0. 152 1 0.1958 0 . 1607 0.11144 O. HM 0.1l1li5 0.1372 0.111
_-e,H,.
i-C,H " ..
O.l ln 0.3O'.l.~

,.-
0 .1.041
0.311.-'5
o.oon
0 . ~'iO
0 . 00lI01

..
0.00lI01 0.0152
O.lNt4
0.0132
0.e7S
'.M
0 .4405
O.CIUT
0.2no
D.OZ1.~
(1.1760
0.0215
_-eoK"
C.H,,+
0.00107 O.OO2e3 O.nM41
0 .001"'.'12
0.00II47
~
1) . 0153

..
0.00047
0.()U3
0.00047
0.273

''''''
O.~
..
O.MH O.03U

I,,~~
0 .0109 0.00II7

ToW ,,- 0 . 6Q..' 1.0111' O . ~2 ~ 1.0lI01 1.6lU o. ~ ,,--

~""""f.... 1MAl
..
' .11581 (i . MOl'
I 1.000l
\ ~ . MOO
I
110381 0 . '.0,00
-- - -- - - - _.-
1._1 1 .OM! ~ 1. 0.11.
 MULTICOMPONENTS
lIBiDI eq.....tiooe 306 and 001, (2) for the t_infiD.Iur~ and
(3) 8WIP"'bf, from the two infinite IOIlIlII toWard the feed
plate in Tablet 43 and 44.
The cakuliltiona of Table 43 8tart lIIith the known overbead
produe\ InD, oolumD 2 (Table 'n, oolurnn 6), and the quan-
tities in ool\1lllll 3 obtained by multJplyinc the malo fraetioml
in the 10M of constant oompollition. z., by the mo1e8 Q( liquid,
L _ 0.66, and addinc amall but reuonable q\WItitiel of
pent.anea. HexaDe was added in the liquid flOlll plate ",+6 in
ooJumn 15. . iii the Yapw, V'v..._It, ahown in the last oolumn, 33. of Table
381
The oomputaUone of Table M i!IW1 with the known bottom
..
product HZB, column 2 (Table 37, ooJumn 4), and the quan-
titlea of vapor ri~iDg from the lone of OOIllIta.nt oompoil!ition,
V'i'- _I; coIumD 3, oomputed by muitipJym. z. (oolumn 8 of
Table 42) by K:" (Table 42, column 3) and by 1.0581 (Vi IU!<l
adding a SJDall reasonable quantity of propan.e. Ethane "'....
added in the vapor from plate m -10 in coil.llnn 23.
Comp&J\eoD. of ~be quantity of e&eb oomponentin the YapoJ',
_V,._ .....
shown in the Ja.et oolumn, 22, of T!U>Ie 43, with that

TABLE 44.. PLATE-TO-PLATE COMPUTATIONS BETWEEN WWER ZONE OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION

(PLATE m) AND FEED !'LATE WrrH ARBITRARY INTRODl'CTION OF ETHANE AND PROPANE FqR THE
ASSUMED MINIMUM REFLUX RATIO, LjV - 0.616 (L' _ 1,65, V' _ L0bS1)

, , , ..
T_
"'"

.-.,
....

.-,
......

.-.
"...
M

.-
",.,
. "
U

.-,
.....
U

.-
"'.,
. " "
.-,
m"
-
- ...... Bo. "'"
'- ,>-.
+...
V'r_,
K~ 'I'
..... '" ..
'- ....... .......
", ", y, '- " '- ..... '- ......,., ,-", .......', '-
V, ,>
"

-- -- -- - - -
:au"
. ,,~

- ---
..... .. .. "" ...... ....... .. .. ..'" '.'!'.!' ..... ..... ,
,....
CIII.
.. ..'.411' .....
--
u
.....
I .GOID 1.0011':: 0.111 .. OliN 0. 11. 1.0110

-- -
....c.H,. u:t.S
"" .. .....
O.(IM o.n,:! Q.pIO '.nel o.am

.... .... .."" . ..,. ........

~ '.011 0.150110 0.'715 Q.fl'll 0.17411

'.M ....
.. . I.IN .~ 0. 7100 '.6241:
...c.H,. . = ..
...c.KlO O.IIN .~ 0.1171 0.7UG 0.1210

. ..'" .. .. .. .. .. m

-
..... - - -- -- - -- - - --- -
G.IWI 0. 1m' O.IM '.OMI 0.1.1
"" "" "" 0. 1" 0.1!114

.... ..... .. ..... ,.--

..coH n O.ll101 0. 1" 0. ' 0 .1177

.. .....
Co.H,,+ 0.171' O.ltto O. ' IM - 0.11' O.MII 0.'1. O.lIM D.N" '. 0138 O. leu 0. 0113 G.IIM ' .OW O.IIM 0.0138

,.., 1.0018 1.6557

.."" I . ,",. ~ I.M:I~ 1. 6(57
-
_. ...
0....
~"
.... ,.... ..... ,.... ..... ..... .....
1:0581 1.0681 I.IIMI 1. 0581 1.0481 1.0511 I.OMI

" .. ~
" M
" ~
" " I I
....-., .....-. .-..
_. -
. _ 11 .-U . - U . - 14
"'" -
, ,,..,
. 'r,
.t')'
121"
""'
... .. .......", ....... ..... '-
'- L', r, V.
-
.......
.
..... .- .... .-.-.... ..... - -
-

..-
I

'- ....... V_
"
.-
r, L. ,.,
" '-
"-
r'-..II
..
y+'"
~_H
,
K.
...
...
.. . ,
n', '-0>

',...
i-C.n"
...coli"
.....
"""...
-..--.- -.-
... ..... .....
0.71011
...... '.074' .....
.. ."" ..... ....
....
1.110&

..-
O.toll
....
.. . ,,, .... ..... .... ......
.....
10.1515
..... ..... ......
.. "'"
..
,-
1.1U1

.....
..
......
..
UU1
,." .
...... ." .. ...,
O. U7a
0. 41...
una
'.D .
.....
""
.-
.....
-

..- - .-.- .-- .-

0.1761
0.*,411
0.1761
a.3.!1!

o.m
O.IMII)
10.1310
I . IMII)
0. 2738
0.11 .1 .-
0. 17&1

00." .....
-
1. 1_ 1.1272 '. l D o.lIIS

-
'.1212 0.... "
,;W7

-0."
'.ITII 0.17 '.11~711 I.U.

,... - - -,....- .. ,.... ..... ..- ..

CoB,,+ O.leu O.OlU I . IIM '.OIM 10.0117 ..m 0.0107 Q.oe1O
- -....
'.IHI O.IW 1.0&1 0.10110
~
- - -- '. 11105

-
uw. um usn

-
1.10511 1.01" 1. 617'1' C'*" C...

.......
.... ..... .....
."".

1.0581 ..... .."" .... ..

1.0111 , I . eeoo ..... .. 1.0111' I, CI5II1 I .OMI I.M' I
 VAPOR-LIQUID <TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
"4, indicatee & eatisfactory ageement in the number 01. moles
of all oomponenu more volatile than normal butane"
The ethu.e a.nd prop&ne 8l computed upward from the
ooltnm of the eolumn (Table "", column 33) lire in agreement
""ith the ethane a nd propane &/I detennincd by eomputint;
<k,""nward from the top 01 t he columll (Tabl$ 4..1, column 22)
on the same plate on ... hich tbe key component.5 are alrtto$t in
&grOClIl('fl t (the i- a nd normal butane, of column 33, Table
, and of ooI umn 22, Table 43)" Th is indieal.C!l that the
arbitnuy introduction 01 propane and ethane on plate.
m-l &nd m-lO, ~tlvely, .. indicated ill TatHI. , ia
flUho!;t.&n.ti.!!.!ly correct and no runner &djus~men t in thele
comp0und8 is mquirod. Beeau.ee the pcntanes and " beDlll'J!!
piUll" fraetionll .. oomputed do..'owud from the top of the
column (TabI<! 43, column 22) are no\. in eklee ~t
...-ith the COm'6poodinc quantities det.e.rmined by IlODlpuUng
upward (Table , column 33) the arbitrary introduction of
tbeee oompooentl in the compu tl lione of Table 43 ;. DOl;

uil I I I I I III
N+ 1
I II I I I I I
, /- i' H"~ ,; j~
,;
U
N+ !

""'-
N+

"" "' ~
0-1 I
C,".
I
0-1 1
.....
M- , l./' ~ "\. . i'\.~ -
u
,
,; ,;
y;. \~
0- 1

HIl
'-20
i 1111 III I III I III i II
k' ,;
'. u,
o
1'-' "u ,
8- 10
5

,' .
\
.-.- I-t ~
:;I!

/
~ 5
. ~
1 .....- .
0.2 03 0.4 0)
MoIn of Component i:I VJpor 1* M<*I of fted 0.7

F l O. S78. Composition 'of vapor .-jai nl from plata in a column containin& &.D. infinite nu.m"1(!I" 01 plata ~ in InOJto1 01
oompooeot pel" mole of feed..
 MULTICOMPONENTS
quite lI'Teet IUld: IIOOle adjUBUnellt in the penl.&nM - and
" heuDeil pi.." mU8~ be made in tbe eornputatiOM 101' \be
rectifyiog eeer,ioo o f t~ column.
The purpoee of introducing thea componenu in the 00Dl-
putatk!n. of Table 43 is todew.-mine wbMefJeet their p1"I':geDDe
mi&ht M ve on the temperature an d the fnoctionll.tion OOt"'oon
\mutalle and nOl'mal butalle between the zone of OODBtant
oompoeition and the feed plate. The computatioDB of T able
f4 may be e):tendeci upward to the next plY.w, which ill the
plate aboWl the fO)Cd plate, ffiBiiIllLwd p1aw f -1, in the
nWlller eet forth in the first few colu mns of Table 45. In
makin, this computation it must be remembered that the
plate above 011 - 14 is a plate a bove tbe feed plate and
the maWiaI balanoo, if made around the bottom of the
oolwno, mUllt ms.ke proper alIOWI.llQe for the leed, which in
tm. _ &mount. to 1 mole of liquid al it. boiling point,. TIle
oomput.ations !let fOl"th in the finlt aix colum llS 01 Table 45
have been made in thiB m&nnI.!I", and the quanHty of ~
pent.ne. normal pentane, and "hc:unee plUII" lIhown in the
vapor risina from the plMef-1 in
column 6 m\ll!t be COlTC<lt
beeaute they Are based upon the known oompoaiuou of thcij(!
compoundfJ iii the bottoms product.
... Becauee theM ill no isopentane or normal pentane in t he
IM!Tbellod dilltillaW, the qUlLntitiel! of the8e materi&ls in the
liquid overfiowing from plate f - 2 (or, for t.hb. computation,
plate ,,+6) nlUlJl be tbe !I&m8 all the qUILlItity in the Vapof
Nine from plate /- 1 .&II .tw..... in column 6. T1I6 total
qUILDtily of rna.teri.aI ;0 the liq uid overflowiog from plate
,,+6 ill given in column 1, Table 45. Thill ill computed by i.
addinB; to ~he ethane, propane, isobutane, and normal butaDe,
Ill! computed fOf" plal..6 ,,+6 in Table 43 (column 11), the quAn-
titiea 01 iIIopen~lllIe, normal pent.&nc, and " hexaDe piUI "
computed fOf the vapors rising from plate f -1 (column 6,
Table 46).
T hese adj1.lSt.!l"lents or changes in the cornpoeitlOlll of the
pentanennd he:u.nell lIhown in Table 4fj MlIiO 8uWI comp&ll;d.
with the compositions IN the COm!3pOndint; plates computed
iII. Table f.3 that there ill no I>eOelIeity in coMinuina the8e
adj\lStmenle farther up lhe column. The quantity of u-
adjooed oomponentl is IlUflicillIl lly ac1:urate beeauae the. t.ot.J
of a U componen t\! ill 0.656, wit hin I per <lIVIt of !.be 00I"Ted.
a mount, 0 .66.
ComputatiOflfl are t hen continued from t hia adjusted plate
n+6 Ill! liven in column 1 of Table 45, WOI"kill& down tha
column in the.arne mannec IlIIl!et forth in T.ble 43 to obtain
rnvi8ed quantitiee for the vapor MII& from plate 1'l+8 "set
forth in column 12 of T.ble 45.
TOO temperatUl'e of plate 0+1 in Table 46 II 169 F, com-
pared with 1 68~ F for this plate IIo/J computed in Table 43.
Thi, difference i, dtHI to the different qUAlltltia of pentanct

TABLE 45. REVISED PLATE-'J'O..PLATE COMPUTATlONS ABOVE FEED PLATE FOR THE ASSUMED
MI Nn-fUM REFLUX RATIO OF 0 .616

,
I 2
I 3
I I I 6 7
I I I 9 10 11 12

.j _+6
P.... tn - 14 /- 1 " or / - 2
_+7 _+8
"

Temper- ISS F
188' F 169 F 164 F 169 " F
.,~

I I
K at K at
(Col 33, V' . ":u 215 Rc vifICd 215 V,
Co~ V..,.. Vapor Uqllid V.....
""'., T aMe -14)
YII-_u
lhD -
141_1 .
,.~

.,d
160 F
KL<
V, Liquid
U.
Vr_., poi.
d
169 F
K
u. V,

o.H, O,l02ti 0 .0136 4 .45 0.0600 0.0976 0.0141 0.1037 4.45 0.0233 0,0143 0 . 1033
o.H, 0.42\1.6 0 .1581 J.7 0.2690 0 .4~ 0.1671 0.4385 J.7 0.2580 0 : 1587 0.4301
;..c,K" 0.1784 0 . 1347 0.86 0 . 11&9 0.1883 0.14M O. 18!),'j 0.86 0.2200 j &.1353 0 . 1190
"'4H.
i-C.H"
0 . 2800
0 .0316
0.2700
0.0316
0.68
0 .346
0.1878
0.0109
0.'3)55
0.0178
0. _
0 .0178
0 . 2974
0.0 178
0.68
0.""'
0.4370
0 .0514
I .2690 0 .2730
0.03 16 0 .0316
n-CJ(11 0.038 1 0.0381 0.277 0 .0106 0.0112 0 .0112 0 . 0 112 0.277 0.0620 0.0381 0.0381
C.8 14 +
T....
0 .0070;

1.0671
0.0070

0._
0.044 0._

0.61>45
0._

1.0&19
0.0005
0. _
1._
0.0005 0 .044 0.0114

1.0631
0._

0._
0 .00'/0

H
1.0021

eon.o.
"I~
for wtal
, 1.0581 0._
-
0.6500 1.0581
-
0.6500 1.0&81 1.0581 0.6000
1._
3M VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSfER OPERATIONS 3
.nd.. t.xa.nee on this pl&te, which quantiliet! were not eorrec:tly If the dillel"l'!l:ces hetween the raliOll of the key oomponenta
intl'Oduced by the arbit.rary introduction Wied in the calcula- in the feed pIaU Vl!.p!)r1I are plotted IIgRilUlt thil &8!!urood
tion of Table 43. The ~ncy of 1-, howuvcr, i, not minimum reflUJ[ ratios ( Fi~ 379), the ea rred minimum
aafficien\ to cautoe any significant ditl'eren(le in the ormlpolli- refl\lX ral)o ill indic....ted && 0.618.
tiolll of the w..uanc and normal but..&.ne. 0J)5
1110 makil\& tbelle trW-fltld ...,rrur, plato-\.o-pbte eaJeulatio!'S.
it is U/JUIlJly boat to &im at an agreement between thI! com-
pounds more '!Olatile than the key eomponen\.ll and le$& o \
volatile th1Ul the key .... mponenta, pT'OI)OO(\ini\: in the manner
&/I outlined in Tf\bk'll 43 &nd 44. When tbe!!e componcnlM lave
been bonuJ:ht inl.O MiI>mxilJlllte agroo.Illcnt,. the final adjust-
ment may be made ... described In Table 45. If tt.e
key
"H-005
"2
\
\
~mlonen\.ll()()lJllM.l1.ed dow!!. from the tnp (ooI.umn 12, Table ~'S -O. IO
-IS) are aLeo in ~roemcnt ,,-iti> the key oomponcn l:/l eomputOO.
up from the oottom (column 2, Table 45), tbol lIIl8umed
minimum reflux ie C01TeCI".
~~
~ - 0.15 1\
This agreement is not l"C,fl...,t as the ratio bet""I.'CD i-bl!blne
MNI .-butule is O.MS on pla te ,,+8 ... tI 0.637 on plate -ll2O
10\-14. Thel'er.. ro, t he MllUmoo minimum rufiux ia not ftuite 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
eorroct. The Mrlnai butane l1li oontpuul<! for plate 11.+8 Ass.umed Minimum
(column 12, Table 46) i~ ahout 3 pi!!' ocnt I.., than is roquin.ld ReflLQl Ratio. L/ V
for agreement \\'ith plate ",-14. Th41 higher ratio of i-butanc FIG. 379. Graphic intcrpolatJ.on for oorred minimum reflux
'Q lIbutane in pllLt(: 11.+8 indi Clltt'S ,hilt II. "'ightly croealer ,..tio.
I'Ieflux is l\'quirod 10 r"t1uce the Il-but.lLne In the b.. uom of !.he
l'IeClilyinc ~ \\"ilh infinite pbleS wben producing the
For oaual operating conditioM the reHux ratio Lj V
'fIquired distillate II.nd bottoms. is less tban one and more than the minimum. The
To determil'lI! the correct minimum reaux, the entire calc:uJa.. number of plates required for a particular separation
.ion may be repeated, !l88UrninK .. higher reflux. The re!lu1t1; and reflux ratio may then be computed .by a single
If 8Uch eslcuJatioM for .. 0.727 (LI V " 0.641) .. re ijiver piat.e-to-plaw calculation starting with the distiliatA!
II Table 46.
and bottoms with. the introduction of the non-
TABLE 4(). UESULTS OF PLATE-TO-PI.ATE dist ributed components as indicated in the illus-
CALCULATIONS.."-&SUMING (LIV)"'k>" 0.641 trative example.
A reliable short-cut procedure based on empirical
,
-~
rclationship8 which also gives the numher of plates
2
I, 3
required as a function of reflux ratio incorporates
the following steps:
fOlllperatul"l'! IM o F 226.5 F 187~ F I . Compute the minimum number of plates using
1 equatiun 315 and stepwise calculations as demon-
strated in the example aOOve.
Moles Liquid in 1,'00<.\ Plato Vapor
2. Assume minimum reflux in the rect.ifying s<.c-
lnfinjle Zone Computed
Com."..., lion and calculate the liquid composition in the zone
of constant eompoeitioo as in the above example or
Above Bolo. Down Up from by equation 329.
F"" Food from Top Bottom 'D
LA. L';r.. VUOO+lD V1l- _ UI
X. - ;;(K
"V7/K h ").",.'--+
" ,')-.---";;](;;L'/D -:-7(K"/'K"",' ).-;-(Z,W/ Zd,.)
(329)
Co"' 0 .0163 '0. 113'7 0 . 1042
3. By energy balance calculate the increa.'ie in
Co", 0.1776 0.4356 0.4300
i...cJl lD 0 . 1668 0.47M 0.1833 0.2170 liquid load (I/ - L) at feed plate.
A-C~HlP 0 . 3373 0.7440 0.3300 0._ 4. Calculate the liquid compo~ition in the lower
t.ciHu 0.130\ 0.0324 0 .0324 zone of constant composition as in the above ex
ll--Ci HI1 0 . 1893 0.03ll0 0 . 0300
ample, 'or by equation 230.
C.HI~+ 0 . 1856 0.0072 0.0072
zB(K ./K d) ...
o.nm
(L'/B)~iD. + (K/Kd)lIIG:~)
roW 1.Tl1 1.1402 1.1348
.J:.,. - {K./Kd _ K / Kd) ...
Correet total 0 . 7270 1.Tl1 1.1351 1.1&51
(330)
 MULTICO~NENTS

..
1.0

0.'
C. n fK./Kr I) KIK~

<1..,

I c!OA
, .,
0.2 H -t-+l1-ttH+H--+---t-t-++t+t-t1-+-H+-,-+--+-++-H-H

0.1 /
om o.G4 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.15 Q.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4,0 5..0
(K"K~- 1) K!Kl,fX (KJK~ -I)KJK
Flo. 380. Chan fOl" determl'lling values of C,. and C. for equation 3.31."

5. Cheek the asswned minimum reflux by equa-

tion 331'4 ~

(x~/z.)~ _ (1 _IC.. K.x...) ( I _ 2';C,.z,.) (331) where n - Dumber of

ideal stages abow: feed plate;
(xc/ z.).. K" . m - number of ideal stages below feed -plate.
where C. and C. are obtained from Fig. 380. '~
subscript. c indiCAtes more-volatile key component. With infinite plates the calculated ~ of con-
d indicates less-volatile key component. stant. oomposit.ion would come .togethe r !lot the feed
n indicates upper infinite ZQlle. plate if the composition of every component in the
m indicates lower infinite zone. distillate and in the bottoms were known correctly
X .. (K.z-/K,,) is summation of C... (K..z./K,,) for and each was greater than sero. If one component
all components less volatile than the less-volatile is absent from the distillate, the upper lOne of con-
key component d. ' stant oompoeition is located in the oolumn section
2:C"x" is/lurt'lmation of C;.x" for all components more above the feed. Similarly, if one component is
volatile than more-volatile key compoIWnt c, absent from the bottom product, the lower zone of
constant composition is in the stripying section
If the left member of equation 331 isiess tha.'l. the below the feod. The 8.'lsumption , of a number of
right member, the assumed minimum reflux is too components completely ab!!Cnt from the distiJIate,
large, The calculation is then repeated with a and others absent from the. 'bottoms, can be true
sma1ler value for L, and the correct minimum reflux only for the case of infinite plates, but it KI't'atly sim-
is estimated by graphical i~terpolation. plifies the calcnlatiollB and no erJ"Of is introduced
6. The required reflux for different numbers of by the procedure outlined as it takes into evnsidera-
ideal stages, including partinl oondenser and reboiler tion the effect of thflile nondistributro compOnents,
if used, is obtained Jr/ from Fig. 381, using the vJ:tlues . By making energy hnlances around the \'l\riOlls
for minimum plates and minimum reflux (itcrns 1 plates and the top or hut tom of the column, corrN't
and 5). values fo r the liquid and vapor load at any (I'. :111
7. The proper location or
the feed may be esti- points may be computed. The errors int I'OI/U(-ni
mated" from equation 332, by assuming conptant re~ux may tht>n IJc wJ,,:ced
 VAPOR-LIQl'ID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3

FIG. 381. RelatioIlilhip between the refiUJ: ratK! and the number of ideal IltacN for f..ct.ionating eo!UIM. (kne ..... ly valid
if the ntio of sta&es in the ~t;:rying eeetion to .ta~ in II1.ripping section (nlm) ill greater than 0.1 and ley than 10 and
neither product hu pr&l::t.ically the DIlle oompollition lUI'the feo!d." --
 PROBLEMS
by using average valuee for L and V over parts of
the column, or eliminated by making an energy
bala.noe around each plate. The la.tter procedure
involves t.rialand-error procedures for both equilib.-
rium and energy balanoes. It. is too tedious for most
design purposes and .is seldom justified. AD analog
387
mole per rent n-liept.&ne and a bottoom product oontainin&:
2.0 mole per rent ra-heptane At 1 attn ~ the ratio of the
vapor-liquid equilibrium oonet.a.nUI K _ _ (KmeUI~"Y_
is 1.07.
State IIIMlmPYon. m.&de aDd Bhow iD 1f&Phic&1 fonn the
ndat ion hetWf!len tbe number 01 equiHbrium at.agell required
IIIJ a function 01 re.lhu: ratio.

computer baa been developed" to eolve such prot? 6. Natural p i lot 93" F &lid 835 peia of the comrosition
lema and promises to be or considerable U8e in speeial given below ill to be treated t.o reoove at. i6ut. 9B per cent of
the iaobUl&M wit.h ablorpUon oi l of the eomPll'it.ion giveD below
""'" PROBLEMS
and available at ga o F. It ia e81im.t.ed tbat tbe)el\.ll pIJ will
te.ve HUI! abeorber at tOOF .. buve that of tbe Jean oil
1. Work the problema liven at tbe ~ of Chapter 23,
~ ~t \XIOlal over&w. Mole FraetKln in
Com-
2. An. iBothermal abl!orber ill operatilll at 300 0 F and .400 ponent
Riehe ... Leu. Oil
pai& with pure pentane &8 the ablool-binl fiuid to recoYN
propane lrom 100 rntlJo./hr 01 a IItre&m containinl 20 mole
CR, 0.0000
per cent methane ADd 80 mole per cent Jll'CIpaM. The off
C,R, 0 .0618
pi! cont&in@80moleperoentmethaneonapentane-freebMi&
C.H, 0 ._
(II) Wh&t ia tbe minimum pentane required (moles per
"""')!
i-C.RIO O.oon
ft-C.H IO 0.0089 0.00026
(II) What ia the pentane requirement for III!paration with ;..c,H II 0 ..... 0.00108
four tbeoretiCiU IltageI!'
(~) H ow mu oh penta.ne i1110et iD the off 1M in part
(d) What ill the peroent.qe of propane in the rich (inlet)
b' """".CtHlf
C,H.
0 .0018
0.0024
0.0016
0 .00139
0 .00000
0 .00925
p i that ia recovared In t he rlcb oil'
Oil 0 .98302
3. A lithogra.phlng COlloem UIIeC wive"" M the vebicle fw
a trallllp&l'eJ1t DOI.t.i1ll in II. paper-lilliBhiDI procetiB. The air-- Total 1.0000 1.00000
toluene mis.t.ure obtaine<llrom the ~ driers ill to be treatM
for recovery ohhe toluene by beinc eooIed to 00 F and tben Can the desired re.ult be aooompUllhed with 0.18 mole of
pa-.i throu&h a "ecrubbiD&: tower" in which tbe toluene ill Jean oll per lIlDle 01 rich pet If.o, bow many kJeaI platA:8
abIorbed in an oil whteh ia noovolatile Wlder theee operating ~ required?
moditiona. The air-t.oluene mixtlU'e leavin the cooler 111m-
tam. s votume pI!I" eent to!1JeDe. Onder preIIent eonditio_ 7. In the alkylataon by IUUuno acid \*taly" of iIobutaoe
332,000 ataDdard eo. ft (~. r and 760 mm) per boor of the with butyle.ne t.o prodooe iao6cL&ue. t.be feed of bo.it ylene and
~ wiU haft t.o be treated, and 91 pe.r cent recovery iBobuta.ne conw_ tome normal but.ue which builda up in
of tbe tome_ it desired in rich oil 00IItaiDin& 30 mole per the alky1&.t ion and mun be removed with the alky1&.te by
eent of t.ohtI!ne. fraetionation from the id>uu.ne e\n:ult.ted throuh the
The tol~ree absorption oil baa a moleeuIar w~' of ai1r.y1&.tioo unit. The composition of thfJ feed to the column
180, a IIpeOilie p9ity at go o F (~ened too watN a' 60 0 F) ....ould be tbe saine &8 that of the hydrocarbon cin:ull.t~ in
of 0.866, and a kinenur.tM: vieI:loeity of 1.8 oentilltokel!l lot the alkylation unit, or about:
operatiq ~mperatu",. The &beotption oil eutermg the.t.op
c,~+414 o . S mole per cent
of the toower will contain 0 10 mole per Dent t.oluene. The
CilIa + CaR, 12.7
toower ill operated iIotbetmaUy at 90 F. Determine;
i-CJrIll + ;..c.U, 61.0
(a) The number 01 ideal aud of actual plates required.
(b) Thf! required column dia.me~r aud downapout dimeJl..
~HIO + n-C.H, 31.8
c,n" 0 .2
Ilion. if the plate ~ .. IS Ill. Alkylate (equlvaJellt
4. It ill pro~ t.o reC0ger 90 per cent of \he ethane from a too heptane) '4 .0
refinery pi! etream at 200 e F aud 200 psia containing 40 mole
A fraetionating column ill available with an alio1l'll.ble work
Jlf'~. Dent methane and eomole per Dent ethane. The .beorbing inI: p rtlll!!ure of 160 pma, containing 35 pla.teI not counting
oil bU. (IOOlJlO'ition of 98.36 'mnle per eent pentane, 1.48
the reboiler a nd partial condeneer. Are there enough pI.. t...
mole per Dent ethane, m 0.164 m<;J!e per cent methane.
in this prellent column if they ue 100 per re.}t efficient to
For eaeb 1000 molee/hr of rdDery 1M, bow much off pi! ill
fractionate thi. feed IIII.terW to that tbe bottom product
produoed, .nd lean oil required in column eontaining 7
will oontain BUhatantially aU the alkylate and not more than
pla.tea of au flItimateci onrall efllcirJncy 01 54 per cent'
What ia thfJ compccitlon of tbe neh oil'
+
0.3 per cent of the ;..c.all i.C.H, ill tbe feed and prod_
an. onrbead dist.illate oontaininc not core \.ban 10 mole per
6. It it propoIICd t.o llepant.e by fradionatJon a qW.:ture eellt n-e.H .. + ~14 for return to the alkylation unit?
_taininc 110 mole per oent ~ aDd 50 mole per cent What operat.in& condltloll& (temperatu,", p..-.re,relhP:
methyleyclobeune into a diatIDate product. cont.&iniog 98 ratio, number of Haceal ate requirGd for t hill &epIll1ltiont
 CHAPTER

26

Vapor-Liquid Transfer Operations .4

Distillation and Condensation

IMPLE distillation is the opernt ion of produc- Substituting y/K for x and solving'for 1/,

S ~g a vapor from a liquid by boiling the liquid

rnixtuI:e, separating the vapor 80 fonned from
the liquid aild condensing the \'upor without any
Frp
11 - V+/~/K-V K+LI V
F( Kx, )

further transfw. of material betwccn vapor and

F Kz,
liquid. nus operation may be cooducted in two
wayo.
~. - I - Ii L CCK-'+=L'-/"'V (333)

. 1. EquiliUrium mporization (or flash distillation) Similarly ..

involves keeping all the vapor and liquid in intimate
, contact 150 that the separated vapor is in equilibrium
with the residual liquid. By a material balance
under these conditions for each component,
Frp - Vy + 14 (237)
The equi1ibri~ relationship may be e~p~ as
- - K
where K may be an experimentally determined value,
or a computed value for the particular temperatu re
sod pressure at which the vapor and liquid are
separated. For the case of ideal solutions at moder
ate pressures when 11 and .:r are mole fractions and
L, V, and F are in moles,
yP ... xp
(334)
The eolution involves the assumption of a v8.Iue for
the ratio of vapor to feed V I F and a trial-and-error
solution. The example calculation given on p. 389
indicates that the calculated value of this ratio
should check the assumed value clOilely.
It is helpful to remember that. if the caiculaled
V I F differs from the assumed V I F. 80 that a seeood
assu mption is necessary, the 8eCOnd a98U mption
should depart from the first assumption in the same
direction but to a greater extent than the calculated
V I F. A plot of the differences between the computed
and llS8umP.d values as a function of the assumed
value is .helpful in indicating the best valUe!.
It is also helpfu1 to make dew-point (Table 37 A)
and bubble-point calcula.tions to uoertaih if the
.materiaJ. is in the two-phase region of temperature

--


-p
p
and p re88Ur'e before undertaking the calculation fo r
equilibrium vaporisation.
2 . .l>ijferenl.ial dillillation involves tbe removul of
where P is the total pressure of the distillation. the vapor from contact with the liqu)cl &8 rapidly
11 is the vapor pressure of the component at
the u,mperature of the distillation.
, .as the vapor is formed. In differential vapOrization
tlie liquid loeee and the vapor or distillo.te gains a
 . bISl1LLA110N AND CONDENSATION

. . OF A NATURAL GAS GASOLINE AT 60 PSIA AND 110 F

FLASH VAPORIZATION
.
Compo&i~D or Feed, Ii' AslurlIe V IF ... 0.05 ~ VIF "' O.06 _ Aaume VI I" ... 0.07
'K
110 F
M"'" K"
(~) (~+ :<) (L~) (~)
and &Q
(~+K) - +K (~ +K)
Fraction
Component
In Feed,
Pei&
-V +K ~+K
" ., . . V V

,.......
Etaa- (Ct> 0 .007\l 12 .S 0 ."'" 31.8 0 .003\ .28.0 0 .0036 .... 0 .0008

(Cal 0 . 1321 3.6 0 . 482 22 . ~ 0.0206 19.2 0.0240 16.8 0 .027&

Iaobutane
(i-Ct)
..... But.ane
0 .0849 1." 0 . 11 20 .66 0 .0068
,
17.M 0 .0081 14.95 0 .0004

(C.) 0._ 1. 20 0 . 323 20.' O.OHIO 16 .9 O.Dun 14.5 0 .0223

llOpental"lO!
(i-Ct) 0( 0589 - 0.60 0 ..... 19 ..5 0 .0015 16 .2 O.O(1l8 13 .8 0 .002\
n-pentane
(e.) 0 . 1321 0 .39 0.0512 19 .4 0 . 0027 16.1 0 .0032 13 .7 0 .0007
Heuoe pllll
(C. t-) 0.3J80
" ' 0 .0155
0 .049 19.0 0 ..... 15. 7 0 .0010 13. 3, 0 .0012
"
, 0 .0614 0 .0607 O.moo

,
f
.......
Computed
- 0.0614 ... l.~.
0.05
i 0.0007
' - - _ 101
0.06 '.
0.07
-
0.07
- 1.00

....
Computed ::.. AlBumed

Per eent error on ealculated value

- "
0.0014,

36%
0.0007

111%
0.0000

,
.
different ial quantity of matetial, dV - -dL. By a. Eu..o.e. Show that, i~ II ... Kz,
material balance for an in6tantaneous d ifferential '
npOriaation, l
4"J::z, -K-I
In - _
LI
' 1- din. (337)

-d(Lz) - 11 dV "" - 11 dL (335)

zdl~ . r-

Ldz - 71 dL
E.erel.e. Show for dillerentilll condeneatioo, t hat i.e, tho
fonnation "r liquid from vapor- Wi lh removal of the liquid

(. - .} dL - -Ldz ...,
frol'll COIlt.act with t\le vap!l! .... rapidly .... the liquid ill (orlflt.'CI,

V, _
ID- J:'- 1 all
JL dL - J--'!:.....
y-:r
VI '1 Z - 1/
(3370)

,.,<
The material balance may be made on the blU'is
of total qu ant ities of each oon:tPQnent rather than
kL,
--[ '--d>
l' . (336)
LI ' ~ ' 1/-z on the basis of compositions. If 1/ _ Kx,
FAua.tion 336, ,Iu!qwn as the Rayleigh eq~tion,
can be integrated .- graphically, giving the final
composition (or a. specified quantity of residualliquKl
1/.
.-.
1/~
--{t.. ;.-
Kc x.
if the relationship -between ,. a.nd:r is known. For -a For a difI'~rential vapori&ation the instantaneou8
,'-inary system this relatiooabip is given by the deereaae in moles of M Y component in the I,inuid
t..luilibriwn diagam sueh &II Fig. 373. ~u&la \he moles present for that instant in the

390 VAP,OR-LlQUIDi TRANSFER OPERATIONS"
vapor and IIJince the ratio between the mole frao- of distillate product to the storage tnnk, neglecting
tians ~ua.b the ratio' between the number of moles, holdup in the'system, may be written

--dB.
--
-dN.
K.N.
--
K . N.
., dN. K.dN.
(338)
-d(Bxs ) .. d(DxD) .. %n' dD
dl dl dl
(343)

where B .... quantity of material in the still at time

K
dlnN. .. "dlnN. (339) , (moles).
K, D - quantity of material in product storage
at time t (moles).
where N .. number of moles in the liquid.
1:B - mole fraction of a given compooent in too
The ratio K.I K. is eaUed tll.e relative vola.tilit.y
still at time t.
of components a and c. It is much less isensitive'-to
ZD ,.. mole fraction of a given component' in
changes in temperature than either K. or K.. For
~ product storage at time t
constant temperature K,,/K. is constant. If
XD' - composition of the distillate pioduct
Raoult's law applies, K./K .. P./ P.. Therefore
entering product storage at time t.
at constant temperature or when the ratio Ka/KD
may be 888umed to have art average constant value,

log No ,2 .. K"log N . , (340)

N . ,l K. N . 1

~-C-~-"~7~~"~-c--
"::
N.,+ Nu + N .2 +. o.
.. %.,2 (341)

N .J may be eliminated from equation 341 which

may then be solved directly for N e.2 if X ..,2 is spect-.
6od.
Considering the ~ft- and right-hand terms of
E,, _ _ For differential eondel\la.t!.,)rr, Ihow that equation 343, smoe -dB/ dt - dD/ dt, canceling the
time variable dt and rearranging
(3410)

f. B dB
s. B
- -
i<' dxB
~ .. %D ' XB
(344)
wilen N _ number of molell in the vapor'.
Equation 344 is identiclll in form with the Ray
BATCH FRACTIONATION leigh equation 336 and may be integrated in a similar
Ill8llD.er. The Simple equilibrium relation between
Where reiatiy!!ly small quantities of material y and z in the denominator of the right-hand side of
available at indefinite times or having widely varying equation 336 or 337 is replaced by 11.. relationship
compositions are tQ be llepB.rated by d~tillation, between ZD'_ and xs
involving the reflux ratio at
continuous unita may be uneconomic, or inflexible, w~ich the column ie operated and the nun.~r of
leading to the Ulle of bA.tch unita. Such units may. equilibrium stages 'in the column., such as equation
consist of a still of relatively large vollllIle, a plate 315 or a KI'aphical relation.
column, and the usual auxiliaries for returning re8ux_. _ Tbe operation 01 batch columnll may be elueified
and for product lltorace, &8 indicated diagram- &8 operatioo at "OOOItaI1t re8ux" or ' at "constant
.IIl&tically in Fig. 382. product cc:mpoeitioo.." M. the name implies, in
'The relatiOnship be~ween the rate '!i depletion 01 cooatant reflux operat~ the di.etil..late product is
material in this still, the rate of aecumulation d removed from, and reftux is returned to, the column
material in produet storage, and too rate of. transf"er at a constant rate.... M a result i.he mole fra...--tioo
 VAClJlm;f AND STEAM DlSTlLLA TION
of a more-volatile t':OIIlpooent in the di.e:tiUate pnxluct
%D decre88el! continu..ously from a relatively high
value at. the beginning of the operation. When a
column is operated at "constant product composi.
tion" the reflux rate is increaeed oontinuously ftom
-: relatively low value at the beginning of the opera-
tion eo as to m&intain a nearly OOllstant dietiUa.te
compositioo.
MOIIt. industri'!.l operatiollfil, particularly those
~p&rating mixtures containing lleVeral components,
employ both types of operation. For example, in
the aeparation of bepsene, toluene, and xylene in
the "light oil" obtained from coa1, the early stages
of the fractiooation involve bringing the unit "on
Stream" by operating at virtually total reflux, lol.
Lowed. by the removal of the light ends which are
more volatile than benzene. A top plate ,temperature
Bubstantlally equal to _the bubble point of bensene
at high reflux ratiOlil indicate. that mOlit of the
light ends have been removed. Accordingly the
reflux ratio is then reduced, and ben.ene is removed
at a ~lati~y rapid rate. When the temperature
on the top plate or, better, aome lower plate ,hows It.
tendency to inerease, thereby indicating that.' mOllt
of the benzene has been removed, the reflux rate is
increued hy <if>1'" ..Bing the rate at which distillate
product is removed. In order to maintain the com-
position of the distillate constant (euiJetantially pure
benlClle). the operation approaches toLai reflux (no
produot withQrawal). As a practical matter, when
increasing the reflux rate to maintain the product
oompooition becomes uneconomical, the column is
operated at coostant reflux, taking overhead a
"&lop" cut until the temperaiure on the top plate
reaches the boiling point of toluene at which time
the entire procedure is repeated.
Wheo a batch unit is operated at cvnstant distil.
late compoeition. and at maximum capacity, the
moW rate at which vapor passes upwards through
t.he oolumn is approximately constant, more and
more of this vapor being returned as the reflux rate
is increased. Under such circumstancea, the time
required for a given separation may be determined
8B follows:
(3<5)
where P - m_ of material originally chqed to
the still.
%, - mole fraction of a given component in the
original charge.
391
Differentiating equation 345 with respect to time i
--
dB
ell
P(xp - z,) thB
(2:D 2"B)2 'di (346)
Assu~ing constal. . molal overflow oonditions
throughout the length of the column at any iMtant,
'
~- L - Y - - (1 - ~) V (347)
when L - moles of liquid per unit time at any see..
lion of the colulDD.
V - moles.of vapor per unit. time at any sec-
tion of the column.
Substituting the yaJue for dB/ dl givcn by equation
347 in equation 346 and rearrangiog,
{"dt _ -F(xD - 2"F)1'1I d2"B
10 V J"I' '(:-1-L
";""v" )';(Z'-D- - -Z-S"')'
(3<8)
If the diameter of a ci:llumo is known or fixed , the
"'aloo of V may he estimated and the expression
integrated graphically ! by relating %D. :ts, and I./ V
and the number of .!lta.ges in the column. Tilt:
minimum oumber of sto.ges which can be used is
the number given by the separation between 2"D
and Xs at th~ end of that separation at total reflux.
If this mioimum 'n umber of plates were used to
integrate equation 3-48, &Jl infinite time would be
indicated. Therefore, the number of pla.tee chosen
must be greater than the minimum. The larger the
oumber of plates, the less time is required.
The effect of holdup in balcb fractionation is I\t
present not. fully understnod. 11 Although holdup
may have an obvious adverse effect on the recovery
in product storage beca~ of the presence of.desil'-
[,hie malerial in the column, it mj,l.y sometime pro-
duce a ,compt!nsating improvement in the fradion
stiog ability of a column.
VACUUM AND STEAM DISTILLATION
Many substances are
difficult to purify or separate
by distillation at ordinary pressures becaust> sucb
high tempt;lratures would be requimd to VI\porize the
material ae to decompose the material or make the
operation impractical because of excessive tempera--
tures. One eolution is to distill in a va.cllum or under
The bibliocraphy for this chapter apP<M"l on p. 395.
392 VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPl;RATIONS 4
tow pl'l'i<&lre, therehy decreasing tl~ required tern-
pcrntllreaccording to 1he vapor pressllre--tcmpc.rnlure
I1'lat ion>ihips of the mat crial~ befng dist illed. An-
other ml'thod u~alMle OT in rombinat ion with Ii
reduction in is Lo reduce the partial prcs&lrc
P l'('AAl ll'('
of the vol~ tile ('om90ntmts by introducing an inert
vapor whieh ha.... no !'iignilicnnt effect. UPOIl the vapor
pressure of the li<luiti components, likewise reducing
the temperature. Tht' addod vapor should be immis-
cihle wit h 'he li(luiJ C(lfflponcn h; heing d istilled.
Steam is widely employed for this purp<ISe as it iii
readilr ava iltiblc : the oper&tion is t.hen called steam
distillation. The tli;(' ()f steam is advnntageolls
because it is immi~ibl e wit h many high~boiling
, it ill readily. available at low.
organic cOIllp<l1l11ClB.
cost, it mH)' he rcmov(>(]' ell,'Iily from most syl:;tems
by conJt'n~ti(Jn , and under the' ipr;)Per conditions
it can al!;o furnish the nt'(;C~"lI.ry heat uf vaporization.
Pruvidf!(1 t.he p artilll prr.'!riure ('o f the inert vapor is
less than the sat.urated \'aPQr fJressure of the corre-
sponding liquid at the operating tf'rnpen..tures, there
wjll be hut two ph fUl('~ prcl!Cnt: the liWlid com~,nepts,
and the. vapor phfUIC in r luding th~ components iwd
the inert vapor. un<i('T these cooc'litions, when the
vapor phil.!!/.' may be rcglu,It...1 :\,'\ an ideal solution the
effect. of t he inf'rt vapor JIl!jY he must conveniently
ta ken into consideration by simply recognizing its
presence in the vap.:>r phMe in computing va1ues
for the mol~ of vapor V, and in computing values
for' mole fractions of the components y. This
~mes that 'the 'ihert vaPor is insoluble in tlK-
liquid' pfiase or i.~ suluble . to such a limited extent
8.8 W have no signir.cant effect on values of L or x,
which condit ion is usually met in such operations.
If the partial pressure of the inert vatx>r is equal
to the saturated vallor pre!l8I)'"C of the corresponding
liquid at the operating temperature, there will be
three phll.':lPs present: the vapor phll8e, the liquid
components being dis1 illflCl, and the liquefied inert
vapor (water). Under these conditi1?nE, the partial
pressure of the inert vapor is equal to the saturated
vapor prcSi-!ure of liquid inert., and the Hole fraction
of inert va.por in vapor pha~ is equal to y "" PiIP,
where Pi - saturated vapor p re!\SUfe of liquid inert,
and P - total pressure. . made in the mechanical design of the tower to pre-
With this vniu{' fi:,r the mole fraction of inert in
thc ,'apor, it is poosible' to follow the same proeeditre
as outlined in the previous paragraph for ~omputing
l' and y. The value8 for Land :t are then computed .
on the basis of the liquid' phase 'carrying the distil-
Ia.ble cOmponents only , the liquid inert being ent irely
neglected. But , since the partial pl'Cl>5ure of t he
inert is most easily eOIT'f)ntcd for t hese tonditionB,
it is .U!mall.V simpler in the p resence of t he liquid
inert phase to s ubtract the pa rtia l pressure of
the inert. vapOr from the total pressu re and then
proceed to mukelhe. ('.alculalioll ~ tIS if t.he inert vapor
~"Cre oomplet ~ly ~t and the distillation went
conducted under a reduced to!.al p~re equal to
the partial pressure of the oomponents being dig.::
tilled, P - Pi..
In ste:lm tltripping or v!U:uum distilling operation!'!,
the partial pressure of the <ii8tiUing cOmponent in
the Vapor will in general be 10w. Therefore, thil:;
partial pre~sure wiH be scnSitiVe to slight changes in
pressure 'or to changes in I,he quantity of volatile
component in the varNr contH.ining a relatively large
quantit.y of inert vapor. In the vacuum distilb.tion
of long-chuin fatty acids the 'absolute pre!t!Ure at the
wp of a 3O-trtly tower is tt..Oout 5 mm of mercury.
Even the modera te pressure drop per tray of 1.5
mm will result in It. tenfold incl'et\80 w !' pI'C!lllurc of
50 mm of mercury in the bo.sc of the tower . Conse- .
quently, the effect of changes in preS6Ure must be
COI'lS.idered at each t ray in this easc. In a graphical
solution on an enthalpy~ncentrati~ d iagram this
effect of changing pressure would require different
sati.lrated liquid and vapor curves for each tray
wherever the ohnnging pretl6ure has an appreciable
effect upon the number of equilim-ium stftgeB neces-
""Y.
The design and operat.ion of a continuous steam-
distillation or stripping column may be identical
with that of a fractionating tower (Chapter 24).
The heat may be supplied by 'a rcOOler or by the
condensation of part of ihe st.eam supplied, or by
the sensible heat of the liquid to be st,ripped which
frequently enters th~ column superheated with'i re-
spect to the saturatkm temperature corresponding
to the partial preS8ure. within the tower. If the
operating conditions are such that the inert strhping
vapor will condense in the tower, provision must be
vent a.ccumulatiOn of the resulting liquid . on the
trays. This aceumtllation will tend to reduce the
trey efficiency and may be h.uardous &8 the lower of
 AZEOTROPtC 'AND EXTRACTIVE DlSTlLLA TJON
two liquKl layers hM a tendency to superheat and
" bump" violeDLly.
If water is present beneath a liquid hydrocarbon
phase on a tray in a frR!o-tionatin, colt,mn, the water
may cover the slots in the bubble caps a nd overflow
the weir ' into the ~ownspouli, preventing proper
contact of the vapor with.. the liquid hydrocarbon
and interfering with . the flow of ditltillnble liquid.
In severe cases, t.he liquid water may flow down to a
lower plate where the .temperature is higher and
vaporize at that puint" only U) condense agai n on
the highe r plate, in lhils way short-circuiting . those
infP.nnoouuc plates and preventing their functioning
by preventing the proper How of hydrocarbon reflUJI.
through that par~ of the column:
Water may be removed from such plates by pass-
ing the liquid overflow tbrough a separator and
draining off the lower water )aYe[, allowing. onIy
hydrocarbon liquid to How down t Q. the lower plate.
By proper choice of operating Iconditions, it is
Ul!WI.lIy potMible to preyen~ the coodensat.ion of
water on. the plal.esi\\'ithin the column.
Bakh 8t~ di.$tiUati may be oondlictOO 88 a u V
393
AZEOUWPJC A~D EXTRACfIVE
DISTILLATi ON
An azeotropic or "colllllant-hoiling" mixture i8 a
liquid mixture whOl:!C _'Ompositiun docs pot change
as vapor is gencrated,.,from the mixture, Since the
composition of dle liquid does not changf! as it is
converteP to vnj:)(w, the VI).P<'X has the same .compoei-
tion as: tho liquid, and the ooiling point remains
constant as vapor is.~ncratoo. Azeol.fOJ)C'S which
exist as one liquid pb~ 10 (.'quilibnu';'n with Vapor
may be calied homogeneous azeotrope,s, Q.S djg.:.
t.inguished from those existing as two lW)uid phtlSt';l
in equilibrium with vapor whi{'h may be tolled
heterogeneous II.zeotropes. - .
Figure 383 ;J the tempcrature-eompQ8ition di:
-
agram for thr sy"tem henzem.>-ethanol at I aIm
,
, /
,~
.
" !I
6 _\
SJt"'I~led nJ)Of

simple sing~tage oper&tion or ~ a multistage op-

eration such as in a IJubb1e platc coluJDlf. U volatile
materiAl is Lcing di:;tilk-d from a mix(m'e containing
traces of nonvolatiie-impurities, the equipment may
On
! '\ ""
"'- .....
I
!/
/

Pe designed by aSsumi,ng that steadY-8tlltc oonditions

exist. However, if th~ comlJ05\'tion of the material " ", ,
t"" SMurated liquid ,l l
~

in the still change!:! app~iably atl the batch is dis- .

tilled the design can
be completed only by t.be
integration of the unsteady-statc reI.n.tionsJlips sim-
ilar to those encountered in diffcle ntial distillation.
64
0 20
~
40
i
60
Per Cent 8ellletle
. 100

FIG. 383. Tpmp""" tu~llpoSlioli ~r:tlll III t alnl 1Jf~

u"'releoe. For l!lleam distillation of a volaroile component 'S ure for the bemen~thanul system, "'hiM forms a 110 Il10>-
from U1\eCS of a nonvolatile impurity, show that the '"IIu.in,; ') Kt_1WlOUS uroLroj.te. _
relationships awly.'
1. If Lh~Jnt!rt vapor (lJlcam) doc8 IK' . 'c:ondense,
-
presaure which forma a hOml}gCneotl8 azeotrope ut
. -':

ms _ Jts P~
67.8 C, containing 55,,:,2 mule peL .cent henzcm~.
. mA MAPA. Figure 384 show8 !.hl! telfll>eratuJ'&{!Oql.po>I.itim! di
2. If thll iller(. compotl(lnt is ~n~ &iii .. """" nil liquid agram for the system ~.b~tanol-~n.ltt'r, at t ~tm pre&--
pn"'*l (water), sure rwhich fonn", a heterogeneous 3Z(.'Otropc , at- ,
92..25" C, consisting of two liquid ph~, both of
which are in equilibrium, with the vapor OOlltaining
lI'here '" _ 11_ rtf OOlnl""lI.,nL ,,*,lfnti..,d or eal1ied io the, 25.0 mole per cent n-.buto.nol. .
V"I~"' Ireterogt'neous azcot-roJX's mlly be iK'j>ars.tf'(.) in two
M _ n\Ol' ...ul;or ""'i",ht, convent.iooal CQIlImmi by taking advantage of the
P _ 11IIrtiai !''''''''''"'"
P _ 1<>\111 I'n.~rc.
S all<1 ,I "" ..ubo;"ripl~ i",li ..",t., ;",:r, vllpo r and volatile
wmp')!\<'nt, ,,,,,!)<.'CI;\,.,]y,
 394 VAPOR-LIQUID' TRANSFER OPERATIONS ..

120

no
,
/' -/
products containing the third component. Whe~
the third component appears in an appreciable cen-
cent.ration in the distillate product, the operation
is &rbitrarily known as "azeotropic" distillation,
whereas, if the third component appears primarily
in the bottom product, the operation is arbitrarily
~
100
/ termed "extractive" distillation.

r--. ,/ Where the third component fortn8 a :""!eterogeneous

i~
,/ ternary ueotrope. the separation may usuaJly be
accomplished as in the separation of beterogeneouB
binary ueot.ropes, since t lVO liquid phases 0[ widely
diffltrent compotlition at or below the boiling point
are available as feeds: t(f two conventionaJ columll8,
80 Be indicated in Fig. 385.
The basic princi,~ 0[ ueotropic or extractive
distil1a.tion are identical to thOlle already explll.ined.
70 It should be remembered that the formation of
o 20 40 60 80 100 azootropes is simply a. peculiarity of the particular
MOle Per C.nt Butanol solutions concerned and offer! no particular difficulty

--.
Flo. 384. Tempel'1lotum-oompollidoD diqram at 1 .trn pm!-
au.re for the n-but&Dol-WIW!r tyltem, which forma .. hetero-

fact tlui.t such mixtures form two liquid phAses of

, widely different composition at temperatlll'el! at or
in calculation of fra.ctionating oolufIlfUI. In fact,
the non-ideal By8tem. ethanol-water which forms an
ueotrope at about 90 mole per cent ethanol at
atmoepherie pressure &erved &8 the bMis of moat of
the illustrative I!aJl1pies o! Chapters 23 and 25.

below the boiling point., as indicated in Fig. 384.

Fractionation in a column wiu take pW;e only so
loog as the composition of the vdporsieaving a stage
is different from the composition of the liquid leaving
that stage. Therefore, homogeneous azeotrope8 can-
not be separated by conventional means. Thus, the
. maximum seParation of a feed containing 30.0 mole
per cent ben7.eM (Fig. 383) will produce pure ethauol
and the a~Lrope, whereas the maximwn separation
of a feed containing 8.5.0 mole per cent benzene will ""'ow
produce pure benzene and the azeotrope. In both
cases. the azeotrope would be the distillate product
mnce j ': boils at the lower temperature.
The components of a homogeneous azeotrope may
often be separated by adding a. third component to

-
form a. ternS.ry mixture containing no a.zeotropes or
constant-boiling mixtures. If such a third oompo-
nent can be tound, one component of the uootrope
may be recovered as the distillate &lid the other
.-""'"
Fla. 385. F10w diacnm for the fraetiOl'lll.Uon of the n-b\ltanol-
eom.ponent &15 the bottom product, either one or both "II'&t.I\r 1)'Btem, which fO/"UlB & heteroaeneous ueottope.
 Bmi.JOGRAPHY
I . ABKlIOF, F. A., T. L. CuBIU,OZ, and: R. L. HlllfttNO'I'Ol'I,
Iw.d.~. CAem., Ie. 1088 (1934).
2. BooAB'l', M. J . P., T~M. Am. 111.11. Chem. Eilgr. , II,
139 (1937):
3. Bou.a., W. L.P~ &/iMr, II, 613 (Deeember 1948).
4. BIlOW!(. G. G., T,-.. Am. Irwt. ekm. E"9"' " 12, 321
(1936)
~. BaoWN, O. G., .. nd D. E. Houx".., P~m Engr., 11,
N<& 10-13 (l940),
6. B~WN, G. 9.., an,d F. J. l1I:lL\.W!', Tram. Am. ln~.
C~~Engr ., n. aa (11l43).
1. BROW", O . G., and M. 8ou1lEBII. Ja., Ind. Eng. CMm.,
U. '519 (1932).
8. 8I1OWH, G. G., and M. 8ouPI':RlI, Ja. , T~ lkimt:.e of PdN>-
/eum,.VoL II, p. 1544, Oxford UniV(!f8ity Preae (1.938).
9. C.nT, J. 8., J . GII.I' '''OI.D, W. K. ldwI:a., and W. H.
McADAt.I~, Tran,. Am'. llUl. CMm. Engr. , $0, 604 (1934).
10 C1tn.u.lI,. R. B., and H. M. WEJR, Trmu. AIIl. lrut. CMm.
Enw'" II, 79 (1929).
11. CICAL&S.E, J. J ., J. A. 0,\\, -. P. J. fu"lI(~, G. 8.
HOUGHLAND, A. J. IhTI"ClUNI!OIf, and ;r. J .. ,WA,U!H,'
Proc. Am. p~ l lUL" It, III.181, I~.
12. Co~ORN, A. P., &lid R. F . 9rt:A.RNlI,. TF'CIM. Am. 1'M4.
CMm. Ey. , 11, 291 (1941).
13. CoIAUIlN, A. P., IIttj. 81111. CAea . 18, 5~ (I~).
14. CoLBVRN, A. P.,' TnJJI'. Am. I ,.,.. CMm. Engr. , 11,
In'; (1941).
15. DAVIE!!, J. A . "Bubb\eTray HydrauliCll," Ind. Eag.
Cw.., _. 774 (Ju~ 1947).
16. DIUC~"J:JI" H . G . and J. R.BIIAD.oIlD. Trmu. Am.
1.... ClIc>JI. E..,..... Q, 319 (1943); p~ /UPttIr, II, 41. UIfD&JlWOOD. A.J. V., Truu./ra. CM ..... B,.,. (L.ondoo!.),
395
24a. KQlP, H. 8., E. J. du Pont de Nemour!! ml<.! Co., privat.e
OOlIlmunicatk>n.
25. KEns. D. B., lWd L. Bnus, Utl;~. of lUiMi. Ellg.
Ezp. &0. Bull. 328, p. 28 (May 6. 11Hl).
26. I\IRuaIDE, C. G., PdTokum TUft".,'!', tI, 321 (1944),
ZT. KRENSEB, A" NCIl. Pdroku"., N_. til (May 21, 1930).
28. LoIlO, W. E., L. FIUENII, F . HASH),tAt.!., and F. ZEN!,
Trani. Am. lJUt. eMm. Engr. , il, 603, Fig, 43 (\9%).
29. Mce....t:, W. L., and E . W. THIELE, Illd. E1I(J. CAetn., IT,
605 (1925).
3':1. MURrtIlU:t; E. V., I nd. 814ft. Chem" 11, 747 (1926).
31. NELSON, W. L., Pdroltrum &fi1U.rll ~WJil\wing, 2nd ed.,
p. 480, McGrawHiIl Book Co. (1941).
32. O'CoNNE LL, H.' E., TrQlU. Am. frud . Cfull'l. Engr~., 42,
741 (1946).
33. PXo\VT, C. C., and E. M. SAUR, Ind: Eng. Chan ., 19,
1056 (193'7).
34. P a IlKT, J. H., CA.mtioot Eft(JI,..,.' Ho.ndhooIo:, McGrawUiIl
Book: Co. (I(50).
35. 8H....wooP, T. ~. , and F. J . J SNRJ, Ind. E'Ilt/. C.v.n., tT,
265 (1935). -
36. SIlQWOOD, T. K., G. H. S IIII'LST, and F . A. L. H OLu)-
WAT, Ind. B~. CMm., 10, 765 (1938).
37. SiKG~'" C. L., Clatm. Md. Eng . 44, 493 (1937).
38. BMoua, E. H., Tram. A>/!- frun. Ckm. EngT~. , M, IllS
(1938).
39. 8oRGA,'I'O, I ., "DiatilJat.ion Equationa." Claimico e indw-
mo. (.vi/t)n). 10,zn (September 1\)4,8).
to. 9nA1'IO, L . 0 . TmlU. Itt. CMm. Engrt. (J..rmd<m), 11,
169 (1934).

17.
18.
105 (194a).

G....
.
Ff:NSU. M. R, Ind. En.,. C.v-.,
n., ".482 (1932). ..
H. J . and F . LaaMAN, TraM. A",. I,..,. CMm.
10 (112) 1932.
42. UKDUWOOD. A. J. V., CIwfI. Bn9. Prograa. " ' 603
(A~ 11148).
E"9"" '" It, 113 (1943); .J 43. WAL'l'KP., J . F., and T . K. SORWOOt>. 1M. EAf. CM"'"
19. G~DI:&, R. h., T_. A .... IJUL a.-. Ertgn., 41, 70 iT,747 (1925).
(lIKe). , 44. WHITE, R R. , Noll. PdrcolftI", N_,. 16; 731 (I9-W ).
3:1. GooD, A. J ., M. H. HI1'I'CU1NI5OI'I, and W. C. Rose_u, 45. PONCHON. M., T o\. Modtrru. lS, 20 (1921).
bul. Eng. CMm., K, 1446 (1942). 46. SJ.VA'fllT, R, A,..,. ~ Metitr., pp. 65, 142, 118, ~ aI.
21. B.nDT, W. D., PtVol.n4 m PTotIHIi,.,.
l, 610 (August (1922).
1947). 47. MARTIN, H. Z.. and G. G. BaowN. Tram. Am. 1",*.
22. HOLII~'" G. E.. aDd E. M. BAD:a. 1M. E",. C..... Cllnrt. E.... iii, 61'9 (Oc:tober 1939)
.--- 10M (1934). 48. 6oUD1)R6, M., aDd G. G. BROWN, lAd. Eng. Clum., lI:6,
.28. HOaTON, GBO., and W. B. FllAlflu",,,,. Ind B..,. C"-., 98 (1934);
as. 1384 (0ct.00er 1940). ., " 49, LP18, W. K., an4 G, L.~ATMEIioNJ Inri Eng. Clum. , 1'-
24: KEM" H. S., &rid CJlIOS PY. .Jl, "Hyd~ GradieD'" 494 (1932).
A_ Various Bubble-Gap Pia...... C..... B.,.. Pro,., 60. Gosu, G. W., and J. F. Cll'/En', Am.I'Ml. Elm. Engrl.
-6l, Q6 (Jul.)'. ING). - ....!-- - Technical Paper 6G-IS (UI60) .
.~-',

"
 ..
--

VAPOR.UQUID TRANSFER OPERAnONS ~

PROBLEMS
I. Tal thousand Ib/hr of aqUEOUll ammonia .xutiOll
(0.300 ..cight fraction ammonia.) lU'C flMhod h om a hicber
pJ"I)IIIUre (enthalpy 658 Btuflb) to 250 peia. 'The residu.al
liquid III eontinuously ..;thdn"m, butcd, and apiD l!aebed
to 30 peU.. . mole per oent: CHi 43, eJIl 20, C~ 19, CIH. 11, c.Hu5,
The e~tcm ill shOWII in schematic fOrm. The beat Io&d
on the heeter" 95{1,000 Btulhr.
Determine the quantilielJ and compceitiollll of the two
vapor atrennu and the ii-quid stream.
V.
Deecribe very briefty batr you would carTY ou~ the o;Mft-
tiooll 1!OMidered.
5. Ho", milch and what oompoaition of OOOOenaate wou1d
be fonned if natural gu of tbe fol101rina; compoait~ were
oompre.ed to 150 r-i& and 90 0 FT Compi:JeiJ.\on.of fII.I!I in
(c;.Hu+) 2.
6. What ill the ~Itant liquid yield obWned from dillcr-
ential weatherina: of the following hlah..pt\llllllln.liquid product
at 100- F down to ZO pBiat Composit ion in mole per oenk
C~ IS, CsH. 10, <48. 30, i-(4H.. S, ~HIO 10, c.H12 15,
(c.ult+) 1$.

7. What ill the r'l!8Uit.&nt liquid yitid obt&ined from the

....,,....-1 250 ~ liquid of problem 6 if it ill fIubed to 100- F
'-10.000 lb/hr pW r--~.I\
aDd ZO psit.t
~,-O.JOO

",-65881I1/1b 8. A batch fractionating unit containe the equivalent of

...
JO
three equilibrium lltaacs (including the etill). A binary
mixture containilll 60 mo1e per cent .4, the ba1ance B, ill
eharged to the .till. The volatility of oomponent A relative
to component B Ie 3.0.
A dietillate product is withdrawn .. a .turated Uquid
from the t.op .u.e. and reflux is returned to the t.op stap
. . . .twated I:iquid 110 tbat. the utemal reflux ratio (L./ D)
.. 2.0. A.;de tuum .. witbdl'awn lrotl1 the ~ IWop .t
2. A etream of 1000 Ib/hr of 30 per (!Cnt a.loohoI by weight. the _ rate (mo&e. per unit time) .. the o-.ert-d dilltillate
at 103 F .. fed with 350 Ib or . t urated IIu.rtI pet hour, aup- . produet.t all time&.
pl ied at tOO pllia w an inallatcd teptLRtor at at.mOepbcric AlIIulninc CIO'AIWit moW over1low from . tbe Itape .nd
p~. neglcctins holdup, what .. the compolitJoo or the liquid in
Whlt.1 an:! the quantitiel and OODlflOllitlona of the reeulting the llid&--etrc&m run-down t.I,nk when one--haIf the feed cbarpd
equilibrium vapor and liquid? to tbe etill hM been diltilledt
3. Throo etreamll are fed w a lICp&raWr .t 1 atm prelIIure
9. A mixture of benzene -.nd toluene CJ)lltainilll 0.600 mole
l1li (011011"': frection bensene &rid a small amount of _"t'OIatile impurity
1000 Ib of ZO per oen! aloobolat 103 F ill to be purified by batch fractionation .t .\.InQIpberie
233 Ib of 15 per oent alcohol .1. 910' F pn'S\lre.
128 Ib of 5 per oent akoboi, 4~ per :::ent vapor The equipmellt to he UIIed eolll!lilltl!of
with ZO plata (plate ~ng, 18 io.), t1.il1
...,t
ctitr.met.et' oolunm
keule with
TIie npor from t he !lepantor is cooled.oo fed to tepfnt.or B,
while t.M liquid ill he.ted aDd fed to lIe~tor C. TIle liquid _ eapIlcity of 16,000 pl, .00 a tmal condeoaer. "nMI IIt.il1
from B is a.Ieo fed W C. The"'l&JlOM from B.oo C.." com- kettle .. pro"rided with '-ting IIOU. which II1iI .... ppHed with
bineo .nd form. ilt.ream containinl 39.6 P.M aent alcohol t1.eIm from a 150-pIIia main.
The liquid from C contaias 4 per cent alcohol e 'The frlCt.ioN.tion ill eoDducted 110 that the fIrtt, cut is tabD
Compute the he.t duty in Btu per hour, on the 000_ .t oolllltant distillate compoeition of 0.996 mole fractioo
and heater. ben.ne. DurilIc thiII cut., t.he rate 01 Mat input to the.tm
is maintained oonItant at the value corre.pondina: too the
4. It Ie neoeB!IIIory to reduce the propane oontent to 3 per maximum . llow.ble vapor velocity. 11le liquid holdup in the
Ql!nt In order to market 1000 Ib molee of propane-pentalWl column may he IWlg1ected.
mixtu~ conuining 20 mole per cent propane. Two different The relative volatility of heruene witb rmpect. to tool_
methods An:! being considered: iaothermaJ weatherinl .t may he oollllidered oonetf,Dt and equ.al W 2.471 ,
60- F, &rid efficient fraetioruo.tion in f"",I,~tina column. The ove.....1 plate cfliciency of the fractiont.tinc coIUIUIl ..
For the weatherinfl operation, epccify: 75 per oenL.
(0) The ori&iDaI p~. The density of 0.500 mole fractino benaene lIOIution at
(/I) The finaJ pre.ure. 26 - C .. 0.868 sram/ oc.
(e) The per rent recovered I.I!I. liquid. If the rc8ux ratao durin& the cut is nried oontinuooaly
(d) The lOIJI of pentane in the mpor. UlItil L / V is &qUIll to O.80.t the end of tbe cut., dewrnU:.1hII
For the fractionating column, llpecify: per Ql!nt recovery of the benaene, where
(4)" The minimum prell8UTe required 1f cooliII.r ....ter is
available at 60 F. Quantity of benzene in di, t.iUate
(6) The per OIlnt recovered l1li. liquid. Per cent recovery - 100 Quantity of beneeM iD .till chatp

PROBLEMS
10. A new plant ill to produce aoet.one at an average rate
of 13,700 lb /24 hr. M the final step in the ptOCellll, acetone
muat be 6ep&rnteU from a solution of &ootone in acetic &cid
whieh eontaillll 0.650 mole fnldion ace tone.
I t is pmp!Jfle(l to perfonn ~hiB IeJNlntion by II. bolteh frao-
tionatioo a t at moospberie pressure ('!()Oc;Iucled I!O thu 96 per
cent ol the acetone is rooovered ftI !.(Ip product with .. c0m-
position of 0.995 mole rra.ction !\retone. An intermediate
fraction, or slop cut, of acetone and ar,c tic acid i.o! then ta ken
off aa top product II.t" OI>n!!tant reflu '\: ra tio until the aoe l.Onfl
eonteDt 01 tbe re-idue ill 0.006 mo~c fradion. This inter-
mediate fl'llet.ion ill to be recycled 1.0 the next batcla.
If the platels are spa<!(!d 12 in. Iml uf ,,.;,d de$ir;n, . pecify
the dia meter of the column and the numbe r of Mtuai plates
required. Tho effect of liquid holdup lI1lIy be neglected for
the pu!'pOI!e of theee enleuilltions. To allow for irl1!~~t)es
in opcn\tion, fimn, "nd pruheatina: the chal}le, IUld pumping
out msKtuc, the liM ] rlr.!oign should A11o .... for 50 per (!tilt
vea1er Cllpacity than C.<I.l11&.loo for ideal openltion.
COST DATA ON COLU~IN8 (ALL COPPER
CONSTRL'CTJON) " ill pumped hAc k JlIl leon oil to the top of th~ nh"nrptlolL tower.
Damctcr. Cost per Square Foot of
Tray Area, do~
I.," "{)
2
3
, .
125
""
"
11. A labon.lory fractRloating unit 1'lOll8i8t.s of .. kettle-
type still fitted .... it h .. dosed steam coil And .. plate (IOlumn
containing eix plates. The ovcrhead vapor& are J)M8e!l
t hf'OU&h a oondenaer to a refllllC . aeeumulator from ""hieh
reflux iI'I pumped to t he!.op plate of the column. T he distillate
produet ill fed!.o the &t ill. Previous upru"ienre witb the unit
indiCAte!! t hat with ethanol-"'ater m.i:J;:tur08 the overall plate
efficiency awraps about 67 per cent. The inside diameter
of the column ill l.Q ft, and the plAte "pacing ill 12 in. T he
platei'! &I'(' fitted with wedge-type dOWMpoUt4 80 that under
normal operating eonditiOtlll the liquid ho1d~ in the column
ill about 1 loll per plate. The overhead ""por line ill +-in..
397
sta.ndud pipe, 20 ft Iona, and the liquid hn 1-lup in the L1Jn-
,dcllII(!r ill I)I!t ima ted at alx>ut I gal. The t"w l lifluid hnl<.!up
in the d i.s lillatc and reflux IinCft i.'Illl<o about 1 g<ll.
The atill iB charged "" ith a batch nf 42.6 pi (II'lCMUrcd III
lOOQF) of an et ha nol-water mixture con t:tning 24.3 \\..,iJ;hl
per cent ethanol. The reflux !>Oml' and OOIlUcruocr an' oper-
ated BoO that 1 gtlJ of roflux at 100' F is aUl'plicd to the wI'
plMe per pilon of tfuolillate fed to th.., aiill. 81C:l1ll at 2':; Il$i,IC
ill __uppJicd to the ~till coil tI;hieh euntains abtlut 5(} &<J ft of
llWfaet!.
(o) FAt imate , be rom r-ition of the di>l, illa te p roduct
""he.o .ceady oontlitiona IuIve been auaiood.
(b) Estimate the quantity of dilltillatc fed Ul the st ill per
ho<u,
12. An Abeorption unit with' a rieh oil fL'lJIh cilllmbcr is to be
desilned for tlHl recovery of ctune from a rdinc.y ~tren.m at
IOO~ F and 400 psia oonl..:l ining 300 mob / hr Qf clrumc and
200 n.oleeo/b. nl methane. The neh oi l bvinlC t he al..o'l>t.iool
column is throttled la a 10.... pressure 9nd "'-"fit to a fl9sh
chamber to effect a IJeparation bet ....een the oil ("-octane) anu
ps (~thane and ethane). Th~ oil from tho fln~h ~hamilocr
Mume t hat theentire operaliool is isothermal AI IOO ~ F . The
011' PlI shall rontain only 20 mole per cent ..-tlll\DOun an oil_II1'o:
ba><iJ!.. ~me that all melhaloe in t he rieh oil is tI:u.bcd Il1W
none remrullB in the lean oil. The fIMh chamber i~ to) opcr!lll!
at llUeh a prof!l'luce IMt the plutinl preSllure o( Clio" ,... lIIul oct'UIIl
is SO psill. The m.... keup oil ill pure 'I-octanc. llich oil eon taiM
1.5 molee ~ tane per mole (metlwle ethane). +
(0) Sketeh III treat s--.heet of this prorele.
(b) Make a complete material ~1llf1ce.
(el Wbat ill the lcan oi l "",<,:in:ultl.tion rate?
Cd) What is toe makeup nil raId
(el How many idelll pl:ltes are rcqllirod in I,he II.beorber?
U) What ill tile total ~1I'>Unl of t he Itoah ctw.mbcr?
ta. CoD.tnlcl 1\ ror. t an~ 11U' mole ral k.> diagnun for the
system methane, prupa.nc a nd ptntanc al 300~ F a nd .KJO psi..
and IJOJve problem 2 Ilt end or O!&plcr 2.>l"y the mole ratio
diagram.u incii(,-Ated on page 319. It i8 he"t to C)\pl'l~ com-
poI!itions on a pcntan" frt'c II.L"i~.
14. SolVl' pl'<;>hlO'm 4 on p.'I.gc 3&7 1100 problem 12 abo,\:, I,y
a proeeduro, ei rnilar to t hat ootlilll'd in proI"lem 13.
, ,
 CHAPTER
27
Adsorption
HE unit operation' of ~rption is conremed
T with contacting a solid with a fluid mixture
under such conditions that ~me of the fluid
is adsorbed on the surface of the solid with a result-
ing change in oom~ition of the unadsorbed Huitl.
The adsorption mechanism is relatively complex, and
fIC\'erui different types of adsorption are recognized.
These types include physical adsorption or conden-
f;!I.tion of gaeee on .solids at temperatures coneider-
ably above the dew Point; ehemica.l or activated ad
*,rption, in which definite cbemic8J booda are ~
duccd between the atoms or molecules on the 8urf8.00
or the solid anci the adsorbed atolD8 or molecules;
and ion exchange, in which the solid gives up an ion
to the fluid lor every ion it adsorbs,. The ion-
~'(cbangc reaction is widely used for water softening
in which the solid gives .up BOdium iOllB to the water
in exchange for calcium and magnesium iona. Chem-
ical adsorption is of interest in many catalytie rea.c-
tioris 'but will not be discussed here. This cha~ter
is primarily eon~rned witb physical adsorption and
desoc-ption.
Although physical adsorption ean and does oceur
at all solid-fluid ioterfaeee, it is usually negligible
from an engineering point of view unless the fluid
is near or below its dew point or the solid is highly
porous and filled with fine capillaries. Two of the
most important characteristics of the solid adsorbent
are its extremely large 8urface-to-yolume ratio,
thereby presenting & large a.rea. 00 which the fluid
may be adsorbed, and its preferential affinity for
certain fluid components. ]be fluid mixture may
be either a liquid ur a gas and is usually a single
p"",",.
'"
11M! commercially impoi1.ant 1I01id adsorbeots and
some of their uses, in decnmsing order of tonna~
consumed, I~ are listed in the table.
i.JQooaTAHY INDlIll'BUL U...
Refiuiac of pel.ftMBum fra.ctiO..,
ver;et.able i&Dd ILIlimai Dill i&Dd
fats. and y ,axeI!
Peroolation tre..tment oJ pet~
Ieum fn,etlo.,.; dryiIlf!i oJ __
and IKiuidl
Acid-tresl.ed cia,. Contact filt ration and ""Mine of
petroklum Iraetioll4
Bone ehar. 0000 bla.ct &!p.r ""fining; aah ""IlIOVai II'OIn
lIOiutiollll
Deoolorizing clt.rOOM Refining of 8l1pr. oil8, fac.., aDd
W~; <\eQoIorilil18 and VUritla-
tion of water and ol.ber liquidt
~nt<:atbon Solvent "*>vetY; elimination 01
odors; purification 01 g&lIeI!
Alumina Drying of air. gaees. and liquid.
Silica !'JI Drying and purification of , __ ;
refining Qf petrolcwu diIItillatce
Water treatment
Tre..t.weD, of p!IOline ADd aolTeDU
Adsorption is used largely as a means of removing
one or more components (often present in little more
than trace 8mounts) from a fluid mixtu~ and is in
thi!! respect the re\erse of solid-liquid extraction.
Adsorption is ait'O an analytical tool for sepan.ting
mixtures which are difficult to separate by distilla-
tion, extraction, or orystallization. The separation
of c1ose-boiJin& hydrocarbon mixtures by adsorption
on silica gel 11,17 and the separation 0; mixtures of
rare earths by adaorption 011 resins tU2 are examp&ee
of this. Adsorpt,i<. and desorption ol pure materials
is U8ed in gas. storage and in refrigeration cye1eB.4
The btbliognphy for th 'chapter 'Ppe!LI1I on'p. 411.
 EQUIPMENT
In all I'rotiesses involving adsorption three steps
are neoessary.
] . Contact. of the fluid with solKl adlWrbent.
During this step part of the fluid is preferentially
adsorbed on the adsorbent. This adsorbed fluid is
tenTIed the adsorbate.
2. Separation of the unadsorbed flu id from the
adsorbent-adsorbate.
3. Regeneration 'If the adsorbent by removing the
ad.sorbaw or discarding used adsorbent and replacing
it with fresh material.
The principal difference between adsorption and
8OJidliquid extraction is that extraction involves
the transfer of material from the solid pbase to the
liquid phase whereas in adsorption the fluid phase
gives up material to the solid phase. Like ..solid-
liquid extractioo , adsorption may be a.c..;omplished
(1) in a stationary bed of adsorbent as is done in the
"percolation" plants, (2) by "dispersed contact"
and then separation by sedimentation or filtration
as in the "eontact" plants, or (3) by a continuous
flow of both solid phase and fluid phase, usually
counterc urrently, 8ij in the Hypersorption proc-
"....'
ess .. .. 'lor in the flu idizing process for IIeparation of
The third step, regeneration of the adsvrbem, is
performed in a variety of ways, depending on the
nature ~of the adsOrQate. Ga.ses and vapors are
uSllally desorbed by either reducing the pressure or
raising the temperature of the a.d.sorbenlradsorbate.
Steam is often u~ to perfonn this desorption, and,
in the case of adsorbed water vapor, hot dry gases
are &Ometirnes employed. Adl:lOrbed materia ls from
refining oils or petroleum products are orten removed
by burning. Chemical treatment is also used to
regenerate many of the adsorOOnts.
EQUIPMENT
The pn-cnlation proceM 'I uees a fixed bed of
adsorbent (Fig. 3800). For removing color fron
petroleum oil, with i uller's earth or activated
bauxite; a cylindrical tank about two or three di
ameters high con'tains the solid granular adsorbent.
The granular earth may be of various sizcs, depend
ing on the viscosity of the oil, and is usually from
about.- 16 mesh t,o 60 meMo The oil flow is usually
downward by gravity. When the adsorbent is ready
for' regeneration, the oil is' dnUned and pumped uff.
Naphtha is then added to recover the oil, and the
bed !s finally steamed to recover the naphtha.. The
IIOlid is dumped and. sent to' killlB for revivication by
burning. A typical cycle is as follows.
Char&e with oil 6 hi"
Shut in, allow air rdeMe 2 hI'
Running tillle 100 hr
DrAi nin.r; 2 hr
Soak with naphth. " br
W..h _ilh napht"- 8 hI'
Ste&m 13 hI'
Dumping 3 hI'
In a typical .umJ.ad plani II (dispel"8>l!d contact),
acid-treated reduced crude oil is mixed with adsorb-
ing day in agitators, and the mixture is-heated to
Tratled oil
10 dewa~i n ,
.'"
t<'\G. 386a. Flow of n pcreolalion procesol fot trcatin&: petro-
leum oiL"
450 0 F in a pipe 8till . T he hot. mixture pa.s&eS
through a vapor separator, is cooled to 300 F, and
i8 filtered. About ' hi 10 blearhing clay is w;ed per
gallon of oil. Further treating is neccs;my for mak
ing lubrication oil.
An activated Cf4"bon pJan.t for the rtCowry of 8Olucn!
!>aporB U from an air stream consishl of nt h"~!Jt t.wo
adsorhen! and condensing and !eps.1ation. equip-
ment (Fig. 386b). The cylindrical ' adtJorbtors mAy
be either horizontal or vertical, with 8haIl0\\', hori-
zontal beds of-carbon 12 to 30 in. thick. The vapor-
laden air is sent down tht'ough the beds with the
'denuded ~i r 5eaving the bottom of the vesfiel. After
the carbon bed bas a.cI.soJ-bed 80 much eolvent vapor
that the effluent air oontaill!l more than the desired
amount of vapor, the vApol'-iaden air stream is
then switched to Mother adsorber and the first
abMrber is stripped ant' reaetivatOO. Th~ rear.ti-
<- .... ADSORPTION
,

vation and recovery of fIOlvent is aceomplished by nized for many y~a.rs and used ior ana1ytical pur-
pas8ing low-pressure steam up through the bed to poocs under the name of chrf)matographic analll.t4.
dCtlOrb the solvent. The steam-solvent mixture is It is now being applied as an effective means for the
condensed and separated by decantation or distilla- commercial separation 1 of complex materials.
tion. The operation consists essentially in adsorbing the
DthydratWn 0/ gaat8 I can be ~ out in equip- mixture to -be separated in a la)~er at the top of an
ment similar to that used for the recovery of solvent adsorption column. Pure solvent is then supplied
vapors. In addit ion to the two adsorbers, heaters cont inuously to the top of the column. Each com-
are required to supply the hot gases neoossary for ponent of the mixture at the top is desorbed into
reg!neration. Since many adsorptive dehydration . the solvent according to th~ equilibrium expressed
by its adsorption iso!'l.erm. As t.hc solvent carrying

.......
EdI.ust .... pot. fretI air
these solutes moves downward, each compound is
again adsorbed by the adsorbent a.cconling to the
equilibrium conditions. In this way each component
moves down the column as a horisonta.l band at a
rate inversely proportional to its adsorption coeffi-
"",bot cient and may be removed separately from the
bottom of the column. As any highly adsorbed
component will '"r" emain at or near the top of the
oolumn, the adsorbent shouk! be mildly active for
t.hoee compounds it is desired to remove separately
s,... from the bottom.
Vapot- The operation is' essentially a countercurrent
multiple-etage transfer between a moving solvent

.....
."""" phase and 0. stationary bed of solid adsorbent. In
some eases the stationary bed consi~ts of 0. 80Ivent
adsorbed on the solid with the transfer taking place
between the stationary solvent phase and a seoond"
immiscible 80Ivent RowiAg through the bed. Be-
w'"' cause one of the active phases is hekl stafjonary &
10) 0. 386b. F1o. diacram Cor t.he recovery or aolvent vapors
by activated eamon. (C\1rOid, oM Carl/on' CM-.i(.QW Corp.) great many contacts or stages are proyided in a short
travel.
units operate at high pressures, greater pressure The sta.tionary phase may consist of a Atrip of
drops through the adsorbers are allowed than for filter paper which carries an adsorbed water-rich
moot solvent recovery pIa.nts. This pennita 00Il- phase in equilibrium wiLh the immiscible moving
atl'tM!tioo of deeper beds and operaLion with longer phase" The solutes to be separated, identified, or
cycles. . analyzed are then placed at t he top of the vertiea.l
Ouomatograph:Cl Adsorption. When a stream stationary. phase in the form Jf a small drop or
of natural gsa containing methane and the higher narrow band. The immiscible moving phase free of
homologs is passed through an adsorbent bed of 80lute is then supplied at the top of th'" vertical
active ch&roOai, all the gas is at first adsorbed. In a column. AP. this second 8('lvent moves down,
few moments the effluent gas appears, composed of "countercurrent" relative toel-he stationary phase,
pure methane. A few momenta later ethane appears the solutes an.. ('!lrr1ed downward with the moVing
" ,jt.h methane in the effluent., later propane' appears, phase at rates which IlJ:e proportional to the ratios
and flO on, each component appearing later in the of solubilit.ie8 of the 80Iutcs in Ule moving ph88(. to
order of its ad!JOrption coefficient, i.e., the quantity their solubilities in the stationary phase.If If the
of adflOrbate retained per unit of adsorbent at equi- solute is soluble in the stationary phase and insoluhle
librium under specified conditions of temperature in the movin"g I hase, it remains stationary where it
aoo ftuid phase. This ability of a stationary ad- was placed at the top of the vertical column. U the
&Orbent bed to releue duierent compounds in the solute is soluble il"! the moving phase and iru,-.lub1e
order of their adsorption coefficients has been reeog- in the stationary phase, it is carried downward at
 F.QUIP"F.~T 401

FlO. 38':. T'II'o view. of !.he fiI'IIt eommercial HYpenIO'1'tiOD uuit buill ror tbe recoverr or ethylene. (FOIIcr- Wlu,,",u Cc'p.)

the same rate as the mavin" phase moves down
ward.
When UBCd for analytical ptlrposes the operation
is stopped w~eD the advancing front of the moving
phase approaches the bottom of the stationary phWJC.
The po!!ition of the various solutes along the vertical
column is dctennined by observing the positions of.
centers of color or otbpr inJ icatiOllil of the location
of solute. The ratio of dista.nces covered by the
solutes to the distance covered by the moving front
of the moving phase is characteristic of the solubility
r&tioa of the solu tes.
T'he height equivalent W a.n equililxium stage in
these chromatographic operations is very small,
apparently of the order of 0.002 cm l~ compal"ed with
llCDOI! the name .. ehmm&togr.I.t ....ie &nalY!lia-"
about 1 cm for the best distillation columnll in which
both fiuK! ph&'j!1l are in mot.ion relative to the HulK!.
phase. The method is applicnble to Do wjde range uf
materials from simple solute;; to complex proteins.'
In practical operations considerable variat iODl:; in
the pfocedure are
possibl.e to ob\lI.in the d~l'ed
results. For example. tbe fc!lowing steps &t'e l-e-.
ported ~ for an opward flowing operation.
L The columns are charged with solvent A.
2. Conoentrated erode extract in solvent A is
charged to the bottom. disp'-cing sotvent A to
8to~, and pumping is continued until the first
solute appears in the effluent at the top.
. 3. Pure l'Olvent A is then charged to the bottom,
and pumping is continued until aolute 1 is fitli>ilied
or solut.e.2 appean; at the top.
...
4. Pure solvent A is introduced as long as effective
ADSORP110N
aepa.ration of compounds is obtained. Then the
column is drained.
5. Solvent B is then charged to the bottom, and
pumping is continued to separate thoee compounds
DGt adoquate1y desorbed in so1vent A.
6. Solvent C is then charged at. the t.op to desorb
and remove the bands of compounds left at the
bottom of the co1.wnn.
. ~lbe Hypenorptlon Proee..."" The Hyper-
aorption procesa &UIIO depends upon countercurrent
multiple-stage contacts between &. fluid phase and
an adsorbing solid pb.a&e. The operation is conlin-
uoua and ,includes a moving bed teclul,ique with
reftux in a manner quite aimilar to abeorption or
fractional distilla.tion with a down-Howing adsorbing
carbon bed i.nstead of an absorbing liquid stream.
The unit shown in Fig. 387 was built to recover
ethylene from a gas stream consisting of hydrogen,
methane. about 6 per cent ethylene. and traees of
other g.aaes more volatile than ethane. The column
is 85 ft high and 4~ t in diameter. In this opera-
tion the activated carbon pa8ge8 down a column
successively through the following sections (BOO
Fig. 388).
...
Fig. 388. F10w dia&nm of a HyPef*)lptioo unit built for tbe J"eCDTeI')' ol et.hyleoe.lI
1. The tube aide of a ,beD &lid tube heat Uehaqer "here
it ooo1ed with .Iter on the shell IIide befon!! enterinc Lhe
deorbinl eeetionIJ below.
2. An a.daorption lllletion, where It fir8tadeotbll from the
upBowinc p i stream IIOme of the more-volatile compolUlnta
(tbe __volatile eomponentl ~ not preI!Ient in tm. portion
of tbe colwnn) and dMln lower down deeorl. to the paltreaD1
the moet.-TOl&tile eompooent.. while ad.orbinc aome __
ftla.tile eomponenta. 'l'bit adeotption and deeorptioo ~
ill a OOUllteretllTen\ operation w:lth the IN Itmam. &wine
upward t.o a difJenPIPnc tray wbere p&rt. of thill IN Itrer.m
which cont.ahUl only the more-YOlatile OOmpooenti It removed
all a product !tream (dillcharplN) aDd the rema.iuder p.....
up to dry and cool tbe earbon BowiDt; down through t.be
beat exchan&er.
3. A feed dietributilll plata.
4. A rect.ifying eectioa wbere the ID(H'e-TOJa.UIe component..
continue to be deIIoJ'bed and tbe carbon IMiIIo:H't. tbe bt-
volatile component&.. nu. fractionation operation takinc
plaoe below the feed ill poeeible bect.\IIe of tbe reflu produced
in the next lower aectioo..
6. A . tripping or .team.inC eeetion, in which deeorpUon
~ At the top of thie aecUon is a di:lenp.ci.n.c t ray, where
u.e .trippi", . team and _Y01atile pr.duet.B Aft removed
in p&rt. as bottoma product and t.he balanee Pfo-' up dMl
coiWllll as retlu.
6. The tube side of aleOOJld!hell, and tube beat exchan&er.
wbere the carbon is beated by a hich-temperatlll'e lluid, web
&II Dowthenn, on the shell Iide t.o complete the deeorpUo.1.
Steam is introduced to tbe ooI.wnn belo1r the beat exebancer
I PC._._.......
T1IC. T_ _ - _ _ .'*""'Iw
rRCn.. _ _ _
 EQUIPMENT

~-
,

Fla. 389a. Carbon flow-rattl controlling niechanism in &

HyvenllJrller.'

anti J>IlIII!iICII up w the st.e:uninc

eamon.
we~ion
MUIltcrcurrenl to tbe
through the lUbes the
~ l b .. roTOOD pM!!CI!I ~wn
b~!.IIC1 are "umpkltcly desorboU by the combination of hilb
tempernturo .."oJ . warn.
7. A f<..'I.!d lllolclUUlism (!lee Fig. 3800), which QQn~rola the
earbon ci~ulatiun rote a.nd mAlnw \U; e~n floor 9V01" the
e nliro croa _ Lioo of the corumn. Then the carbon drupe
inl.o tbe -Willi: Icc at the bou.om. From the botll,un of the
- "1'-
."' Pith of solids

oohulUl the c:arbon ill tmneperto..'<i to the rep of tbe 60lumn

by II. gsa lift, and drops into .. hopper, 10000ted aooV6 the
n.te~ beat exchanger. Tho operatifll aubon-bed
~Vf)1 ill rnainlained in a hopper a t tho top of tbo ,Wlit by addi-
t.io.o from lhe atonce" bin all required. TIle li't PI oontaine
earbo" filICI fonned by oorroal a Urition of t he carbon in iw
eye!.. through t he equipment. TIle fuw. &re IleJrated flvlD
dill luger p;.rtK:1e8 by eiutriatm ..t tbu top of the to\\!er and
removed from the eircu1a.tion air by. eyckme eepa.ral.or.
Engaging and disengaging tray construction is
mown diagranunaticaUy in Fig. 389b. This tray
Iw; a. number of geometrically arranged downspouts
which serve to conduct the solids downward in a
uniform manner throughout the cI'OSB-sectional area
of the tray. Disengaging of the gaBeS occurs under-
neath the tray, and the respective amount! of area
inside the tubes and outside the tubes are propor-
tioned in &COOrdanoe with the flow quantitiel! of gas
either disengaged or fed upward in the unit through
the downspout section. A number of inlet' or outlet
points is employed to minimize pressure drop in the
1M diatribution aol'Q66 large-diameter traya.
The carbon-ftow mahaniam shown in Fig. ~
consists of a circular tray supported at three points
and given an OIIciliating motion. This tray has a
number of 'downspouts '-ihich aerve 88 p!.ICkets for
the OOIlveyance of solid&. When in oDe extreme
position of its motioo, alternate dowll.8pouts of this
tray are in position to be filled by the delivery tubes
Flo. 3896. Typical npol' di8enpt;illg \1'11)' in a Hype ........ ber,
in tha fixed tray above. These pockets do not
discharge because in this position they are sealed
by the tray below. As "the tray moves to the
opposite extreme of its travel, these downspouts
pass int.o position over discharge holes in the trt',y
below and are emptied.
Operating VCl""b'e~
10 the design of adsorbers of the " fixed-bed" type
(such as in the " percolation" plants, and aWiorbers
for vapor recovery and dehydrat ion) the adsoriler
dimCfU!ions can be readily obtained from the fullow-
ing factora,
L Quanti4y of fluid handled per unit time.
2. Amou.n:t of material to be adsOrbed.
3. AdllOrbing capacity of the adsorbent.
4. Allowa.ble pre88ure drop through bed.
5. Dura.tion of. adsOrption portion of cycle.
6. Time required for reactivation, purging, etc,
Although each of the above items may a!fret the-
finaJ design in several ways, the mass or yolume of
adsorbent is determined primarily by factora 2, 3,
 \
ADSORPTION
fllId 5, whereas the diameter and depth of adsorbent
bed are dependent upon factors] and 4. The dura-
tion of th~ various portions of the adsorbing-desorb-
iog cycle and aiso t.':Ie number ofl'adsorbers on stream
at one time can be detennincd by 'all economic
balance or by experience and judgmeqf.. The effect
of prooess.va.riables on the pressure drop through the
adsor~ing b6d can be 'Obtain..ed from test. 'data or
estimated by the methods of Chapter 16. 'l'be time
required ior react:vation (or dumping and refilling)
is best obtained from . experimental data or expe-
rience. If tbis time is somewhat less than the
adsorption port-ion of the cycle. then only hall the
adsorbers can be on stream at one time if the process-
ing is to be continuous. H owever, if the adsorbent
bed can be reactivated in a period of time less than mm
one-third of the adSorbing period, then three out of
FIG. 391CJ. Adsorption iIIOtherm8 for carbon dio:ldde on acti-
l- four Wootbers may be on stream at the same time. vated carbon."
or the factors listed above, the one which needs
moat di&cussion is t'le adsorbing c!l.pacity of the bed.
If it is Iutown_ for the conditions in question, the simplest and best procedure to obtain infonnatioo
optimum design for ijle adsorber system can be coooerning the adsorption capacity of a particular
obtained directly from lI;IateriaJ balances, pressure- IIolid is by direct experimental methods on the desired
drop rela~nships, and economic considerations. system. The experimenta1 proood.ure need not
~waY8 reproduce faithrully tbe propoeed contacting
The capacity of a solid for &<borbing a specified
material from a fluid is an exceedingly complex func- method, but it should make usc of ~sam.ples of the
tion of many variables, including the chemical and sOlid and fluid in question and should duplicate the
pl~ysicaJ characteristics of the solid, the composition
operating temperature and pressure. .-
of the fl:uid, the temperature and pressure of the If a eolid Itodsorbent is exposed to a pu~ fluid
proeesa, and the type and ,time or rate of contacting. (usually vapor) under condit ions of constant tern
Although many theories have been proposed to perature and pressure but for varying _periods of
eIplain some of the adsorption phenomena, t~ time, the rate of adsorption will u8ually decreB8e
rapidly from an initially high rate,15 os shown in
Fig. 300, where ma.ss of adsorbate per unit m8SS
of adsorbent is plotted against time. Tbe rate of

, -- --
/ ' $law. . .;
approach to equilibriwn varies widely and i$ gre.ter
for sma1ler sile of adsorbent partkles, higher tern--
peratures, lower molecular weight adsorbates, and

4 // other varia.t)les which increase the rate of diffusion.

In dynamic adsorption, where the fluid is forced
, j through the adsorbent, equilibrium is reachect faster
than in static adsorption.
, The effects oi temperature and pressure on the
m&B8 adsorbed at equilibrium are represented in
V Fig. 391a. -Although the magnitudes and shapes of

;Vo 10
these curves vary consKIerably for different 8)'8tema,
in general the amount adsocbed increases .itb in--
creased pre88l.!i"e and decreased temperature."'I'
Trne, o.p If the solid adsorbent is exposed to a vapor mixture
'. Flo. 390. JlIOthfJ(1ll&l and i.<nbaric ad.orpt.ion of _ter on in which only. one component is adsorbed, the quali.
.mea gel at~ F and 1 at.m at a funet!on of time.1I tative relations discussed above still apply if the
 EQUIPMENT
concentration or partial pressure of adsorbed com-
ponent in the unadsorbed phase is substituted for
tot&! pressure. Although the discU88ion above is
aimed primarily at the adsorption of vapoN, the
same relations apply to the adsorption of coloring
matter and other impurities from liquid solutions.
The ~rption isotherms in these Oa8CS usually have
concentration illl!tead of pressure as a coordinate,
and the isobars beoome lines of conRtant liquid phase
composition.
A convenient way of treating adsorption equililY
rium data. ~I is indicated in Fig. 391b, where the vapor
pressure ,of water ad.oorbed on silica gel is plotted
against the vapor pressure of pure water at the same
temperat\l~ with Ii.nes of const.ant "saturntion"
(quantity of adsorbate per unit mass of adsorbent),

20
10
. ,. so
Temperature, 'f
100 120 140 ,,. ISO 200 220 240 260 280

,
3 ~l'
, 1/ o <Il 1/
1/
~. Q<9:.
.,
, ~~ 1/ ~V
~<> "
,. .;.

...''"
# ..#

:j)
,~

~ "'/
.,.
1A~
"

2
:/ 0'

1/:/ <!>/
0'
~
IV1/ / / ,~

.'.''"
~

~08

~"
~

~03
.
/
V
, /
02 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 I . 234 6 810 20 . 30 40 60 80 100
Viper Pr85$Ul'. 01 Wtttr, In. Hi:
FlO. :Wt/). Vapor pl'l'!!!8t1r8 of water .chorbed on sill..... gel 11.8 & function of the vapor pl't'lSSure of pure ",al.er at the _108
tempem.t.ure. ..
 ADSORPTION
of magnitude as the heat of reaction.11 The h(>80t of
adsorption may be computed thermodynamically
from vapor pressure data by a method similar to the
I~" , calculation of the heat of vaporizatioo of liquids.
For this purpose, vapor pressure-temperatllJ"'e-eOlIl~
.~ poBiti'Xl relationships such as thOse &bOWD by Fig.
391 may be used. }O~ igure 392 gives the differential
,
beat of adsorption at 32 F , that. is, the beat liberated
wheo the indicated quantity of gas is adllOrbed on
-10.000
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
an infinite quantity of ndsorbnnt so that t.he "satu.
ration" remains constant during the adsorption.
ConcetItration of Gas,
t>/Ib ot dlY adsorbent Figure 393 gives the enthalpy per pound of dry silica
gel for gel containing up to 50 per cent of water and
Fw. 392. DifJerenti-.l heatll of ad.!l(lrption. Coooanut char-
coal at 32 F, benzene (1,2), oth&.nol (3), 1UtUl\Oru& (7). Silica at temperatures from 32'" to 270" F.
gel at 32 F, w&.lJ!r (4), ,ulfur dioxide (5). Blood carbon at Most commercial adsorption processes are dy-
14" F, sulfur dioJ<idfl (6).

Although the information given in the above

figures ill 8Ufficient for determining the equilibrium
capacity of a epecified adsorbent under known con- 100
ditions of temperature, presaure, and composition,
these conditiolU! may not always be }moyo'Il. The
adsorption process i.s usuaUy accompanied by the 80
evolution of heat which may increase the bed tem-
perature by an appreciable amount. The pressure
drop through the bed may be great enough to alter
the equilibriwn conditionS. The adsorbing capacity
ill Often affected by changes in the solid resulting
from the number of regenerations and regenerating
conditioo&. The d~ree of approach to equilibrium
"
'lODditiOO8 depends upon adaorbent ch&racteristics.
rate of throughput, temperature, and other variables.
It is apparent that accurate use of the equilibrium
data on the lIystem in question requires not only
knowledge of the properties of the freshsdsornent
and inlet fluid but "8lso requires knowledge of heats
of adsorption, pressure drop through the bed, effect
of regeneration on adsorbent, efficiency of the ad-
sorption proceSl! referred to equilibrium conditions,
-20
heat transfer characteristics between the bed and
the coolant (if any), and the effect of any impurities
or foreign materials (that is, foreign to the equilib-
rium data) in either adsorbent or fluid stream. -40
For adsorption' processee which are physical in
character (no chemical reaction between adsorbent
and adsorbate)j the beat of adsorption from the -60
"
vapor phase is usually greater than the heat of
o 0.1 02 0.3 0.4 0.5
PounOs of Water pet Poulld 01 Dry Gel
vaporization and approximately equal to the beat (Commercially Dry Basis)
of sublimation. For adsorption processes in which a F'10. 393. EIILbalpy-oonoeotftl tlon diagram for ....ater adsorbM
chemical reaction occurs betweeo the adsorbate and on eiIka pl. Relerelloe state: oom~ie.l.ly dry eel at 'nQF
adsQrbent, the heat of adllOrptioo is of the same 0J"der and saturated liquid ".atet at 32 F.1l
.,
 MITHOD OF CALCULATION

"
so
J

.<
e. yI_"-~
withbed
~ o'I"-'~ _ _ __
_ Top
Top I'o5ition III Bed
A About HIlt-WI)' C
FIG. 31M. CooditiOllll iu bed-bed .diJorption oJ w.\el vapor ~ as dew point of air and dew point of ai r in equilibrium
with 'aolid bed.

namio rather than static. Equilibrium conditions for the illustration, the tOOt air has a 0 0 F dew poipt
are complex and may be illustrated by considering until the bed is about SO .per cent saturated with
the isothermal dehydration of air by passing it respect to air of 500 F dew: point. The bed eatura-
through a bed of silica gel. At the etart of the tion (actual adIIorbate relative to quantity adsorbed
operation the entire bed bas a residual water content if the entire bed is in equilibrium with the incoming
which ia in equilibrium with air with a dew point fluid) at the " break point" (point of operation when
of 0" F . As the air wlth a dew point of :;00 F cnters the concentration of adsorbed component in the exit
the bed, the first volume of air is quickly debydl'l1ted ftuid st&rt8 to increase) may vary anywbere from
to a dew point of 0" F in the upper part' of the bOO under 20 per cent to over 80 per cent, depending on
and J)MeE!8 on down through the bed in equilibrium the depth of bed, rate of flow , temperature of opera-
with it. AI!. more and more air passes through the tion, kind and mae of adsorbent, dew point of enter-
bed, the upper zone, which has adsorbed waUlr until ing air, and other variables' (see Fig. 395). Figure
it is in "equilibrium with the entering air, becomes 394 shows that the adsorbing capacity of a bed of
deeper and deeper until some water hns been ad- adsorbent (when producing an exit fluid of conatant
sorbed by the lowest layer of the bed and the exit composition) oannot be obtained from equilibriwn
air has a dew point greater than 0" F. This sequence data alone. A further complication which will not
of events il!I indicated in Fig. 394, where the dew be discussed at this time is the result of adiabatte
poin-~ of the air IItream and the dew point of air in operation in whieh the heat of adsorption contributes
equilibriwn with the silica gel, are plotted againat to a varying temperature which is added to the vari-
too bed position. In this iUustration the air Row is ables di&euseed above.
from top .tv bottom of lbe bed. It is apparent from
Fig. 394 that, for the particular conditions chOflen
METHOD OF CALCULAnON
The variables associa.ted with the design of a
jiud-bed ad80rber are discussed in the preceding
50
paragra.phs. If the rise in temperature of the bed
! and exit fiuid during the adsorption portion of the

t"
cycle is known or can be neglected, the design calcu-
lations can be readily made from feed and product
1"' 20
specificatiOll8, equilibrium data, and knowledge of
the bed saturatwn at the break point under the
deaired operation condiu0D8. The intenoelation of
10 these variables i8 80 complex that method8 of deaign
o ., 02 .3
usually require experimental or operating data.
Particle Diameter, em
FlO. 395. Errect of pRrtlcle size on the bru,k time in the Ulu.tratbe Example. 1,600,000 cu ft/ dAy (standard
.diIorption of phOtigene on activated rubon in Ka&-mMk C8.n- oonditiohB) or natural gJUI at .500 F and 225 pHIl!. eontainiui 51,)
u.tel""/l." Ib Qi water per million eubicfeet (Bt.&ndMd oondidolUl) ""' to
 ADSORPTION
be dried in an aetiV&ted bauxite unit 1 ~lIting of two
adaorbe.... Tb.!o regenerated IIOJid i!I in equilibrium with glIII
oontainilll leal than om lQ/ million C\1 ft. Tbe break point
0I'leI11"I ",lin the dry bed bas adsorbed 3 per cent of ,.lIter
by weiht (dry basit). The bulk density of grllnular Osuxite.
ill 50 Ib/ eu ft. Experience indiell~ that a 8uperfiew gas
velocity through the tower of 30 rpm is llatisr... ctory. U8fl ..
24-br cyde to allow eo.ough time to reactivate II.Ild cool the
other taofel'. Determihfl the toWel' dimellfJiOfUl r.nd tot&111lM11
of &ttivated bauxite requirnd.
In .. 12-lir adsorbing period, (60)(1.6)/2 ... 40 Ib of water
IIl'6 removed. This requiTes (40)(IOO) / 3 ... 1330 Jb of desicct<nt
"' .....
in eAdI tower, or .. to\lll mass of 2660 lb. The volumetric rate
(1,600,000) 14.7 510 70 f
(24)(60) X 225 X 492 ... cm
With an alklwab1e velooity of 30 fpm the I'!!quired IIl'6& is
7OrJI) ... 2.33 eq h . This- ~ndII to a dia meter of '.11.7
in. UIIII a tower d iameter of 24 In. (radiul! ... 1 t tl.
Th'a bci@;bt of the towe ... un be calculated from tbe m&85
of b&u>tite, its bulk deDllity, and tbe tower diameter.
1330 ~ agram CAD be COllStruCted for each phase from the
.(.00)(3.14) .. 8.5 ft of.baUlrite
Make thl:! towerll 10 ft high to al h w for free 1Ip&.ee ..hove &nd
bPlow the bed.
ldeol or EqUilibrium Sto&e.
The calculation of adsorption equipment of too
contact type or of the countercurrent type exempli-
fied by the Hypel'8Orption prooeaa lD.II.y be facilitated
hy means of the concept of the equilibrium stage as.
U88d previously. For convenience !.he operations
are discussed in two groups.
1. /8QtkrmaJ. adl&r'ption from, and desorption to, a.
binary Suid phBatl" in which three components a.t"b
involved , aU of wbicb may be in the condensed phase.
This group also includes all processet: in which either
the heat of adsOrption is negligible or the effect of
I.eclperature on equilibrium compositions is negli-
gible, and it may include adsorption from a multi-
component fluid phase if the component8 can be
combined into a pseudo-binary sy8tem.
For these operations, the methods developed for
80M-liquid extraction and liquid-l.iquid extraction
can be wed directly The equilibrium data may be
plotted on a rigbk.~!ia.ngle diagram with the m &8S
fraction of adsorbed compon8Qt as the abscissa and
the m8088 fraction of either a.dsor~t or unadsorbed
component &8 the ordinate. If tht: adsorption opera--
tion is considered. as an extraction process in which
the adsorbent is the solvent, then the m8.88 fractioD
of adsorbent should be the orQinate. On the other
hftlld, if the adsorptioo prooetl8 is coosidered as the
reverse of a leaching process in which the solid phase
adsorbs material instead of losing the solute, the
(Il888 fraction of unworbed (or nearly so) compo-
nent should be plotted lUI the ordinate.
2. Adiabatic adsorption and desorption (or proc-
esses with known rates of heat transfer) in a. three-
component system in which the adsorbent d0e8 not
enter the fluid phase and one component is unad-
sorbed, that is, only one component uppe'U'l! in both
pha..."s. This group inchdcs only those sy~tcms in
which the equilibrium conditions vary with tem-
perature. The straightror\vard solut.ion of 9. process
consisting of u single flqwlibrium stage can be
obtained graphically 0 11 a. modified enthalpy-eom-
position diagram ..
Since the adsorbent is assumed to be entirely in
the solid ph8lle .&.nd the third component is com-
pl~tely unadsorbed, each Pbllse contains only two
components. The llli\lal enthalpy-composition di-
necessary thermal data (Fig. 392 and steam tables).
If the diagram for the solid phase is plotted with
enthalpy per unit mass of adsorbent (adsorbate-free
basis) as ;.he ordinate and maBH of adsorbate per
unit mass of adsorbent as absCissa, the lower half
of Fig. 300 ia !.be result. In a similar IlUUlDcr, if the
diagram for the fluid phase is plotted on.a soJut.c-free
basis with enthalpy per unit mass of t.he unadsorbed
component and m.11.S6 ratio of solute to unad80rbed
component, the upper half of Fig. 300 results. From
the availablo;! equilibrium data, Fig. 391b, the neces-
sary tie lines (several for each isotherm) are plotted
on this diagram. In order to separate the two
diagrams for convenience in use, the reference tem-
perature for the unadsorbed component may be
arbitrarily chosen at a low va.lue. The coordinates
are 011 an adsorbate-free or solute-free basis since
on this basis the outlet stream quantities are equal
to the oorrespondiilg inlet stream quantities.
COI13ider the single equilibrium stage In which the
following nomenclature is used.
1..0 - mass of ad!lOrbata-Cree a.deorbent entering
the stage.
Ll ,. mass of adsorbate-Cree adsorbent leaving
the stage.
V 2 .., DUI.8S of solute-free fluid eote.';ng the stage.
VI ... mass of solute-free fiuid leaving the stage in
equilibrium with stream [~.
X - mass ratio of adsorbate to adsorb:-nt in an
L stream.
 METHOD OF CALCULATION
Y _ mass ratio of solute to solutefree fluid in than on~
equilibrium stage, hut then it requires a
a V stream. t.rial-lI.nd~rror
procedure.
h _ enthalpy of an D tltream, per unit mass of Allowance for heat transfer may be made by re-
M sorbate--rree oosorbent. locating the J point according to the equation,
H = enthalpy of a V stream, per unit mass of
solute--free fluid. .
L oXIl + 1'2 Y2 = .T(hJ - QJ) (352)
J = an addition of two streams, such as Lo ..l.. Vt . where QJ is the heat added to thc stage per unit
m a::18 of (adsorbate-free ad w rbcnt plus solute..free
Writing a material balance on an adsorbate-solure- fluid ).
f roe basis, ' Pounds of Water per Pou nd of Air
600 002 004 006 OOS
,,~ , JoI.r!, I
Since the adsorbent does not appear in the fluid
'Y"r-lf/ 70'F
phase, and the third component it! unadsorbed,
.
Oil
~~~,~I ~'/ ~~~'~'-+-+-+-+-+-+~
I I I I y,_+--+_I-+--+__I-+-+
ond
~ '" ~/r/
Writing a mu.terial balanct; on the adsorbed com-
ponent, ~
, VI ,
~

By means of the algebraic procedures employed on

"imilar equations (274- 278) for vapor.liquid transfer
operations, equations 349, 350, and 351 may be
rearranged to yield relations showing that a straight
line passing through the points (Xo, ~), (XJ , Iv),
and ( Y:l, HI) and So straight line through (XI! II.),
(XJ, hJ ), and ( Y .. If l ) repre5('Jlt. solutions to the
equations. Furthermore, these relations indicate
that the tic line (the line through Xl and YI) is
divided by the point (XJ, hJ) into two ~gments
which alC in the ratio b d VI
If the temperature, oomp0t3ition, and quantity
of both La and V 2 are known, the temperature and
comPQ'lition of ["1 and VI are obtained by locating
the onc tic line which pa..~ tbr 'Igh the point
(X J, hJ) and is divided in two p.'l.rts in the ratio
LdVt which equals LrJ/ V2 . This tic line can be
located direc t.ly by ploUing on thc cnthalpy--com-
positiO.l diagram several isothenns, each represent-
ing an equilibrium mixture of the two pluu!cs in the
known ratio LdVl .. Lo/ V 2 TheIlE! isotherms arc
eas.ily plotted by dividing the known t.ie line" in the
specified ratio LoI V~. Three isot...... rfIll> for t.hcuse
LoI VI = 1.0 arc plotted in Fig. 396. The equilib-
rium ~emperatllre of the point (XJ , hJ ) ilJ then
obtained by interpolation a;'11Ong these isOthcnns,
and the deSired t.ie lin'c is immediatcly obtained.
This method of solution may be extended to more
~ -10 1--l-l-I;~';;ji:'"''':-iP'-'kj-1'4~'*d~
"ii ......, .... ,
--1"1'=";;
'
i.... ,110' ,
~ l """'-l I......
-20 I-+-+-+-t-I-+t--~___t=,:.ti_:t""'~
" , .!d'
oJ.
1'- ' --.f..,
- ~~~~~~~~~~~
o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
~0.1 2
Pound s of Wate r per Poul"ld of Dry Gel 01". Dry Air
FlO. 3116. Graphical IIOlutioQ, uf illustrative example beluw
by material and energy babnees. using lUI cnth:UPY-1n1l.'l!l
.....tio diagram fOr \be .......ter~ l i ca ",I anti ,,:tler vapor-lli r
syalclM.
lII uetrati,,", E.x~mpl",. Wat er vapor u. to bo rumovc-U
from 20 lb (dry bt.3i~) per minut" of air by adl.orptiun on 20
Ib (dry bMis) per minot" of silica ~l in ... oonlinuuu~ 1'r0ce88.
Tbt, effoolive height of tbe tower is Muflicient 1.0 provide fur
one .equilibrium st~"e . In other " 'urds, the ail .... ",>ei paMin"
down from t he fl,cd plate \.0 th!! stripper is ~umOO to be in
equilibrium (both ther m.&! a nd ,:hemicai) .... ith t he air ka"ing
thl: eolumn a t t he uppe r d i""n~ng " ....te. If t h" cn lcril1jl;
air at 50 F eont.3i ns 0 .03 Ib of wal er v"po.. IJOer pound of dry
air, and the entering silica. gel at 50 F contains 0.03 Ib ul
water per pound of dry gel, whRt are t he Wmpe l"llturc &noJ
composition of tl ... gel pASSing ,Jo"'n from th~ feed pl11ll' lind
ihu ai r leaving tiM' column ?
<10 ADSORPTION
Solu tion_ The pphieal llOJUQ to dU. problem (Fie. 396)
Mobl.ained by oonnecting the two pointl ~~Dling t.he reed
atream &rid entering ad90rbent with .. etrai&ht lioe. Tbe
addition point J ill located 110 that tm. IiDe it divided into two
eegment.l in the ratio L.jVI _ (3J)/{20) - 1.00. The tem-
perature of the leavi ng .st.rea.rn. ill obtained by illterpoJatioo
betwoon the illOthenm for 14 V _ 1.0. Thie temperature is
found to be 1100 F . Al80 by interpolation tho tie line oorr&-
IpOndin, to> thia tempenture a.nd pal!lriftl through t he addition
pointJ indicatee Xl - O,OM.nd Y\ - 0.006.
ieot.bermallyand IlOI.lnterewreotly with 10 Ib/ mio of dry ailica
gel. What is the ",.. ter eootent of \he 1Iilict. gel leaving \be
bottom st.a&e, and how roy
ideal ~ Ale required?
Solu t1o. . By ma.terW. balance tbe water COII~nt of the
exit gelell'et.m ill (2/ 10) - 0.001 (200/ 10) _ 0 .18 lb of w ..ter/l b
of dry gel. In Fig. 397, the opemting line ill drawn through
tM pointe (O.ot, 0.18) and (0.001 , 0 .0) which 0Dn'ftIp0Ild
respecti vely to (Y. H , X,J and ( Yl , X eJ. By .. 8tepwiee
procedure the required "lumber of equilibrium Wta&1lII ill found
to be between 3 or ,.

If t.he :ty3/em U! IUbject UJ 'the limitation, oj both These methode M applied to adsorption (eolid-
graup8 1 and ! (tJut.t is, Uo/Mrmal operation oj a vapor) operations are identical in principle to thOfle
ImI.aTy 6flMem with only orw! component pruenl in for 8Olidliquid, liquid-liquid, and vapor.liquid tr&n&-
both ~), then equations analogous to the distilJa.. fer operation. In fact the last method desCl ibed is
tion equations for constant molal overflow may be used for vapor-liquid absorbers. All these t ranafer
U8ed w determine the number of equilibrium stages operations are computed in the 8&me manner by
required for a specified separation. If equation 350 ideal stages, the different operations exemplifying
~ II01ved for Y2. different applications of the same basic principles.
LI
y, = - X 1
V,
V1Y\
+---
Vi
LoXo
--
Vi
(353)
0-01
DrioI Coy
lir~ ~~X.in,
Y l
or, if written around the first 11. stagee, 001 .~
L,. V\Y, LoXo
Y.+ 1 - --X.+ - - - - - (3M)
V. + 1 V.+1 V.+1 -
Since all the L'8 are equal and al80 the V's, equation
3&1 may be written

L
Y"+I - -YX,,+ (
YI - LoX,)
V (355)
0
.~n, f +gelw:.t,
Y~ +I x.
vC'- I,;

,~~-
A plot of equation 355 in which Y"+1 is the ordi- I
nate and X . the a.bsciasa gives a straight line with a
slope ~ua.l to L j V and an intercept equal to
-~;
I
V
Y1 - (LoXoI V) Thie "ope~ting line" (Fig. 397)
when used in conjunction wit.b an eq~ ilibrium line
(a plot of Y. VB X.) caD be used to step off the .
,,7 I", V
/'Y, ~
- 'f!
number of equilibrium stages in a manner similar to
the McCabe-Thiele method for distillation calcuIa.- p"
Y~
;/ ,~ .

sYr
, lions (Chapter 25). This procedure is not nece888rily
limited to isot.bermal operation, but in any case the
temperature variation andcorrc6ponding equilibrium
data must be known. 0
o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 025
IU ua trative Eu.m.p.... Two hundred poundt per minute Pounds of w.ter per Pound of 0Qt 5iIic:a Gel
of dry air &t 70- F, canying 2 Ib of water v ..pw per minute Flo. 397. GraphlealltOlutioll of ilIuatrative eumpk on moll
III to be dehumidified with eilict. ael to O.oot Ib of w..ter vapor ratio plot., . .u..mi.nI ieotbennal operation wit.b only one oom-
pel" pouDd of dry air. nu. operation ill to be ma.dueted. poaett.t JOI:uble in hl"O pm.-.
 PROBLEM
BmUOGRAPHY 19. M,l..1t"fIN, A: J. P., a nd R.. 1... ;;.1 . S Y"m:. 8ioc~", J., iii,
ISM (1941).
1. AwEIW, R. C., J. W. MooJU:, and R. O. CAn!.'-t "Def!i~ 20. RAy. A. B., "Ad$orp!.ion," Ind. EIfQ. Ch.t:m., 39, 12-13,
Bnd Ulle of Adsorptive Drying Units," Ch~m. Eng. Prog., 32-6 (1947) .
' 4.3,349-70 (1947). 21. Sr&DDINO, F. H., ft al . "The SepBration of the Ran:
2. AimNT.'\Iou~ "Prooe8I Engineering-Chromatogttphy," Eartha by Ion ExchAnge," J. A M. CMm . 8., 69, m7-81,
Chem-. E1II}., 6Ii, No. tI, 117-8 (1948). 27~, 2812-18 (1947).
a. BEHl5ON, R. E., and P. H. CoUROtJLJr.AU, "European Prac- 22. TOMrKlss, 1:. R., d ol., " Ion E.~chllnK" as a Scparatiull8
tice for Solvent Recovery in Prinlin& IndullIy," CItvn. Met bod," J . A m. Chml . &C .. '9, Z169-27n, 2792-2800,
E1tf. Prot.Jr-, . 4w-t68 (I948). 2859-28M, 2866---2874 (1047).
4. BEIW, C!.YD&, " Hypersorption Pto('.ICIIS fot Separation 01 23. TRTHORN and WYA'!'T, r,.,.",. Faraday S oc. 22, 1M
Light GIISe!I," TraM. A .... INt. CMm. Eng., U. 666-80 (1926).
(1946). 24. ZECnM''''~"I'r.lI and CHOLSOItY, m', Ch>"omal"V'ap1!itcA,
6. BEIte, C!.YI>I'J, H!lptf"_~Wn, ~nted at ABEE Su =r A.~rp/iQIf'Irn'/Iw<k. Vienna. (11:136).
& hool, Univenlity. oI Wl3colllJin (Sept. 2, 1948).
6. BoYD, C. E., rl at, "The Exchange AdJorptiotl of Ions
from Aqueous Soluoone by Organi c Zeolltce," J. Am.
CAem. &c., 69, 2818-29, 2836-38, 284I)..MI, 2800-12 PRODl.EU
(1947).
7. C.V.PBE!.r., D. L., H. Z. MARTIN, E. V. M URI'HUE, and By tbe l'"&phimi method .te velolled for soihlliquid eJCtrau-
C. W. TY!!ON, "Separation of G&IIeII," U. 8. Patent tioo problell1ll, <'Alcu:.I.te the number of c"",ntercurrent ideal
2,446,076 (July 27, 1048). stagee IInu Itl,Ii:IS of fresh ch!lr I"!'luiroo for the iSOlhcrrMl
8. CARBIDE AND CAIlBON C HE14ICAUi CoRPOlUTlON, "Sol I'{lffiOVAI of 99 per cent of the c\llorcolnw, lqial from 100 Ib of
vent Rerovery," Booklet (i947). sugar !yrup per hour by a.jI;it lltion wi t.h finely dividc-d eoll)r-
9. CoNIIDEN, GORDON, and MARTIN, BWcIIem. J ., sa. 224 f~ activat.od vt'ltlltable char. Too colored ~yruJ! eontai1"1ll
(1944). 0.001 Il"I:IS fraction of ooIor. The Spell l. cha r is to cuntain
10. DElft, V. R .. BiblioqrapllJl oj"&lid A~, National 0 .(I(l104 II"IIIIl8 f11let;on 01 (lOinr. After &Kiln l iu!] I .... >tIu rry ill
Bureau of Standard" Wuhingtot., 0 C. (1944). "llo...ed to BetUe And the ayrup 0.1"11 "'11 off befure t he char is
ll . HII16CHU1;ft, A. E . and 8 . A.o.iON, " Ad.torption," Ind. En,g . contact! w.th II second batch of IlIUn! hil/:hty oolored syrup.
Chem., 19, 1585-96 (1947). BetwllI:!n atepillYfUp adheres to tllI;I ch:1.r t.o the e~t"nt of 0.21b
I". HOUOEN, O. A., &lid K. M. W",'t'sON, Cllemit:al PrtJCU8 of ayrop per pound of char. The char, d ter 9('ttliull from the
Principia, John Wiley a.nd 80M (HI13). i.ut agitation (contacted with the raw ~yrup), i.! filtered lind
18. KERDE, H., R. O. FAIIIIIELD, J. C. FRANK, IlId L. W. wr.lJhed to recover the adherinl/: 8}'rup.
ZAKNIITJ:CIIKK, ''Ethylene Recovery CommercW Hyper-
IIOlPtion Oper.oon," CAI:m. Eng. PrOtptM, ' " 57S--582 EQUILIBRIUM DATA a.tASS FRACTIONS)
( 1948).
14. KLOT'Z. I . M., CA.rm. ~., 19, 24L (1946).
Solid PhMe Liquid Pba.;oe
1.5. KUNIN, R, "100 Excha.nJ(!," 1M. Eng. CI\(M., 40, 4,1-5
(11)48).
--_.
16. LEDOux, E., VapoT A~, Chemical Publishing Co., Colo, Syrup Q:J lor Syrup
!'toole:lyn (l945). 0,0001 0.0005 0 .00XI2 ;1.9'JW8
17. MAIR, B. J., A. L. C,l..BO IUAU!.T, And F . D. R()!.8uu, 0 . 0002 0._ 0.00008 0.9!l'JI)2
"AMembly And Tceung of 52-Foot Laboratory AdilOl'p- 0 .0003 0."'" 0 .00020 0 .90080
!.ion Column," lrut. Ellf. CIwn., 39, 1072-81 09-17). 0 .0001 O.OOCH 0 . 000.'''0 O.9'JlJ50
18. MAN'I'I!u., C . L., A~, McGra ...HiII Boole: Co. O.OIIOS 0 .0003 0 .00100 0 .90000
(.90&5).

 PART IV

Energy and Mass Transfer Rates

.THE time rate with which energy or mass is kanaferred (rom one,stream
to another determines the size of the equipment requirod to accom-
pliSh a specified r. "Jit in a specified time. The -rate of transfer is
therefore 8. nlost important consideration in ~eering operations.
In gtneral. the rate of transfer is resardbd 88 equal to a driving force or
difference in potential divided by ~ resistance, or, as usually expressed, the
rate of transfer equals the produ~ of a "transfer coefficient," the area., of
contact, and the d!OP in porential.
The major problem in calculating the rate of tl'lWRfer is usually the eval-
uation of the transfer coefficient. This is usually b8~ on an empirical cor-
relation of tl'8.nsfer coefficients calculated from an extensiVfI series of teste in
whictl the rate of transfer hlOS been tIleeSW'ed.

Heat Transfer 1
HE transfer of energy as heat occurs in prac-
T tically every engineering process. Each
branch of engineering bas its special problems
of heat transmission, and no one group of engineers
hB.s been solely responsible for the many develop-
ments made in this field. The fundamental concepts
and theory of heat transfer developed herem are
applicable to all engineering problems..
Heat is it.self a symbol created by the hUllUUl
mind, as are all forms of energy. It is the modern
counterpart of the medieval philosophers' caloric.
The concept of heat is dependcv.t upon its transfer
from a body at a high temperature to another at a
lower tempe;ature, and accordingly heat may be
defined as the energy which is so transferred by
means of the difference in temperature. When two
bodies are in contact with each other, heat may be
transferred directly from one to the other by con-
duction. When two bodies are not in direct contact,
heat may still be transferred from one to the other
by convection or by radiation.
These three modes of heat transmission ma.y be
defined as follows.
Corulw;tion is the transfer of heat from one part
of a body, to another part of the same body, or be-
tween two bodies in physical contact, without sig-
nificant displacement of the' particles of the bodies.
7]anvectWn is the tflUlsfer of heat from om; point
to another within a fluid, or bt-tween a fluid and a
solid or another fluid, by the movement or mixing
of the fluids involved. If th~ motion of the fluid is
due entirely to differences in density resulting from
differences in temperature, --the operation is called
natural convection. Iftha. motion of the fluid is
produced by mechanical means, the operation is
referred to as foreed convection.
4l.
CHAPTER
28
Radiation is the transfer of heat by the absorption
of radiant energy. Electromagnetic waves emanate
from all bodies in all directions at all temperatures.
The most important property of electromagnetic
waves is that they convey energy. When the waves
impinge on a body, part are reflected, part are .trans-
mitted, and part are absorbed. The absorbed waves
may be converted into high-grade forms of energy as
in photochemical changes, hut they are more com-
monly converted into heat. Light is also due to
similar radiant energy but of shorter wavelength 01'
higher frequency. Electromagnetic waves emitted
by the sun travel through space in straight lines to
furnish both heat and light to ,tIle earth.
In most cases the actual transfer of energy ~
heat is accomplished by more than one of these
modes of heat transfer. In all cases the total rate
of heat transfer may be expressed in tenns of a
driving force which is Ii' decrease in temperature,
and a resistance.
dQ Driving force
dt Resistance
TJ - T:
.= - UA(T 1 - T:) (356)
l/UA
dQ
where ~ - rate of heat traIl!!fer (as in Btu/hr) in
lit the direction from POUlt 1 'to point 2.
t ,., time (as in hr).
TJ - temperature a.t point 1, as in OF.
T2 == temperature at point 2, as in OF.
U - average overall coefficient of. hea.t
i'ra..,,,,fer [as in Btu/(hrWF)(sq it)).
A = area of surface through which heat is
transferred, or cross-sectional area of
material through which heat is being
oonducted (as in sq It). '
 H EAT TRANSFER 1
Likewise, the rate of heat flow for a series of resist-
ances, Fig. 39& is expressed by the equation:

(3.18)
1 1 1
-K +-+ -K3-.04
I _2 K -32

where R _ resistance. Not to be confused with

relSistivity.
K _ conductance. Not to be confu.sed with
conductivity.
Subscripts indicate the steps in the heat transfer
as indicated in Fig. 39&.
T he proper overall coefficient U is determined by
the expression
iT,~_- O~~
I T,'-- 1
-UA - -
1
+K2-3
- +K'-4
-
1 1
(3&.))
K _ 1 J
~ T. ~--- -. -- ---- .---.---""
or the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances for series flow. The resistance
to heat transfer from fl uid A at 1 (Fig. 398b) to the
Flo. 39811. Dia&lllm rcpreaentinc ~t lranBfer by coOOuctioo
throu&h solids in eeOEil.
The product of the overall coefficient U times t he
area A is the reciprocal of the resistance (l/UA).
The overall coefficient U is a conductivity corre-
sponding JO ' the recip rocal of the l'Csi8tivity and is
a convenient method of coordinating and expressing
heat transfer rates.
The usual proWcm in heat transfer gives a quan-
tity of heat to be tra.nsferred per unit time under
1

given conditions of temperature. The coefficient of
heat transfer is calculated or estimated from expe-
rience and used in equation 356 to compute the heat
transfer area.
The flolY of any energy such as heat or electricity
may be considered as controlled by a d riving force
and a resistance. T he dri ving force for electrical
energy is the difference in potential called voltage,
and for heat energy the drivin~ force is the difference
in tlmperature. The rate of flolY of electricity

i ~: ------
through several resistances in series is obtained by
,
dividing the voltage by the IlUm of the resistances. \
e T, -------~- --
E
1 - -
R
(357)
~r,,~-::-:-:-:-:-::-J~:-:;-~-~-;;-~-~::::::-----
1 '
where I - rate of electrical flow.
E _ driving force, voltage.
n_ resistance.
- OistallU, "
FlO. 398b. Diagram representing heat tl'8.nsfer between fiuu',
wh.ieh An! tepamted by & lIOIid.
 HEAT EXCHANGE EQUlPMENT
metal surIa at 2 involve8 convection heat trl~nsfer.
The trlUlsfer of heat through the solid is hy conduc-
tion, and the trlUllifer from 3 to 4 i~ similar to t.hat
for flu id A . Coefficien ts for heat tran.sfer from a fl uid
to a solid su rface are sometimes caJled IiIm coeffi-
cients because the major resistance to heat t ra.nsfcr
is in the fluids adjacent to the metaJ, frc{IUentiy
called a "fluid film." In series hea.t transfcr, Fig.
398{a and ~), the total driving foree, temperature
drop, is divided by the sum of the resistances to
obtain the rst.e.
For fl()\{ in parallcl the total rate of flow equals
t he sum of the individuul flltcS. Walls 2 Ilnd 3 in
Fig. 39&, at different temperatures and fa!,":ing each
CUM 01
FlO. 39&. Diagram illustrat ing heat transfer by plI.ralJeI
meehani31Il8 of re.diation and oonvcdiun from 8urilloct 2 to
IlUriace 3.
other, transfer hent by radiat ion and \>y air circulat-
ing because of density differences accompanying
temperature changes. The total ratc of flow of heat
equals the sum of the rates by radiation and by
naturo! convection. When encountered, parallel fl ow
is easily computed as the sum of the tranaIers by the
different meehani8lll8.
HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT
There is an aimoot e ndless variety of heat transfer
devices varying from Ute electric heater in the hOff}{l
to giant boilers in utility power plant/!. A iimiCed
number of heat transfer deviccs likely to be en-
countered by the engineer have been selected for
description. The major portion of the uniLs will
transfer heat from one fl uid to another fluid , with
the heat passing through a solid interface such as a
tube wall. Thc size, shape, and mat.crial emplT.'cd
to separate the two fl : 1 ., . ~, 'p(lrtlll:"
The second problem in a heat exchanger is to confine
one or both of the two fluids involved in t.he transter
process. Tn some cMt'lJ -the equipment is constructed
to control t he nature of the flow aod Ihe fluid veloeity
adjacent I.fl the 8urface of the solKi.
One Fluid COllfirwd
A simplc type of hent exchanger in which only orie
fluid is confined is the hOUIIChold hot--water ":adj-
a tor." In [hi~ (:(Iuipment the water u8ually circu-
FUl. 899. Air heo.t.er OOl\1Jtro~ted of fhmed tubes. (Unijin
Tube Co.)
lates between the fumace and the radiator by naturai.
convection (thermosiphon). The air in the room
circulates by natufal convection to heat the room.
Natura.! circulation or convection ill produced solely
by U1e differences in density resulting from beating
and cooling of the fluids.
Another common type of hea~ exchanger is the
air heater. Heat from condensing steam inside. the
tubes is transferrep to air flowing outside the tubes.
Figure 399 show8 such a unit employing finned
tubes to incrca:sc the transfer surface in eont.a.et
with the air . .-Steam enters the top of the unit,
alld the con'lensate drips leave the bottom of the
unit. A fan usually blows the ai: across the tube
418 HEAT TRANSFER 1
bank to increase the rate of heat. transfer between rise which would otherwise occur for the coo1ing
the air and the met.aJ surface. In this ease the water. The plugs in the header may be removed
ooofioement of the air is limited t.o the casing around to clean the inside of the tubes or to replace one in
the tubes which assists in promoting the flow of the ~ failure oe<:urs.
air through the tube "bundle" o. "coi!." In ~ent
yellr$ these "bIMt" heaters hQ,ve found extensive use
in industrial space heating.
Figure 400 presents overall heat transfer cooffi-
hient U in Btu/ (hr)("F)(sq it of outside surface)
including the total extended surface of the fins,
measurtld 00 the finned tube unit shown in Fig. 399
and on a similar unit h-aving one row of tubes.!J Th>

IVr Velocity al Minimum f~ Cton Section.

&00-, fprn. Based on Air.t Sb~rd Conditions
FlO. 400. Overall ooeffi.cients of hellt tranaft'T for heating air FiG.401a. Uu cooler (MlllOBphcrie ~tlOn) lor cooling toWCI1I.
in finDed tube .banb, ~uch III! iIlWlu-ated in Fig. 399, as R (Enginur. and FabricaJor. Inc.)
funlit.ion or tho ma.ximum air velocity (the velocity of the sir .'
at t.hl! minimum free CI'OIiI!I 8e(:tionj. Such units (Fig. 401) are also used for con-
densing vapors, often called evaporative condensers,
coofficien~ is a function of the nir velocity at the lUI well as (or cooling oils or gases. The coofficientB
,minimum cross section expressed as feet per minute of hea~ transfer dcpe.nd upop . ~ fluid inside the
of air measured at a standard air temperature of tubes and upon the c1eanlineB6 of' the surfaces.
70" F. With. condensing steam inside the tubes, Overall coefficients of 2.50 Btu/ (brWF)(sq ft) are
the metal temperature approaches the steam tem-
perature and the overall coeffidenls art only I to 3
per cent lower than the convection coefficients from
the finned 8urfaces to air.
Another type of unit in which the fluid on one
side of the heat tran:;{er surface is not confined is
the cooling unit used in spray /In.Qer8. Figure 401a
shows a cooler for gases at high pressure Il.ll8embled
from sectiolU! such as shown in Fig. 401b. Gases
enter the header 'at the top, pass in parallel flow
through the upper tube bundle, through the headers
Fla. 4010. SeetiOM 01 !.he C(IOIer, shotr.o io Fi,. 4010, before
at the back down to the middle bundle, and finally IU!llembli Qg. (Enginnr. and P~. Inc.)
through the. lower bundle. The unit i8 placed in the
lower part of a water-eooling tower. Water is attainable fo r clean surfaces with high inside coeffi-
sprayed over the tubes w cool them. Evaporation cients, but overall coefficients for design purposes
of a portion of the water reduoos the temperature arc USUally taken to be in thc range from 25 to 125
The blbliOlilmpby for thia cbapter appeanl on p. 472. Btu/(hrWF)(sq ft) .
 HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT
Many varied application!! are made of pipe coils
inserted into t-anks or vessels to cool or heat the con-
tents. Steam or cooling water is used in the coil, and
the fluids in the tallk or vessel may be agitated to
increase the heat transfer rate on the. out..~ide of the
pipe. Pipe coils are ':!asily installed or replaced and
are well adapted to smallulc, temporary, or exper-
. imental installations.
Both Flulds Confined
The simplest heat transfer device which oonfines the desirtl-d area. Special connection5 are required
both fluids ill the double.pipe heal ucha11!Jer. One to CQnduct ~he fluids from tube to tube.
F lO. 40'la. Double--pil".' beat e:o:.ehangcr. The inner pipe is
IllbriCllt e..i 01 Pyrex IllllS! ror ~rrosive !lel'vi~. (Corning
GlMa lVorQ.)
F lO. 402b. Det!lils of the-Sluffing boo; asembly or the double-
pipe hea t eJ[chnnger shown in F ig. 40211. (Corning Ghm
Worh.'
419
fluid flows insKle of a pipe or a tubtl while a second
fluid flows either ~, or counter- currently in the
annulus between a larger tube and the outside of
the inner tube carrying the first fluid. Figure 402a
sh.ows a double-pipe heat exchanger constructed of
gl88!I for handling eorrosive fluids. Figure 402b
shows details of the stuffing box of an exchanger in
which the inner tuOc is glass and the outer tube is
ordinary pipe. The length of tube in such. irurtalla
tions is limited, and a bank of tubes is used kl obtain
The ov~rall coeffieients of heat tnwsfer for this
type of unit depend upon the fluids and their veloci-
tics inside the tubes as well as in the annulus. A
coefficient of 90 to 100 Btu/(hr}("F )(s<) ft) wOI'ld be
nonnal for cooling a chlorine solution inside tubes
with water in the jacket, whilo a coefficient, of 3 to 5
would be expected when cooling a dry gas inside the
glass tube. The inner tubes when made of mellil
IDIlY carry fins to incl"elt8C the su rface and hence tile
transfer from one fl(lid t.o tll C other in case the
coefficients are [ow such as for a viscous or low
dcnsity flu id passing through the anllulus. A COD-
densing vapor may replace either of the fluids in a
double-pipe heat exchanger when thc equipment is
constructed to allow proper d ra inage of condensate.,
Shdl and lube exchanoers are widely ul!Cd. Figure
403 is a singlep88!l shell and tube unit with baffles
to control the flow of the fluid oUUiide the tubes.
The tube sheets for this exchlui.ger are nonferrous
castings in ,;t'hich the holes for inserting the lubes
have been drilled and reamed before aSRembly.
Often steel tube sheets are drilled and reamed and
then welded on the ends of steel shells. The seal
between the tubes and the tube sheet is usually made
by a rolling operation in which the tube is expanded
by rollers inside the tube to fit tightly in the reamed
hole in the tube sheet, as indicated in Fig. 404.
Concentric grooves may be mnde in the tube sheet
to assist in the seal. Tubes may alSO be welded,
brazed, or soldered into the tube sheet. Figure 403
illustrates a singh~.. pass unit on the tube side as well
as on the shell side since the fluid ins\M the tu bes
passes through tubes only once and the fluid outside
the tubes passes along and across the tubes only
once. T able 47 lists the dimensions of standa.rd
exchanger lind condenser tubes.
Figure 405 shows a shell and tube condenser with
the \'apors outside the tubes and water pasing
through the tubes ill sil( passes. Water enrers the
 HEAT TRANSFER I

TABLE H. CHARAeTERl8TICS OF TUBING

Thiekl'le!ll
Sq~ro Square Weight . Weight .,.,
Metal

-.
Weight
Internal
F~. F~, pcr Foot per Foot per Foo t
00 Bir_ T~~
F.,JI;temal In te rnal
ID Co~
00 rr_
Tubin" ming-
". Area, Surface """,~ '"
....... ~
d
Length, "
Length,
Tubin& . tant.
m. e, --
i} '
~~

in. hRm
WiM.!
a...
IIq in.
per Foot
Length
per Foot
Length "-. -
Ib
Copper,
Ib
Steel,
Ib
Metal
Area),
.I!KJ. in.

". 16 0.005 0 .0471 0.0982

0.0982
0 .0641
0.07OQ . 0.2118 0.245 0.218 0.2450

"'"
1.>30 0.003
1.230 0.0<0
"U.
20 0.035 . 0.0731 0.149 0.156 0 . 139 0."'"

21 0.03'2 0 . 1952 0 . 1473 0 . 1304 0 . 196 0.200 0 . 183 0.498.5 015 1 . 128 0.053

0.107 j .f!.1100
.
0.109 0.16SG 0.649 0.683 0.407 202 1.63
" 12
0.065
0.130
0.1D24 0 . 1636 O. lm 0.<20 0." 1l.39 0.495 300 1.26
0.117
0.ll4

""Yo
16
20 0.035 0 .24 19 0 . 1636 0 . 146 0.238 0." '.22 ",. m 1.13 0.0649

'.223
..,.,.
12 0.109 0.1963 0.14 0.'" 0 .845 0.75 0.532 348 1.41 0.219
Yo
Yo
J;
16
20

IO
0 .065
0.035

0 . 134
0.300
0.3632

0.""
0.1003
0 . 1963

0.22\17
0.163
0.179

0.158
0.514
.289
1.134
0."

1.24
0."
0.267

1.06
..""
0.620

0.007
471
116'
451
1.21
1.10

1.44
."""
0.140

0.312
J; 14 0.083 0. 394 0.22\17 0.186 0. 769 0.708 0.702 0.709 "5 1.23 0.207
J; 18 0 .M9 0 . 414 0.22\17 0.2034 0. 467 0 . 49 0.432 o.m 1.12 0 . 127

.. ,..
'40
I
I
I.

"
O. IM
. 083 ......
0 .421 0 . 2618
O.2fl18
0 . 192
0 . 2183
0.236
1.34
0.88
0.54
1.41
0.023
0.568
1.2<
0 .813
0.50
. 732
0.834
0.002
65'
852
1.37
1.20 0..239
I 18 0.041:1 0 . 639 0 . 2618
'" 1.11 0.146

II(
II(
II'
IO

,."
0.134
0.083
0.035
0 .757
. 023
1.092
' .3m
. 0 . 3272
0.3m
0.258
0.284
0.'"
1.73
1.12
0. 498
1.83
1.173
0.521
1.507
1.04
'.454
0.982
1.08<
l.UIO
".
""
1704
1.27
1.15
1.06
0.470
0.'"
0.135

Hi I. 0 . 134 1.192 0.3m o.m 2.12 2 ." 1.98 1.232 1010 1.22 0.575
Hi
Hi
12
IS
0 . 100
. 065
1.291
1.474
' .3927
0.3927
0.335
0.3.59
1.76
1.08
1.86
1.13 . ...
1.64 1.282
1.37
2020
2300
1.17
1.10
0.416
'.293
2 II 0 . 12 2. <13 ' .5230 0.' " 2.62 2 . 76 2 .45 1.76 370l 1.14 '.709
2 13 0.005 2.673 0.5236 0 . 474 2." 2.20 1.933 1.81 40'5 1.10 0.669

2 9 0.148 3."
I 0 .... 0 .575 4." <.3' 3.62 2.20 5930 1.14 1.109

Condensed from. a table publiabed by the Tubular ~Ilg!!r Manufacture..' AMociation.

Pounda per tube per hour
t Liquid ~1ocity - in foot per aeeond (Bpecific gnvity of water at 60 F - 1.0).
CX ~6c gulty ....f liquid

cast header in the inlet at the bottom and passes {or condensing Freon 12 on copper finned tubes 21
through the tubes as indicated. The two chambers in a condenger similar to that of Fig. 40.5.
shown in section above the inlet convey the water To control the How of fluids on ~tbe shell side.
to the next row of tubes. The water finally leaves baffles are often uaed. They control the path of the
the outlet at the top, making a rota) of six passes. fluid and in many cases create greater turbulence,
Figure 400 shows the effect of velocity on the overall increasing both the heat transfer and the pressure
ooefficients of beat t.ran.sfer based on the outside area. drop. Figures 407, 408, and 409 indicate three
 HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT

F lO. 403, CutnwlI.Y vie",' of a ~ing1 l1-f>lU<!l $hell and t ub(, ()xchnr)g~r, (fU>II' Hra ler and Mfg. CQ.)

'oj

,6j
Flo. 4().f (a) Tube rolled into inner t ube ilheel by IU' ad justable FIG. 401'1. C uta,,II.), viev.' or II. mul t ipMII.bell and tube con-
tube ellpllnder; (b) 1i&lD6 toollWed for A Iing1" thick tube sheet . denser. (Wo/perine T~ CQ.)
(Gu.t1aA: Wi~ Co.)
 HEAT TRANSFER 1

, Free Irea at disk Free area It doughnut

Disk -and - Doughnut flaffle
F:m. 4.01. DiIIk--&nd-doughnut tr8J.Jllvense sheU side bafIIe.
(FOIkr-Whler C01"}I.)

2 .. 6 8
Wfler v.IOcity. fps
10 12 '4
}la. 406. Overall beat tzansfer coefticient. bum on .ouU!ide
uea of tubell fot oondelllling Freon 12 in a finned tube e:i:-
chan&er u a functinn of water velocity ill3ide the tut.e.. The
fllI~ hu tuber; with 16 fillll per inch. The total heat
transfer area i4 65.6 IIq ft. The fin diameter ill 0.750 in.; free I fel at baffle Free area
fin height ill 0.063 in.
Orifice Baffle
Fm.408. Orifice tmnsveNe shell sid" baffle. ("'o.wWhuler
typea of bafBes. The_exchanger of Fig. 403 has seg4 Carp.)
mental b&fBes.
There are limitations on the pennissible tempera.-
ture range cl the fluid for eben and tube exchangers
having tube sheets fixed a.t both enda of the sheIL
This limitation may be aerious when the tubes are
of a. material having a different coefficient of expan-
sion from the shell or when the tubes are of the same
material as the shell but at a different temperature. Free lrea at baffle Shell
To avoid excessive thermal stre88el:l on tubes due Segmental Baffle
to differences in temperature, one tube sheet fre-- Flo. 409. Srgmental tranJlYe!"l!ll shell side baffie. (Fo.w--
qUt!l1tly is made movable. Figure 4.10 is a section WAukr Corp. )

,,......
..
..
"'

.. -
Flo. 4,10. Cro.-.eetional dram, of. typical four-pall tube aide, lIin&ie-pue abel! eide. ftaating head heat exchanger. (Tubular
E~tIJ' MonvfactlOm"I A~. )
 HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT

Deflection baffle

';ns

Flo. <Ill. Cl"OIQHIectional drawing 0(. A food water heater for high-pttllOtlurt'l llervioe. (American Locomllli..e C().)

of a typic&.i 4-pa..~s lube, I-pM.'! shell, floating head
heat exchanger. Figure 41 t j~ U IOCction of a feed
water heater const.ructed to operate nt high proMurcs
(2300 psi) and t.crnlX!ru.tures e.JOO F). The floating
head is enclosed within the shell and permits the
tubt.'s to expand or contract to a different degree
from t.hat of t.he shell without causing undue stresl'!.
If the ehflll~ in temperal,ure of the fluid i8 Vfo!ry
large the floating head may be split inlo two or more
sections. Figure 412 shows the Cl)ffilXmcnt parL'! of
a feed water hClltcr wit.h a single flouting heM, u.s in
Fig. 411. This uni t has eight passes Oil the water

FiG. 412. Component puts ()f R f l'lld water heater. (American UxQr",J.il.'l! Cu.) 1, Kho11; 2, 1li,scmhl",\ lulX' tJun(jl~j :1, CI'unp
rina; fur f:luat;nt; helll'l; 4, channel with integrtll tube ShL'<:t ; n, d"mp rill!! fm thRnn,l co ver; 6, sholl oov~r; 7, n"..ting h<,..d (u~
sbeM; S, Boatin!! head cover; 9, channel r.Qv~r.
42'
side !I!:l indil."!I.kU by the four return compartmenu
in lhc floatinp; head co\'er. Bven numbers of tube
pa.'SSC!:I are "'lDCrtl.lJy used with flouting hcadM.
Figllrr. 413 shows II kettle or rcboilcr vcssei similar
Of eontrCllier
s..ldle
FlG.41 3. Sceti'lIl:o.I dill;mm of
to Ii floating head ~xr,h.anger with an enlarged sh~U
t.o tLCt'(lmmooatc liquid and vapor. Steam COIl-
densing inside the tubes., or occasionally hot oil,
~tlpplies the heat.
Hairpin heaters are essentially 2-pass tube heaters
Flo. {14. Scetiollai ~e eooler fabricated or Katbll.te for
-OOl'I"08ion retIlstance. (NatilJlIlIl Caroon Co.)
wit h B single tube sheet. The tubes are in'the shape
of U. Such heaters are often employed to boil liquids
by insertion in the bottom section of a fractionating
HEAT TRANSFER 1
tower or in 11. vessel such as shown in Fig. 413.
Heat c!'[ciluogers mU8t be coru!t.ructed of materia ls
re;!';lsi,ltnt to corresion when processing acids, alkalies
and other corrosive mat.criILis, or wherteyer contami
v.""
.".."
,,,turning
Tr"nsveIW batHes
tube support plates
H~a"nt
llYill o:yt
He~tif18
lillie;! jr,
lI. kettle rehni lf.r. (Tllbular E.rrllmvyr M01Uifac/"ftrl .4 uIleUsto<m .)
nation of the product !luch as food must be hp,ld to
the low~~ possible level. 'There nre few heat
transfer media which have high thclillal conductivity
other than metals and alloys. Bimetallic tubes are
available and exchangt:r shells may be clad or lined
with corroaion-resisting materials. A graphitic base
material, Karbai.e, hus been clC\'eloped 118 a material
of construction for exchangers. It is resistant to
most acids, alkalies, and solvents and has a thermal
conducti vity as high as 75 Btu/(hr)CF/ft)(sq ft).
A cascade cooler of Karbate is shown in Fig. 4.14.
Approximate Coefficients
Approximate overall coefficients of heat transfer
for estimating the periornlance or required size of
equipment are given in Table 48. SpeciaJ cond itions
may give higher or lower valuCtl. The coefficients
given in Table 48 are for operating equipment except
w~en marked " clean" and may not represent neW,
ckian conditions.
THEORY AND FORMULATION
Equations 356 and 358 give the instantaneous rate
of heat transfer. If the temperature!! do not change
with time, the instantaneous rate remains consLant
with time. Such a steadg-sUlte r,(J1idition exist.s .when
water is boiling in a kettle on an electric stove. The
heat is transferred largely by radiation and conduc-
tion from the electric heater to the kettle, by ~.
 THEORY AND FOR'\IULATION 425

TA.B LE 48. TYPICAL OVERALL COEFFICIENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER

IMide or Tube Outldde or Shell Overall

Type of Coefficient"
ElI(hAn~r Velocity. VeJocoi~y, !3lu/ (h r)("I )
Fluid Fluid
I .. lpo (1IfJ ft)

Sbcll and tube Brine HI W"ter 1-$ 5CHOO

Shell and lube Waler 2 G1I3 oi l 3.' 50-70
Shcll and tube Wllter 2 Gall oil

'.5
120
Sbell and
Sbell and
lu be
lube
Wilt
Wllter
2
,
2
KenJllCnfl
Lubricati"" oil ' .2
('.onrhm~inlr
'"
Lj
50
ShelllUld lube W.'" Kerosene
Shellll.nd tube
Shcll'LI"Id tube
W.W
Crude oil ,
5 GMOline
GlI80line
Condellsinl;
Conden.nn
00
20-30
Shdl ~d luhe
Shell and tube
Shell =<.1 tube
Shdl a nd lube
C rude uil
Crude oil
WaUlr
WRter
fO
fO

4-<
3
WIIX distillate
Gall oil
Butane
'toom
2.0
6.'
2.'
Comle ll~i n{:
,.
&I
80-(10

-100-801;
Shell lin d tuho WIlt.er 3-$ Ammonia C,)nilensing 150- 31):)
Shell a nd tubo 'Water 4 Fr .....n 12 C()ml cn~i!lg IS0- 1'lii
Double pipe WRk'l' ,-< Brifl(' 3-' 150 -:100
Coil in v~!!IIe1 WBter 1-3 Water N atural cO lwoction 20
Coil in box G&80line Condensing Water N .. tur,,1 <~unvcdiv n 15-25
Coil in box Kel'<.Xlenfl Condensing 'Vater NlLtur ..1 <:ull"c<:tio" lG- 2G
CQH in box GM oil Condensing WaW!' NAtural con w etion 8 -20
H ozi:r.ontlll tul", roboiler,
Corr:mercial S_ Condensi"" Butane Boiling 100-150
Le.boratory, ekao
Radia tor
Tube bank
,-
S... m

S... m
{'--ondenRing
Condemillll:
Condellllin
Butano
Ai r
A;,
nvilin!!!
Nat llrnl con vection
10
1000-1500
H
0
Tube ban k 8_ Superheat. Flue gall 2-6
Bwlkcl evaporator Brine Boiling S..om Condcn,;ing 1 ~5

"ertlCIII tube cvaponU.or

(dea n) W .... Boiling &.om CondeMing 4OCHOOO

-
duction through t.he bottom of the kettle, and by
convection from the kettle through the boiling water.
The tempera.ture of tho boiling water is constant,
and the temperature of t he elect, :o heater is con-
stlmt. Under such steady-stA.te conditions the rate
of heat trl1n ~fer remains constant with time, and a
measurement of tho total heat transferred over
a measured t ime interval gives the rate of heat
transfer for the conditions existing during the meas-
urements.
M8.I)Y industrial heat transfer operations arc in
continuous pr~ and represc!1t steady-state COll-
ditions.
The "Tlskady 8laJCI i:; ffiUt'e uifticult to treat mathe-
matically ihun t he slelu:iy stD.te. When a kettle of
cold water I:; plat.-ed over the hot burner,- there ill a
change in th~ temperature or the water and kettle
with lime (an uOlltea.dy state). Due to the changing
temperature the rate of heat transfer change:; with
time, and the total quantity of heat transferred over
any time interval mny be computed only by inte-
grating equations 356 and 358 over the appropriate
time intervaL The quenching of hot stef'l is aD
important problem in unstewY-f!ts.te heat transfer.
Such problems are satisfactorily handled by graphical
integration in simple cases and by empirical rela--
tionships for the more complex probll'mlI of I\n~
steadY-f!tate conduction." The simpler melhoeis
of steady-state couditions may be used to approxi-
mate some unilleadY-f!tate cunditions by calculating
a series of instantaneous vahtel:! for trunllfcr rutes
and properly tweniging the 1't.'lm lt ~. In many cw;e:;
tlW! is the only practical method of lmndling un-
famillar problems in unsteady~ti\te hwt tnulsfer.
The bulk of the heat transfer d ill S has been
obtained for sf.to'ldy-fltste conditions, IWd the corre--
 HEAT TRANSFER I
latioIlB of data are primarily for these conditiOll.8. the effect of density of cork board on iIB conduc-
Therefore the general relat.ionships are presented tivity."
for steady-state eOlllinuous operation. Figure 398a represen ts an element of a solid of
uniform crcl!8 scction from s urface 1 to surface 2
Conduction under tbe uniform te mperature gradient dT/ dz and
& bas been indicated, the transfer of heat through length :1:: - z.. The instantaneous rate of heat
a solid is usually one step in a more complicated path transfer dQl dt depends upon the temperature gra-
of beat transfer. The basic concept of equation 356 dient dTIdx and the nature of the solid.
when applied to cond uction giyes tbe foUowing
equation known as Fourier's III.\\'. Steady-Stote Conduction
dQ dT Under st.eady-stale conditions the rate of heat
- - -M - (360) transfer is constant, ,and the right-hand side of
dt dx equation 360 remaiIUl constant with time. If the
where k ... thermal conductivity of the solid in symbol q is used to rep~n t the constant value for
Btu/ (hr)(sq ftWF 1ft) and mnst not dQl dt, equation 360 may be written in the more
be confused with conductance, K = convenient form:
kA I.:U, which may be expressed III
Btu/(h,)(,F). qf~ ~ - fkdT (361)
A _ area at right angles to the direction of
hcat flow (ns in I!q ft). For significant variations of arca A with distance
z = distnnce (u.s in ft). x and of thermal cooductivity k with temperature T,
it is necessary to integrate equation 361. For those
Thermal condurJivity k in t he equation for heat con- cases in which the area is constant, .!Uch as Fig.
duction varies widely for different, materials, as indi- 398, and the thermal conductivity is constant inde-
cated in the Appendix. For parou!). material!)., su('h pendent of teml>erature, equation 361 becomes
88 are used for insulation, the mll.teriu.1 is in reality
a discontinuous phase of fluid maint.ained st.agnant
by the supporting porous solids, and k represents a.
combined effect of fluid and !IOlid heat transmission. 0'
Gaaeous Huids such as air are low in thermal can-
T. - T,
(3620)
duetivity, although t.hey may transfer- heat readily Azl kA
by OOIlveetion; but the minute fihn of air in too Often there is a variation of area with distance in
interstices of a porous insulating material exhibilB a IIlMY solids conducting heat. Rather than integrat-
minimum of convection eurrenlB. Therefore, the ing for eaeh type of solid, it is more convenient to
heat transfer through such insulat ing material takes usc !Ill. average area. (A .. ) for the area A in too fonn
on the ehara.ct.eristiC8 of beat conduction through the
shown in equation 3G2a.
Huid pha!:le: If the conductivity k vades with the temperature
Since the dflnaity of the insulating material win
T, the temperature gradient would not be constant
refloot the proportion of the solid to fluid, the con- and the integral of equation 361 may be evaluated
ductivity of porous material varies directly with the graphically or algebraically. If the conductivity is a
density and approaches the low value for the con- linear function of tempera.ture T, as when rep;:e-
ductivity of the fluid as the solid path for heat flow
sented by an equation of the form k - a +
I5ecomes smaller, 80 long 88 the gM spaces are small if k varies slightly with temperature over the tem-
bT, or

enough to minimize convection.

perature range involved, an average or mean value
The conductivity of water i8 0.34 Btu/("F/ ft)(hr)
k", may be used and the integrated form of the e.:;.ua-
(9C1 ft) at 60 F and is 25 timet:; that of air. Accord- tion -written M follows.
ingly, the conductivity of wet porous solids is grea.ter
than that of dry porous 8Olids. This is quite notice-
able in the loss of insulating power of woolen clothing
on damp clara The data on thennal conductivities
tabulated in the Appendix indicate the ehange in
- 6T
(3621
thermal conductivity of plywood with moisture and Azl k.A.
 STEADY..STATE CONDUcnON
It ie common practice to omit. the minus sign in
equation 362b using the eKJ)ression IlT to represent.
~------------~:
t.be drop in temperature, Tl - T 2 , altbough this

------------~~~
is ma.thematically improper. The mathematically
correct statement will be used in this textbook, and
ll.T will represent T2 - T l . Also the symbol k is .11: .. or r..
frequently used to indicate the average oonduotivity
k"., and the symbol L is frequently used' for the FIG. 416. Diagram indica.ting dimensioWl of aianilica.nOfl in
heat tr&D8fer tbroegh & thick-w&lled cylinder by n.dial oon-
distance :1:2 - XI' ductioo.
The resistance to beat trnnaCer by conduction
under these dt.eady-state coaditions is represented For &te&dy-state beat tnwsfer by radial conduc.-
by tu/ k..A .. or L/ kA..... tion tbrough 110 cylinder, 2m corresponds to A of
equation 360, and
w
l1I ... tn.th'f) Esample. A furnace wall to btl composed
of thre6l&ycn: r.: in. of firebrick (with OOhduetivity.l: - 0.95), dQ
illllUlatinJ brick (.I: .. 0.14), IIlld oommoo briok (.I: - 0.8). It q- - - (363)
is eetimat.ed th&.t the !urface of the firebrick, oorresponding to <It
Tl in Fig. 3980, ie HK10 F. The IllILXimum wmperature of where b _ length of the cylinder.
the insuJating brick, ootTe!:Iponding to T" is 1720 F and the
temper&tUl'tl oorreaponding to T. under theee conditiOll3 is r - radial distance.
2!KI.r. .wum.e negligible l"IlIIistauoe to the ftow of heat
Rearranging,
AttOM tbe int.erfB.Cel! between the briw.
1. Computa t he thiekrwm of the 1a)'QZ". ollllJlUl&~D.I brick.
dr -k
---2"l1"bdT (363)
2. If ,he oommoo. brick are 9 in. thick, compu\e their , q
outside temperature. .
Solution. For ~b layer of brick (equMioD. 362M Integrating wiLh k constant at the value k..,

(,,)
In -
'.
- "-
-
q
~rl>(TI - Ta) (364)

Equating the beat trall6fer per Il1lit a.n:a for firebrick and
iJUlulating brick, (3640)
In h/rd
0.96 X 12(1800 ~ 172) 0.14 X 12(1720 - 280)
6 ~ (insulating brick) Equation 364a may be written
. 0.14 X 12(1700 - 28) X 6 . 2"l1"hk.(T I - T,)h - TI )
t.z (iILllUl&UIJ.! brick) - 0.95 X 12(UKIO _ 1120) - 16 Ul. q- (364b)
(r, Tt) In (r,/ rl )
The wne proc:edure could be uaed ror compuLipa the out.llide Substituting 2"l1"T.b for A. in equation 36th givUJ
temperature of the commoo brick, 01" one tal). IIOlve for ql A
from the dat.a on the fireclay brick and UIle Lb.
value \A) oom-
.(36")
pute T. for the 1)0=011 brick. For tlle firebrick,

! _ 0.95 X 12(1000 - 1'r.J . _ 152 Btu/(hr)(eq ft) Equating these expressions (364b and 362c) for q
A 6 , gives 1M: log. mean TadiU8
For the common briek.,
T2 - 't
q
T. =
O.8X12
- - 152 - --(28) - T.)
In (r2/TI)
A 9
This equation may be written
Tt - 138- F, out.llide temperature of common brick
(2 ..b)T. = (2 ..b)T2 - (2..6)1)
A common' shape of solid encountered in beat In (2...br2 /2TbrI )
transfer is & cylinder such 88 a thick pipe insulation, Since A = 2"/.,, for any cylinder
repreaent.ed in Fig. 415. If the heat is flowing
radia.lly in such a solid, the area A varies with the
dietanoe x.
A .- A,l - At
In (A,l/AI)

This A ... is called tbe tog. mean area for thkkwaJled
cylindem. It may be used in equation 3G2b for any
case in which the area of the path through which
beat is being transferred is proportional to the linear
distance .l1ong the path.
Equation 362b may be written
2l1'br..
- - - Ik;.(T, -
""
'I'hi8 ; ,'O(,-edure for findiug the proper average value
llEAT TRANSFER 1
The log. mean radi us must not be eonf~ ,"lith
that radius ai which the temperature is the arith
metic mean between the inoer and outer wall of
the c:'linder. This la.tter radius may be determined
as follows:
Re(erring \0 Fie- 4.15, the beat tranet'er rrom inner 1IUlf_
T,lI (365) (I) \0ttt. cylinder at radiu., eqIW8 the t..t tzanal'er from r
to sufaoe 2, or 91 _r - q, -t-

for a linear dimf'J1&on such as r", for use in equation

(r - ru 1D. (r/ru
365, may be generalized by mathematical procedures.
The fol.1owing common typcH of integrals may be (T, - TlI.l:2.rb{"" - ,)
eocountered in which an alt.ernate solution to the 9.- .. - (",, - r) lu(rt/r)
integration may be made by mu1tiply ing an aVeJ&ge
q._ .. rill' st.eady.....te aerie8 LRnsfer of t.e.c., .00
91 ..... -
value of the dependent variable by & A of the TI - T .. T. - TI by the UWnent or the problem.
independent variable. Thus
k2orb(, - Til k211'b{rt - ,)

J.., <k - -'---;;--'-

~ Z22 .- XI:
(r - ril In (r/"ll (1'1 - r) In (TIM
(366)
2
However, the S8l1lC numerical value can be obtained
by use of a proper value for x.. in the following
expression.
(367)
[
., X d:c - z". A:l:

Eu:rdee. Plot the error calUled. by using the ILrItbmetie

Combining and solving for :1:.., it is found that the
proper value for :t:., is (Z2 + xI}/ 2 for this C&8e.
(%2 + :1:1)/2 is called the arithmetic mean.
Similarly. for other integrals the following mean
values of the dependent variable may t.. used liB
indicated in Table 49.
mean radiua ':'1 + ,.,.)/2 M r.. in eqUAtion 365 tie a function
of ";'1 ror a cylinder.
EserelM. Sbow that. for UIIe in eqUAt.ioo 3621>.4. .... ";AlAI
(or radia.l beat flow throo.&h a epheri<:al shell ...boee inside
eurlace is Al and outaide ~.!l'fAce lfI AI.

TABLEoi9; MEAN VALUES OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR DETERMINING VALUFB OF INTEGRALS

%11
1.
f..,
WI
:l'U -
'ZII -
, .. :.:.o(t'! - :l'a)i therefOnl Z. .. -
ZJ; +:1'1
,-

- Anthmetie nw.D

,. f.", "
d.J: .. 1/.(t'! - zu ir , .. lIZ
.
+ iii therefore 1/. .. I + VI
2
_ Arithmetic: mean

z.dz Zs ZJ-ZI Z, - ZI ..
3.
f. .,:1:
- .. In -
:1:1
.. - - ;
%,..
u....rerore %,.. . . - - -
In (:1:'/%1)
.. Loprithmie me&n

31 dz

f.~I'- .. -~- if
Zs-:t:,
+ b; t herefore ~ .. - ~ -
- r]
. II .. az
. - _
In (Wllu
Loprithmie mean

Wl d:l: Zs - Z, Zf - :I'I .- .
6.
f. 'I
':i .. - - - - - , - ; therefore~. . . V lI:" ZI .. Geometne mean
,.- :1:"" Z.

"' dll: Zs - ZI.

f.'1 v-
..- .
6. ..t .. - -,- if II" Clot -!- II; thererore U- - V/IJ"I " Geometn o meau
1/..
 UNSTEADY.STATE CONDUcnON
The fol1owing empirical equation!! "'. applicable
to h!etaogular thick-walled bcxIies, such as furnaces,
wboae shortest inside dimenBion does Dot exceed
tw ke the wall thickness were derived from the
determination of the electrical resistance of sol utiOll8
contained in a vessel having the &arne relative
dimensions &8 the rectangular solid.
When the length E of each of twelve inside edgel!l is
between 0.2 and 2.0 tim~ the wall thicknesa (tu:),
A .. - A I + O .54(tu:)~E + 1.2(tu:)2
where A, - inside surface a.rea...
When one inside dimenaion is less than 0.2(&1:),
the corresponding four lengths are omitted in calcu-
lating };E in tile fOUo ....ing equation.
A .. - Al + O.465(&1:)l:E + 0.35(&1:)2
When two inside dimensions are lees thaA O.2(tu:),
omy the longest inside edge E is used in the equation.
6.4 B("")
A. - ;:c,-;-C;'
In (A~/A I )
When each interior edge is less than a.2(&X).
A .. - O.i9V AlA,
Conduction. throu.h a Serles oj SOlid.
For steady heat flow through a sories of solids as
illustrated in Fig. 39&, the quantity of heat flowing
from 1 to 2 is the same as that flowing from 2 to 3
and from 3 to 4, provided no heat is t.ransferred to
the surroundings except through the suri8.(lCS AI
and A4
Writing equation 362 for each solid
k l_2Al_2(T l - T 2) k.,~A'-3(TJ - T a)
q-
-
-Solving for the- temperature- drop -6T across
each solid, and 5lIhatituting for temperature drop in
Tl - T4 .., (T. - T I ) + (T2 - Ts) + (Ta -
TI - T4
..,
q - -----~~~---- (3730)
x, XI + Xa X2 +7_%~'--,~%~'
;:-,-
k l _2A I _ 3 kl~2-a ks ..... As ....
Equation 373 corresponds to C<;,'Jation 358 fQr series
How where the total resistance equals the sum of the
individual rClMta.nces. The denominal;.or may be
expressed as the reciprocal of the product of an
overall coefficient times area,
(368) 1 2:11 - 2:] X, - X2 x. -xs
-UA - kl _sAl_1
+ k 2-3A. 2-3 + l:a~ . .... (374)
When using the bverall eoefficient U, it is necessary
to base the caleulatioos OIl a single area. A.
Whet! all areas are equal, no difficulty arises, but
when the areas are different, as in radial Row through
(369) pipes or insulation, it is customary, though not. neces-
sary, to expre88 the overall coefficient on the basis
of that area applicable to the major resieiance.
Exerelae. Sbow that, fOJ'Mries flow, the temper.-t.ure drop
( -AT) ACr'08IlUly portion of the flow eystem ill proportion&!
(370)
to the reeittanoe t.heroof.
Unsteady-$t..te Conduction. In heating and
cooImg solids when 8 stesdy-state process is put on
(371) or off stream. and in all prooesses in which the steady-
state period i.!I relatively short, the temperature at a
given point VlU'}es with time, and the prooeM is
said to be under unsteady-state operation. The
introduction of time as an additional vnr::tblc makes
the calCUlatiollfl for the unsteady stat(j 8(lJ'Qewhat
more CompliCAted than for the_steady state.
In rlany cases it is practical kl subdivide the
unsteady~tate period int.o a finlte number of rela.-
tively short periods in each ~f which the methOOs
of st.eadY..fllJt.te heat transfer calculations are em-
ployed, using the average va1ues of the propertiell
over each period. In this manner the heat transfer
for the unsteady-st.ate period is approximated by
simple summation.
(3b2)
In the more rigorous method, the general differen-
tial equation for unst.eady-8tate h'eat transfer by
conduction h! derived from the basic Fourier equa-
t.ion,360.
Considering a cubical element of volume of sides
T 4) dx, d1/, and dz, the rate at which heat eoters along
(372) the %, 1/, and : axes is given by the expl'C88ion
(373)
430 HEAT TRANSFER I
whereas the rate at which heat leave!! along the x, y, and z axes is given by the expression

-dQoo.
dt
- _ _ [ aaxT axa( aj
k~-+ -
ilx
1
k~- [
dx d ydz- k .---+
aT -
tty ay
a( aj
~-
ay
dy1 dzdx - [k. -:aTax + -ata( ")
k~ -
ax
1dxdy
dz

(376)
Therefore the net fate a.t which heat is accum ulated in the element oC volume is

-dQ_
- _ dQ,"
dt
__ _ dQoo.
__ _ [ -
dt dt
a(aj +-a( aj +-8( 8j]
ax
kz -
ax iJy
k .. -
iJy ax
k. -
ax
dxdydz (377)

0.5

! \\\~
1=

)-=

k
pc,.,
Flo.416. The rt;llltionsbipe beloleeo the dilYK!n>!iookBs groupe indical.ed ....wti", from the integration or equation 380 ,,hen
applied to tbe bt>at.ioc a nd c:ooIi"\t or a lI(llid cylinder havinr; an infinite ratio al leoglh to diamel.er."
 CONVECTION 431
The rate of heat a.ccumulation equtt1s the rate of k - thermal conductivity of the body.
increase in entha.lpy and is related to the rate of p - density of the body.
rise of temperature of the element dz d" dz 118 follows. C;p - specific heat of the body.
h - coefficient of heat traruri"er between the
- - -dl/ -
dQ
dt dt
(-'8
pCp -
at dxdydz (378) surroundings and the Sl.!rf800 of the
body.
% - distance in the direction of heat conduc-
It therefore follows that the general differential
tion (roni the midpoint of the body
equation for UD8t.eady-etate transfer by conduction is
to the point under consideration.

-pcp iJ%
'j
1 [-' (~-
a~
+-'(1,-
iJlI
'j
c}y
+ -clz'(k .'j]
- -'T
iJz
-
at
r - radiu8 of the cylinder.
t =- time.

(379)
If the material is homogeneous and "isotropic and
if the variation of k with temperature witbin the
element of volume is neglected, the above equation
reduces to
Such charta are available for the heating and cool-
ing of a solid sphere, of a solid cylinder having infinite
ratio of length to diameter, of a solid slab having II.
large face area relative to that of the edges, and of
a solid of infinite thickness neglecting edge effects.

e:D + (::n] -:~

lUu.trati.... EUDlpit:. Determine the time required to

p~ [(::~ + (3&)
quench a billet of aluminum, 8 in. in dia.motc:r, from &Il
initial uniform temper.tUJ"e of lOOOQF to fiIllll mid-axis
temperature of 300 F, if durin, quenching the temperature
In the CBBC of an infinite slab, in which the ratio of the quenching 'medium rema.ina eeeentiaUy eoostant at
of surface to thicknese is large, the flow of heat is 250" F while th6 I!U!"faoe coefficient of heat trII.llI!fer hili! a
value of 840 Bt.u/(hrj(OF)(aq tt).
unidirectional through the thi~kneM x and the equa.-
SpeI":i6e ~vity .. 2.70i apeci6c heat capacity .. 0.186
tion reduces to Btu/ (Ib)("F)i thermal ooodll(:tivi~,. - 140 Bw! (hrX"F/ft)
k ("1'\
'T
~ a~)-ai"
(381)
("1 ft)i end elfeeta may be nePeeted.
Solution.

') 140
The above equatioos a.re all of second order, and (;) - 0 ( ;;; - (840)( 1) - O.ro
their integrated Corms depend upon the boundary
cooditiOD which introduce CODsKlerations of heat
(T. -T) _(T-T.)
T.-To To-T.
"'-2.50
_1000 - 250
-0 ..'
.
transfer by convection across the boundaries.
Fortunately for the practicing engineer, Uie above From Fig. -418
equations have been integrated by various writers ~ (l~)I
for Vari0U8 boundary conditioos, and the re8UI~ of "c~ - 1.20 .. (2.70)(82.-4)(0.186)(",)
their labors are avail.a.ble in graphical fonn in mOHt
of the standard referonccs.l1, a The following di- 'I.'berefore I - 0.0298 hr - 107.2 lie(! .. I mill, 47 1IeC.
mensionless groupe are UfIed as variables for Fig. 416
which is applicable to ulUIteaciy-6tate heat transfer Other .methods 1I,\l,IJ,a.n,M,rI f or the solution of
in cylindeqt.l. the complex problems in uMteady-ata.te bea.t transfer
Mve been developed. The most sa.tisfa.ctory
T. - T ) methods for reliable results for all different shapes
(
T. - To a.re probably the algebraic and graphical methods
of Dusinberre II IlJld Hawkins and Agnew.17
(:,) Convection
where T. _ temperature of the surroundings. Although the mechanism of heat transfer through a
To - the initial uniform temperature of the fluid, or from a solid to s. fluid. by convection is quite
body. different from heat transfer by conduction, the
T _ the temperature at II. given point in tlle same form of equa..ion h98 been found most con-
body at time t. venient. The rate of beat trahsfer by convection
 HEAT TRANSFER 1
for steady.sto.te t.ransfer bet ween a solid surfaoo
and a flu id is usually expressed !loS
q - h.4 ( T, - T,)
where h - the OOflveetion beat transfer coefficient
between the solid and the fluid lUI in Btu/ {hr)(F)
(sq ft).
This II is equivalent to k f d.t: in equation 362a.
For heat t.ransfer through a series of resistances
which may include one or more convectiolL coeffi~
cicnts and conduetion I.hrough solids, it ~s conven-
)ent to use the OVf1raU coefficient U which has the
same dimensions as II. F or Imch conditions the
following equation (383) may be written as equiva~
lent to equation 374.
- 1 __
I + 2:3-
_ _X2 + _1
UA ,\,A. k",A", h:zA2
An important case of this kind is indicated di~
agrarrunatically in Fig. 417, representing a condition
'" zogOF
I-roF
Flo. 417. Diavamma Lic
""""". -
rep~ntatioo of the conditioOll
Bccompo.nying the tram:fer of betit through a condensing film
by tonducti.on ami convection.
for the transfer of heat from condensing steam
through a metal walt to air. The steam is at constant
pressure and therefore is at &. constant tempemture
such as 212 0 F. As the steam condenses it forms a
liquid condensate film on the metal surface. The
heat must then be transferred from the steam
through the liquid film, the metal wall, and then
from the outside surface of the metal wull to the
surrounding air. In this case the overnJl resistance
is the sum of the resistances through the liquid film,
the metal wall, and for the transfer into the air.
The resistance in the condensate film depends
upon its thickness and characteristics such 8.8 its
density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and degree
of turbulence. The transfer coefficient from the
outside of the metal wall to the air is also dependent
upon simila.r physical characteriStics of the air. For
this reason convection coefficients are frequently
referred to as film coefficien ts even though no
physically separable film exists. The Bir immediately
adjacent to the metal is in laminar flow, and thcre is
no sharp tra.n.sition between this laminar fl owing air
(382)
and the air which may be in turbulent motion away
from the surface. Increased agitation or turbu.lence
in the condensate film on the !Iteam side or in the
air OIl the air side inereases the heat transrer coeffi~
eient or decreases the resistance to h eat tramuer.
The values for the convection coeffi cient, and also
for the thermal conductivity , f various materials,
are determined from experimental measurements.
Convection coefficients are most sati8fact.orily corre-
lated in terms of the physical properties and operat~
iog conditions which are recognized as influencing
the transfer. By means of dimeftllional analysis,
(383) these facturs are cullected into dimensionless groups.
The influence of each group is evaluated empirically
from correlations of experimental measurements in II.
manner similar to that employed in evaluat.ing fric-
tion factors in fluid flow. If proper account is taken
of all factors, the evaluation will be applicable to
any condition but will require empirical evaluation
of constants ; application t.o conditions which intro-
duce factors not included in the original dimensional
ana.Jysis vitiates the results.
Calculation of Beat Trans fe r Coefficient.
The simplest method of t reating calculations is by
means of the overall coefficient as indica.ted in iua,.
lion 35(:.. In the CS8C of a vapor such as steam con~
<lensing outside tu bes through which cooling water
is flowing, tbe temperature of the condensing steam
depends upon the pressure on the steam side (aetu~
ally the partial pre88U re of the stearn if other vapol'8
are present) and is usually constant throughout the
test as Tl . The cooling water en"ters at a lower
temperature and is heated to a highe r exit tempera-
ture in its passage through the condenser. In this
case the arithmetic average temperature of the cool~
ing water may be used &8 '1'2 with r eliable result.s if
the increase in temperature of the water is relatively
small compared with the ditferenw in temperature
between the water and steam.
The quantity , f hcat tmnsferred per unit of time
is obtained from measurements of the quantity of
water flowing through the cond enser and the
accompanying increase in temperatu re of this water.
The overall coeffi cient U may then be computed
using equation 356 and this measured rate of heat.
transfer, the difference between the steam Lemuera-
ture and the avemgt' temperature of the "': -.Ler
(T, - T:r), ~ either the inside area (water aItle)
 CALCULATION OF COEFFICIENTS
or the outside area (steo.m side) of the heat transfer be substituted for the ratio of the A.rea8 in equation
urface. It. is clear that a different value for the 385 as follows.
overaU coefficient will be oi.Itaioed, depending upon
the area chosen. U2 - (386)
1 (.1:3 ;t"~ ) D2 D~
In order to compute convc-ctiOll coefficients horn -hl _ 2 + k.,.D....
+- -
ha-..Da
experimental data or to compute overall coefficients
from predicted convection coefficients, it is ne<'cssary
By reference t<I e<luation 380 it 18 clear that some
to understand the relationship between the overall
additional infonnation is required in order to com-
coefficient and the individual coefficients for con- pute the two cO'lvection coefficients, hl _ 2 and ha .....
vection or conduction.
Figure 418 represents a general ca.se of heat
transfcr with a cylindrical pipe as the conducting
solid separoting Lbe two fluids A and B. With
reference to !:Iection C, t.he ovemU coefficient. repre-
sents tbe rate of heat tr.msfer from point 1 to point. 4, A ....
and thc individual coefficients refer to the transfer
fl'Qm I t<l 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4. The first and lust of these
are convection coefficients, and the inkrmediare is
for oonduotion. Since this is stcady-state heat
transier,

a.nd the sarne procedure ma.y be used 88 in th('! case

of conduction through 8. series of solids represented
in Fig. 3<J8a. The following equation may be
written ior the conditions of Fig. 418 in the sume
manncr that equation 373 was applied to t~e condi-
Lions of Fig. 39&.

(384)
.FIG. <118.Diagram indicating th~ rehtivtl tempeJ'a tures lind
temperllturo dilJerenlle8 in a oountereurrent heAt clrcb".o.ger.

It will be noticed that there are tbree &reB8, A 2 , A,..
(the mean area. through which the heat i!J transferred
by conduction), and As. The ov.eralJ coefficient
must be expressed in terms of one area only. If it
ill desired to obtain the overall coefficient based on
the inside area of the metal tube A~, each side of
equation 384 may be divided by A2 and by the
overall remperature drop 1\ - T {, giving the overall
coefficient based on area A2, as written in 'the equa.-
tio.D,
Since the surface areas of cylinders such as pipe vary
directly as the diameter, the ratio of diameter.> may
If the overall coefficient has been determined, tbe
dlamet.ers are known, and the eonduc:.ivity of the
metal tube!:l i:; uvuiluble, there are IIt iJI the twu uu-
knowns, h1 2 a.nd ha-., in the Binglc equation 386.
If the temperature of the center of the metal tube
is measured by suitable means, !bia \"6Iue may be
taken as the average temperature of the meta.l wall,
and T2 and Ta mr.y be detennincd from the rem-
perature drop tbrough the tube computed by means
of equation 365. Therl equation 382 may be applied
to compute the two convection coefficients.
The measurement of the ttibe temperature is lL
reasonably difficu1t detenninatioo in itself. The
average tube temperature may be computed by
measuring the electrical resistance of the tube,
provided the resistance has been determined as a
function of temperature. Attempt.'3 to measure the
tube temperature by imbedding thermocouples in
 REAT TRANSFER 1
the tube 90 as to present 8. minimum oC disturbance Rearranging and integrating equation 387 between
at the point of mCMurement have met with limited the inlet and outlet t.emperatUrei!I,
,u"",,",
In pructioe, equation 385 or 386 may be used to
calculate overall coefficients from predicted convec J,"
T ..
.W",,,(C:::p,,)~<d::,T
-:
U(T. - T.)
:..:-,
-
i'
0
dA-A ... -
J,l'U W.(Cp).dT.
r.. U(T. - T.)
lion coefficients. It must be kept in mind that the (388)
area for a condensing film or for a convection coeffi-
cient from fluids to a solid is always the area of the When lV.(Cp). and W.(Cp). are each constant, T"
surface of the solid adjacent to the fluid. In the case is a linear function of T ~
of the overall coefficient it may be expresee<i in
dT. __ W.(Cp)~ dT~ (389)
tenns of eiUler surface. An equation for U3, the
W.(Cp) ~
overall coefficient based on surface 3, can be obtained
0'
by dividing equation 384 by A 3 (T1 - T.) to obtain
an equation for Ua corresponding to equation 385
T. - aT~ +b (390)

'" 386. T. - T~ - (a - l)T. +b (3iH)

MeaD Temperature Difl'erence. Jwt 8.8 it is
convenient to uee a mean area for the conduction of H U is also constant
heat through a cylindrical tube, as indicated in W,(Cp)'J~dT:.:.<". _ A
equation 3C)6 and also for the metal as in equation (392)
U T. - T.
385, it has been found convenient to use a mean
temperature difference for the overall temperature Since Tio - T. is a straight-line function of T~, the
drop TI - T.. in equation 384. integral in the equation is of the same fonnM the
For any two fluids separated from each other by a fourth integral in Table 49, and the. proper mean
heat-condueting wallar partition and undergoing temperature difference is the logarithmic mean tem-
heat exchang(l with each other eJtdwrively, that is, perature difference, .
with neitber transferring beat to other surroundings,
the rate at which beat is i()f3t from the hotter fluid (T _ T) _ (T. - T,), - (T. - T,), (393)
equals the rate at which hc&t is transferred across ,. (T-T)
In" 3
the heat--conducting partition and equals the rate at {T" - Teh
which beat is absorbed by the cooler fluid. If both
Ouida are flowing under steady-state conditions, where the subeeriptIJ I and 2 refer to the two ends
regaidJess of -.",bether their relative mo{.ion be paraJ.. of the heat transfer sunl!.a!, or
leI or countercurrent, the relationship may be ex
pressed mathematically for a differential element, of
heat trarud'er area.
If U is not constant but may be expressed as a
(387) linear functioo .. of T ~ or of (T. - T J,

U- aT+~ (395)

Equation 388 becomes

where Cp ... specific heat capacity (Btu/(lbWF)].
dT.
W "" steady.te rate of mass 80w (lbfhr)
dT ... differential increase in temperature ("F). W.(Cp) . J,T"
T"
U(T. _ T.) - A (396)
U - overall coefficient of heat transfer
(bMed on dA) IBtu/("')('F)(", ft)l. Substituting for U from C<luation 395 and for
eM - djfferential element of ' heat transfer (T. - T.) from equation 391
area (sq ft).

Subscripts h and c refer to hotter and cooler

Btl'eams, respectively.
 MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

(398)

Equation 396 may be written of the conditions wit.hin the exchanger' has provided
an empirical procedure using the logarithmic mean
W (C) Tc,.- T~, Ii (396a) temperature difference ~tl a multiplying factor )'
c P < [U(T" _ Te)lno.. n - as indicated in equation 402.
Solving for (U( 1'" - 1'e)....." by equations 398 and q ... qAY(TB - 7'04.).. (402)
39&
Va1u~ for tbe factor Y for t.wo typical beat
exchangers are given in Fig. 419.
1.0
r-~ t-- TA,-TA
~ o. TII'~. r8'/
., j" M9 1\ '\
i 07
2 1 \ 0.' \ 0.2
Since t.he SM1e relationships result where T" ill taken
as the independent .adable, the following equation
which does not distinguish between the hot or cold
30
Auid is the usual form .
o. 5
0 02
TII,-Te,
OA ,. M 1.0
U 1 aT2 _ . U2 boTI ::lAI
g- A
U, boT:
In-- -
U2 aT t
(<<>1) TA,-TII ,

II I
I ~
. 41B I
BI
~.
{AI

i:n
It is import&.nt to keep in mind that each product
the above equation cootail18 the overall transfer
,.
coefficieut at one end and the temperature difference ~ o.9 :\" ~ "- ....... TA , TAl )
Tal- Tllj
at the other end of the exchanger. If UI - U2 ,
equation 401 reduces to equation 394. ~
Ji
o.8 1\
The correct solution is always given by rigorous
h 7
3 2 1 O.
integration of equation 388. Use of tite logarithmic ~
mean temperature difference is simply one canven
ient means of obtaining a practical solution to
~ O.
O. 5

equat.ion 388. In certain CaBell, such as when the o 02 0.' 0.' 0.8 1.0
ratio between the ~Perature differences is less Ts,-Ts ,
than 2, the arithmetic mean temperature difference TA , te,
also gives a satisfa.etory solution. Use of the arith B.
metic mean temperature difference is strongly recom-

=
q =_UAY {T. -T,..J Ia ....
mended whenever the ratio of the temperature differ
ences approacbes 1. B,
In commerCial heat exchangers, the flow is usually A.
neither eo- nor oounter-eurrent throughout, and no F lO. ,1:9. v ..... ues rOt y,~ ill equation.w2, 01" rOt deter-
simple mean temperature difference represents .the minill( tho ..ffect.i no Il\e$J"I. ternpera\UrI'I tliffe!'el:lO!! inIlheU IUId
conditions within the exchanger. Careful analysis tube I!Ir.h~1"II using 1<.>. . meaD temperature differen ce.'
 HEAT TRANSFER I
FOULING FACtoRS
Heat transfer rates througb dirty equipment are
less than through clean equipment. A scale deposit
on any heat transfer surfo.ee adds another resistance 1 1.00
-U_ -- - 0.00385 + 0.002 + 0.001 X -
0.87
to the trunsfer of heat. Jf the thickness and thermal
conductivity of t.he scale are known, the resistance _ 0.007 {br)('F)(aq It)o o
of the scale can be computed in a manner similar to Bw
thai used for a pipe wal l. In service, heat exchangers U _ 143 Btu
become dirty or "fouled" and must be cleaned by ""l1lI (hrW F)(sq it outmde surface)
partially dismantling and mochanically removing
the deposits or by circulating solvents through the
unit. Generally, the fouling of a heat transfer PROBLEMS
surface is described by a fouling factor for a given 1. A fUJ"lWlll 1Fal1 is conetIucted of firubriek, 6 ;n. tbick.
eervice, which factor is added as an addltional The wmpen.tUl1l 01 the iDBide of the wall ill 1300 F, &rid the
resistance to heat transfcr that should be included Wnpel"&ture of tbe outside of the wall il! 173 0 10'. If t he me;m
in heat transfer calculations 80 that the exchanger t.be.rmal conductivity ol the brick UDder theRe condi t ions is
0.17 Btu/(hrX"Fj ft)(eq ft), wbat ill the rate of heat 10lW
is designed to operate under fouled "oonditions and through 10 eq ft of wallllUlfaoe?
\'.;11 not require cleaning at too frequent intervals.
The standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manu- Itl. If the _fficieot of the ~t transior between tbe
.outside of the ..aU and tbe .a.ir ill 2.2 Btu/( hr)("F)(eq ft}, tbe
facturers' Association" include fouling factors for a
iMide temperatW"ll i-. 1300 F, and the air temperature ..
list of services. For water, the fa.ctor "depencis upon 'lOa F, what. is tbe rate of beat _ throu&h 10 IJq It 01 wall
souree 01 the water, veioeity, temperature of the ~&Cllr What is the outside wall temperature UDder theBe
heating medium, and maximum water temperature. eonditionef

lb. If tho fumaoe W1t.Il were COOIItrueted ol an outside layer

TABL~ 50. TYPJUAL FOULING FACI'ORS
of firebrklk 2 in. thiek and aD inside layer of chrome brick 4 in.
(To be ueed &8 addiUonai Ilene. rellilltanOllll in eomputing over- tJ.iek (thermal conductivity - 0.80 Btu/ (br)("Fj ft)(1MI; ftH,
:-.1\ ht!at. """'er eoeI&.cieD\a U by equatiOll374 orequatioo 383.) too
..bat would be the &ft/J'IIren to ProtMeIJl. -1(lT Also .... hat ill
tempecature between the two layM"t of brick!
Fouling
F&etor, R, 2. A flll"llaCe "all is oon&tzucled of firebrick, ~
(b rWF)(aq ft) ] brick, and oommon brick, eaeh iD. thia. The temperature
[
B," on the iD8ide aurl_ ill 1600 0 F &rid on the outside is 95 F.
Sea water (O"ml" 3 fpll, DB than nw. resistance of the joints may be .IlI'.&lec:\ed. Conduct.ivity
k of firebrick _ 0.7 , of i.nauIating brick. 0.046, a nd of cornmoo
125G F) 0.""'" brick 0 ., i.n Btu h/(hr)(OJoi(.tq ftl.
River w&t~r (over 3 (pB, ku ttt...n
.... 125 F) 0 .002 (4) U the fu:tna(lft hu ~ IKI ft of wall of thia type, hc:ror
CooJint! toM!r _!.cr (over 3 fps, nway Bw,', are Ioe~ per 24-br day by rooducUoo tbl cUlh the
_ than 125 F) ...or
Tre&ted rm.keup 0.001 (b) U a tbermoMuple were plaood in the oeu.w of the
Unt1rnt.ted makeup 0.003 inIIubotjpn briek, ....hat tem~ abould it illdieat.. ~
Condcneing orpnic Vapon 0._
3. f!eat is being kantferred under steady oonditio~
"riM 0.001
throut;h a ahape of fire day whosP ';bennal ooocIuctivity varie.
Flleloil 0 .005
with tem~ aceordin& to the following table.
Le..n absorption oil 0.002
Tempel"'- Thermal Conduetivity, k,
Ez..... ple. The overall _fficient fOIl" a eIea.n leAn oil .Aure, OF Btu/ (hr)(&q ftj("F/ ft)
()()()ier .. ic.b I-m. l&--gap. WOOl W f.OJIIputed \OJ be 200
S92 0.68
Btu/ ibrW F)(aq h }oo. TreAted coolil\i wsw ill IIBIld in the llt2 0.85
exeb&nger.t" ips &nd leave. at 95" F. What overaU 00I!!ffi.. 1832 O.~
cleat abould be ueed for IIialIl& tbe oil eook!r1 l652 un
 P ROBLEMS
The ape is 2 n ~bick. The lar&e end face 0( the shape (7
in. by ~ in.) is m&intained at a tempcra.t<ml of 2200 F, and
the 8I1lall end face of the ~hl!.pe (' in. by 3 in.) ia m.aintaiood
&t & temperatUl"I;! of 250 F. Cal~u\&te the rat e of hu!l.t trans-
fer thl"Qllgh the shape if all tba other f&ee8 of the ,hape al"l;!
perfectly irL'!ulAted.
4, C'lmpute t he \.(lu.I length ef I_in. OD I~ plain
copper tuhee requi~ to e<lI\den8e 2lI,OO(flb/hr 01 Freon 12
a~ i-.. ,.tura lion l.o!mp.!r&lure of !J0 F. The cooling water
0
437
6 . A s hell and tube eJ:ehanll'll'" is <bi,ned for vapori&inC
n-bu tane at 300 PIli" using eondeolilinc Dowthenn 1t I.llnQlto
pberic prceeUI"I) (500" F) WI .. .wroe of heat. Rtl&'!iOllwlIJ esti-
mates of lhll ~ondensing and boiling coefficients are 130 a nd
150 Btu! (hr)(eq [t)(OF), I"Ilspoetively. T~ '~ ebun&er i~ toO be
insulated wi th 2 in. of 85 per oont magn~&. The .mbier. ..
air temperat ure i8 lakL'fl 118 O F . The tentative demgn of the
exchanl'l r ealM for thirty ~-in. OD l~ mild atd tubes,
8 ft I.. n" ,,eld.. d into tube rJ~ ) in. thick. The , beU ill to

be fabrioo. ....-d h om 8-in. IIChedUIe-4O pipe. CoruJiderinc nonnal

ente .... the tubes a\ 50" F with a velocity of", filII &lid IcaVUI
on-<Jtrc&.m oper.tion and ~p conditiOllll w"",,, It . buu.ne
&t 64 F. The kteo t heat of eondcnsation 0( FI"I.'On 12 is
may btl vaporiling at 100" F, deWrmine whllther . ,ed or float-
59 Btu / lb; t he overall eooffieknt of he&t tl1UU!fer mliy be
ing tube I!hoot,ll l!-l"C required.
taken ftom Fig. 400. ,
5. In petroleum refinery propane is n!COvered, frain 7. T&llow ill etored in vertical tanu 10 tt in di&meter and
atream eontaining 0.30 mole fraction propane, lhe b&\&nC1l 30 ft high .. hich An! ineulated with 2 in. of 85 per cent nl&1-
being ..-butane, by distillation at 250 JIII~ The f<l, 181) nesia. To preVWlt freesing of the taUow (mell,ingpoint 112- F)
P . is M.lpplicd.t:" 60 F. The disti llatc mntaihe US per ~nt he&tinC eoi l of 2';n. ~.:hedule-4.O pipe 'is .~ be illllt&lli!d in
of the propane in t be fred and ia 99 per cent propane. A shell eaeb Wlk. SteAm at S PBiI ill toO be U!k'Id roc besting. The
.nd tube heat el<chaRF' is available fnr preheAting the feed tank. are elI:J)OIIed toO temperatures I'll 10.. M O' F. Compute
by exeh",~ with the boltonu from the stilL Tho exchanger the requlred length of pipe for e..r.b t&nk, wing the [ollowinll ..
hat thir ty l-in . OD tubes 8 ft long, single paee; on shell side beat. tnl.MIIT .Q(M'ffi~;"nt.s. '
and two p&$& on tube IJicW. An ovorall heat ,tt&n.!I/lJr eooffi-
dent of 100 Btu/ (hr)llq It)("}') had been pn.-dicted with the s~ oondeillinx inside pipe SOO .Btu} (hr)(Ji'){tq It)
eold IItteam fiowiIlli thNul(h the tubes.. Af!Sumi~ the hett.t Pipe ,,.11 to mollen 1nllo;",
IoMeII kl Ix- ~Iir;ibk:. wha t is !.be eIpCcted tempcfflturo of
the prclIt:a....d feed? Out.,r $Orlace tlr WI],; to surrowlllinp 2 '" : ..
" ,
., , '.
"
 CHAPTER
29
Heat Transfer 2
Transfer Coefficients between Fluids and Tubes
T
HE most common type of heat transfer en-
countered by the engineer involving convec-
tion coefficients is the tro.nsfer of heat be-
tween a fluid and the metal wallIS of the tube. con-
taining the fluid . T he mechanism of heat transfer
.from the fluids to the metal surface depends largely
upoo whether t he fluids are in turbulent flow or in
"streamline" or viscolls flow. For this reason cer-
tain factoN! have a more marked effect upon the
rate oi heat transfer in one type of flow than in the
other. ' The more common type of flow is turbulent
motiou, and this is di~culled first .
FLUIDS L\JSIDE 'fUBFS
Tbis section is concerned with heat trallEfer by
the combined mechanism of cooduct.ion and convec-
t ion between clean, smooth metal tubes and fluids
flowing in turbulent flow inside the tubes.
Most of the experimental data reported in ~,he
literature arc presented as individual coefficients h
and correlll-teU into relatiuns expre!!l:ling the coeffi
dent aa a functi un of the flow chtttllClA::ri~ti cs and the
.,hysical pruperties of the stream.
Since fluid frict ion and convection heat transfer
both involve the exchange of energy between a flow-
ing stream ami a surfa.cc--in one case, kinetic energy,
and in the other, heat energy- both are related to
the flow properties of the stream. It will be recalled
from the study of fluid friction (Chapter 12) that the
flow propertiet! are the diallN!tcr and the velocity of
the atream, the density and vU!c08ity of the fluid
flowing , and the length of the conduit. All these
... anyone condition, such as velocity, is,changed, then
factors influence the turbulence of the stream. Heat
t ransfer also depends upon the thermal conductivity
and specific heat of the fluid. Therefore, for con-
vection heat transfer,
q
- - "'" h - <P(D , v, p, /1- , L , i, Cp) (403)
A 4T
If h is expressed as a function of sevetJ physiCAl
variables, as in equation 403, the fundamental di-
mensions selected must all be independent, for thcre
are no dimensional constants included. On the othe;r
hAnd, if' the systems I and II , Table 26, are to be
used for the analysis, then
h - 4>1 (D, v, p , /J., L, k, Cp, Q~) (404)
I t makes no difference wbether equation 403 or 404
is selected, except that the fi nal result I" '\y bave t he
dimensional constant if a mixed system is chosen.
The dimensional constant may drop out if each of
the dimensions which it relates a.ppears more than
once; in such cases no error is introduced by omitt.ing
it from t he analysia, but this omission is di~ou raged .
Equation 4().1 will be used for this analYBis, with
density in pounds mass per unit volume and other
units in accordance with system II, Table 25. For 8.
given point condition, the unknown fun ction yielding
h may be written in exponcntia.l form.
(404a)
The dimensionless coefficient z and all the exponents
are of given values only at the point condition ; if
 FLUIDS -INSIDE TUBES
% and all the expooenta may change. This expo- abies are colJected into groups having like expoo9llt.&.
nential equation simply states tJ>at there is a rela- These groups are as follows.
tion between h and the variables and dimensional
eoD.stant listed on the right. hD
Variablee having numerical exponents : _
Equation 4046 sheds no light on the fonn of the k
function. E:noe it must be dimen,s ionally homage-
J)"
neoue, if all pertinent variables have been included, Variabloe having b in exponents:
it will be useful in establishing the relative size of
the varioue exponents necessary to pTellerve that di-
L
meruoional bo;.nogeneity. The sum of the exponents Variables having e in exponents:
on terms involving anyone dimension must be the D
same on both sides of the equation. One may sub-
stitute the fundamentAl dimenaioo8 into equation Variables havinij in exponents:
4046, obtaining
Each of these groups is dimensionleli8; hence the
F
@eneral relationship (equation 4(}.1) can now be
LIT written
- .(L) (L)'
-
t
(m)'(Ft)'
-
8
-
2
(L) .(F)'(
- -L')'(mL)'
tt7:
IT
-
t2F
hD _ &_ [DIIP !::.. /JCp]
Ie ....11 }qJe'D' Ie
(407)

(405)
Equation 407 gives all the information that can
Since the net dimetlBiOllB on each side must be the be obtained from dimensional analysis of this prob-
same, the sum of the exponents involved on anyone lem. The nature oi the function ~ is in no way in-
dimension must be the same on both sides of the dicated. Although equation 407 ma.y not appear at
equation, or, first to be particularly useful, it is a @uide to the pro-
cedure to hi! followed in determining the func tion
, F: 1 - d
Considering +i - ft
from experimental data in the absence of a solution
Considering L:
from theoretical considerations, ILnd the number of
-l - a+b-3c-2d+e+2i+;n variables involved has been reduced from a total of
+
Considering I: -1 - - b d - i - 2j - 2n eight to four.
Considering T: -1 - -i - j
In the cue of heat transfer by convection, l,,'Qua-
Considering m: 0 - c +
n
tion 407 shows, for example, tha.t, if a series of ex~ri
Here are five equatiolUi, involving eight unknowns. menta is run varying only in the velocity and
If the five equations are all independent, as they are the measured values of h, the relation of the dimen-
in this case, it wi1l be po&'>ible to solve for 1& maximum sionless groups W i le and l>v;'/ Jlge i;o>det.ermined for
of five unknowns in tenns of the remaining three. the plLrticular values of the other dimensioiLess
If the exponents b, e, and j are chosen as the inde- groups. By making another SCM of runs at varying
pendent ones, all other exponents may be determined velocitles with a different set of values of the other
BB functions of these, giving dimensionless groups, the relation is detem ined for
the new conditions. If the fonn of the relation
a-b-e-l of Wlk to each of the dimellilionless groupe in tu m
is independent of the values of the remaining groups,
equation 407 may be Simplified considerably to
d-j-b
i-I -j
n - -b
h: -~3 (::)~4e~p)~$G) (4<m)

Use of a mixed system of units invoh-ing both

Suhlltituting in equation 404a, force and m8.88 resultll in retention of thE' convel1!ion
n - ZD(_-I)f).p'~U-6)Uk(l-IJC~gc - (406) factor g. in the equation. If both den~i lY and vis-
cOsity are defined in terms of either mass ,polmds or
Dimensional homogeneity is prel:lerve<i if the vari- force pounds, the conversion factor is no~ retai ned.
...
Most. engineering literature uses density in pounds
mll!;8 per cubic foot, and viscosity in pounds masa per
f()Ot-scoond (or hour), hence avoiding the necessity
for w~inp; g~. ThiS' convention, is fullowed here, a.nd
the Reynolds number is written as Dup/ ",. Goo-
versely, if an energy unit E. n.s in system nT, Table
25, is uSl'd for one or two of 'the variables, h, k, and
Cp, while fooH)(lUnds (force) are used for the uthers,
Ihe conversion factor J will appear ill that group
eontaining both units. '" Chemical engineering lit-
erature uses a.im08t exclusively an energy ullit for all
three of these quantit ~ .
. It i~ frequently convenient; and is-"permi8l'lible, to
use different units for a variable in different groups.
i\lany engineers \vork'ill termH 'of velocities in feet
per &CCOOO; if this is use<l in the group /)vP / Il, then the-
time unit in viSClll!Jty must be in ~. This de-
cision does not preclude use bf thermal conductivity
on 1m hourly basis, but then tlle time unit in the vis-
OOI:Iity term of.the glpup ~Cf>lk must be in ~ltr8. In
fact,. metric units may be u~ within ,one di.mension-
less group, a nd English in the rerr.aind~r wi thout.
error. The impOrtant oonsiderat io~ is that each
group must in itself be dimensionless.
If any other set of in~ependent exponents tha.n h,
c, and j is chOSen, a different set of dimensionless
groups will result. These are convertible one to an-
other by intennultiplitiation, and, in accorWplce
with the "theory of functions, any Buch set of groups
may be used, depending un the ~uiremepts. Many
of these groups' are kno.wn by th~' names 9f in~esti~
gaLo~ in the fields of nuid friction and heat ~ra.nsfer
as follows.
G_p ~ame
v.. 0< -DG
Ikyno.ld~
-
,
nllIIlber
h
-- ~ -
lip(;p C,,(;
St.&nton numbor
hD
T- -
(St) (Re){Pr) NUlII!Clt 'number
.c,
, Pl'II.udtl number
v.,cp
___ (Re)(Pr)
lVe,.
P~'Clclnumber
Graet.z number
'L
If it is assumed that the fUD ction, equation 408,
(:an be expressed as II. siinple exponential fUJ.lction,
using consistent units for density and viscosity and
eliminatinr; g~, it may be written in the form
h~ _'ey ('~P)'~)' .
. (409)
~ , .a
The soundnoss of this ass,umption can be de mon~
stratOO only by its flbility In correlate experimental
data. The minimum' of ex~rimental data is re-
quired if throo se ri~ of experiments are made : one
determining th6 relat.ion of the Nus.sel t number (or
Stanton number) ~vith the Reynolds number, while
the other groups are mailltainoo (',OfHlt&lt j anot.her
det~rmining t he relation of the Nusselt number with
the P randtl number, with the other groups constant;
and a Lhird determining the relat ion to LID.
The form presented in equation 409 is most useful
in studring the influence of changes in velocity on too
heat transfer cbeffi cient in a given system, since each
of t hese variables appeaI"6 only onoo. In determining
the cOuHtants z, a, 0, and c from experimental data,
tile normal procedure involves equating the beat
tnl,ll5fern:d to the gain in ent balpy of the fluid.
"lith the proper mean temperature difference
( -6T.. ) subst.ituted Cor T. - 7': in equation 382,
q = hA(-AT... ) .., GA p Cp(7"..... - TiJ (41O)
where G = VI', the ma-4/; velocity .
A, "" cross-sectional area for the flowing rna-
terilll
Rearranging, ,
, ---
h
CpfJ
Ap(T""l - T;..}
A(-AT.)
(410)
Symbol Thu.s the Stanton number hj C"G i8 evaluaLed di-
rectly from experimental data !l.!! indicated in equa-
'" tion 4l0. The Stanton Dumber, St., can be de rived
. by intermulti plication of .the groups: Nu X
Pr- I, l!-Dd equation 409 becomes
1
X ne-
Nu - h
CpO
~ , (~'.-"
-
~
(,Cp)'H) ~)'
-
k
- (411)
IT The values for the phy~ ical properties of fluids
VR.ry with temperature 88 shown in the appendix,
and temperature is not con::;tnnt either across or
'" along the tube. The mOlit convenient temperature
for evaluating the ph~ical properties is the arith-
G. metic average of the inlet and outlet bulk temper-
atures of the fluid. The bulk temperature is the
temperature that would be mdicatcd if the flowing
stream at any po'int were thoroughly mixed.
 FLUIDS l NSIDE TUBES .,
1\~~1"-'; r
Therefore, these experimental d;::.ta for Ruids be-
ing hoated may be represented by the follo~~g
equation.

- h - 0.023 (~~.'
- ("Cp)
- ~ .' (412)
, CpG , I' k
or marc c.onveniently
~
~ -h- - 0.023 ( - ")'.' - Gk )' . (<120)
Cplj 00 C[,

;-:- If the R\lid is being cooled instead or heated, a

sinlilar proccdut"e leads to the follow;ng correlation.

-h- ... 0.023 ( - " )'., ( - )'.' (413)

CpG J.lCp
,,' IX}

Re _~
}oIO. ~20. Plot of e:cperin\cntat dilta on fluids bcina: h(!:~t,"l or
cno1eJ in tubes in "'hich the Stil.ntoll number (.\/p..cp) i;,
,""..,
""
oW""
HN~>'III

...
-.
~G.. oiI

"
'M
poIotted all .. funetion of the Ueynol!$ number (~pll') foc ' '''
!!elected. OOOB,tant vatU6!l 01 t be Pn.ndt.l number v.crl k)
and L I D. .. . _.III!!IIcd'd
IGnoil

.
.
..
'''''' .
'.00 0608 I , 34 6810 20 Xl 40 lOCI
PIMdI Nornbl< ~
FIG. 421 . P loL or d.~~, on Huid" being hf'llted Of' OIKlIed j'l8id.'
t.ube!. in whi r.h (St) (Re)," is plotta.l "" a functioo or 111'.'
l'ralkiLt number (PCpl k).

(411)
.
The fact that a :-;illglc line on Fig. ~21 rep resents
,
all the data. with Reynolds numlw.i: greuter than HOOO
for various values of 'l ,;D indir:at.~s that the last
group (L/D) hll.8 no significarii:e for fully developed
turbulent flow (Ite > ' UOOO).
The exponent .(b - I ) of the Prandt.' number
J.lCp/ k is theD det.erlliinoo in 8. similar manner by
plo tting (Fig. 421 ) flog (h/ CpG) + 0.2 log (oo/ J.l)J as
a function ofllog (J.lCp / ! ) for the same data used in
Fig: 420. Th~ data arc b .:'8t reprcscnterl by a line
of II :i!lope of - 0.0 and intercept of 0.023 at

or
 HEAT TRANSFER 2
t6 evaluate the physical properties at a temperature a surface a t 22:;0 F, at an average bulk temperature
more representative of the Vi9cOWl layer than the
bulk temperature. Colburn' suggested that this
of 140" F, the te rm (}I.l p.) 0.1'
is 1.4 for glycerin and
1. 12 for water.
temperature be chosen as the mean of the average Equation 4 12 is widely used for fluids of low
bulk temperature and the average surface temper- viscosity in the following form JQ known 88 the
ature. The use hf physical properties, particularly Dittus-Boelter equation for fluids being heated.
t.he viscoeity, evaluated at this temperature leads to
the following correlation.
hD -
- 0.023 (D~'.'
- _ (,C,)'.' (417)

. (DG )UGC
- -_,., 0.023 -
CpO
-
k
p
)" (414)
k " k
When the fluid is being cooled, the exponent of the
whe~ jJ - villCOllity determined at the described PrandtJ number IICpl k is often taken .II 0.3.
mean temperature.
Equation 4 14 appears to apply equally wdl to Fluid3 0/ HIgh Conductil1ity Such IU Molten
fluids being heated or cooled and is generally better Me14U
than either equation 412 or 413 when the viscosity The evaluation of the cQllstant.9 and exponents for
changes rapidly with temperature. equations 412 and 417 was made with fluida of rather
It) actual practice the four temperatures required low conductivity, with a Prandtl number in the range
to evaluate t he viscosity Jl in equation 414 are seldom of about 1 to 5. When molten metals such as mer-
available, and a trial-and-error solution is required. cury or sodium, of high thermal oonductivity and low
If equation 414 is rearranged Prandtl number (Pr < 0.1), are transferring heat,
the thermal conductivity is more significant than the
o.m(:C)"- (c~)(,~')"-j (415) degree of turbulence in affecting heat transfer." The
inftuence of t he turbulence on the coefficient for low-
where j is a dimensionless group related to the Reyn- conductivity fluids (high Pr), 8B indicated by the 0.8
olds numbe r, Re, in much t.he S&rTI(I:"ay as the fric- power of t he Reynolds number, does not apply to
molten met&ls.
tion fact or. It is useful in relating heat and mass
transfer with fluid flow (see equation 5050, Chapter By making necessary assumption" and usi ng the
35). For approximate results j may be taken as velocity profile of the fluid, a reialioD.8hip had been
equal W fl8 where f is the friction factor determined derived between the dimensionless gtmps, Nu, Re,
for the flow of fluids (Fig. 125). and Pr, which includes fluids of low Pr. For sub-
A more convenient meth<X1 ft for including the ef- stances wh~ Prandtl numbers are less tha.n 0.1, the
lect of radial variations in viscosity due to temper- following equation is recommended."
ature gradients, which is reliable when Re is greater
than 8OQO where the effect of the rat-io of lehgth to
Nu _ 7 + O.025(Pe) 0.8 (4170)
diameter become! negligible, is Lamina, Flott
~
CpG
_ 0.027 (.!...)'.'
DG
(~) " (,,-)0.1 .
~Cp /0'.
(416) At low Reynolds numbers, when the flow is ~ar
or viscous, the ratio DI L becomes significant and
mll!t be included in the correlation. The following
where II- -viscosity at average bulk temperature of equations were ohta.med by the methods described
fluid. above when extended to include exper;mental datA
11-, - visoosity at _average temperature of the at low Reynolds numbers.
heating or cooling surface.
The importance of the villCOllity variation with
radiaJ temperature gradient for flu ids having a rapid
~-
CpO
1.86 ( ")" (~)" ( "-) . ...
\00 I'Cp II.
()"
L
(418)
ehange in viscosity with temperature is emphasized
by comparing the (PI p.) O. H term for water and
.,
glyce rin. When each fluid is heated by contact with hD
The bi bliu@:Miophy fur this chapter appear. on p. 472. (41Sa)
k
 FLUIDS OUTSIDE TUBES
F16.422. Correlation of ~mentBJ reeulta on heating I.Ild cooling IliD KJe...phMe ftuida flowing inside tubca.-
When the flow is neither clearly visco~ nor WI'-
bulent, particularly in short tubes where disturbances
due to ,)Ouy may be significant, it is impractical to
develop formal expressions for the coefficients, and
graphical representations of the experimental results
must be relied upon, as given in Fig. 422. ..
S,mplijied Equation/or l.othermol Conditio~
In the case of a particular fluid, the properties,
viSCORity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity
may be combined and expressed as a single function
of temperature over tile limited range of temperature
usually encountered for eooveetion transfer inside
tubes.
Rewriting equatiOn 417 for eomp1'l'te1y turbulent.
flow,
II.
_0.023' (f'.')
d U
(CpO.'ko.o)
JjO.4 (417b)
The last term may be expressed Q.lI a fUnction' of tem-
perature, and for any particular temperature of a
particuillr fluid the last term is a constant which may
be combined with the factor 0.023 in the oonstant a
in the equatioo
(f"
h -a - - (419)
D'.'
L:ercl.e. Compute the v&iue of (J in equation 419 fw
benseM at 100 F.
uerci.e. Plot the VIIlue of <I for water u a function of
temperatunl for the r&nge 60 to 200 b'.
.003
-.-
D"
FLUlDS OurslDE TUBES
'The relation.ships d~veJoped for convect,ion c0-
efficients for fluids flowing inside tube! have proved
fairly reliable, and numerous efforts have been made
to apply these relationships to the estimation of con-
vection eoefficientil for BuidB Rowing outside tubes.
The first question that arises in such use of these
equations is the value to be used for D, Usually !in
equivalent diameter D. ~ substituted for D in equa-
tioll8 409 to 417, but additional modifications of the
equations are required to obtain reasonably satis-
factory results when applied to fluids outside tubes.
Forud ConvtJCtiOtl
In predicting heat transfer to or from a fluid ftow~
ing in the annular space between concentric pipes,
the principal problem hinges around the selection of
a linear dimension to characterize the system. The
original oorrelations were based on the equivalent
diameter applicable to fluid flow, which becomes, in
terms of Fig. 418, %6 - %3. It ha.s been proposed
that the equivalent diameter would be more ac-
curately expressed if related to the ratio between the
cl'OSlH3eCtional area and the heated perimeter, as
(%&' - ~32) /%3. Neither of these "equivalent di-
ameters" appears to be generally applicable with de-
pendable results. Predictions of heat transfer c0-
efficients based on equation 412, 416, or 411, wit.'l the
equivalen dlameters indicated, will in Most instances
be below the me8.8Ured values.
 UEAT TRANSFER 2

h ot.ably the most. widely applicable correlation . For finntd tubell, no increase in coefficient occurs
nOI\" ava ilable I.!! is the fuliowillJl: modification of for added rows of tubes in a bank when the ait is
eq\laWon 416. blown into too
tube bank (Fig. 399). For heating
of air by condensing steam inside vertical tubes
.!:.... = 0.029 (~)"
CpO D.G
(_k
p.Cp
)' ('!..)' "(D.)"
Il. D;
" carrying helical fins, the overall coefficient for forced
convection of air a.t right angles to the bank of tubes
may be estimated from the following equation II
(420)
taken from Fig. 400.
where _D .. _ diameter of inner bound&rY annulus (at U _ 0.308v.r..,. 0.63 (422)
z~ , .Fig. -HB) .
Do _ diameter of outer boundary annulus (at where v..... _ linear velocity of air (rpm) calculated
X5 , Fig. 418).
for air at 70 0 1i' ,lUld 1 atm at the
Il. - viSCQ6ity of fluid at average tempera.ture
L..inimum crees aection.
of heating or cooling surface.
Natura l Convectio 1
Until A. more ~curate general correlat ion is offered, Density differences in the.fluKl being heated cn.u!le
equation 420 appears the best. available equation for fluid mot ion designated natural convection. A:n un-
predicting heat transfer coefficients to or {rom fluids insulated steam line transfers heat to the air both by
flowing in annuli. natural convection and by radiation. 'l"'he transfer
Convection cocffi~nts for heat transfer. to or from of heat to air by convection from cylinders or plates
a fluid flcwing at right angiu to banb oj pla~n tubea is given by tbe following equations. II
may be estimated by a. further modifica.tion of these
eqllations. F or fluids in forced convection perpen-
For cylinders,
dicula.r to a Bingle TOW oj tubu ~ em two diameteTA, II. _ 0.27 (Ta ~ Tairy-U (423)
the !ollowing equation IU1~ ~erived from data on air
and gases ma.y be u!lcd.
. For vertical plates over 3 ft high,

h~ _ 0.21 (Dr;ny-&(p.~Py-au (421)

h _ O.3(T. - T ,.;,)0.25 (424)

where T. - temperature of surface of cylinder or

whereD :z outside diamete.,'Of tube. plate (~).
J .0",.,. _ maximum mass velocity, or Ina88 ve- D - outside diameter of cylinder (ft).
locity at minimum cross aection. \I Equation 423 is to be used cautiously. It may be
All properties of fluid are taken at the mean temper~ uIlBOOnd at diameters larger than i ft. If the two
ature betw~n fl uid and wall, ~(Tilluld +
T....J. The equations were consistent. equa.tion 423 would be-
con.s~n!a and exponents of equation 421 depend
rome tdentical with eqU&tioo 424 at D - infinity.
upon tho arrangement of the tubes.1I
For 8to.ggerm plain tube, B"fX1I#l on ~al tri- PROBLEMS
angle, oj two diameter" the con.stant (0.21) in equa-
tipD 421 pasthe values given below:
I. A method w been ~uggested for makin, lead 600t
involvinA; heatto, t)te lead to well above it.. melting point and
forcing It throuah a multiple nozzle under a pnlMUfft of 2.50
, Col\ltant In. ~g. Give the Pro:;J('Je8ll de!ign for ooDveyinil continuously
M_ of TubeB Equation 421 1 ton of lead per hour from the meltinll fumfICe to the nolile.
1 0 .21 Sugest. an operaUnc tl!mr-atUr(l for the metal leaving the
2 . 23 "'~.
,
3 . 27
.30 Tempe.... ture.
AppnJIimale
Density, Specific Heat,
10 or more . 33 'F grarrM/- Btu/ (JbWF)
. 20 11.2
This increase in coefficient is due to the turbuIttn"ce at 82.\ 2.12 11.0 O.M1
the sucl.'t!Wing rows of tubes caused in tl;le fluid pass- 1023 1.71l 10.8
ing the earlier row of tuhe;j,. The meltinll point of lead i~ 620 F.
 ,
"PROBLE.'IS
2. A new type of illlUb.tivn ia 8~ted for CAoins of Do",thI)rm
airplanee. It is OC)nlltruCted of three eheeta of bright alumi- Condelll!ing wmpe r:\ture It 0
num, eAch 0.04 in. thick betwee n which IlJ'C two air i"pI!, Mch PIlig ~. F
0.10 in. thick.
H~"t tmnsfer ~"OCfficient b.'l!ed
Compute the rate of heat tnruier through the insuLe.tion
In Btu /(hr){5q tt) for a vertical section of thi!! OOycriol!: with on on 150 - - "'"- -
(hr) (OF)(1IQ ft)
an OIlUlide met.al t.emper1lture of ~40 F and .&.II inside air a nd Cotlon~ Oil
.~ \emperature of 60" F. The air gape may be
...umod to cany beat by conduetion rather thAn conwc:tion.
Flow rille (Ibfhr)
I nlet temperature (Of1
'000
200
8. A ahell-and-tube exchanger of the dimen~io~ given
Demlhy gm. / ml. 0.&5.5 - o.ot.Iotr (OF)
ThermAl oonuuctivit.y,
below ill to be ueed to heat 00,000 Ib/hr of an aqueoua lIOJut ion
[Fltu/(hr)(OF / ft.) ("'1. ftl1 0.078 - O.000024T ( F)
(wh(w physical propertlca may be considered ae Bubs~ .. ntially
Specifia heat [Btu':(Ib)( OF)1 0.462 + O.OOOl.~T (0{l)
equal to thOl!le of water) bofore the 1I01utioll i8 800t to .. reJl.ction
Vioecoiity, centilltokee' 38.8 a~ 100' F
eyatem. &turat....! Bte&m at;5 p&,: ill availabioJ sa the heating
8.3 lit 210 F
medium and will be coodtl'l!led on the outIIide of t.h6 tubes.
4.8 at 2(j()0 F
F'l'ODI ~rioUlI experienoe, the lteam-Bide coefticient may be
3.0 a t 320 1"
....lInOO COfI5l&nt and cqUllI to 2000 8t.u/(hrJ(OY)(eq It),
2.0 at 400 F
Determine the temperature of the IIOlution leaving the
ellehanger if t he inJ.;t temperat.urn is 60 F.
6. An experi ment al doub!~.pipe heat <)xchauge r CllOm.,UI
D imenJ!iollll of Exchulger of II. horizontal copper pipe (I D _ O.5!J3 11)1' OD _ 0.760 in.,
Number of tub'!11 52 hori mntal copper Iclli:th - 9.03 it) i"';ide ,.od concentric with II. 4-in. llCh.edu le-40
Tube lenl[th .teeJ pipe. The out~ide of the 4-;0. pipe is well ill!uw.t<.'!i wi~h
00 of t ubes
Tbiek.-- 01 tubes
1 in.'"
16 BinningluulI wire caee
85,pI.'I" cent magnesill. T IM, I.t!mperoture 01 the ouler . urfaoo
of the copper pipe ill JJlP.SIJUred by 10>I)0UllI of fino oopper 0QrI.
Number of paSgeII (t ube side) 4 lltaot&n tloeronocnuples atUlc!J,OO w r he 8U.rface. Condcnsins
!J\.eam is used on the oulsWc surface of the copper pi)lll, while
4. An oil stream eflte"" " 12-ft heated I!IeCtion 01 I-in. ' teel the fluld under illvcstigatioo f!o,o.s through the copper pipe
pipe, IICbe:dUIe SO, at a rate of (l74 I:ph and at a LCmperature T he n.-sul" for two runs iu whi ch wawr Wall fin"" ing t.hrougb
of 100' F . ' The 120ft saetion of pipe i3 in " furnlloe<l whooe the copper pipe are given below. '
temperathre i3 1800.0 F. EstimAte the u;t tempernture of
the oil in ~ Fahrenheit.. .. R~1
1lIe,oonipo6ite ooeffieie ut 'o~ radi"tinD aM eonveetion heat I nloL wllter kmper:ature 39.5" F
lr$.J:\der beb'een the 1111"111100 and the out.sKle m.rf_ of the Outlet ",.. tor temperatW'C Itl. S" F
pipe - 14.0 Bt u/ (hr)("FJ(1Iq It) . Tbe conve<:l,ion coefficient A ~roge "'3ter velocity th")U~h pipe 15.30 ' pi!
01 beat t.ralUller botwoon the pipe and the oil is TClnpllralure of oonderusinll: 8t<lf\.l\l zt4.3" F
H.>&.t given up by steam 299 ,000 btu / Ju
II. - 0.2(300 + om T)Ju Melin telnp"rature of oukr ~urfaee

where h. - convection coefficient, pipe wall to the oil of copper pipe 161.7" F
[Btu/(hr)("F)(sq it)].
T _ averngt: oil tem~rature (OF ). Run 2
_ aV(!raplinear velocity of oil (fpe). I nlet. waLer temperat ure IM.l F
0u ~1e~ ",aler temperature lIn.2 F
Theepeci6c gravity of t.beoil is 0.1 - 0.0001T, where T - av- Average water velocity through pipe 3.21 fpi!
erase oil U:>DlpCJ'ntUl$ ("F). The ~ili" heat of the oil j;s Temperature of condensinK steam m.4" F
0.8 Btu /{lb)('F). Heat given up by steam 47,700 Bt u /hr
Mean temperature of ouu'r ~urlaoe
6. In IlIl oil-pl"l.lee8!in" plant, cottonseed oil ill heated in a
lihell-and-tube exchanger by the <lOD!kll$atioo of .. mixture of copper pipe 2 11.1 " F
of dipbenyi oxide and dipbenyl (Dowtherm). The oil ftows
irwlde the tubes, and a rtoont iNlped.ion of the shell indicatee (II) Ca lcullite the heat t.rall!fer CO'JOlffieient betll'alll ~he
wal.er &.nd the inside of the copper pilJO,: for each 1:\111.
the.t the shelHDde oporatina pre8lSUre must not exceed I atm,
ab&olute. {b} Comparo t""""
eIIperimental1y det.enrun",J ooel6eielll4
wit h values obtained from I uation 4 17.
To ",lut temperatunl will the oi l be heated under the follow-
''';'.''
In( oondit,ionll!
7. An experimental doubJG..pipc heat exchanger W&8 con-
Exchanger ~tructed by usiag an inner pipe of Karhate No. 2 (l~in . OD,
E lfectiW! length of a tube 71t9 in. l~in. ID) 60 in. long (elfecLivu heating length _ 48 In.)
Total number of tubes 36 inlide a '2-in. sch ..'<I ule--80 stee l pi lle. The data reported
Number of tube& per p&8II 6 belo.... were obtained durinll: a a.erie9 nl rulll! in ",met< .... a\er
Tube material J8-8 CT-N i a lloy ,t.etl .... &3 u>!OO on bot h sides, and the Buid Bowinl t hrolllb t.he
SUe of lubeR ~-in. DO, O.OO6-in. willi in oor lIipu "'Ole cooled.
 HEAT TRANSFER 2
EXPERIMENTAl, DATA AN-E-2 ETHYLENE OLYCOL

..., "'
.....-
T.ffi''''''''.... '0 '
,- . - ,- .-
--;- - - --.
.t ...... '" \\". ,...

.....
_
T.MI'

.-
0.,..... ,-
O'"'''''
r.UI'. 'C
- ---
Flo.,&1ft,
IL/~' M...
R."
No.
m
'''''''''' ,C,
Temper-
Mure. OF , 00
,
c-"

-.
199.5 !!S . 2
"., 0.00).52

- -"-1
""-i....
1" .900
.\ ~- m 200.5 7 .... 0 .00057
- "'" --- ""
~

,.
.
I
...... .,
---
. --
- G. eel I.la
--- - -
24.100
'"
'"
".,
197.9
197 .7
198.7
2.5 .7
25.8
2.5.5
21 ,9C'1
26,900
0 .00046
0 .00045

.
1'. Il00 14 , 000 0.""""
,
... :u
_1 . 10

.. ,.,.
,.~
If. 10

0
" I .... - HoIl
-1.35
-3.90
l.ttro
1.42(1
'.010
H.iOO
l4.700
lU'OO
'. ~

I
n. '
n'
H.'
""
...""""
150. 5
150.5
150.5
151.0
41 .3
"1.3
41.3
41. 1
31 , 500
".000
21,400
14.,400
0 .00033
0.00036
0 .00034
0 .00038
'"
".
149.0
151.5
42 . 1
40.9
IJ ,000
6.200
0 .00037
0 .00041
Thermal conductivit.y of Karbat.e No.2" 50 Btu/(hr)
(-F / ft)(8<t ft). COM).IERCIAL BUTANOL
Determine the value ,,/ the indi vidual heal LnuWd melfi-
mnta for ti,e aflnulu.~ sio.le for tbe flow rate! oonsidered, lind 5" 151.0 18.0 17 , 000 O . ooo.~
oomparo tht"-.e vlIlurno with IhOlie calculatetl from the empirical '24 162 .3 17.8 2ij .m O.~
"ell:m'llla tiol1ll oqtl.ation~ 417 a.nd 420. 525 154.0 17.5 38,100 0.00049
526 153.5 17 .6 44 , 200 0.00047
8. A doubkt-pipc beat exchanger made up of l}fin. and
:l}.i-ln. lKloc't.lulo-40 llteei pipe hlL$ an elfective beatil1l surface
of 25.8 IIq ft. I>Mo<l on the outllide suriMe of"the illiide pipe.
571
628
153.0
162 .0
17.7
J7.8 ......
00 .200 0 .00046
0 .00043

This ~"changcr has !>oeD ueed foc preheating .....aUlr. and t.est3 WATER
InJieftte tlmt lhtre is a _Ie depollit on the beatio, .urface.
The beat tmnllfcr coefficient fnr thill depoeit., baeed on the 119 152 .0 ' .7 38.700 0 .00168
insiJo surface of the Hi-in. pipe. ill 506 Btu/(hrWF)(1Iq tt). 120 149.5 2 .7 57.6IXI 0.00148
I t ill now propo:.eed to U$Il this exchanger to prehea.t beIlJi('1l(l 121 150.5 2.7 78,500 0 .00133
Ir~''ll 'I initial tcmppfII.}11lC of 68}' by means of hot ......ter ' 22 151.0 2.7 98.000 0.00126
which ,,;11 enter the CJ:ehangllr at 100 F. The benzene ". 149 .8 2.7 137 , 500 0 . 00110
will fiow through t ile annular epl'l oo at a rate of 11,000 Ib/hr; 'M 149.5 2.7 22.000 0 . 00)89
tho hot water fluw rute will be 12,500 Ib/h r. 348 149 .8 2. 7 10M ,BOO 0 .00101
Dct,,,"uinc the tumpet1l.~ure of the beIlJi('1lf! leavin the ." J50.5 2. 7 299.000 0.00081
exe""n~r if countcrcurmnt flow ill to be U8ed. .97 151 .0 2. 7 232 .900 0 .""""
.98 H9.5 2.7 ~1 . 800 0.00001
9 A Ilerlea of heat tr&rl8fer IestII in whieh liquids were 501 151.0 '.7 121.300 0.00115
heate<.l by PlUlKa/Cll through an eteetricaily heated tube hAIl
been completed . The Ii<,uid! were ""ater, commerdal buta.oo~ 10. Dry air ill fed at thQ rate 01 1.50 lblbr at 70 P and 0 pal,
and Af' -":"2 et llYlcoo gly"...1 (oompositioo in weiCht per <:ent: to:Ia compre:.JOl" which deli verslhe Air at 100 psi, a Dd is paesed
,Iyeol _ 94.3, walt:. _ 3.0, tricthanola.mine phOilphate _ 2.5}: t hrough thQ tu~ of a eing1e-r- ~he ll ape! t nbe exchanger.
Too data uhtlllncd [11"1) "lvcn in the t.a.bitl below, in which Water cnters the !heU at 8,}0 F and leaves &.t 00 F. The
!.he t.cIllIICratUrtl J'CflOf'tcd for each run ill the arithmetic tubes have a l-in. OD flnd O.06.S-in. wall, spaced on equl-
mean of the inlet and out let bulk temperatutell of the liquid. la.t.enJ tri&ng1es I ~ in. from oen t(>r t.o oenter a nd 8 ft long.
The physical propcrtiel! of tho HquKb used for calculatina There .am 60 tubell in al l. The fJhcli ill equipped with ten
thij variuus dimensionless quantities ...ere taken at thill equa.lly !paced ee,mental-type baffles.
tempel-alure. What is the lcmpera.ture of the air \cavin! the cooler!
Evalua.w lhe constant and the expooent8, if the data are II. Propane at 1500 peia ill being beat.ed by paseing tbroucb
to ~ 00......,18100 by t he rulalionehip
a horizontal y'-in. OD copper tube. 12 gRj!e. The propllne
enters lit 7 fps. a nd 100' F and klaves the tuoo at 175' Jo..
Saturated aUla.m at 2.9; pl!ig is oondcDsi ng on the ouwde
of the tube (A. - 1200 Btu/(hr)("'t flW Jol).
 PROPANE DATA
PROBLEMS
PRICE OF INSULATION
...
.....
Temper.. Alaumlld .1;,
(Btu)(ft)
e"
"'"
Density,
~
VlaooBity.
centi- W~
T YlN A

.... I
,.,,~.

""'- .
-"-
(lb)('F) Tbiolr I
'f (hrWF)(sq ft) 00

100 0 , 074 0.67 0.... 0.09 m. ""

T~
V.l_ Pipe T_ V.lv..
""
12. 0.736 0 .481 0.08
100
176 0.069
0.83
1.00
0 .460
0 .438
0 .072
0.066 ,- 1IO.80/fl .I.XI . t2 . &Ou . 1IO. 38/ lf

Compu~
,'" 2.&0 & 0 ....
...0 10 .80
1.00
'.00
1.00
,",0
3. 7&

....' .M
').64
1.00

,...
the length of the tube:
uei..rIc mean '.ro I."
(0) By
di!e~Doe.
propert~ ud .. loe metoD. umperature
'" neo J2.:ro
11. 1ll .."
'.00 '.00 1 .10 I.M

(b) By intecnt in& t he inst.anl.afleOUB coefficient&.

12. TM 61[p&IlIIion pmt;J'&m of t he Aju Refining Company Thermll Conductivity, t, Btu/ (hr)(aq rtW F /r~). T - ~
require. the \Dst&IJauon uf 1200 It of 2-in, schedule-8l steam + O.OOOO6T; Type B - 0.05 + O.OOOl ST
T ype A _ 0.03
ptpll'll. In additio~ 18 valvel, 20 ella, aud 26 ,\.eel! are ~
ea.ty. Two bra.nda of inNlation are being eoD.lldenKi. Given 13. A 8in&1e.~ Bhell a.r:d tube ezeh.l.n&er conwlU 20
the data below: oopper tubes, 16 ft lona, lin. OD, O.06.5-in. wall, and il used
(0) Which iDIIUJatioD do you recommend and in wh&t to hellt 12,000 Ih/hr of chlorobeIUene from 90 6 F to 200 F
thicknelll!? by II&turated 8tellm at 25 psig which i8 oondenecd in the shell
(II) What ill ita inetaJled OOI!tf The exit temperature of the chloroben:zeoe rnll8t be nfain
(c) What qUlLlltity of Iteam, b condeMB<.i for the . pecified tained at 200' F. Thill iI done by oontrollina; tho p~e,
\.Qaulatlon (in pounds per bour)? I.Ild beuee the temperaturcl, at which the .team ii rondensOO
B\e&nI preHllure: 400 peia: (II&turated). on the out.aKIe of the tube!!. The control. ill an auc.ornat.ie
8t.e.m lit: ,0.80 per 1000 lb. temperature control ler actuated by the hot ehlorohenlCl'le
Coe16cieDt of but t.ra.:wJfer for tlOlIdeMinc .team: !IOO and operating on .. t hrottle valve in the 81.eam iupply.
Btu/ (hrH"F)(.q It). "-une that ~ reeietan<lr! 10 heat. transfer of the tube tr\IJs
A. . . . tlJmperature of aU: 40' F (for dosign ~). &ad the oonden$ng steIIm, and t he visooeity ~
IMtallataoD. eoet of inml&\ioo: eo.lO per JinfJal foot, ,1.75 - {P/,..),.I. are oeclicibie.
pet valve or ftt.t.inI. ' 8eeaWJe of recluoed denand, the plant CIlpaeity. ia to be
Main~nanre: 4 per OOD1 of initial --. per yt!1U'. reduoed to 3000 Ib/hr of chlorobelUCf16.
Amortir.ation period: 10 yearl. (a) What are your rerommendations oonee rnina thill heat
exchanger?
COEFFICIENT OF HEAT TRANSFER ~ROM (b) For your recommended oondition8, wh&t iI the opel'
SU'RFACE OF INSULATION TO SU~UNDING .tinK Iteam pr~ in the sheil? GiVl,l t he lupportin
AIR, BTU/(HR){SQ FT)("F) 1If)(IUllentl.
Tcmpe ... ture DitJerence between Surf~ and Air
14. Air.t a Jll'I*:IU"l of 100 pllig is healed in a .nglo-pMe
oxchafl&& oo~t.ing of l-in OD IS-gage eoppcr wbea, 4 I,
Diameter of SO' F 100' F 1 ~ F ... F 250" tong. The ait 110_ iMide tlu! l."beII, ent.erinc at wlocity
JllBUlat.ioft. in. 01 20 ft/ -. and ie heated by IJLeam eondcDling .t S psiJI:
out.eide the \Ubcs.
(0) What it the ent air temperature?
1 2.3 2.' 2 .7.5 3.0 3.3 (b) To Increase the heat exchang the tulx!B are lillod with
, 2.0
1.95
' .2
2.15
2."
2."
2.'
2.6
3.0
2.9
J.i-in. dillJOOlcr 'tee! ahot to & porosity~ of 0 .30. U~ing the
analogy between heat trallsfer &r>d friCtiOD (equation 41S) to
10 1.85 2." 2.' 2.S 2.8 predict hllat tran.der rate!!, whllt exit air tempeta.ture rniaht
be expected if the urilj;in&.i rate of air flow i8 maiot.ainerl?
 CHAPTER
30
Heat Transfer 3
Conderlliing Vapors and Boiling Liquids
C' ONDF~NSAl'ION of a satura.too vapor is ac-
complished hy bringing the vapor into oont&et
with a surfaoo 'WhOHe temperature is below the
dew point of the vapor. Conde~t:es of organic sub-.
stances commonly wet metallic surfaces, forming a
fibn of liquid on t he cold surface which is called
"fillnwise condensation." Water condensate usually
wets '''1etallic surftWCS. but under some condit.ions
may not 8.Ild in such cases " dropwise condensation"
oocprs.
FILMWISE CONDEJ'I!SA TION
The thickness of the condensate layer in filmwise
condensation depends on the configuration of the
surfa.ce, the rate of com.ieosatioo, and the rate at
which the ljquid flows from . the surface. The nature
of the condensate. film on vertical and horizOIltaJ. sur-
fsees is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 423.
Tube WIlli '
CorIctenIl\e layer
o..
Di~m
...
FIG. 423. rtpl"e8tl.lltin& film.,, jae ooooellllation on
horiWDW or vertico.l tubee.
Saturoted Vapors
The (oUowing equation for the coefficient of beat
transfer for a pure saturated vapor condensing on a
cold surface was derived - * by assuming that the
vapor condenses in the (onn of a cooLiDuous film
flowing in laminar flow down the ve'rtic8J cooling
surfa.ce due to effects of gravit.y, Md that the tem-
perature difference between the Vapor and the cold
surface is constant. The effects on the condensate
film t.hickness cau~ by the VApor velocity or by
turbulent Row of the liquid on long vertical tubes
were neglected. A reduction in the film thickness
would inc~ase the condensating coefficient. FOr ver-
tical auT/ace,. .
h - 0.943 [
klp/g(l!J{) JK (425)
LJjf(T.. - T,)
where T "" temperature of saturated vapor (D F ),
T. = temperature of surface (0 F).
l!J{ - latent heat of condensation (Btu/lb).
L - length of tube or vertical sqtface (ft).
9 - acceleration due to gravity
[ft/(br)(h,)).
Attrtandardconditionsg "'" 4.1 8 X lOSft/(hr)(br) .
Based on the assumption that 1/ "" is linear in 7'
and that there is a linear temperature gradient
through the condensate film, it has been stated:n
that the mean temperature to be used in evaluating
the physical properties, k" p" and """ is
Tf - IT... - i(T.. - T.)
The bibliography for thifJ chapter "ppett.1'$ OD p. 472.
 FIL:\IWlSE CONDENSATION

Tbe vaJ'Jes predicted by equat.ion 425 are lower
than those obtained in pnaeticc. Consequently , the
flll!owing modified forms of equation 425 are recom-
mended for pract.ical use.
428 for the entire condenser by calculat.ing the aver-
...
age value of N to be used as follows.

h - 1.13 [
_
klp/a(AH)
_. Lp.t<r,.. - T, )
J" (426)
where N with a subscript 1, 2,3, etc., is the number
klp/UTDJ " of tubes in the row indicated by the subscript,"
h - 1.18 [ (427)
"W Eu'rci.." Compute the oondeIllling coefficient for the
where D - outside dia.meter of tube (ft). bottom tube in a row 01 3 tuberl ...hen the eondelUlation coeffi.
cient for the !.Of> tubo ill 360. &B8Uming lAm inar lIow of the
IV _ pounds of condcnsa.te per bour.
fJClDdcrlI!Iltefillll.
Properties of cond~nsate taken at tbe mean
lOu. tr.llve Example. From Lhe full<>wil'll dll'. ... tom-
condensate temperature.
pute the ovet'&l l eoefficierlt, t he eondensin, film coefficient For
Equations 426 and 427 are eqltivalcnt ; whichever he:ii:ane. Illld the beat t.nmsfer coefficient lor .... ater inside the
condenser tube.
form is 1"\ore convenient lIlliY be used. If the length
of the vertical surface L is known, equation 426 is
used; if the quantity of vapor condensed per hoUr is
known, equation 427 is used.
POIIition No. I , 3 4 , ,I 7
A_..
For Mrizcmtal tubes, the following equat.ion may
be derived under the same ll8Sumptions that were
Temp. OF. 61.20 62.48 104.5 105.6 106.4 101.4 155.0
, i
made in obtaining equation 425.

h = 0.725 [ "/pla(MI)
NDp.,(T.. T, )
J"
whcre N ... the number of tubes in the vertical row
oftu~ I
The va.riation in condensate thickness from the
top to t,he botwm of the tube causes the temperature
of the tube surface to vary oon-
siderably.l An average tempera-
(428)
The /lingle copper ' tube conde~r ( l.04!)...in . 10. 1.315-in.
OD) ..... u~ to oondeMe heltll.lll" at JlI.ffiOIIpheric pl'\:l8Uro.
The thermocouples in the renlel' of th" wall of th" COllller tube
(Fig. 425) Md ,he thermomelenl gave the indieaLt...J ave~ge
re&dinp durill& . run ""itb water flowing through lhe t ube a t
22.83lb/ min. The tube WN! turood La take waU Ullllllcnr.tun :s
at eight Il~nly ep&oed. &n!I;1t)$.... indicated in Fig. 426 for
No.3. Thll t.rOua:h oollected the hexane frQ[ll the tube I\t the
rate 01 0 .833 Ib/min. The efleetive length of the tube Is
20~ inebee.
T, (vapor space)

Q ture both circumferentially a.nd

lengthwise is normally used.

o
The decrease in the average
oon<!ensing coefficient for several
tubes in a verticcl row follov.'R
directly from the increase in the
quantity of liquid flowing over
the tube. The thickness of the
Htune Vlpor
condensate film increases with
,successive tubes until essentially ,
Thel'lTIOCOIIple junction
only liquid condensate flows over
the tubes, as indicated in Fig. 424.
CylindricAl oondenseT'8 with Wires irKert!d intti
mtdlined &fOQY'f
horizontal tubes (Fig. 405) nor atIod 5Ok\"ed _
Flo. 424. rn.ur.m mally have a larger nud!ber of
indicating aceumu- tubes- in the vertical row at the
IaUonofoonderumt.e center thAn in the rows near the
on hori,ontal tubes
plaeed in a v~rt.ical sidel. The ave~ coefficient Fro. 425. Dl&gramm&tie represent.l.tion of the!-moeoupil'll
rimy be computed from equation used in determininc oondeDBinl roeflieienw in th$ example.
..., HEAT TRANSFER 3

101 Coodell8iUl; ooeffieient including resiet.a.noe of unt4tdJ the

metal based on ouLllide area, U'oD :
106

105
U'on .. --""-~'-~~
AOD{T . ....... T,~bo) '"''
(0.693}(49.03)

r
~ .. 248 Btu/ (hr)("Y)(eq ft)
I
U'OD .. -,--.:,..".-
_'_+!:.DoD 1 0 .066 (l .31t){2)

~
103
.\oD k D. ... .\oD + ~ 1.316 + 1.1825
102 .. 248 Btu/(hrWF)(1IQ ft)
Vllriatlon In Ien_.w" Inditaltd CoDdelllling film coefficient hoD:
101 ~ IIIerrrIoaIoII* No. 3 .......
.,..-.,tJI .... ~
I
IDD ~-JL-~L--Jc-~c-~c-~c-~=-~. hoD .. 0-00400 - O.QOOO'1.e3 .. 0.004004
045 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Top Anile of Thermocouple, dt&rtK Top
lIoD .. o.~ .. 28) Btu/ (hr){ E)(sq ft)
~a. 426. Tempe .... ture& indie.ted by thermocouple 3 at.
various anglet from the verticaL (See Fig. 426.)
The resistan ce of the n-.et...t i8 80 mnall all compared with
that of the oondellAing film that it could have been neglected.
Solut'oll. The heat traMfer roeffieient few copptr tubft to _ter,
Quaatity or heat traIu1t!l'TI!d: iDeludilll !.be reUtanOll& 01 OQII-half 01 the tube, &lid of tftDII-
ferri", heat fl'Ol1l the tube to the 1I'ater:
..
9" J, WC~dT" 60 x ~.83 x 10(6:1..s - 57.20)
" (0 .412){-l6.13j

...., - '1240 Bw.jlu

bade tubft ..
(20.625)..-{1.049)
(12) (12) .. 0.472 'Q It
.. 332 Btu/(hr){F) (ft)1
I
U'ID " 1
kID + h)
L D!:D
Dn ,
1 0.066 (UK')"
1110 + (12){220) I.'i'i5
Ouwdo tu'bft .. (20.625)..{1.315) _ 0.S93 eq ft.
(12)(12)
.. 832 Btu/(hr)("F){eq ft)
Temperat.ure difference:
1 '.1 0.006 X 100
kID .. 332 - 12 X m X 1.116 .. 0.00301 - 0.000023
156 -
57.20 +
:I
62.48
.. 96.2
0 F
1110 .. SS4 Btu/ (hr)("F)(1q ft)

Ac:rotf ~ Jllft aDd ooe-ha1f of copPer ..n: ADOtht!r equally _tillfact.ory pnIOIIdure wouJd be to eaku
late tilt! temperatures of !.he imlide and outllidt! llUJiaoelf.l of the
(T ",_
. , , - 104.6 + 105.6 +
4 106.4 + 107.4 .. I".""" copper tube from the Imown tempel'&tuI't! at tilt! ORnt.cr of the
t.ubft, \he thennaI eonduet.ivity aDd thick-, aDd \he beat
flwo:.9.I A.

From N;nhr oj eoppw wall It> welter: An alternate method lor me8lfUring condensing
{T-.) .... - (T _ ) _ 106.97 - 59.84 .. 46.13 F 0 film coeffidente which does not involve meaaurement
of tube'wall temperature& is that. of taking a eerieR of
0venJl ooefficit!nt: measurementa at increaaing water velocity at COD-
Baaed on ilVlide area.: stant. condeneing coefficient. A plot of t.he overall
retietance agairwrt. the reeipro.,al of the water ve-
UIO .. (0 .472) (9.5.2) .. 161.0 Btu/(hr}("F)(tq (\) locity to the 0.8 power gives a straight line which
may be extrapolated to infinite water velocity to
Hued on outside &rea:
give the nisittance of the tube wall plull the c0n-
densing film rom wroch the condensing 6lm. ~
UOD .. .. 1'2&.2 Blu/ (hr)("F)(eq ft)
efficient may be computai 58 d38Cribed by Wlleon.-
 DROPWISE CONDENSATION
Turbulent Flott' in Conden8Gte Loyer
Although the assumption tha.t the liquid conden-
sate Ia.yer flow~ on the surface in laminar flow prob-
ubly applies to the usual horizontal tube, the ac-
cumulation of condensat.e on a vcrticw tube may de-
velop t1lrbulent flow."
When the d i mcnsionle~ ratio 41V I/J~D evaluated
at the Imvest point on the condensing surface is less
than 2100, the flow is laminar and equations 426 and
427 may. be used. IJ the dimensionless ratio is
greater ~an 2100, the flow of the condell!!llt.c layer
is turbuient at. lcu!I~ at the botwm of the tube, and
the following equation may be used.
4IV )' .
h _ 0.0077 ( - - (kiplg)"
- -,- (430)
/J/rD !J!
where W .. pound!:! of condensate Rowing per unit
time,
D _ outside diameter of completely wet
tube, or
lI"D - welted perimeter.
None of these equations, 425 to 430, considers
turbulenC(' or ChWlges in film thickness 88 affected by
velocity of ap proacbing vapors. For higb vapor ve-
:ocities the coeffident.s may be considerably greate~
thlW those predicted by these equations.
Superhea~ yo~s
Condensation of superheated vapors involves the
add itional step or reducing the temperature or the
vapor ~ the saturation temperature before COIlden-
sation takes plllCe. During the reduction in super-
heat, down to the temperature at which the tubes
are wet with condensate, the vapor behaves in a
manner predicted for fluids Rowing OU~.s:de or inside
of tubes. In this case the convection coefficient is
relatively low [10 to 40 Btu!(hrWF){sq ft)l. For
the condensing portion of the heat transfer, the tem-
perat.ure difference is the saturation temperature
minus the surface temperature. When the degree of
superheat is small as compared to the latent heat, the
coefficient for saturated vapors may be used for
superheated vapors, provided the temperature dif-
ference between the saturation temperature and the
surface temperature is u!:led.2I,G
Mixture.
G~ which are noneondensable at the condenser
tempt:...-ature can cau~ severe redUCUOli in condenser
'51
capacity by blanketing the condensing surface. 1
Air
in steam is a common illustration of this. For con-
denser.! oper.e.ting on II closed system such as a re-
frigeratinA: system, the noneondensable gas should
be completely removed at the lime the. refrigerant is
charged to tile system. Continuous removal of air is
also required if there is any lee.k into the system to
prevent blanket ing of the oondensing SUrfACe by ac-
cumulated air, even though the concentration of ..ir
is very low. For steam COIldensers operating at sub-
atmospheric preMure, a vacuum pump is required
for removing the noncondenso.b~ cont.inuously.
Condcnsation of mixed vapors which retmlt in im-
miscible liquid phases presentil similar problems. T
DROPWISE CONDENSATION
Dropwise condensation occurs when the conden-
sare does not wet the surface but fotmll droplets of
liquid which roll off the surface.
Actually the liquid rorms e. definite cont.act angle
wit.h the solid surface, I!.S indicated on Figs. 427 and
428. If the contact angle (the
angie measured through the
liquid) becomes much less than
50 degTees: the droplets spread
unevenly and areas will be cov-
ered with a continuous film.
Normally, o rganic sub
stances fonn continuous fi lms,
and water condenses filmwise
extept on surfaces covered by
a ratty acid or other similar
materia.! not wet by water. J." lo. 427. Diacmm in-
Accordingly tbe knowledge of dicating contac::t a.nt;Ie
in drop",iee oondellllllo-
dropwise condensation is tion.
lirn:'t.OO. to experiments with
steam on metal surfaces containing some adsorbed
organic substance such 88 a fatty acid to control the
contact angle between the liquid condensate and
the solid.
A study of dropwise condensation of steam on
vertical and inclined surfaCeS ~Fig. 429) under d]y-
namic conditions 12 indicated the following mecha-
nism. Vapor condenses on the surface in small drop,;
wruch are generally of l'niform size and shape. The
small dro~ grow both by condensation on their sur-
faces and by coalescence until one or more drop!:!
reach the maximum size possible for adhering to the
!lUrfar.e. These large drops then roll and grow rapidly
by coalescing with other drops in the path. In thW
 HEAT
way j,he surface is cleared of condellAAtc periodically
by droplehl sWl.'Cping down thc BUI"fuc{', 1'!:q)Q;!.ing a
bare strip of motal. The cycle i~ then repeated,
starting wit h the COllilcll8atiol\ of vapor o n the Sl.lr-
fw::e in small drops.
During the growing pr(H',f%S, the surface area
covcred by droplets remain.'; s ubstRlltially constant
;ubollt 45 per ecnt for the systems studit"d).n lJigh
rates of heat. tmnsler or,!'!1Ir whE'," smull droplets run
to c1eur t he sul'fuee at. more frequent interval!;.
Figure 428 shows the dropwi;;e condcnsatioll of
stenm Oil polishl.'l1 chromium covored with stearic
FIG. 428. Phot.Qfl;ntph 8JIO"';IlJj: rlrop.... jx" lllmriell8ati')n of
~U!am 011 p<,ii8 he<.i ,:hromium whi"h hUH heen covemd with
bU'UJiC .. cid .
acid. The light. spots on thf> droplt% were IIi;('(! to
measure oontacL angle!!. T hl! stearic acid is w/lshed
off t.he surface by t.he condcnMte in a few hou rs, and ,
unless it is re plcuished, fil mwisc oondensat ion OCCll!'il.
F igu re 42') p l'eI;C n lS sueCf'~i ve frames of mQv inR
pictures of ,.he d ropwise con(lensation proccs.~. T llc
rolling of druplcts off t.he sui'fll.ec to dcar the surface
below enn be seen in the suecellO>ive photographs from
top to bott.om. Figure 42%, taken near the top of
the s urfat;c, indicates that irrcgular-si1.ed droplets
TRA~SFt::R 3
may oceur in this area which has not been cleared by
rolling d roplets. F igure 42!la is typical of the center
porI iOll of A. surface, all of which is cleared nt frequt.'nt
intervab.
Tht': rat.cs of heat tra nsfel' are vcry high for drop-
\\ise eondens.'I.tion, with coefficients in lite range from
F IG. 429. &lc",-"",i ve frnm~ from motion pictll.rell taken of
u,.opwise ~'Onder=tio n of skn.m on Il. vertic"l, polished $W"-
,=u
about 10,000 1.0 i O,OOO lilu/(br)("F)(sq ft) . Data
typi('u! for dropwise condensatioll~ of steam are
plotted in Fig. 430. T hat part of the surface not.
covCNld by drops is free of the resi ~ tan(;e offered by
t.he wndeni>81e liquid. The heat. transfer through
the d rop!; is a eondllt.'tior! pro<:es.s through segments
of spheres of changing size. The prime variable
which influences the size of the droplets through
whieh heat, must be conducted is the difference be-
twee n tLe advancing and thc recedi ng eonlact angle
 BOILING COEFFICIENTS
since it controls the size attained by droplets before 433a, and 433b. The ease with which, t~ nuclei of
they begin to roll. vapor form regulates the degree of superheat 'in the
Reproducible results with dropwise condensation liquid required to initiate ' boiling and' rs' a: 'function
are difficult to obtain bemuse the contact. angles can of t.he interfacial forces bet\\'een the vap or and liquid
not be controlled. In practice, a copper tube with and the solid. Bumping in a. flask is a result. of s~per~
t he normal amount of oil on its surface that comes heating. This occurs' because no nucleus of vapor is
from handling in a shop will often start condensing in formed until t he temperature is considerably above
a dropwise manner. If steam is not. oil-free, Portions the equilibrium boiling point .' Fina\!y 'the super- ) J.'
heated liquid fl ashes, and bumping occurs.
12O.llOO ~ 4 ...... In gene(al, the coefficient' of heat transfer between
(>, the solid and the liquid increase!! with incre'used tem-

perature diffe,rence bet\\'een t he solid' ~d the main
100.000
'"
( 3) j
BUb~~k~j~~pOr
2
00,000
'" l: bubbles
vapor he~ted $urf~ce

, ",
lU
! , (5)

VO<ticlI t o n _ In
i' 60,000 ,U ~-.
-'< LiQu id
ill .' ill,
... 40,000 '" 61 .,
10.1

'"
'",., ,
20,000 'I,
,., ".,
.
,
.. "
'.
,~
FIG. 431. Di".,;ram-.
Heated surface
FIG. -432. Diagram
0 " DlIltic tepresenw t ion
of nucleate boiling.
matic ml'rt!>lCnlatioD. ilf
film' boiling.
~ ~ ~ ~ i
.
i
q/A, Btu/ (hr) (sq ft)
N
body of t he liquid. Figure '134 is a plot of boiling co-
efficients a.s a function of the temperature difference
T ho Ih. d il'le ... nt verti 1 _ tion. 01 ' 'ertlerJ copper pl. t.. eond.noer
..... i l~ 1 dilf. ,...",t """ffid"nb .. indi.ated. The Dum ho .. i~ .,....,Mh .... between the solid ana the liquid. As the temperature
reI.r to.the = pondin ~ _ lion 01 the ..,,,dor... r. Tbe olher numbers on difference increases the heat flux increase/! and the
lho eurvOl indieo.~ tbe . ~. ". v.l""iu... ;H r.. l per -.md at t.bo in"' ....... ion
with t.I>o.u..J>ed Ii,*. a enoy ] ' '''''''.ptan w .. UHd .. . p ro'nol<" of drop- quantity of vapor bubbles increases, causing :the
"'_ <\<l" de_non lor t ho " . peri"",n " ",port<d. All _ t;on 1"',...,,; .. bubhles to increase in size by eoalescenCil. This
ma.imum"""lI\cienl . 1 abou t 120.000 to 150.000 Blu / (hr) ("" It) he ~ u .
,\o t Ih..., h ~ .... t<. lbe dropl. .. u dlin& otf . be ourl_ berome in ./1"..." .. action in itself tends to decrease the proportion of
u.a m 01 OOllde .....t.. much l ik till ... ~ ..,nde ..... t< lOOn remov .. t.bo solid surface which is in contact with the liquid .
prom<ll.. lrom the - . urr.';", und., ..",diCi""" 01 bi,ft, eonde"""tion ...... .
t.I>o",hy lurtb,.r inc"""';,,&: tho k nde ... y fo, film co ~d_li,,'" Since the liquid absorbr heat much more readily than .
FlG.430. Hea.t transfer coefficients for drop .... ise conde'll'tion
the vapor, owing to its higher conductivity , the re-
of steam on a vertical copper plilte condenller." duction in liquid contact tends to reduce the transfer
rate and to overcome the tendency of increased
of the tube surface ma)' maintain a dropwise can- agitation by bubbles to increase the transfer rate.
dit.ion while the remainder ' of the tube is covered These two phenomena of increased agitat.ion and
with a film of condensate. vapor blanketing cause t he heat transfer coefficients
to exhibit a maximum when plotted against the tern
perature drop or heat flux (Fig. 434) .
BOILING COEFFICIENTS
The change in int erfacial properties between the
Liquid in contact with a solid at a higher temper- solid and liquid with increased temperature dif-
ature increases in temperature until the boiling point ference also contributes to vapor blanketing. The -
at the existing pressure is reached. At some tern liquid has less tendency to wet the solid so that a
perature above the boiling point, bubbles of vapor bubble of vapor covers more surface and is not
form with absorption of heat. Numerous 'bubbles pinched off by the liquid as quickly as a t low temper-
rise and agitate the liquid, creating a condition fa,.. ature differences. B ailing,in the presence of the
vorable for heat transier, .1lS indicated in F igs.. 431, vapor blanket over the solid, Figs. '432 and 43&, at
 HEAT TRANSFER 3
high hea.t, flux has been termed "film hoiling" and if;
characL.erired hy d ~ren..<ring cocfficien:...'1 wi th in-
crcased tcm rxrature difference.
M any forms of equiJlment urc uspd fo r transiP t of
heat by boiling. A hundle of horiwnLai tubes s uiJ..
mctgpd in boiling liquid is used in l!. reboiler for a
frIWt.ivnatillg column or. in a hori zontal tllOO evap-
orll.tor. Liquids may he hailing inside v'"rt it:ul tubes,

10.(0)
8000

"""
(a) \Vire k1l1l Untn 300 F, nucl eate boiling.
Heat lrom~ftr II ~ 4000
per cont of tlK: maximum Q/ A .
~-
31"" ~
3000

g~ ! !
2000
- I,-
.r ~
:aE
,<
-, ,
j- ~
l!1 '000 .'
;;;' .I
'.
"
~;:! "'" ~ l:
j" :.g
l
~,
g
0"'"
!"'. "'"
"; 300

""
(b) Wire LIl!l6 than 300 F , nudeate boiling. H eat tnrufer
80 per oomt of the m!1.lcimum q/A .
"" 4 6 8 10 20 30
TSoI;;t -T,~'F
40 60 80 100

FlO. 434. COfffid.,,,t.'I of hefl.t trll""fer to boiling liq uid &II II

function of the Wmpt'rature ilrup het"';:f!ll tile lIOlid ~U11aea
and lhe boiling liquid. un

in which case the How of two plJases insid<:l t.he tu be

(c) Wire red-'.lot, film boiling. Heat traNlfcr 72 per ,nt of
the maximum "'-"".
FlO. 433. Boiling on II. he/,led wire immcl1iOO in water.''''
(Cot.Iriuy Prof. W. H . McAdam_, M~us. 111M. T ech.)
becomes It fae t.or in the mecJ.:i.ll i~m of boiling. Fluids
may be circulated inside either horizont.al or vert.ical
tubes such u.s in It petroleum piPfl sl.ilI or in a. forced
cil"t:ultltion evaporato r'. The influence of t he inter-
facial tensions fur different fluid!:! in d iITcrent !}quip-
ment and the effects of agitat-ion eit.her by the
bubbles Of by fluid circulai,ion Iw.ve m ade it illl-
pvssible to formulate a general relationship for pre-
dicting boiling coefficieots.
'Since the boiling coefficient varies with the tern-
peroture difference between the surface and t.he
liquid, temperature ehanges arou nd the circumfer-
ent:e of 8. hori ton ta1 tube would vary the Jocal co-
efficients for boiling. The temperature around the

BOILING COEFFIClENTrS
circumference of 8. horizontal tube submerged in a pressures, boiling coefficients increase with in-
boiling liquid and containing condensing steam on creased pressure for a gjven subetanoo. A heat
the inside depends upon the local oondensing coeffi- flul: of 2, 100,00) Btu/ (hr)(sq ft) was Obtained be-
cient. which in turn is a function of the quant.ity of tween a pla.tinum wire and water under 1200 psi.=
condensate which has accumulated in the lower por-
tion of the tube.n

220
J80
......
. 200

..."" 1~180
!160

~,
320 . 1.0
~

300
- 120
100
eo
"
60

20
o
o 0.01 0.02 ~ 0.03 -'- D.04 0.05
RedllCtd PrtH4ll't. p.- PIP.
FlO. 436. Tbe ratio or the muimum heat ftu>: to &.be eriuml
prl'lIIIUJ\'i M a rUllction of the reduced pre9lUre, ill !.be iow-
120 ~regiori"
100
Boiling 118 a commercial operation normally is

. ,
condu<;ted with temperature diffe.rences 00. "088 the
boiling film of less t ha n 40" or roo F and hence is
nucleate boiling. Xhe relatively higb boiling co-
100
20
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Reduc.d Prftwr., P, -PIP. ~!'"
F:m.436. The ratio of the maximum heat ftux (q/.<t) to t'le ~.~ 40
critical preo.ure a8 a function of the reduced pressure.' Ji 30
20
10
Initial adsorption of gases on a surface or contam-
o
0.01 lI.04 0.06 0.1 D.2 OA 0.6 1.0
ination nf the surface by foreign materials may give Raduced Pmsure, p.. PIP,
abnonnal behavior in short 'experiments. The ad- Flo. 437. The temperature difference at ~be maximum he:lt
dition of wetting agents to lower the vapor-liquid flu>: &\I a runction of the reduced preMUre.
interfacial tension may increase the boiling coeffi-
cient. High temperature levels which reduce vi&- efficients mean a low resistance for the boiling film
cosily and surface tension give higher boiling coeffi- and the temperature difference across the boiling
cients when nucleate boiling takes place. Since higher film may be a small portico of the. overall temper-
temperatures are requirec.l to boil fluids at higher ature difference.
 HEAT TRANSFER 3
<J:he maximum heat flux at which nucleate boiling
may still be obtained may be estimated from the
gr"dphical' correlation' of Figs: 435 and 436 which '
may be used for either pure liquids or mixtures.. The
t.emperat ure differen ce between the heating surface
and .fhe boili~g liquid which cor",;-po~d84~ the max-
imum heat- ftux may be estimated from Fig. 437. As
indicaLed, it>_\\"as (ounQ' t hat- greater te~perature
d ifferences-are obtained for mixtu~-than for pure
comPQrients: ~ ...;. ..! -.-; -
, PROBLEMS
:.. " , ' _,
1. A ~m~11 bl~!lut(Jry boiler (F~ro 438), is ~ ,to w pply
... oono:len90r ".'Ith y,,))Ur," ,.&~urat.ed ~te m: .....
, :ii.!I
. auP-P/:~ tlJi. 0"" ~uhe II.Lth<:'--";IlteJ:j and,_llle utlll.'!" ili~~rroundi'~i thu
,t va~ ---1--
14<- -- 2111;"
FIG, 0138. Dia~mmalk !'ep"8entll.tMJn of kboratory boiler.
Numben indie:..te kx:at.i0n8 of thermocoup.l~
'. .
copper tube (I .3t~ln . OD, O~ I -in. ID), and drips ...ere
(0) CompUW the oV(!mll coefficient of heattralllli'er,llOltwO:!eIl. ,
trteAm and ho:xane.
(b) Compute the l.>oilillg coeftl.denl lor he_ane, neg1eeti!'1I:
the resi!rt:moo of the c<>pplr.
(e) Com pu te the oolidelll>ini: ooct!iclent lor SIdm, negleCting
the ~8ta'nce 'of tne 'COfIper. _,I , "-"
(d) Com pu te the true boilin,: ooeffirient ror benne. astru m...
ing u....t the thermocouple!! woe in the center of tl-.: coppc-r wall
and givinl proper QODlli<lcrtuion 1.0 the O"oppcr re><isl.&Dce.
2. l:A- bori&01jol.al shen-t.nd-t'ubc Of)ndcr~r is to be U8ed to
oortdinae l-..t\ll"1ltcd- ammoni.. vapor . ~ 145 ' Pkig. TIl~~
.~. - oondk-Me~ _n..i~Vi:11~1 . tubes; (2-~ . ...o~\ r.81-i-'. 10),
.. -~ ~ 12.gfll:.~~1I.r.n!~ha.\'tI,!ouoI~ "'n'f!'J)!L!'!(.. U"nugb
tbe ,fVtlll,.!-.~~ Jn 8e~, , llle Ipoo 9h~'\l~ Ilf :l~:anged "'ilh
center one, all :,,<!uidia!.a.nt.. ~.' _ _ _
,- Determi"' -~- "~ lJaci,tyl 01 t~ CI"~lenllllr 1'"')1<Jnl ljle~ inlet
wil let tenlpedl1lre' ie 66.2 0 F jll.nd tne~", .. Wr .... te used )s
3751b/tuin. - < ' ,; ,. .~
3. A 8'JlIi:l"tub,, l,lootAtory condellJ'lljf hu be~n 'built v'
dctermfn"e .-t,toe cn.j,ll.mmng e~ffi.cionl ~ ' "f -Y,ur(<.li~ orgame
vapOfl! on tll,,- out.side~of 11.' firul~d tube. rhe ,t.ul"'! i~ coi"ipecr,
its effl.'<:tiv" k,igt.h is 1 ft, an1 tile ineideJiiArnctJ, i~ O. 5.!>-~ in .
On the outl;i.k, diere ~re.... ['!ir.. l fin'", fift<."Cn per inch, witb
root diamt'~n: ..:"'1 uut~idc oliAmekrs ul 0.1121 and 0.746 in.
n:><JX-'Ctivel),. TIx, ".wI c..:lcrnt<1aro ... ie 1.45 Ml ft. '
Wi tb "iat~r Rowin!!; in.'!kIe the lube alld
190 prollf ethanol
oondhlsini!; i>n1t he outside at 3 jlelg, the follo"'in{l,: data Ilft
obtained.
'/'
Wn' ~r Tempe .... t ure
Water .... te .
lb / min
~,

10 .Q
In let
a1.3 P .
Outlet
81. 7" F
.
removed fro~ the Iltncr e nd at the e:une p.-ure as t he s leam
inlet. Four thennuoou.,1e8 lI'(ore ilUerted in the renter of
lhe copper tube Willi , and ' llFOv i8Joni' ~~re made,.. U.at t he
1
t ll 0
15 . 6 ..,, .....
5 1. 6

". 1
, 8 1.3
l<1.'

....
,-J Z4.6 -. 18 .'
t ube cou.ld be rol lltcd t.o obta in avcnoCe u:mPertl.tun!..i~L;
~he tube as well at alo~g the tllt*, "
36 .6 -' ". 1 76.9
37.4 76. 4
The follo ...irig d.. ui. "'ere' taken when boiling hexane ..t
750 mm abeolute pre8'lure ~inll II&tun.t,ed &I.e&.m .. t 750 rom Aer;uming-the Diltwl-Boch.l!r equation (417) t be valid,
Db80Iu te preBBUtI!:. '-"- wht is the ooildelU!ing coefficient of etlWlol hued upon t he
The~COO:upIe 1 2 tutll.i ,&reM. of tbe-eondcW!in.g
, iurtaoe?
Temperature. OF 161. 6 172',3
4. what' ooDderiSinc ooeffi~icnt would be predictOO tor
ethanol oon.-le~iftr; uPon 'a plain. hnrbontal copper tube,
~ in, OD, under tbe,condWqns of proqlem 31

,'. ~; .
 CHAPTER

31

Heat Transfer 4

Radiation

NERGY is ttlUlsferred by radiation in the absorbed by diatomic hnving symmetrical

E
1!;n.l!C1i
(orrt of electromagnetic waves which travel molecules such as oxygen and nitrogen at t.empera-
in strwght. lines at the spood of light. The tures of ordina.ry industrial, inte~st. Suh~tI>noos
sun emittl radiant energy which travels through space transparent to thermal t ll(liLltiun are caned diather-
and the atmosphere, reaching the earth where it is manous. \Vater vu.~r and carbon dioxide absorb
absorbed. The' air is relat ively transparent to these energy of charw:t.eristir: f reIJue(u~)c:;, li.S indicated in
electromagnetic waves and aJ:wHobs only a small Fig. 439. Substances which Illl!lOru radilltion also
amount of the radiant energy. Othe~ gMCS such as ha.ve t he property oCerpittiug radiant energy in u.e
carbon dioxide and wa.ter vapor do abo1orb radiant- same frequency IJUOOg.
energy in significant quo.ntit;es. All substances The mdiant cnellO' impin)!;illf( upon :l. body is in
which abSOITI radiation al.l:lo are capable of emitting part absorbed ' lJy the ixxIy , is in part reflected, and
energy as electromagnetic waves. may in part p&8I> t.hrough tbe bOOy. The fraction
The geometric pat terns involved..in radiat-ion are of , the incident. energy which is absor bed cannot
tbe samc as those evident to the eye for beams of exceed unity. Those h.)(I ~ 'which IllJsorb all the
light. Thc <.)oncept of shade as related to light is 'al- incident energy are ca\l~ biflr,k l!Odu,. Although no
_110 directly appli(:ahle to the radiation of heat, as when real surface behaves fIlt a hlack body, it is a useful
one individual st,ands behind another in a cold !oom reference for comparison. The best examplp, of a
beside an open fire or hot stove. A body can receive black lxxiy.is a. small hole ill a, large empty r.onl.ainer.
heat by radiation only if it CIUl ."see" the sOurce of All the radiant energy entering tho hole is! o.OOorbcd
the thermal radiation, either directly or by reflection. by the innel' walls of the container) either on the
The distribution or wavelengths of the emission first contact or by subsequent conk1cts after con-
from a surfaco depends upon the temperature of the tinued reflection within the 'empty ,;pn.cc.
surface (Fig. 439). At about 1000 F the distribu- If one or more bodies are plncl'd within an en-
tion is such that the 'concentration of the dull red closed space in a container and t.hermal equilibrium
waves is hi~h enough to be perceived by the eye. exiSts between the body and the contA.i~er, any area
At higher temperatures such Ij-'! 2500 F, objects -of surface is receiving and emitting energy at the
become "white" hot because the distribution of the same rate. If one of tho surfaces absorbs all energy
intensity of the waves in the visible region is 8uch incident on it (a bl8(lk body) , then the rate at .vhich
as tn be seen as white light. Although visible light it emits must be the r.1aximum possible at that
is emitte<J, the greater proportion of radiant energy temperature; if thUi were not true, thermal equilib-
is in the nonvisiblc in (rar~ region. rium would be attained between two bodies at differ-
Waves of the frequency range eJl\&lified as thermal ent-temperatures. The blade body mum acc(>nlingly
radiation (1- to 2O-micron wavelength) are Dot radiate, or emit, the maximum amount of radiant
457 '
 HEAT TRANSFER 4

I .!
, {\

! 11
;j
r-
U~R . '.,
r- .w ,~,

/'

f r-
!
I
~ .c;,boo. . ''''.

"
j ,

.'
/
~/ !2ZJ Carbon dil.ide absorption bind
-
~ Water vapor absorption bind
" ,boo..dO ::':.
\.
~
<VV' ',.J

W I 2 3 , 8
~ Wa....lercth, microns
FIG. 439.
- " .
Relative inw~ty of radiation from b1&ek bodiee u a' function ,of wavelength lind temperature.

energy per unit of surface for a glvcn' terI'lperatuf'e. If I represents tbe radiant energy incident on unit
It. is all!O a pm;ect absorber. If,. the body is a non- surface of any body in the enclosed space, an energy
hlack body, absorhing only a fraction of the radiant ba.lance ILl. thenna! ~uilibrium . gives
energy reacbing tbe surface, it must also emit that l a, "" El
same fraction of the' amount of energy which a
perfect oradiator (black body), of the same !Size emits For a bla.ck body a = 1 and the emissive power of
a blaCk bOOy Eo = 1. Therefore
under the same condition. The principle, that tU
thmnal equilibrium the emiuivitll oj a body igUal4 ,t/u El lal
absorptivity, is known as Kirchhoff's law.
e,= -=-
EB I
=a,
 R~DIATION

The emissivity e is the ratio of energy which a body Tn. the absence of better information, a straight-line
emits relat i\'e to the energy emitted by a perfect relation may be assumed for interpolation for emis-
radiator (black body) of the same area ,and at t.he flivities at int(lfmeu iate temperatures.
same tem perature. The .rpJ:wily (I is the ratio
of the enel'KY absorbed by a body to the energy TABLE 51. ' NOItUAL TOTAL EMISSIVITIEB OF
SOLID 5URFACf'.B .... .
ab&lrbed by a black body of the same area under the
snme condition. The 6'tIiB.'Ii~'tl power E of the surface T e mperature, F.mi""ivity,
Surface OF
is the total er,ergy emitted, per unit area, unit time.
The inlen8ity i of radiation is the amount of energy l\b:rAL8
emitted per unit a rea, unit time, unit solid angle. Aluminum
The intensity of radiathn emitted frum a bllLCk High!.... polished pla~ HO-I071) U.039-0 .OS7
Oxidil.eJ.;l.I ' \10 F 390-1110 0 . 11 -0 . 19
body depends solely upon the fourth power of the B~
absolute temperature. The intensity of mdiatioo Highly polished (i3- 27) 476- 674 0 .02S-Q.031
from II. nonhlack body depends upon the em:i;!sivity Polished
JIX>- "'"
0 .096-0. 0Q6
of that body as well as upon the fourth power of its Dull pla t.. 121}- 000 0.22
absolute tempera\,ure. The energy emitted from a CoPP'"
Pnl isht:d
nnit area of a body to the whole hemisphere which
it sees is
Plate henl..'(\ at 1110 F
Jron, polished
'"
300-1110
8ro-J88(J
O.W3
0,57 -0 .57
0. 144--{) .877
q Clllrt iroll .'
E "", ....,. - &IT' (<31) p"1W<d as, 0.21"
A Turned lathe
On 1630-1810 0 .60 -0. 70
Oxidi~ at 1100 F 390-11 10 0,64 -0 ,78
where e = emissh'ity (uni ty for a black body). Steel oxidized at 1100 F 390-1110 0 . 79-Q. 79
IT _ Stcfan~Boltzmann constant[ 1730 X 10-
12
Rough Ingot iron 1700--204.0 0 . 87 -0.95
in ~tu/ (sq ft.)(hr){degree Rariline)J. Steel plate, rough 100- 100 0,94 -0.97
T .., absolute temperature of the body. Molten ~ t.ed 2O W-3270 0 .2R-G. 28
Mercury 32- 212 0 .09 -0. 12
Nickel polished plate 0.046
A black \:kIdy ~m its a continuous series of wave-
lengths with the'ina!xiinum intensity at wavelengths
"
from about 1 to 5 microns, depending upon the tem~
perature as indicat.ed in Fig. 439 .. The absorptivity a AllbestOll board 0.110
of a surface depends upon the nature of the surface Brick, reJ .rough
Silita, glazed
7lJ
2012
" 0.93
0"
and upon thc distribution of the wavelengths in the
Lllmpblaek, 0.003 in. or thicker 100- 700 0 . 945
incident radiation. Although the emissivity e equals ~n~mel, whil,(l fuaed Oil iron 66 0.897
the absorptivity a of the same brxiy at the same G~ ~mooth 72 0 .931
tfmperature, the absorptivity at a body temperature M&lbIe. polished 72 0.931
'! 1 for incident radiation frpm a source at a different Paints
Black, shiny Lacquer 76 O.871i
temperature Tz indicated by the symbol (I . _!
\\'hi ~ ~uer 100- 200 0 ,80 -0.95
depends on the temperature T: as well 88 the tem- Oil ~intr;, 16 00101'11 212 0. 92 -0 .96
perature T I If the m onochromatic absorptivity or
8Urface 1 (abso..,t~ of radiation of a sine1e w!.vc-
10% AI, 22% 1&cquer bOOy
26% AI, 27% lacquer OOdy
21'
21,
0 .52
0.00
length) varics considerably with wavelength 'and raper 66 0.924
l'1ast.er, roudl lime 66 0 .....
much 'less with the temperature Of surface 1, total JL.lfractoriell
absorptiv:ty al_ 2 will vary more wi!!1 T: than with Poor .lldiawnI 1110-1830 0.605 -{I . 7a
T I . Since t his condition generlllly exist.,s, the value Guod radiaowrs 1 1 J()-1 8aO 0.80 ..(l.90
of al _ 2 may be taken IlJ! equal to the emi~ivi ty of Water 32- 212 0.95...(l .963
the body (l) at the temperature 'of the inddcnt radi-
ation T:. Emissivitics for a number of surfaces over Since bodies which are emitting radiant enl'"rgy art'
specified temperature nmges are listed in Table 51. also absorbing radiant. energy, the nf!t qUll.ntity of
ene'lQ' t ransferred by radiat ion equal;; the energy
the Stefan-Bolumallu law, . emitted minus the energy ah..orbed . . For a body at
This teI"tioJJ8hip, kr.own &II
may be derived from thennodylltlJni~ reb~pe.. (See
meren(le lOu:, p. 472.) The bibliogmphy Jor tJ,," ~h"l>t.er llppetu'll on p. 472.
 HEAT TRANSFER
temperature 1\ enclosed by surroundings at thc
temperature T" the rate of heat transfcr from I to 2
is ..
(432)
0'
~E l73o[el (.~y - al _ 2 ('~Yl
Btu/ (hr){sq ft) (433)
It is convenient for slide-mle manipulation to
place arbitrarily the 10- 1' of the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant in t.he denominator of the woolute tem-
perature as in equatiOl:! 433 if T is greater than 1000;
if 'i'isless than 1000, <1 may he written 0.173 X 10-3,
with t.he temperature term written ( T/ lOO)'. Tbis
equation is useful for computing the radiation be-
tween an enclosed object and its surroundings when
the object is SII18I1 compared to its sUlTOUndings.
If the body absorbing the radiatiun absorbs all
wavelengths'with the 8:l.me abwrptivity, the body
is called a gray body and its total absorptivity a is
independent of the energy distribut.ion in the incident
radiation. In such a ease the emissivity e l may be
used as the absorptivity al_2, since a l_ 2 '" al.1 ,.. "1'
The asSumption of gray body condioolU simplifies
the calculations, ~ equation 433 t.hen becomes
JIIu"uull"e F...... mple. A furllaCf! with & vertical door
3 ft by 4 It ia looa.t.ed in t he middle of a luge room. The door
1$ made ot CIlI!L iron and is oxiiliaed. The outer "".f!We of the
door is at 340 ji' . The wallN of t lte room !lnd ita oontenta
which the door "",~~" a.n, at \150 F . How much heat is beina:
t.ranIlfernxl from thc door uy nu:.liation a.nd cunvccwon!
Solution. Equation' 433 msy be used directly, Bubo:rt.itUt.o.
ing tile valuCli for t he a bsolute t.em peratur(lII ,of 800- Rankine
for TI and MS" Rankine for T, . Some jud&:f1lCnt 1$ required
in Ulimatin(/; th., value for the emi!l3iv!ty lland the abeorti"ity
01_1- By referrin" 1.0 Table61 tor ClI!Il iron oxidized at 1100' F
a.nd MllUmint; a liuear n:,latiouship for t he emiem";ly 114 a
function of temperature, tbe emiseivity fmlD the oxKli~ed
cut iron door ill. l'l!itimllted l1li 0.63 at 340' F. Assuming the
ab80rptivity of thu iron su rface a t 340 F to be dependen t
primarily upon the charac ter of the r!l.diation iJlddcnt to it,
the absorptivity 0) ._ 1 for t he he .. t.-ab80rbing 8UriaCCl at the
temperature of the iru:iokn t radiat ion (95" F) is taken all nqual
to the cmi""ivity or the iron surface at 95 ~' or 0.58.
The I;llloecripUi ind icate the direction of eneflO' t.r&Wifer
from the fi r~t to tbe fIfl<'Ond. as from I to 2 in equations 4:32
an d 433, in all ClIGI'" exccpt t hat of IIhwrptivity, u.
4,
(<33)
_ 1730 X 12 [0.63 eOOI:x,340)4 _ M8 (~~ 95) I]
- 2O,SOO(O.63 X 0.408 - 0.58 X 0.(010)
- 4250 Btu/ hr
or, if the door;" MBu med In be "gray,"
q - 20,800 X 0 .63 (0 .408 - 0.091) '4S4)
- 4160 Bw/ h.
In addi tion to the heat t rtUlllferrud by radiation, in this
ease with the fumaoe surrounded by lLir at 95 F , there win
be an additlonal3480 Btu traDllfelT'Cd by nAlurai convection.
ThiB is computed by equatjon 382, oonl the value for the
convection coeffioient all oomputed from eqUlLtion 424 IIIl
{oUoW&
q. - IIA (TI - Ti) (382)
II _ 0 .3(340 - 95)-':' - 1.185 (424)
q. - US.') X 12(340 - 9.5) - 3480 Btu/hr
This would make a total heat tr&nafer {rom the verl.'ea.! CNt
iron door of 7730 Btu/hr by radiatJon and OOrtvection.
_ Tbe overall results for solids sre about t.he same
whether they are assumed to be ~y bodies or not .
The uncertainty due to difficulties in describing the
surface is probably less than that involved in esti~
mating emissivities from tabulat-od values. For
these reasons solids are often !I.SSlImcd to be gray
bodies because of the greater ease in computation.
A fiat surface, BIlch as _t.hc furnACe door, emit.'!
radiation throughout the hemisphere which the sur-
face "sees." The greatest intensity of this radiation
is in a direction normal to the surface, and the
intensity in the direcHon of a. small angle with the
surface may be quite different. The total nonnal
emissivities given in Table 51 inelude the .totnl
spectrum for wa.ves normal to the surface but may
be used for most cases as the average hemispherieal
radiation. For most nonmetallic or unpolished metal
surfaces the total hemispherical emissivity is approx-
imately equal-to t he normal value given in Ta15le 51.
The radiation considered in the illustrative ex-
ample is a special case in whieb the body, or surface,
is completely surrounded by a. black body. Under
sueb eOl1ditiOll8 the entire hemisphere which the
surfa.ce "sees" is substantially u'niform, and the
emissivities given in Table 51 may be used direcUy .
The same cond ition exists betwten two infirute
parallel planes.
 GE01HETRJC FACTO RS 461
When r adiation between two solids or surfaoos is
being considered, each of which has limited dimen~
sions, the entire hemisphere seen by the solids docs
.... -
{)()mhininj!: the net interehangeof ~ncrgy from d."-I In dA, is
" e"J_J T l'dA, CUIl9J11.ItCOOltl, - .. ~ , _ tTt"d.i I etlOl , ,,tA,eoe6r
.r
not rcpresent uniform radiating conditions, and the q1,l - oT{dA, cOS 91dA~ co~ 8r),"\Gt_ ,1'I' - t tlll..,.."I"r')/".r! (43(;)
interchange of energy by radiation between suriaces E ..erd.c. Show that for_ tWn hlack l'e'etangular. planes
depends to a large extent upon the geometry of the intclgectinr.: at right ang ......, &8 a "0.11 and II ceiling, wil h a
syslt>.m. common length z ,.nd ..... idth!! y and '. the net ruditult cncl'lO'
t ransfer i~ IPven by evaluating t~ integral (!!(''O Fig. 441).
JUu"lr.tl~'e E ...... p}e. Indieaw the comput,j,tion 01 the
In ten:ha~ of radilwl e ncrcy be~ .."CO:n
in nil. 440.
surl"aco:s dA L aod dA :
9t" - {il " '(z'+!I
-i,,.fffi "My"'"
Q+n 0 . (437)

..
'
dA.
Formal integration of sll('.h eXpl1'88ions is u!>unlly
too tediolls for engineering llpplicati.)n. Bu t, when
necess8.ry, an approximate va lqe for the interchange
, of energy may be obtained lUI follows:
1. Subdivide each surface inl.u portions.
2, Compute the net interchange of energ.v per
dA, dA. unit area of surface 1 betw~n one uf thE!!le portion!!
on surface I and each portion un surface 2.
Fla. 440. Coomr.lri"al fll(:W in rad iation ; d<.'l'ivation of C08ine 3. The summation of theac interchanges is the
10. .... by integration ~ hro,,&n .. 80Iid angle.
total int.erchange per un it area of that portion of
Solutinn. The portinn of the encl"KY emitted by dA I \.:hich surface 1.
is intercepted by dA! is proportional to the pl'(l)<~ted &reB!! 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for a number of repre-
dill' a nd d.4t' o( ~he ~"'n IJU rfll.Oe5 nllrtual to radiant beam and sentative portions of surface 1.
inVl'.l'1ely proportkm....1 til. th~ IIQllare of t he distance. between 5. Ave rage the summations and multiply this
the Burfaa", . Ir" and tit lU~ th.e reIIprlctive angle! between tho
average value by t.he totAl area uf surfncc 1.
nonnals to tho aurfaoes antl .the radiant ~am, and i indiCII.tes
the intenl!ity nf radiation. the energy intemJpted by dA, ill
idA1'dA, idlllCOillLdA!e<lI!tIt GEQI\1.l"TRIC FACTORS
(435)
For finite black bodie~, th~ net e:o;:chMge can be
evaluated by including in. the l)Mie interthlUlge eIUa.--
F'.., uation 435 ill frequently called d,e eosi ne !,row_ TIle pro-
portiunAlity constant i may he e"ahated by eipreel!inl! equa- tion 432 a geometry factor wh ich is the )"3.liu of
tion 435 in terlTlll of the solid ang'" d.. of Fig. 440 IL.& folloW\!interchange per unit area of one surfar,e to the int er~
idAI CClll6, {d~!' ) - idAt_'I &" change per unit area that would take place between
two infinite paralle l- black planes. The lIymbol
Sinee a IIOlid angle i~ definer{ ..., the area 5IIbtendcd upon tM F1,2 is used to define t he fl'acti{'n of the radiation
~lLrf",CC of a hami~phere of I'l\dius r divided by the IlI1U&1"e of
th e f","iU8.
leaving surface A I in all directions that. is intercepted
The total energy emi t!.od by ODe side of the su rface dA, will by surface A 2
hI: absorbed by a 8UlTotmding bemiaphere of JadiUI T and i8 The basis for the derivalion of the gcome.lrieal
ther"fore fact.ors is indicated in J1'ig. UO and the il!u~trative
El d_~, .. iJ.~dA'co!~ldw _ iTdA I (43.10) example and exercise above. Consider the linei 1
and "2 as representing ,areas of plal\('" normal to t I,e
The e mi!!Si"e power E is defined from ~ Iuatioo 43 1 paper. The radiation per un it time q, ... 2 frum area
E T ' d)'1 Al intercepted by the area A2 is Pt'uporlional to t he
I - .. e, I - , ,,. dAI
apparent area At' as viewed from At. Also, the
SoI"io for t,
1. - -
B, _ _"e ,_T,~ proport.ion of the beam emi t ted from AI i hat i!l
interoopted by A2 is proportional to the ap pnn.'flt
Th~ a mount of l'\I.diant energy emitted by dA, which is area A 2 ' of area A2 ta.ken n ormal til the beam.
i'ltcroepted by dil l may be evaJuat.Ad in',. mlUIIII;!" eimilar to These apparent arctl.:! are freqllrnt l.v czdled projected
equal"", 435. Subilti~ f.inll tt.e abov .. expm!Sioo for i and areas as they are the projoclillil IIf lhe urea un II.
 IlEA T TRANSFEl1 "
plane normal to the beam. Furthermore, the radia-
tion received at area A , varies inversely as the
square of the distance separating Al and A 2, as
indicated in Fig. 440. Values of the geometrical
factor F have been calculated for various surface
arrangements, BSSuming that the emissivity ~ is
constant and independent of temperature.':..:n This
assumption is exact for black surfa.ces and reasonably
good for most nonmetallic or tarnished, unpolished
metal surfaces which are approximately gray bodies.
The choiee of either area and its corresponding
geometric factor is arbitrary.
Also, when all .bodies or spaces receiving radiant
energy from the body or 8urface AI are considered,
it follbws that
FI,I + F1,2 + FI ~ + Fi.. + etc. - 1 (439)
And, when Al eao see no part of itBeU, PI.1 .. O.
Figure 441 gives the numerical value for the geo-
metric factor F for radiation between adjacent reo-

II I
~
i>'
~
-- I\IO\tt\IIM til
perper.r:licul 1l' "'"""

/ V LB
-
V
~ ........... _... ,...
r _ ,.('-'cIh 01 uniqw
oidIoithilt..o;tlnclo

/
/
V ~ _.
Ir _~is
bastlf (~ of
aw,,,,,,,,, ....). :1" In
V V !:;::: l--: x ,Olio, (./Ilth 0I...,;q",
sid. of _ _ l1&li) ~

/ / V (~of 0)tIW0tt"
In~

~ ~ r:; b; ~ j--- f-
r.-- l-
I!"::':

02 L3,.
.I:
L6 0 1.0
0lmt!IsI0II RItIo, * 2J) 3Jl .., 6.0 8.0 10 ~

FlO. 1 . Geometric lhape factor for radiation between adjacent recl&Dgle. in perpendicular planftl.-

Some of these values are plotted in Figs. 441 and
442 as indicated. For problems involving different
areas of surfaces 1 and 2 , the values of F 1 ,2 will
differ from P,.I. This is evident from a consideration
of black bodies.
The product AlP!" equals the product A,F,,\, as
otherwise there would be a net transfer of energy
when the two surfaces are at the spme temperature.
tangles in perpendicular planes, obtained by applica.-
tion or equation 436.
II the radiating surfaces are directly opposed
parallel planes not connected by rerractory or other
radiating or reflecting surf&ee$, the value for geo-
metric fact.<lr P is given by the lower rour curves in
Fig. 442 as indicated,
If there are refractory surfaoes between. the parallel
radia~ing planes, but with no net radiant heat flux
to or from the refractory surfaces, the unknown
refractory surface temperatures may be eliminated
by energy baIances, giving equation 440 for the
energy transferred by rbrliation from Al to A, by
 GEOMETRIC FAcroRS
the combinoo mechanism of direct radiation plus surfaces as would be transferred between unit areas
reradiation from the refractory surfaoes. in two infinite planes. 'The addition of the refract.ory
walla has more than doubled thc rate of heat
II "" ,:P;:;AI (TI4 - Til) tl"3JlSfer.
_ crP;:;A,(T I 4 - T,4) (440) If an enclosu~ such as the interior or the furn ace
may be divided into several radiating surfaces such
where P is the geometrical factor, including the as A I. A,.
etc. and the rest of the enclosure may be
effeets of refractory walls between black parallel regarded as reradiating refractory surface AR at a
plan... unifonn temperature TR , the factor 1'1.2 ma.y be

0.'

,,,
............ c.n..r",y
....... ,
~

-......2:1 _ _

~ . bo&

SicIt ~
Ratio. Diii..... : : - PiiI\H
F .G. 442. Geometric f&eton! Ii' &00 F foc radiation between po.rallel pI.nee."'

The effect of the refractory walls in increasing the expressed in terlD8 of the di rect geometric fa.ctors ~F
rate of heat trnnsfer between the parallel planes is , lUIfollows.
indicated by comparing the four. upper lines in Fig. ('41)
442 with the four lower lincs. For example, consider
two square parallel planes with the distance between If there are only two heat tru.nsfer surfaces involved,
them eqUli\ to one side of the square. The direct equation 441 m&y be reduced to a more convenient
radiation between these two planes is given by curve fonn (equation 442) by SUbstituting from equations
number 2 in. Fig: 442 as 20 per cent of the radiation A.FI,R - AM-FR ... A,1',.R ;;; AR1'R.t,and PR . +FR_t
that would be transferred between unit areas in two + PR R = 1, as obtained from equatioiUl 4-38 a.nd 43Q.
infinite panulel planes. If these two parallel planes 1
are connected by Ilon(:onducting but reradiatiog 1'1.2 - II.., + --....:.--
1 Ai 1
(442)
walls, about 53 per ceDt as mt:eh energy would be -+ - -
FJ,R A,Fs,Jt
transferred per unit area between the two parallel
 REA T TRANSFER "
If neither Al nor A2 can see itself, that is, if each faces through mul tiple refieclitlf!s and summing up
surfaro is free of negative cI_lrvature, FI ,I and Y' .2 . appropriate terms of these infinite aeries to represent
are each equal to zero, and eWHltion 443 applies. the total flux in each zone. This cx ~remely tedious
procedure can be simplified in some cases, for in-
F1,R =. i - Fl,2 and F 2:R =< 1 - Fu stance, in an enclosure containing only a heat souroo
2
F _ A2 - A JF u (443) and a heat. sink, both gray, the remainder being
1,2 - Al+ A2 2A IFI.2 diffuse-reflecting refractories.
The transfer of heal. due to the combined mecha-
The lise of equation 4.\3 requires the evaluation of ril:lffiS of direct radiation, r(mu:liation from refractory
only one geomctric factor. It is based on the as- ISUrfaces, and multiple reflection within the e'ncl08ure
sumption tha t t.he refractory tempe rature is uni- may be expresacd. as foll ows.
fonn throughout I-he interior of the furnace. t
If it is del:lircd to find the ste~y-state valtie Cor"the ql.2 - crA,ffl.2 (T l - T 2' )
Icmperatu;c of a rofmctory surfe.oo for which equa- _ crA 2 ff 2 1 (7't' - . 1'24) (445)
tion H3 o.pplics, the following relationship may be
derivoo. Thf'i factor ;r includes the geometry and emissivity
factors and may be evaluated [or this case W:I follows.
7'R" = (A I - A 1 F 12 ) T I " + (A 2 - A IP1.2) T24 (444) 1
+ (A 2
(AI A 1 F 1,2) A 1 F 1 ,2)

where Tit '" lhe temperature of the refraetory sur-

!F
1
,2 = _1_+ (2. _1) + A, (~ _ 1) (446)

face under sleady-st.a.te conditions.

ALWWANCF. FOR ,NONBLACK SURFACES
For nonhlack bc~I iefJ., evaluatioo of the net transfer
r'C(1uil"C1l n.coollnting for the roHected portion of the
encrgy, following it through successive reflections
ul)til it can be ~umcd negligible. Evaluation of
too transfer by subsequent reflections requires
knowledge of the ~Recting characteristic of each
~urface involved: how much energy is refleeted
diffusely and how much specularly. Few surfaces
exhibit purely mirror-like behavior; most commercial
,;urf!!.Ces approach t1iffuse reflection closely enough to
jl1~tify computations on that basis. They also
approach gray-body behavior wit-hin the limits of
1l.(,"1.~1Lru.cy of llSUai practical requirements.
--p;; 1:1 A2 1::
Equation 446 ;!'I derived 011 the assumption that all
part.s of the surface AI, and similarly for the surfac('
A 2 , see suh:!tantially the same picture, or that the
ratio of the projected area of Donrefraetory surface
to the projected area of refractory surface is approxi
mately thc same from every point on the surfaoo
AI or on the surface A,.
RADIANT HEAT TRANSFER TO BANKS
OF TUBES
A convenient method It for estimating the rate of
beat transfer by mdiation to tubes in the radiant
seet,ion of a fum!\CC such as has been widely used for
heating petroleum (Fi~. 443) consists in ros.king aD

GTay SUT/nces
If it mny be assumed that all surfaces are gray, a
simple and adequate allowanoe may be mw for
Lhe cmil:!Sivity and absorptivity of the nonrefractory
surfaces. The emissivity oi the refractory surfaces
il:l not a fIWwr, as it is imma,t.erial whether the re-
fractory S1Lrface maintains it.s thermal equilibrium
by complete absorption and black-body reradiation
or hy comp!ete reflcetioo "ith no absorption.
The rigorous calculation of a factor to express the
net tram.fcr between ach:al surfaces of know-n
geometry u.nd emi&:!ivity req1lires the traCi ng of
typical r'.l.ys tli energy from Lypical portioos of sur-
FlO. 443. Diagr1lmm&tie lIeCtion uf a typical
IUI1lll(la 101" hetitinC pctmlewo.
"""i,"'"",'
 RADIA NT H EAT TRANSFER TO DA NKS
energy balanoo in conne-!tion with the rate of heat
trallHfer as sn~oe;;ted in Fig. 445. If A I represe nts
an infinile plane, and A2 represe nts one o r t wo to l,,"S
of p:lndlcl tubt-s in parwlel planes constituting the
C(luivalcnt of un infinite plane parnllcl to AI> and
the only oiher sur1ace is a refructory surface. behind
the'tubes, 1'\ .2 ilq!:i" en by Fig. 4H. The value for A2
is thc area()f the 1continuous plane in whiclrthe t.ube;;
are I ~a ted and not neces-"Ut"ily the projeck'(\ area of
the tubes themselves. .For two rows of tubes IIpaced
on centers two diameters apart. the projected area
of the tubes equals the area of the plane A 2 The
rate 01 heat transfcr to a square loot of t.he pilUle in
l
which the tubes are located (A 2 ) is plotted as a
function of the fumaCe temperature for the ' proper
tube waJl temperature, incorporati ng the combined
geometrical fnctOl"8 of Figs. 442 anu 444, as well as
the emi!IBiv.ity of the oxidizcd lIurfuoo of the tubes.
Thi!l curve constitute; a graphical solution of equa-
tion 438 if the furnace temperature and tube tem-
perature are known.
A 1~ en~rfIY balance is t hen made on this plot,
Fig. 445, for the fuel, air, and combus tion prod-
ucts supplied to the furnace per hour per square
foot of pilUle IiUrfl\.CC A 2 If the quant,ity of fuel
lIupplied to the furnace per hour per S(luare foot of
plnne surface A2 and the air-fuel ratio are knuwn,
the energy in th e form of heat developed by the
combustion of this fuel, plus tim "sensible heat"
introduced os preheat in the air and fuel above the
specified datum such as fJJo or 0 F, are totaled for 1
sq ft of plane surface A2 and plotted as a point M
on the temperat.ure-ordinate representing t his datum_
This point represents the quantity-of heat liberated
in the furnace per hour per square foot of plane 8Ul'-
face A2 above lhe datum temperature.
If all this energy remaillil in the products of com-
bustion, that is, if no heat is transferred from the
burning gases in the radiant section of the furnace,
the gases would leave the radilUlt section of the
furnace fit a temperature equal to the computed
flame temperature. This computed temperature is
plotted on the ordinate of tero hea.t transfer (point
N) and represents the fu rnace temperature if all the
heat liberated by the gases in the furnace remains
in the products of combUBtion correspondi ng to zero
heat tralUlfer rate in the radiant section.
Intermediate points are then plotl.cd by computing
the temperature of t he products of coml>ustion for
different quantities of heat transferred to the piane,
or T UBES
1.0
0.'
0.8
0.7
" :0.6
0.3
02
0.1
o
I 2
F lO. 444. Goomctric fnewr Ii' or F for use in e<:!uatiUIl$ such
88440 or 446 for rudintion to 1"0\\":9 of tul>ClS, bMcd upon in6nite
paralle! pb.nea.lI
surface A2 during combustion. These temperatures
are plotted &8 a furiction of the qua nt it ies of heat
,
transferred per hour pet square foot of A~ as indi-
cated in ,Fig. 4"\5. The intersect ion of the locus of
these points with t he he~t t r'sfer rate curve
ind ieate8 the necessary energy balance, assuming
that the temperature of the furnact) is sulJstantially
uniCom throughout the radiant seclion and p,qual to
the tempenltUTe of the products of comhlls1i{lIl when
leaving the radiant, section. This assumpl iOIl clrlSl'ly
approximates ac tual cund itions in the type of fumltrr
shown in Fig. 443 where the flame is' usually adjustcd
to extend a good part. of Ihe dislanC'C u(-"lt:1IJ til<'
bottom of the furnace when burning oil, or l)('('\IllW:O
an. extremely short. flame when burning ~ wi lh
prehellted air. The d ilTcll'nceJ lX'1I\'('('n tlw:<o.' I w,l
types of flames I;iln be w:lj ustrd hy using II hiltht'r
emissivity for the long radiant f!;Ull\-.
The same churt, Fig. 445, may ,,1:<0.1 hl' 11:<0.... 1 I"
det:ermine t.he quantity of heat 10 hI.- :il",'I':l l,,,1 in
 466 . HEAT T RANSFER "

,- ,
.
,
,
.
,
.

!l -
.
I-
k
~
.. -
,
;:::~
,
, .'" ~
,- , ':"
~ ,
,
II
~

f!i
Ifl
.'
,

,.
I'~ ~ , ,
,
, "
I.. -, l#J
~-
-,
I' ~
!Ii l::c t:--..
I; ,-
-" y/ 1''::: l'..
~ t---..
':
~

FIo. 446. Grfl,phiOll.! IIOlution fQ1'

~~
~Ttmpt:Ol
I\.D
" '~F*ne T!:atln, 'F~
.,.,!'~~ .
eDergy balance and rate of heat tr&nater by radiation. in II furaaee.-

the fumaoo for a desired heat transfer rate. In this
case tpe computed fl&me temperature and the inter- '
section of the curve is known. The solution is
obtained by extending the locus of the wmjlerature
of the produ(lts of co'robustion to the ordinate of t he
datum temperature. If it is assumed that the heat
capacity of the products 'of combuHtion is constant,
this )a readily done by drawing a straight line
tbrough the computed flame temperature for sero
heat ibsorption (point N) and t hrough the desired
value for ' the beat absorption per square foot Of
suri'aee At (point 0) and reatiing the interaection
(point M) of the .extension of this stralght line with
the ordinate corresponding to lbe datum temperature
used in making the energy balance. This general
method of apprOacb has been: further develOped for
design of furIlB.Oe8.11'
With a little study of Fig. '445, it can be seen that
the greater the area of the heat-absorbing phine A2
for the same fuel cOnsumption 'per hour, the more
mild .are the' heating conditions. When radiant
furnaces' were fil"$t designed, ihis relationship was
not 'generally appreciated and very flmall radiant
beat-absorbing surfaces wert used 'because the early
furnace builderfl were "afraid" of the high heat
transfer rates. In modem fumaces heat tnlDllfer
rates in the radiant sections of oilheatingfumaces
are uswilly 10,000 to 20,000 Btu/ (hr)(sq ft of ex
 RADlANT HEAT TRANSFER COEFHCIENTS <6,
temal surfal'0 of the tube) and may reach 50,000 in addition 1-0 the oonv~lion to t.he air, the overall
Rtu / (hr)(sq ft). coeffi cient based on the Ollt<l}dC area A.a becomes
If Al is equal to Ai Ilnd the value for 1<'1 ! is 0.8
or greater, the value for F I . i obtained fro~ equa--
t iOl1 -1 -13 is approximalely (1.00 + 1<'1,2)/ 2. It is for
t his reason t hat the a ))I)roximale method for eSt imat-;
ing heat tl-arudcr in radiant sections of pipe siills or
fum~ has given reasonably 811.tisIactory results I"'"
!IOJI
when a shape factor of 1.00 is used. T he use of
the high geometrical factor is in accordance wit h
equation 443, although 1.00 is probably abo~t 10
..'" ,-.b.
80JJ
7OJ)
,~

per cent' too high. On the otlier tuWd, the energy

balance assuming constant heat capacity indicates ...'~
'1l!)
~ - ~
I/'~
a somewhat lower rate of heat transfer (a lower
fum8.(."e temperature) than an energy balance baaed' . 30.
'[
on mOTe reliable specific heats. T herefore the use of
a shape factor of 1.00 and a straight-ilrie \ eneriY
.)'
balanre gives reasonably satisfactory results.
' ro. t:t.
~ ~ .
i7'
~

~
"
,17";$
RADIANT ilEA T TRANSFER COEFFICfENTS VI
.
In many ca.'1eS the tnnsfer of heat includes con-
vection and radiation. An cxample of Ulis kind was
IL~
indinted in be case of heat tf"tllMfer from the east ,
iron furnace d oor to the surroundingsplWC. Compu- 5JI
tations are ullually best made in the manner indicated
by determi ni ng the heat transferred by radiation 'II
'.- .ill' -(,:;;l'
--
and the heat transforred by convectio n and adding 113
the two quantities to .obtain the total heat tmwJ-
tz 7f
.e; TI - Tr

~
(e rred. T- ~RI1WlI
j. .,~l.o ..
~J
In ma ny CMeS, however, it is OOIlveoient to c0m-
pute the rate.. of heat traosfer by radiation according ,
..
. ,
to the Mme equation 382 as.. is used for eonveetKlo
uanmer. - This may be done by combining equations
. .-
..

..
382 and 4;14 to solve for the radiant bea! transfer
coefficient h.,.
q.
lJ)
,. -
..
4IXl, T~~~~:F
. ~
.
,-~'
2IlOO

hr ,.. ~~,!'-~~ FIO.446. Coefficient of heat tl"amlle f by black body ra diation

A 1(T1 - T 2 ) "' (. - 1).

0 .173el[(O,O I T I) 4 - (WI TlI )4] .Application of this concept ~h:at temperature

(447)
T, - T~
Figure 446 is the solution of equ8,tion 447 for
e - I. It gives hr in Btu/(hrWF)(sq ft). as a func-
t ion of TI IU'Id T, for blackbody conditions, e = 1-
As indicated in equation 447, the value for hr given
in F ig. 44(; may be modified by; multiplying by the
or
valu{' of e, P, 1', !Y.
F'lr tho beat transfer indicated in Fig. 4460, con-
sidering rnd iatioll from surface 3 to Lhe surroundings
differences are proportional to resistanoos must reCog-
nize that the resistance to the Row of heat from sur-
face 3 involveli' ootb radiation and convection in
parallel or Utat Ru - 1/(h~.1,4 + hr,I,.v. .
For such CIi8e8 involving uncertain SUrflWC tem-
peratures, it is often convenient to equate the heat
flux from fluid I to surface 3 (Fig. 44&) to the .sum
of the rtt.diatioo and OODvcction from su,.r:1.Ce 3 to
the fluid 4, for assumed value of 1'3, sl,a t i>s,
ql ,s ""' 93,4. -.. + 113.......... - VsAa(TI - 7'. ) (449)
468
Di stance, I/. ~
1,'10. 44&. Di:l.Kt:lm ""prt"!i<lntin~ h~Rt t.rlln~f"'r from Iluid 1
throulth 1~ pipe- "':\11 2,3 Md by tho puml1c! meeillo.nisms of
eonvoct.ion ln d TWlilltiun from Ute "ulJ.;r au.tf.we of UK! pipe
to I.hc IlUrTOtlnd itlgll.
The- trial and error required by this procedure is
in ('valuating 1'J such that "the heat flux in series
flow from 1 to 3 (Fig. 44&) equals the suru of the
parallel trll.nsfen; from 3 to 4.
qH - UHA(T 1 - T,)
FlO. 447. Em~vity of carbon dioxide.-
IlEA T TIUNSFEfi "
RADIATION FROM NONLUMINOUS GASfS
In dealing wi th solids and refractory slirraoos, the
assumption of gray.body t'Onditions, that is, con-
stant emissivity and ahSorptivity indepcnthmt of the
,n;velengt.h of the radiation, does not introduce
appred,ablc error. But in the trr.utmcnt of ,radia-
tion from nonlumino1l8 gl\.8Cs, it is ncceSt>ary to
reeognizc the dependence of t.he cmi~jvit.y o~
abtlOrptivityon wavelength. If black-body radint ion
pa.Sses through a rnM!:! of gas, ahsorption occurs in
certain regions or wavelengths of the infmred 81)eC-
trum. Simila rly if the gas is heated it r3lliatcs energy
of these 83.tne wavelengths. ThiB radiation and
absorption originate in quantum cnergy changes in
the energy of rot..<J.t.iOfl and interatomic vibration
within the molecules. Industrial furnace ga.'I(!g such
as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water Vapor,
and sulfur dioxide, also ammonia, hyurogcn thloride,
thc hydrocarhons, and alcohols, pr.!tlOC68 emillSion
bands of suffir:ient magnitude to be important.
Symmetrical diatomic molecules such as Ilyclrogen,
oxygen, iUld nitrogen do not show emission or
absorption bands of sufficient importance at tcm-
peratures encountered in industrial operations.
'The intensity of. radiation from a gas mass is a
function of, the number of molecule!! col1trihuting to
ft, and of the numher oLintelvening molecules which
can absorb some of the emitted energy before it
leaves the gas. Consider the radiation from a hemi-
spherical gas mass w an element of surface locatod
_..i .~;;.;~;;;:, -2<",
F
FlO. 448. Emi"-'<ivit}, of ..... ater vapOr.-
 BADIATlON mOM NONLUl\1INOUS CASES

FlO. ~ . . Correet.ioo fact.or to ~he emi>:lllivity of watt'r.-

other than hemispheres an effective bc3m length

Flo. 9. Total radiation filA due to sulfur dioside,N ilA
- . (0.173) (Tl lOO),' ..here . _ emissivity of
" ' -a~ the center of the base of the hemisphere. If the
radius of . the hemisphere is L, according to Beer's
law the intensity of the radiation from a gaseous
component on the surface is proportional to the
product of L and p, the partial pressure. The
may he detennincd.
ExperimentnJ measurements indicate that Beer's
Jaw is sufficiently accurate for carhop dioxide but
quite inaccurate for \\'ater vapur ; hence its ~en
era! applicability must be questioncO: This con-
tribution of layers beneath t.he 8111face ii:l in sharp
contrast with solids and most liquids, for which
radiation is strictly a surface phenomenon.
The emissivity of the Jl;fLS alw depends upon the
so.. temperature of the gas To and the tolal p~ure.
Figures 447, 448, and 449 give the emi>.ll:iivity or
carbon dioxide,1I \~'ater vapor,!CI and sulfur diuxide n
&I! functions of the ' temperature and of the product
pL,Aor a toW pre:>SUre of t' atm. The failure . or
Beer's law for water vapor requires thAt a correction
also be made for partial pressure of Irater vapor in

.
distance L is called the beam length. For shapes rich g&i!E S, as indicated in Fig. 450 .

,,''- ,
., D.4 M 1.0 0 ., D.4
~"\a
O M 1.00 ., os ,
~
"...
,
,

-0.04

-o.os
-0.Cl6 {g) 'J , ".,..
FlY. 451. Corrections to added emissiviUes of carbon dioxide and water vapor:" (a) at 260" F; (b) Ilt 1000" F; (c) I1t 1700 F
and highet.
<70 HEAT TRANSFER 4

The o.bsorptivity aa is approximatdy equal to the TAllLE 52. EQCIVAI.F.NT ~[f;AN BEAM LENGTHS
emissivity os given on these chu rlS if read at the ..'Oil GAS UilllATION
temper:tturc of the radiating solid T a , instead of the Factor by Wl:ich
temperature of the gas To, if the go.s is at a. higher D ~ ~[uitiplied to
Chaf>l d..,ri~ing Obc lti n i-:ojuiVll-
temperature than the radiating surface when absorp-
I>i"," n.'<ivn!l, lent )oll-.. n I1earn
tion hy the gas is of minor importance. In any cu.o;e 1Al,,~t1, L
D
It more accurate value of aa is obtained if the value
Sphere ])ianlt't~r 0.60
is rond from the charts of to, Figs, 447 and -148, at
78 hut ut pf..(Ts/ To) rather than at pL, and that
Cylinde r of infinite Dilt'lll'ter 0.'
hl'iglit
y3.1u( is muhil)liM by (To/ Ts)O.M for carbon dioxide Cylinder "i tl! height Dimoo ter O.TI
or by (7'GITs)o.,~ for water vapor and u~ as fl(;. equal to Ju..ructer
When carbon diuxide and water vapor are pr'Cl>ent
t~... thf'r. t-he total emissivity of the mixture is some-
....
radiat ing to e'C llt"T of

Cylinder ..i t\. l",iJ!:h~ ilo.mcter 0.6

what less than the sum of the emiSl:!ivities of the two equal to ,liL.mct~ r
)!;mK' ~.11 This i8 caul:!Cd by the gMC~ having com mon rndiatinx to whole
wnvf'kngths of absorption, as indicated in Fig. 439, surface
which makes (>tLCh gsa somewhat opaque to the other. Cylinder "i th heil!;ht J)i!lJlUlter 1.0
equl!.l to or exoeeding
The correction to be applied to the sum of the emis- two dill-meters mdill-'
sivitirs is givtn in Fig. 451. ting to whole intcrual
The charts of Figs, -147, 448, and 449 a.re based surface
on Ihe r-.I.d.iation emilled by a hemisphere of gas to Cube Edge 0:00
an element of surface at the center of the base, Rectangular pArilnele-
pil~d!!, radiating to
in which case the length of the beam L is the same w:hole surfe.oe, dime n_
in all directions. In industrial operations !.he shape aWn nuios lUI followlI :
is uS\.l!llly quite different from that of the hemisphere, 1:1 : 1 to 1:1:3 ..,:tVolu mc 0.66
but an equivalent roeM beam length L may be 1:2:1 to 1:2:4 ..,}'Volurne 0.66
determined from the dimensionB and shape of the 1:1:4 to 1;1;00 ShorW!t cd~ I
' i'ad:"ting system, as indicateo in Table 52, and used 1:2:5 to 1:2:8 Shortest ..~Il9 1.3
for determining the emissivities in the charts of 1:3:310 1:00:00 Shortelli odge I.,
Fig's. 447, ,ltS, and 449. The values given in Table
Space betwoon infinite Distance be- I.,
parallel pl.o.neo! tween pw.nr.$
62 were obtained by integrating the basic differential Spare outMe infinite Tube diamcter 2.'
equations within the proper limit8 for various indus- boutk o lUbes <:en-
trially important shapes, tm'lld on eqwkLtcral
With the emissivities and absorptivities de- triangies, tulle <:eRterll
&pII.1'J.."ll 1.",'0 o.liArnetel8
termined in the manner described, the radiant Spsoo outside infini te Tube diameter 3.'
beat mtercha.nge between the oonluminous gas bu.nk of tubes <>en
and a unit area of b1aek bounding surface is tered on 6quarea, tube
(I1Ta4eG - I1TS4ac)" For a gray enclosure at Ts oentel1l epa-oed t1'lO
containing a gas at Ta. an accurate evaluation of diameters
Space ool.8ide infinite Tube dia meter '1.6
tile interchange requires that the energy of typical bank of tube!! cen-
beams from the gas and from the surface be con tcred on aquarel!,
@idered, This is done by evaluating the amount tube oe ntel'll spaced
absorbed and reHccted at 'each surface impingement, three diamelenl
IUld the absorptioll of- lUld addition to-refleeted
beaTnll in successive tra,verses through the gas mass: term for selected values of surface emissivity above
Since absorption will never be coropiete, this leads 0.7 (the emissivity of m08L industrial surfaces is
to an expression involving the difference of two greater than 0,7) and for typical values of pL reveals
infinite series, which are not easily expresSed in the fortuitous fact that the interchange to most
.algebralc form. Evaluation of these aeries term hy eommerew surfaces may be expre&<!ed wit.h adequatP.
 RADIATION FROM LUMINOUS FLAMES 411

accuracy if surface emiesivity is taken as half-way 1..,

rrO'm its actual value to 1, and only the first impinge- .... _T.
II II !
ment considered, that is, 1.00
0Jl0 "
qa,A' -
- (" 1) ['" (Ta)'
1730 - +
-
2
-- - ( T, )']
tOOO
Go -
1000
0.'"
~O.so '"
(450) i.40
c
The total heat. transfer to the ultimate receiving MOJO
~ ~"
c
surface through intermediate heat receivers and re-
raeiators such as refractory surfaces and the inter-
change between gases and the surfaces becomes a
complicated problem involving energy balances,
I"" .10
rl j

radiation, and convect.ion coefficients. However, a

satisfaotory approximation can be made by the
method of Fig. 44.5. The effective area is assumed
to be that of the heat-abeorbing surface which may
be modified by various shape factors, depending
upon the ratio of refractory to nonrefractory surfaces
within the radian~ system. The effective tempera- FiG. 452. Absorption strength KL of luminous tlame~."
tures are assumed to be thoee of the gas and the ulti-
mate re<:eiving surface. The approximate allowance an optical pyrometer containing color BCreellll of
for the ra.tio of refractory surface kI heat-absorbing different wa.velengths, red and green, the two
surface can be made by adding to the heat-&bsorbing apparent temperatures, the red brightness temper&-
aurfaoo a certain fraction of the refractory surface. Lure Tr and the green brightness temperature T
The value of this fraction of the refractory surface permit a calculation of the true flame emissivity as "
to be added to the area of the heat-absorbing surface indicated in Fig. 452. The absorption strength KL
var~ from zero, when the ratio or refractory surface is indicated as the product of K, which measures the
to ultimate receiving surface 115 very high, to unity, soot COIlcentratioo of the flame, and L , which is the
when this ratio is very low and the value-of the emJs... effective thickness of tbe tiame through which the
sivity is also low. When the areas are of the same pyrometer is sighted. An optical pyrometer with
order Qf magnitude. approximately 0.7 times the only the red screen available may still be used in
refractory surface may be added to the heatrabsorb- connection with Fig. 4.52 and the trut: wmperature
ing surface. In this manner equation 445 or 450
may' be solved using only the two temperatures,
thOlie of the receiving surface and of the gas.

RADIATION FROM LUMINOUS FLAMES

H the hot gas contains soot particles formed in the
flame by the combustion or decomposition of ruel,
these particles radiate energy and the flame is said
to be luminous. If the total emissivity of the fI8me
B8 computed by Figs. 452 M.d 453 is added &8 an
additional multiplying factor to equation 434 or
450, using (ta + 1)/2 for the emi8sivity of the solid
surf&06, 8I.tisfaotory results may be obtained.
The absorptivity and emissivity of luminouo flames
decreue with an iDcreue ill wavelength, and the
total emiaai.vity is _ thaD the emiMi.vity in the
visible spectrum. a nil mabe vBW eetimaUoo ~
IUminOO8 8ame emissivity mi-1etding. By meaDS of
 HEAT TRANSFER "
of t.he flame if this value is known, In suoh measure-
ments care should be taken that the opt icaf pyrom-
cl.or does not see anything but the ,flame itself. If a
f1~e of larger dimensions is to be used on the basis
of re.'ldingA taken on a. sniall fl ame, the 'ah80rption '
ijtrength K L detennined from Fig. 452 on \}'hich the
readings were made should be multipl ied by the
ratio L3/L" befo re Fig. 453 is used to determine the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. B.\][ER, E. M., aud A. C. MU!!:LLER, Tran.!. Am. Imt.
CIi"". E~gTf. , Ja, 531 (l!lJ7).
2. fioN ILI.A, C. F., arrd C. H. PERK', T .... nt, A .... I",".
CMm. Eng.,., trI, 6S5 (11140 .
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(!!l33).
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1178 (1 934).
8. CJl ' DEI\ D. 8.., and A. C. Fnl.\ LBOROO, T ...." . Am. l rW.
Ckt",. E~., as.
30HI (1937) .
9. D.\VIS, E. S., Trana. Am. &Ie. M k . E I\9"., 86, 755
(I!)43 ).
10. D'1"ruI<, F. W. , a nd I.. :0.1. K. BoEJ.TER, Unili. Calif. Pub.
Eng., 2, 4 .. 3 ( 1930).
lOa. Doo(ll;, B. Y ., C~",jQrl Ellfir=ri"9 TlwlOll7.lyno",iec,
p. 358, McGraw-Hili Book Co. (1944 ).
11. D UIOINBI II.Rlrl, O. M., "Numcrie&l Solution uf Hca~ Coo-
. duetion P roblelTl5," " ralll. Alii. Sec. M d. Engr. , ST,
703 ( 19t5).
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661 (KoVl:lDoo.- 1949).
13. GURNn, H . P. , and J . L UJUIt, h wl. b;Ti.g. CMIII., Ui, 1170
(1 923). '.._
14. O kl.lllSON, E. D ., ~"Correla.t ion of fleat T ransfer .. nd
P reIIlUre D rop Data .. cross TlIbe Rarrks," '/ "OM. AIIl.
Sec. M (lCIi. }o.'ngr . , 69, 6S3 (1937) ; eo, 381 (1038).
15. H .\NOON, G. H ., tl aI., Pwole'II.'" &jiMr, 26, No.9, !lJ
(I1X6) .
16. HAPPEl., J., R, S. AHlCS, and W. J . B,\.RNS, Cht m. Eng.,
61, No. 10,99(1946). . 40. SH!!:A, F . L., and N . W . K !USJ:, Tmn3. A M. 11Ul.. CIu:wl.
17. H.\'Ii'][I NB, G . A ., ILll.d J. T . AG NEW, "The SolUtion of
T nmsient Heat Conduction Problems by Finite OiIJer-
encts," PwdIU Uni. EIIQ. Bull. 98 ( 1(147 ).
18. H OTTEl., H . C. , T ron.. Am. Snc. M k .. E""I'"8., " FueL,
.. nd Steam P ower, " U ; 265 (1931).
19. Horit:L, H . C., ana F. P . B ROI'GHTON, Irtd. E",.
CMm. ,
A rnzl. Ed., 4, 166 (1932).
:!G. HOTTEL, H. C., and n. B. I::O IIJIT, Trarill. ' '''''. CMm.
EJl9r~ ., sa, MI (I 'U2).
,total emissivity of the luminous flame, where L2
represents the effective thickne38 of the fl llffie whQIIC
emiuivity it is desired to estimate, ana IJ equals the
effective thi ck~ of the flaune ~~ which measure-
ments were taken.
,Vith large combustion cha mbc~ havil;g highly
luminous flamCl!, the emissivity approaches unity.
21. H OTTEL, H. C ., and II . G. lII A"GELM>ORI", TraM. Am
l .w. c.vm. E~. , 31, 51 7 ( 1!135).
22. JACOB, M., Trant. Am. l f1$l. CMIII. E nqr, ., n, 10 15 (U)46) .
23. IV.TZ, D . L. , K . O. B U TIT. J R., a nu A. S ...F':HllIT, T rar, .
AM. & . /litO.. Engr ., 67, 6& (I94S).
U . KAT'.!:, D. I ., It. E. Ho!'!';, S. D.\T!;!Lo, and D . B . RORIN!;(W,
Refn!]. En g., 63, 3 15 (1947 ).
~. Kt RItBRmE. C . G ., T J'tm . A III . I Md. CM", . Eng"'" SO,
170 (1 933-34).
26. L .um.'II UIR, I., F~ Q. ADAMS, and G. S. ) h : uc: u :, Tm n.s.
A".. E lCrOtk'Il. Soc., 24, 53 ( 19 13 ).
27. LC)l.lo, W . E., and J . Eo E \,AN~, 1'ra n.s. A m. 11111, Clum.
E ngrl., 35, 743 ( 1939). .
28. I, TON, R . N. , Ph D. Tht~i8, Universi ty of Mi <:higan
(1 049).
29. f,{ .. u :x, . F. L., N Dlu (In Dui". t)f F IU"IWCU. PriV:llle
Papers.
00. M .. RTIN&L W, It C., Tl'OtI8. A m. S.-..:. M u h.. Erup . , 69 ,
947 (19 47).
31. M cADM,j9, W. H ., Htat Tra 1lllmiui'm, 2nd cd., M cC ra w-
Hill Dook Co. { 1942J.
311J. M cADAMS, W . H ., " H eaL Tra rufeT," Cliern. Eng . T'rogrtu,
'15, 121 (March 1950).
32. Me ADA YlI, W. Il, d aI. , CMm. E"9. Provrtu, 4t, 639
( 1948) .
33. Moo'!E, A., D ., Ind. E",. CM...., 28, 7().1 (1936).
34. :"lze&l, A" Btoll, /JtIC. e1JCl)ur. indo nall. , 1S1, 289 (1932).
35. NUIliTAMA, S ., and H. J. Y OSIK.\TA, &ic. Mw::h.. Eng.
(/(Ipan.) , as,Nt). I (1930).
36. N US6LT, W. , Z. Vf.T. atm. In!!., 60, 54 1 (1916).
37. P A&CH][] 9, V., and H . D. BAItE Il, 1'ra..... Am. Soc..' MuA.
EJ\9n., &t, l OS (I942).
38. P !!: RRY, J. R., Chemica/. E nginurr' ll(lllllbooit:, 3rd ed.,
p. 485, M ct: l1I.w-H iU I3uQk Co. (950).
39. HOW LEY , F. n. , R. C. JoRnAN'. and R. M. LANO!!:R,
1.
T mn3 . .4 m, &C. Refrig. Eng.. ~, 35 (l M 7).
Engr. , a&. 463 (1940) .
41. SuO K'l", U. K, U"iv. l'U<li P ub ..3819 / M ..y
42. S U:l) nI, E. N., and G. E. TAT~, '1rwi.. Kn~. Cltem!, 28, 1429
( 1936). .
43. SlNNO'IT, M . J ., ~d C . A. SI ~" ItT; 1M . Eng. CIK,a., "',
1039 (1948). '
44. T URUUM EXCHAN GE!, M ANv r ACT UItEIIS A56OClAl'lON,
Standai ds (1941).
45. WI L.WN', E ., 1'ram. Am. Soc. M tt:Ii. E ngrl., trI: 47 (1 9 15).
 J'ROBLEMS
I . An uniMubted 3-in. steel IICheduie-4() pipe ee.rtying
satuMU.J -"team at 00 p8ia ill ~ndcd from t he ilinll: of II
lMge ro:>om. Thl wall!< of the room and objects in the room
nnl 1.1.10 F.
(a) Co mpu te th~ Mat lost I"~ r hour by radiation and eon-
vection for a 100ftiengt h of hl:l.ek pipe.
(6) If ph~ized pipe w('rt suOstitu t.ed for the black pipe,
how much beat .... uuld be lelSt by r'...,li" tion!
t and a for bll.d, iron surface _ 0.88 nt. 60' F, 0.92 at
400" F.
e and II for ~Iv"ni zed iron _ 0.23 a t 60" F, 0.30 a.t 400" F.
2. In II. sped,,\ t(!~I., [I, "erlklll lime kiln 6 ft in diamewr
hfU! a n empty !II1etion at th~ wI' from which the combustion
gas lcaVC8 at 620" F . TOO Itft.' IUlruysis iii 30% COr. 2 % IIi>
to 6R% N!. T he b..i~k waH of t loe kiln is ILt 2oW F. Brick
(!lni!:l!livity - 0.78 at 240" F.
H ow much beat ill ooing tmn8fcrrod from the gillel by
mdillt;c.n per foot..,f kiln h".i~,t?
a. A \.oruontai hot-oilline wi t h 6-in. OD and 5.5-in. ID is
carrying oil lOt 750'" F. The pi!!,' is huOO with " lAyer of
m~ia 1 in. thiele; emillsivity ~ _ 0.00. TM surrounding
air a nti object.!! are at 00 F . lI ... w much hC:II.t ;. being bit
per hour per ioot of pi pe'if t he heat tf"llnstcr coefficient from
oil t., inside pipe wall ie 120 Btuf(hr)("F)(1IQ ftl!
4. It is known tMt polished or reflect ing I<unacell emit
and a.b6orb little mdiant heat lIS comp&J"OlJ to dark 8UnaCCII.
If I-in. iron pipe (oxidin..'<I) were ennyin; It.eam at 20 ptrig
thJ"O\lgh (on enc!UIL'i1 room lit 60" 1,' and he"'l units wcre valued
at ,),(lOO2 L'{Jnt/ Btu, how much r<luld you afford to pay per
foot of pi pe fOT a pnlio<hed nickel BUnl!.(!(l " 'hieh would last
7 yeIIf37
How much !:QUId you pa.y for a specific aluminum paint
which wnuld IMI. 4 years?
5. If the con\"f!c:lion oocfIicie nt of heat transfer of a nickel
wire,)( O.035-in. ,j~cr at 1700" }o' to lIir is 6 Btu/ (hr)(F)
(sq ft), how much heM is IQ!lt by I ft of wi re insi,jc an oxidized
COPPOT container, the air and container being al 160" F?
6. A 3-It laboratory fractionat ing column of 0.17(M.n. ID
and 0. ?"76-in. OD made of Pyrex I!:M 1.1: _ 0 .668 Ut uf {hr)
( "F)(ft)1 ill separating I, I!ffii\)l impuri t y from methane lit
1 atm pressure with the me thllne boLin:l; throughOut the
eolumn at -~ " F. Around the L"Vlumn is a 2-in. ID jacl<ct,
OOlllltruetcd of p_ }i in. tMek, IlDd evacuated to eliminate
eonduction. In IIOme eases the oufsi<.le 8U rlaoe of the column
lind the in!!:lde surface of tlv! jacket a~ silvered to reduce t he
hetll inpu ~ to t he l ractioptl.tinr; colum n . \\"hat ill the heat
invut (Btu per hOUT) to th'! boiling methane in .the 8-ft length
of column with nod without the twu surfaces coated with
lilver?
StAte any lI5!Iu mpt.ions mDdc. T he boilin& coefficient for
meth.&.De may be taken t\8 1000 B t u /(htW F) (sq tt) . Air aDd
surroundings are at 70 F.
0
7. A Iurnue ;., plllced in a laboratory iD trueh a position
thlt t he III.CC of t he door is p&mllel to the _II aDd removed
from the ..... all by II dist!lnoo of "' ft. 100 door 0' the furnaoe
is 2 ft square, is maintained lit 500 F, and hilS an emissivity
of 0.9. The room and air are at 90" F. The wall is coYT.l""ed
,,it.h a ... hite lacquer.
What temperature (average) wi!! the II.I'C8 (2 ft by 2 It) of
wlIll oppn~i te the furnace door a.ttain!
8. A bille t of steel lit 100" F is plaoed in II, flIDlllooo ..... ith
refractory "11111 ma.i.nt.n.ined a.t 1800" F Plot the r&dia.tion
coefficient for tm.nafer of rnd..iant heal tlI the billel t\8 a func-
tion of the tcmpernture of ~he Surfilr.~ of the biUet.
9. The gas from II li me kiln conll lM 30 volu lTlC per cent
carbon dioxide and II negl igible amount of wRler VlI.por. This
ps Jio .."!! thmullh a horizontal 12-in. schedule-40 steel pipe,
which !lCtveII t\8 a g&Il cooler, at a rate of 0.6 Ib /(sq ft)(~).
A~ a gi""n aectioo of 1h.i3 cooler, the gas temperat ure is
1000- F and the prelll!llre it 14.7 paia. The temperature 01
the air 00 t he Ollt8ide of the pipe and surroundings is SO F.
Determine the temperature of the gna at a eeetk>n Qf the
cooler 100 ft downetrellm from the first se~tion.
10. Tim return lill(! to tbe Il.mmol"lia ..... mpmillOr in a refrig-
eration sYl'tem i l II 4-in. schedule-8l ~teel pi"" covered with
1.70 in. of molded cork inllulation. At R given point in this
li lli!, t he ammonia vapor ill at a tempera lure of - 10 F a nd
II pnossure of 20 psiR. The l.emperattue of tbe air and the
wrruundings il SOo F.
ClIlcuiatn the he .. t trll.n~ftrred from the HUTTOun,jings to th &
a.r:lmoni a vapor pm foot length of t he linp for >I velocity of
ammonia vapor of 0000 fvm at lhe lit.n.tod puint in t he line.
ll. Two puallel di.~ka, 6 and 12 in. in diame ((!r on a com -
mon lUi~ lind 8 in. apart, a re mll;ntJl.incd at tempera.tUl\l$ of
600 and t OOO- F , respectlvely. If eMh rii.u may be oon-
siciered to :,e .. Mack body. whe.t is t he net in~hange of
radiant encl")l.Y between tbe '''''o?
 -,.,
CHAPTER
32
Evaporation
,
HE operation of evaporation is usually defined
T u.s t.he concentration .of solutions. by evapora-
tion in vapor-h!!atcd equipment. The evo-
lution of the present-day evaporator from the direct-
fired salt-hoiling pan of the Middle Ages represents
the contribu tion of many men over mlUly generations
toward improvement of the efficiency of the opera-
tion. The salt boiler of the Middle Ages charged his
brine to a simple rectangular tank under wbich a
fire was built of whatever fuel W8-'l available. The
salt was expensive, and the purity cont-Tal negligible.
The principle of evaporation is not of necessity
restricted to til is dft,S!; of P]"()~s, since the evapora-
tion of a solvent. is important in procc&'iCS which
range all the way from humidification where small
amounts of water in the ahMlnce of a di!l.~lvcd 8O\ute
are evaporated int.o a gM, through the range of
commercial sol u tion.~ which must be concent rated,
to the evaporation of wate r from a product pre-
dominantly s(llid. Those operations at the extremes
of this range are usually treut.cd as other uni t opera-
tions, &lid evaporation is here restricted IN concen-
tration of typical solutions.
Evaporators depend entirely upon heat transfer
for their operatirm. Evaporation equipment has
been developed larp;ely as an art" and the heat trans-
fer behavior is difficult to predict beeause of the
many factors involved. Heat nod material balanoo
equations _are important and useful in computing
the size and bdllwior of evapomturs. The effect of
di>!SOlved solids on the vapor-liquid equilibria must
00 recognized, e&pccially for multiple-elTect opera-
tion. Scaling and salt-ing a re often expected when
evaporating solutions llaturateci with respect. to one
or more constituents.
&ling is the term nonnally ulJC!d in reference to
deposition of a solid whose solubility dC'Jreases with
increasing temperature on the heating surface from
the hotler liquor adjQCtnt to the heating surface,
and in an amount directly proportional to the
am0'.mt of evaporatioo. This phenomenon results
in thtl overall resistance (l / U) increasing ",..ith time.
It hftlil been shown ' .. that the tiQU8Te of the overall
resistance (l/U 2 ) incrclI3C8 linearly with time. Re--
moval may require shut..-down and meehanjesJ. re-
moval.
Salling is JellS clearly understood, in that it is a
rapid build-up of 8. nonna1ly soluble material on the
heating surface in t he .tone of vaporization. It is .
~ggravated by small fluctuations in thc operating
conciiLions and by any condition that w i(] encourage
crystal nucleation, rather tJl3n the deposition of
materials on previously formed crystals. Removal
can usually be effected by boilin,u; with the solution
rendered unsaturated by adding an ex(;e&'! of sOlv('.nt.
Fouling by heat-6ensitive organics is frequently a
serious problem.
HORIZONTAL--TUBE EVAPORATOR '
The simplest application of vapor heat to the
boiling of a solut.ion resulted in the development of
the horizontal-tube evaporator, which has been
widely u!led for mol"(' than 50 yelj,fS. The charac-
teristics of this type of evaporator arc less favorable
than those of newer developments, and few are being
buil~ at present.
In principle, I-he horiZOllta1-tube evaporator is a
c1oaec.1 vessel in the bottom of whicb horizontal tube,;
The bibliography for thill chapter &PPCIl.fll on p . 491.
 VERTICAl.,..Tl!I1E EV,\PORATOR 47.
VERTICAL.TUBE EVAPORATOR
Th~ standard vertics..l and basket evaporator are
80 8imilar in their characteristics that they may be
discussed together. The. ~ertical. lube evaporator
is normally a cylindrical evaporator with a steam
chest at the bottom submerged in the liquor. Tubes
through the steam chest provide the heating surface,
with the liquid inside them . Liquid circulation il..
up:fard t hrough the tubes, due to the pumping
............_-1" acOon of water vapor formed in the t,)OO8, or thermal
outside tubes I'Ixpansion of the liquid if boiling in the tubes is
suppr':lsscd by high liquid-level operation. The
liquid return to the space below the stenm chest may
l..e annular, or it mllY IJe a central cylindrical section
or several cylindricol downtakes in extremely large
irnItal!ations. If the steam chest is a closed cham.
""
liqrJOf with annular liquid return 8pace, t.he eV.8.pOrjl.tor is
classified as a bask et evaporator (Fig. 4(5). If the
FIG. 454. Cr~tional diagrAm of horizontal-tube II!V. po- steam chest is am,ulur in configuration with central
notar. (Swmarm ENporobJr Co.) downtllke, the eVllpola tor is classified &8 atar.dard
VCTliad (Fig . .136).
a.rc mounted (Fig. 454). The body of the evapora.tor
wae first built of cast-iron plates bolted together.
Then cylindrical seebons ~f ea.st.in,gs ~were used, and
present-day practice predominant ly employ'8 welded'
IIleel construction. The tubes are lJ.Sually mounted
in\.() the tube sheet wiLh gaskets. in contrast with the
usual pradice of rolling tubes into the tube &lOets
of heat interchange equipment. i The heating
medium is usually steam which is introduced into a
steam chest. connecting with too inside of tt.e hori-
zontal tubca The condensate ill normally removed
at the opposite endccf the tube hank. The lifluld
level is carried somewhat above the lop row of lllbcs
in the body of till;) eVRpO'rator, and no effort is made
to improve circulation.
The absence of enforoed circulation in such an
evaporator results in low coefficients, particularly
for viscous liquids. The horizont.al. evapOrator is v
no t generally adaptable for foamy liquids, since
t here is no means of breaking the foom fanned by
vaporization. Since the liquid is outside the tubes,
this ty pe oi construction is not adaptable for 8.
liquid which deposi ts scale on the heating surface
because of the extreme inconvenience of removing
such deposits. But the horizontal-tube evaporator is
economical in ti rat eot;ts for a &mall machine han-
dling a liquid wbich is sulJject to neither foaming
nor deposition of aolid, IlDd is of relatively low vis- FlO. 455. ~tiQn n..1 dbllnuu of lmsket-~yrc evapo ....tor.
cosity. (Stl.... rnw" E!'<l/lQraJQT ell.)
476 EVAPORATION
near the top of the tube. The effective drop in
temperature ( - 61') is usually only slightly less
than the d ifference between condensation tempern-
ture of the steam and boiling point of t.he liquid
under the pressure maintained in the vapor space.
Entrainment -
.J--~"" . """"
FORCEDCIRCULATION EV AORA TOR
In the forced-circulation evaporator, liquid is
pumped th rough the inside of a tubular heater at
f low 01
reasonably high velocities with relatively ) ittle evap-
liquid' oration per pass" The l;quid-vapor mixture is ejected.
from the tubes against a deflector of stich contour
that considerable coaJescenoo .. of droplets results.
The entrainment from the evaporat.or is accordingly

Thic~
11q~

FlO. 456. Cros'.,,<s.eetiQuo.l di.ugl'll m of standard lIertico.J-tube

evaporator with nuturl/.! circulation. (Sun.ron Evo.pql"(JWT Co.)

The vertical tube evaporator is extremE-ly versa.- Erltr.inmt'f\1

tile, repl'f"8Cnting an exceUent balance bet woon sur- diseniaeinll
faoe required for a given amollnt of evaporation,
ana cost of providing that capar:ity" It is reasonably "'"
sati!!ie.ctory for SIl.lti ng fluids, or liquids of mO(lcrate
visooeity" If sevcre scaling conditions are cn
countered the tu l ~ are subject to clcaning by
mechanical d eanc1"l!. If severe scaling is an1icipated Boiline
insiQ e >;_,",-
and mcchallieul cleaning is expected. the lcngth of I~ ~
the tubes in the Bteam chc::It is nonnally limited by
the height to which Jill "avcrage wor::man can lift
the c,l.rillused w clean ,out the tubes.
Entrained liquid is 1I0t readily S(!paratcd from the
vapors whi:Jh are evolved from the top of the tubes,
and spray catchers or entrainment separators arc
usually provided on vertical-t ube evaporators"
In continuous operation the fate of introduction
of feed is small compared to the' rate of c'irculation"
Therefore the liquid entering the hott.oro of the tube:!
is essent ially of the !:lame concentmtion as the
product removed, Ilnd only slightly below the boiling
point t.emperature Ilt the pressure of thA vapor
space. The velocit.y of the liquld entering 1he tu~ ~=~JI
has been mca'ured
.. in the range nf l to 3 fps,,' The
increase in en"tha!py as lhe liquid rises in the tube
is sufficicnt to rai >!(l it .to it s hoiling point and Il!lUnlly FIG . 457" C",.~etio llal di'll(ra m or \'crtil,,,I-luh,, eVfljXlrll.t.nr
to generatc some vapor under the existing pressure fo rl:'e<.l d rculation. O)".~"~o,, J.: av.poroior C o. )
 LONe. TUBE VERTICAL EVAPORATOR ' 77
The circulation pump is most frequently a. cen-
trifugal pum p; however, for extremely viscous liquids
Impingement ~rtIe
a positive action pump is frequently inst.alled: For
lDl se~r.Jtini
liquid ,nd ViPQf a colloid which might be damaged in structure by
the rapid agitation in a centrifugal pump, it is p0s-
sible to subsLitut.e a slower-moving type of pump
which will not have a deleterious .eifeQt upon the
colloidal structure of the liquid being evaporated.

WNG~TUBE VERTICAL EVAI.'ORATOR

The long-tube vertioa1 evaporator (LTV or
Kestner evaporator) uses natural circulation of the
liquid' through tubes wbid l are surrounded by ste:un
ill the steam chest. The tubes are usually i.n the
range of 12 to 20 ft long and discharge against a
deflector in the vapor head, shown in Fig. 450. Thr
FlO. 458. C~tional diagriJ,m of foroed.-circuh.t.ion evapo-
ra. tor with an extcrnsl horlzontn.! hea.ter'. (S\OtMon Empo-
ralbr Co.)

controlled by the shape of the deAeetor. The un-

evaporated liquid is allowed 1..0 recirculate, no rmaUy
through an external piping arrangement to thE; pump
which forces the liquid through tbe beating element,
as shown in F ig. 457. Present prantice tends toward
building the heating element as a separate tubular
-- _.....
....
Enlrllinmenl

ban,.

heater as.shown in Fig. 458, rather than the integral

vertical construction of Fig. 457. The external
heatUtg unit has considerable advantage in allowmg
greater ease of cleaning or replaooment of tubes,
particularly if it is horizontal, but it requires some-
what more complicated piping. This is more than
compensated by the improved average coe3icient
of beat trarufcr through a cycle of operation since
it is poesible to in.stall the heating element suffi-
ciently far below the liquid level in the vapor head
to avoid boiling on the heating surface, greatly
d.ecreaeing the rate of depoBition of solids.
The selection of a forood-circula.t ion evaporator
. for an installation depends upon a favorable balance
between the cost of energy to circulate the liquid
versus the improved coefficient. wbicl. is secured. by
the greater velocities possible. One efficient practice
is the use of a steam turbine to drive the circulation
pump, with the exhaust from the turbine providing
the heat source to the evaPOrAtor system. The
complication of operating a steam turbine compared
with electric drive eliminates this &Ctup 'for small Fla. 4159.
~tional diagram of long-tube vertical evapo-
instwlations. rator. (Swemon Evaporalm Co.)

478 EVAPORA T10N
steam inlet

Flo. 46Oa. l'herm<)llt,atio trop. When steam entera the trnp,
the &!III in the Bylphon lKloomefl heated and cxpanOM, c101'ling
the discharge. Such traps ale 11B<-...J when the aystem i!! fre-
quently purged of air as in 1\ &lcIun-hea.ting system (or build-
ing8.
Fm. 400b. Proosurc n,tum tmp. '\linen the u".p becomce filled
with liquid, the Hoat ri8ell, do"loll; the feed to tho trap wd
opening the stea.m pl'CSllu-e line, thereby increa.~ing the pres-
sure in the trap eufficiently to return the liquid through the
diBeharge line of the trap.

p
VALVE SEAl
VALVE

VALliE GUIDE

PROPELLER

Flo. -100d. Sectional Vlew of inverted-bucket

}o'm. 46!N. Sectional view of upright bucket trQP, showio1/: bucket in
lower position with the di$Charge valve open lind dischargiU! liquid.
All the bucket empt ~ it becometl b UOYAnt lind I\n.au. on the li!')uid
in the trap, closillfi the \1l1ve. The propeller 1)11 the outside oott.om
of bueket ~ the bucket and valve to Towle wi th each ver1.ical
movement of bucket.. (li. O. 7'rtri. Co.)
blMt trap for handling l:trge qu",n titi,,~ of ",ir.
Air and w ... tPl' How into trap frvrn hottom
until SWam Ilnters lind ClI1LSL'8 tiJ~ iJimetal1in
strip to Oel1d up .... nro, closillg the laJ'K" vnn L
in the top of the bu ckd. Tbe trail t,hen
operatt:s in a manner I'Iimi lar to thllt soown
in F ill:. 100<:. ( ..... rmalrollg iIIodtiM lVor\;t.)
 EVAPORATOR AUXILIARIES

(1) (2) (') (')

FIG. 46Oc. In"crted-bucket steam trap. Inlet at the botwm,

outlet at the wI'. (ArmWOAi1 MarhiA" Warh.)

(J) Steam of!. Hucket. down, outlet va lve open.

(2) Steam on. Waterfillsbodym-thtp. EICt."Hi!WIl.U!r<'llCllpcll
throll.lh orifice at top.

(3) When steam rea.che$ tmp. it fills hud:':;l. d iMplacing ,..,,-(er.

The uucLct 1Ioo.\.5l1.nd cloeee outlet Orili,'C".
(~) A5 ~t.eam &>nJCII8C!I, watR,r enter!! tr3.P and fills bucket.
Air esellp'.... thrnUKh srnro.)J vent iu 1(o)J of oo,h-t. llucke';
l0iSe8 buoyancy.
(5) ,Vhen weight of bucket timCl\ leveraot6 equals )JrCS'!ure on
vllln:, t.rap Opell" "nd didch/lJ'geI! through outlet II.t top .

('l
long-tube vcrticsl evapOf8tor is in general not recom- :\l ATF.RIALS OF CO:,\STR UCTION
mended for salting or ECaling Uq\lid$ nor for liquids
Ev apor&t.ors are built or mild ,,;tt:el u nl~ corrosion
with extremely high viseos.ity. It can be ada.pted
conditions dict.a.te !~ more rel:!i~ an " material. Welded
(~xcenently to I.he cOlll!eotration of foamy liquids.
construct ion is rum06t univ('l' is! l~')r severe condi-
Th.is is believed due to the breakup 'of the f09rn wh.en
tions or for products suhjeo: tc ,: ' ma.ge by slight
the liquid-vapor mixture is ejectcci from the tubes
corrmlion, Lhey may be built of (u 1l~IS\.()rill.l: lead'
at high velocity against a properly shaped deflCl:wr.
for rayon spin baths, nickel for i:trong co.ul:!tic,
The fre.clion of the liquid evaporated per pasa is
Karhate for certain !!.Cia!:!, or stainl ,~s steel for food
in general considerably higher in &Ii LTV evaporg,tor
prooucta.
than in alorcerl-circula t ion evaporator.t Operation
may be wi~h recirculation, as shown, or it may be
EVAPORATOR AUXILIARI ES
one pass; with thick liquor removed from the head.
The coefficients are usually not 80 high, but the 'nle feed pumps, condellS.'Lw withd rawal pumps,
expense of lIlstalling and operating the circulation and liquor withdrawal pumps, as necessary, for
pump is avoided. Special-purpose evaporatoJ'B or evaporat.or operations in general, and the circulating
vacuum pans may h3\'e the heating eurfuce in coils pump for forced-eirculat.ion cvaporawrs, 'arc I!tam\-
or in extremely loug units. ard e(luipmnnt of a design appropriate to the tern-
 EV APOR.4:TION

pentures of operation. enoount6red, and frequently proportioned ior the most. 'eoonomW:al handling' of
to the Jl&'e88ity gf pumping {rom a space at sub- the streams. Since pressu{l:"drop on the vapor side
atmospheric pressure. Temperature, pressure, and "' is frequently :import.ant, vapor lanes through the
liquid-level controllers are standard equipment. For tube bundle 'are usual to facilitate distribution of
removal of condensate from spaOO8 above>atmos- vapor and promote unifofTJl effectiveness of all sur-
pheric prossure, conventional therm.al or buckct-t.ype faces. Venting of noncondensables may be from
traps are used (Fig. 4{j()a, c, t); for tcmoval from any well-cooled ' point in the condenser. In large
spaces below atmospheric pressure, a pump or units, or those operating with small temperature
pressure return trap is n(l(:Cs;;&ry. One common type differences between cooling-water temperature and
of pump trap, using high-PI'CSl!ure steam as the acti- saturation temperature, special-feature8 are hlclud{
vating fluid , is shown in Fig. 4600. to assure cloee approach to cooling-water inlet
Where the BOIute is valuable or where it is neces- temperature by the condensate.
sary to re-use coodensate in as high a ~tat.c of purity Removal of eOIidensate from surface oondenl!el'S
as possible, 1111. entrainment eat.e:her should be in-. and steam chests be10w atmOllphcric preHSUTe may be
stalled in the vapor space or line from an evaporator. accomplished by pumping, pr by flowing altemately
The most common type is the cyclone" or centrifugal to two evacuated tanks. which can I,)e periodically
separator, but haffies or screens are also used. The isolated from the system, released to atmospheric
vapor formed in the evaporator mugt, be condensed, pressure for draining, re-evacuated, and returned to
for which a jet or a surface condenser may be used. service.
Removal of cooling water plus condensate from a When a jet condenser is UBed, condensate and
jet conde )l!er is usually acoomplil;herl by a "baro- cooling water are mixed and removed together. The
metric leg" to avoid the expense of pumping. The jet condenser is .simply a chamber for intimate con-
condenser is mounted high enough above the dis- tacting of vapors with cooling water (Fig. 461).
charge point that the water column established in Sprays, trays, and CQUIlterflow are used in various
the discharge pipe more than compensates the dif- designs to improve the contact. Inheren tly, they
ference in pressu re between the condensing space are smaller than the surface condenser and mucb.
and thc atmosphere. About 34 ft is the usual re- cheaper. A modification of the jet condenser permits
quirement. A seal pot at the bottom should have a elimination of the vacuum pump and the barometric
capacity equal w tha.t of the tail pipe; otherwise leg in somc instances. It is possible to inject a part
evacuation s nd flow of cooling water must be skill- of the cooling water with sufficient directed velocity
fully balanced to cl:itablish the water column. into a.properly shaped discharge throat to function
The surface condenser is of conventional tube and as a jet pump for removal of the noncondensablea.
shell design, with water n.nd vapor nozzl!!s properly Pressures below 2 psia are atta.lned by such pumps.

FlO. 461. Two-el.agll barometric condenser. (ScAu& ClIId Fm. 462. Barometric jet oondelW!lr. (&:4~ ClIId KomilljJ
KoeTting Co.) 0(1.)
 EVAPORATOR OPERATION
Figure 462 illustrates one design in which 8. part of
the cooling water i!l sprayed into the vapor -stream
v_
_...... ,..., --.......
Vapor III hut v"PO'to ~
481

.......''''''f'''""'" """
for maximum effei:tivcnt'SS in condensation. The 1hiRI~1

remainder is injected into jets dircctod into the dis-

clla.ge throat to complete the condensation and to
, , r;:ro-
eject the noncondem.ables. T hese condensers are
Hiat'l- preswre
... m
I
i~ L-... '- metric
=-
normally recommended for installation with a ~" r- """,,

-....
~
barometric leg tor evaporator service because of
immunity from flooding. Designs are also available
in which the jet pump ac tion is sufficient also to .....'"
rl't$h feed to

~-
ejeet the cooling watf':" to a tmospheric pressure
without a barometric leg.
When solids 9Cparate out during evaporation, they
. ..
"""""'-
"""r",
Flo. 463. Flow .!illgram 01 II forward-I('(!\) tli ple-clfe<:t evapo-
must be removed if present in sufficient quantity to n~.

interfere with free circulation of the liquor. Various

means have been used for this purpose, all of which
have been discarded in favor of auxiliary settling
chambers through which a stream of the slurry is
ci rcul~~ted, with solid removed as a thickened slurry
for iilt.ration, and cllU"ified liquor returned to the
system. The amount of t.he circulated stream, the
reduction in solid content, Lhe dimensions and ar-
rungemcnt of the 8Cttlers, the conSistency of the
thickened slurry, and the extent to which it is washed
during the filtration are variablr.a whie.... must be
fitted to t he individual requiremenUJ.
EV APORATOR OPERATJON
1 ~ e largest economies which can be effected in the souree and with condenser temperature of 125 0 F
operation of evaporators result from the re-use of saturation. The boiling-point elevations used are
the energy of vaporization as a heat 80uree for furiher those fOT saturatedsolutioos of sodium chloride.
evaporation at a lower temperature, as indicated
d iagrammatically in Fig. 463. This repetil-ive WIC
of the heat supplied is usually rderred to lUi multiple-
effect operation, each re-usc being accomplklhed in an
additional bOOy, or effcct.
Multiple FJJeet
Although it is theoretically possible to re-use the-
energy Ai! many times as pe&ired) practical cOnl::ideru-
tions limit t.he number of effecle which may be used.
The original energy supply, lISSuming steam heat
is employed, is at !I. fixed temperature. The min-
imum attainable temperature in the system is UBUally
limit(."<i hy the temperature of cooling water avail-
able. This overall availahle tem perature drop can
be partitioned aero&! as many ste r>8 in series as
desired. The decrease in temperature drop acros.~
each addit.ional etfpct decreM(lS the heat Aux t.hrough
the heating surface and proportionately redncros the
'evaporation per unit of hC'ating surfo.re.
F or solutions which exhibit an "elevation in the
boiling point" above t.hat of pure wuter, there is a
loss ill ,potentilLl of the energy in each effect between
the temperature at which the Solvent i'j evolved from
the boiling solution and the tempemturo at ,,hieh .
the solvent will condeOJiC in the steam chest of the
next elTeet where it i~ essentially pure. For solut ions
of strong ek"Ctrolytes this boiling- point elevut ion il:l
appreciable, and if repeated in more than th ree or
four effects it will absorb a large fraction .of the
overall available temperature drop. Figure 464
indicates graphically the principle of lost enetgy
potential because of boiling-point cleva! ion for a
three-cffect evaporator with steam at 5 psig as heat
. -- . ""F s:eamto lst ltffael:
22"
Soiling poi nt of liql.lOl' in 1st-effect
Condeming t~mper3turt al v.por
IrQll'l lst effect
170' F Boiling ~nt of Jiquor N1 2nd . !fact
Condeming temperaturt at ... apor
from 2nd elfect
Beilin" po;nt 01 liqoor in lrd .ffect
Condensing tempor<tture of v'pof
from last (3dj tHeet
D Working(etfective)tt'!npera!ur, drop
~ Elevation at boiling pojnt
Flo. 464. Uoiling.-point tlevB~ionB in a triple~ft'ect ,,,,"por_tor.
 Jo;V APOIlA nON
In genrrai l he p.conomio ~lance betwOOD the cost
of providi' g-udditionlll heuting ~urface in the form
of mort' cf.cels n'M!U~ the decrc8.'led effectiveness of
Ih3.t hcat iilg I:iUrfuec !1.8 the te mperature drop is
tI('cwU::lC:'d ;ndic!l.t<.os that.. it is seldom desirable to use
,UI elTC('l in : Irmpcrature drop of less than 10 degrees.
The" ll ' tUOlUm temperature of the conderuring
n LI)" " fm l'l ti m last effect may be limited by cooling-
water ICln llCTul Ure ' I T by economic considerations of
(>(,:.dcn.,;cr CO$~ versus W:lte r cot>t, or by the decrease
in heat- t mn",fcr coefficient in the last effect of a
multiple-effect evaporator due to increased viscosity
of 11m liquor at the boiling point of the liquor
liu'rf'in.
Steam is valua blo in industry principally according
to it.., /l.\'ll.ilahility or temperature level. Although
it may a.PIw,ar that large quantities of heat arc being
ww;tcd when lo\\'-pN'!SSlirC \tLpor i$ $cnt to a con-
dense r, this is not neccssurily true. Work can be
obtained from h {~at. only when thcre is a sink as
well 8); a J;ource of heat: An evaporator receiving
stcam under prt'Ssure and dilWharging vapor or
steam at lowcr pressure to a condenser is essentia!ly
a heat cllgine with the work evident in the desired
!r~paration of the components of the feed. It is
pD!l.<;ible to s upply this work mechanically by vapor
recompI'Csllion rILther than by a temperature drop
in..heat.
Vapor Rompl'l!u i on
The encl1O' potent ial or low-pressure vapor may
be inereased by mechanical or stcam-jet compression,
thereby making the latent heat of condensation avail-
able at a higher temperature. The low-pressure
vapor may bc obtained from the boiling solution
within the c\'aporator or as exhaust steam from
other equipment.
The low-pressure vapor leaving the top of the
evaporator a~ ill Fig. 455 or 457 may be compressed
by pas.;,;ing through Il compressor such as Fig. 16.')
or 188 and discharged th ro ugh the steem line into
thc stcam chest whcre it r:ondell8(.'S at a higher
t('mperaturc corresponding to the increased pres.-;Ute.
Sueh operation may be oconomienl when electrical
pt>wer is low in cost and fuel is expensive and the
tempemture drop from condensing vapor to hoiling
liquid in the evaporator is small. But high invest-
ment costs gene ra:lly make such installatioll8 un-
ecollom i('~ .
Where only high-pressure steam is a vailable a jet
oomPI'(!$OT (Fig. 2(9) may be ulK!d with IIOffle saving
in high-p ressure steam compa~ to the simpler
scheme of throttling the high-pTC:8!:lure steam directly
to the steam che...t. Ru t t he low efficiency of s team-
jet comptcSS9rs when operating with /I. large differ-
ence in pressure between the higb- ialla IO\\'-prcssure
steam limit t he ec<:nomy of this Ilrrangement.
In any case the use of vapor compress.ion req ui res
a. complete CCQnomio balance to dctcnninc its feasi-
bility in any given application.
Fding
The feed to a mllitipl~ffect evaporator is mOIl!
conveniently fed to the elTects in series in the snmc
order as the steam flows. This is cal!~l fQrwardfeed .
Under thcS{1 conditions it is not ne(:c!l&\ry t.o pump
the liquid between elTects. and the only pump re-
quired to operate from a spllce below almOl!pheric
pressure is t.he disc.harge pump of the In:-!t. effect.
If the feed is cold, this teflultS in the ab~orption of
considerable heat in the fir~t effect, which "llf'at i8
not available in vapor for rc-UdC in the second and
subsequent elfects, eJ..1:!pt. inl:lOfaT HS fhll>h vaporiza-
t.ion OCCllrs when the liq uid boiling in the first effect
is t rausferred to the second eIJp.cl. which will be at a
lower pTCStIure. Some ~ash vaporiUltion occu~ in
each effect after the /In;t when feeding forward . If
t he feed is at or above the boiling poin t of the hottest
effect, it may be most econo mica1 to feed into .hat
effcct to utilize the Ilash vapor in heating subsequent
effects.
The feed is called backward when it is int-roduced
into the effect at the lowest teml)Crature I:l.-'Id p res.<;u re
lind pumped $ucecl:lSively inw t hc effects at higher
t.emperatures and pr&SSures. This requires more
equipment and more care in operation, but with a
cold feed or a liquor w/l ich increases in viscosity
during evaporation it givC8 considerably improved
overall economy.
It is po&'1ible and sometimes most practicable in
2vaporation of saturat.ed liquids to feed into each
effect of a multiple-cffect evaporator in parallel, but
the economics seldom indicate that thi~ is the cheap-
est method in so far l\.ij hel!.t and investment coots are
conccrnoo. This is calloo parai1l feed. In solutions
having considerable change in viSC<.l8ity with tem-
perature over the ooncentration range involved, it is
frequently most economical to feed forward with the
fresh feed entering the second or third.effect, thence
returned for evaporation of the thickest liquor at the
high temperature. This type of feeding is called
mixed and represents a compromise for vi8C0U8
 REA T TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
.thick I1quor between the operational advantage of
forward feed and the greater economy of backward
food.
Selectlon and Operation.
No generalization can be made which will serve
as a reliable guide in the selection of type o( evapo-
moor, number of eileets, method of feeding, or types
of equipment most satisfactory for different solutions
under the variety of economic limitations whieh will
be imposed in various plants. Accordingly, evapo-
rator design has remained a specialty in which each
installation is tailONnade 00 fit the requirements of
the problem at hand.
Hot condensate from an early steam chest may
be "flashed" 00 the presswe of Iawr stenm eheets to
yield additioIllll vnpor for heating jf the amount 'of
such heat recovery justifies the cost of additional
equipment and'the extra complication of operation.
Vapor may be withdrawn between any effects for
process healing if economical, or extra steam from
other sources may be added if available. In most
plants, steam conden.sate is recovered for boiler
feed; danger of contamination usually precludes use
of vp;>or condensate except for proccs.s water.
The beat transfer on the steam side is retanied
by the presence of noncondensable gas or air which
must be thoroughly removed for satisfactory opera
tion. The size and looation of vent lines for removal
of noncondensables from steam spaces below atmos--
pheric pressure with maximum effectiveness and
minimum loss of steam is a matter of conl:liderable
importance. These may lead directly to the con
denser or to any subsequent effect at a lower pressure.
Control of the amount of venting may be indicated
by the temperature of the vent line at s. distance
from the space being vcnted.
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
As the solution flows upward through the tubes of
a vertical evaporator its pressure continually de-
creases, its temperature rises until boiling starts,
when the temperature may begin to fall, accompany
ing the decreasing pressure. For computing overall
heat transfer coefficients by equation 356 under these
conditions, an appropriate temperature drop must
be used. The temperature of the condensing steam
is normally constant and easily det.ermiiled from its
pressure. The .problem is to select a suitable mean
temperature for the solution u it passes tbroot;h the
tubes. A simple and common practice is to use the
boiling point of the solution in the evuporator at the
pressure of the vapor space. The difference between
the temperllture of the condensing steam and the
temperature of the boiling solution at the pressure of
the vapor space is called I the net temperature drop
or the "ttmlperature drop corrected for elevation in
boiling point" and is usually indica-ted whenever
t,empcrature drop is mentioned in connection with an
evaporator, as in Fi~. 465.
Some confu..ion exists ill early -literature on evapo-
rators owing to the use of a "coefficioot not corrected
for boilingpoint elevatiun," i.e., calculated on the
batlis of a temperature d rop equal to the differenoe
between steam temperature and saturation tempera-
ture or pure water at the pressure existing ill Ule
vapor space. Further confusion exists because some
investigators mnde the fallacious assumption that
boiling occurs through the filII length of the tubes
and attempted to evaluate an average boiling point
under the varying hydr06tatic head, usually without
regard for the I~cccicrati on head due to vaporization,
leading to a "coefficient corrected for hydrostatic
head." There appears to be no justification for
perpetuating either of these practices.
The overall heat transfcr coefficients in vertical-
tube evaporators follow the general pattern indi-
cated in Fig. 465, where coefficients 1 are presented
for a basket eVu.porator hAving a 3O--in. ID shell and
24 2-in. tubes 48 in. in length in the 2G--in. steam
o
10 20 30 -"'t 50 ro
Temperltull Drop. (- 6T}, OF
FlO. 465. Typieal overall coctlir.ientll of heat tramfer in ftrU--
eaJ..tube evaporalnns exprefri!Jed M a func:Yon of the tempera...
Wn! drop ( - .6T) ar>d t.be I>oitilL~point (bp) 01 the liq_.'
...
basket. The coefficient increases with lower liquid
EV APORA TION
Overall coeffi cients in long-lubc vertical evaporators
levels down to a level that rt..'Sults in insufficient liquid range from 200 to liOO lltu/(hr)(OF)(1;Q ft), based on
being carried up by the evolved vapor to wet the the net temperature drop. These arc less than can
enti."'e heating 8:J.rfaoo. At low-level olX'r&tion, how- be obtained in II. forced -circulation evaporator at
eve~. the rate of salting or scaling is greatly increased, hi!;h circulat.ion rntes..-..say 10 fps a.nd higher, The
ar,,,, for a liquid whkh deposits solids on the heating typical feed rates fo~ LTV evapomtot"S ran/l:e from
surface, the operating cycle between cleanouts may 0.1 to 0.5 fps entering velocity, and the fmetion
be unreasonably short. At the other extreme, wit-h evaporated per pass is much higher than for any
the liquid level considerably above the tube sheet, other common type.
ne-pigible- evaporation takes place in the tubes The values of heat t.ransfer coefficients listed here
because of the hydrostatic head of the liquid above are intentionally conservative and do not represent
t}or :.op tube sheet, and the ra te of scaling or salting maximum values obtainable with scrupulously clean
is greatly reduced. The choice of the appropriate healing surface, or with promotol"S u!K'd to secure
liquid Jevel \\;th balance hetween benefit to coeffi- dropwise condensation of steam.
cient and decrease in the length of the operating It is well estaelished that heat tra nsfer coefficient!!
cyc~ must be decided for each installation. For the in most types of evaporators increase with mcrcasing
majurity of installations, the optimum liquid level temperature drops, increasing circulation, dcc'1'!LSing
is near t he t.op tube sheet, though sometimes as viscosity, and decreasing surface tension. The rda
much as 2 ft above. Predictions of the rate of tion~ are not clear in the case or - the longtube
decrease of coefficient with sclliing is difficult on ~he natural--circulation evaporator because of the un
basis of the few tests which arc available. certainty as to what fraction of the tul>e represents
Hurizonlal-tube and , ubmeTged-roil evo:porators give boiling and what represents nonboiling length; all
coefficients from about 200 lltu/( hrWF)(sq ft) at factors which increase the boiling lcngth seem to
moderate rempcraturc drops and boiling points in increase the coefficients, Il.l:l expected.
t.'le vicinity of 100" F to about 400 Btu/ (hr)(OF)
(aq ft) for atmospheric boiling point and ,)verall
CALCULATIONS
temperatu re drops of 70 to SOo F.
Swndard vertical and baskct.tVpe evaporators give If the overall heat transfer coefficient for a give.n
coefficients of the same order, or slightly higher for solution in a given type of singlc--cffect evaporator
operation with liquid level at t he top tube sheet. is availahle, determination of the aise required to
For lowlevel operat.ion, these coefficients will reach accomplish the necessary evaporation with the sped
300 to 500, and for high.level operation will fall ofT fied steam tern]X'rature a,ld condenser temperature
to 150 to 300 Btu/(hrWF)(sq ft). is a straightforward computation.
Coefficienl.8 in forccd-circuhltion evaporator. vary For mul ti ple-effect evaporation, the temperature
widely under the additional variable of circlllat.ion Ilnd pressure at intermed iate heating su rfaces in the
rate.' At low circulat.ion rates, boiling may start system cannot be fixed in advance and will hunt
com;ocrably below the top of the tube. The true their own level appropriate to the equipmcnt being
coefficierU computed by integrating temperature dif used, The determinat ion of heating surface n~cd
ferences throughout the length of the tul>e may be in each effect can be accomplished by a seriCl:l c.f
more than twioo that which would be predicted by hcat balam.:es around each effect and an overall heat
equat ion 417 for heutil1g without boiling. For eifeu and material balance. These e<]ulI.tions can be
lations greater than about 3.5 ips, boiling in the tu~s solved after assum ption~ are made all to the ternpr.ra
is almost supprcssOO , and t he tnlC coefficKmt ap. t ure and amount of eVfl:poration ill each effect. 1'he
proachcs t hat pre<Jicte<.l for heating, exceeding it by classical method of deu~l"Ininati()n of required area
aoolJt 25 per cent. The true ~T for a 12ft tube was has heen t.o solve thesc helLt balance equations simul
found to ll.Yerage about 0.63 of the net ~T. Liquor. taneously; the urC'a re<juircd to accomplish tI,C' as
side coefficients as high as 6000 Dtu/ (hr)("F )(sq ft ) ~u met.l evaporat ion in ew:h effect IS then evahu"tcd,
have heen reportoo, with \'elocitics of 15 fps . and conditions rcadjustcc1 and recomputed to auain
In c1csip;ning cvnporutors the true or intcgrated thc desirable condition uf equal heating surf~ in ull
. temf>(lrllturc diITerence is not ava.ilable and the net effects. This last condition is not necessary, but for
.o.T is used with overall coefficients. multiplc--cffcct evaporation the in:stallation C08t is
 ,
CALCUUTlONS ..5
considerably lessened if thE' eff~t.s can a~1 be built s4';nificant for ~ul!h dissoh'ed solids as caustic, sodium
from t he same designs. chloride, etc., but they may be negligible whe n the
solids consist of collodial suspens ions or organic
J'flpor.Uquid Equilibria substances.
BoilinK in an evaporator normnlly CI-eatcs a vapor The rela tionship between the boiling point of
which is in equilibrium with the liquid. The t.em- saturated liquids and pure water i~ best shOll"n by a
perature of the vapor i~ the same as that of th~ liquid, Duhring plot. Figure 407- shows the boiling point
and the Vapor -is saturated relative to the liquid "Of caustic solutions plotted against tllij boiling point
phase. Figure 4136 is an approximate phnse equililr of pure water at the ~me pressure. I ' Individ\lai
lines are required for each concentration of sodium
2800

,J:-- i'i-
1800 1-,j(~!J.til\ed-
- ~;:'i --;
2530"'.-'"
hydroxide.
Heat Required
The heat required to va porize a. pound of water

800 '"
I
from a solution is not necessarily th(' s..'1mc tuI the
latent heat of the pure water, since the va poriza-
tion procCSB includes a concentration of the solution.
700 For substances like caustic which have appredable
heat of dilu tion, the enthalpy requirements are be~t
determined from enthalpy-concentration charts (M'C
p. 326, Chapter 23). Figure 468 is a n enthnlpy-

:f~
ooncentration chart for water-sodi1\m hyd roxide

,i."
solu l ions based on data for heats of dilution at (..'00-
I'lant temperature and speific heat at consttlnt
composition ? The d~um for wate r is t he same ns

300 .f/ the IIteam tables so diat they may be used for pure
water. The datum for NaOH on this chart is for

200

100
-- V Boiling-point
el!v.1 i ~
212- F
NaOH in an infinitely dilute solution, and pure
caustic ha.6 an enthalpy at 68 F of 455 Dtu/ lb above
this datum.
Edal11plfl. Compute the heat required to vaporize 1 lb of
water in an evaporator producing caustic .eo)utiun eont.B.ining
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 40 pel' cent NaOH by weight, at a pre9SUl'\'! of 3.716 PIIia, when
Mass fraction, NaOH footling ~ ~,r et:nt NaOH lIQlution to the evaporator at the
F lo. 466. Approxill'Lllte phase equilibrium diagram for the bo~ l,empetature in t he evaporat.or. What is the boilin.,;-
water-eodium bytlrm:ide lI}1Jlem at I a hn. point elev:alion?
Solution. From properties of ""ateT, the boiling point of
rium diagram at a constant pressUn! of 1 atm for t.50 F.
-water ...
water-sodium hydroxide &Jlution!l. Most vapors in Boiling point 40 per cent NaOH ... 19'r F from Fig. 467
equilibrium with liquids containing dissolved solids Boiling point . .levation ... 47 ' F
normally concentrated in commercial evaporators are Enthalpy of ~t"'lm at t07' F .rod 3.716 pIIia. 1148 Btu / II.>
essentially pure water. Since the temperature of the l:nth ... lIlY in Enthalpy out
vapor is above the boiling point of pure water at the q+2X142 174 + t14B
existing pressure, the vapor is superheated relative IlH ... q ... , ., . + 11"8 - 284 ... 1038 Btu to evapol'8te I
to pure water. Ib of water and eonoen traW 20 per rent NaOH to 40 per Dl:Dt
The boiling point of water containing dissolved NaOH. From 8t.eam W>Ies, the latent heat at 3.716
solids may be given by its boiling-point elevation psia ... 1008 Blu, whicb is only a fair appm:<imation of \be
heat re~meM.
above tbat of pure water. This term is convenien t
in evaporation &inee i,t gives tbe tempe rature de- If t he vapor from this evaporator were sent to the
crease which will take place between e volution of the . heating clement of another effect, without any pres-
vapor [rom a liquid and condensation to pure water sure drop, the condensing wmpcrature would be
at constant prebSure. Boiling-point elevation~arc 150 F.
 EVAPORATION

1000

800
-
.:~
700
$\""
",, I;

600
1,1
.,,,.. "

,

~

lIlO
~
<'
. ~
2110 ~ 1{;.
~
'1110 i-o ~
~~ .
0
20
" 60 80 1110 120
"" 160 180
80ilinj Potnt of Water, of
2110
"" 240
'" 280 3110

Fl:o. 467. DIUuiUC ~ for aqueoua IIOlutioM or eodium hydroxide.

 CALCULAnONS 487

........ ""'"
Water - liquld.t 32 F
NaOH - infinilwly d~ute
sokItion al

400

100

o 10 20 30 40
N.OH." by Weight
Flo. 468. EIlth.alpy,~()DOOIltn.tion di&gnm for &tluooUIIS<liutioN! " f !iod ium hydro:o;ide. !k{C""ICC aUt-toe H4uiJ \\"at<lr at 32 F
0

under ita o... n Vl!.pl>r ptc!l!ure.

... V APORA nON
This met hod of evaluating the enthalpy N ntent where !'Iuh~cr ipts "d il" indicates due to dilution (or
of streams into and out of each effect by means of contentration).
an enthalpy-concentration chart 'is recommended.... - ~ " c r'" indicates due- to crystnlliza.
when PQsgible. Eriergy balances' may be written t ion. ' .)
using these values for solutiuns- and values from of
" fg" indicatci latent hetit vapori-
steam tables for vapor and condensate. If an zation of I)Ure \nl.ter.
enthalpy-conOOJltration~ chart jg not availablp fur - '- -'"
the solution being- .concentrated, it is necessary 1.0 Multiple Eff~Uf,
evaluate chan'ges ,~in enthilJpy due ro ch ang~ in For a mul tiple-effect eVllpOrator, the hJtai {Napora..,
temperature, 'concentration, or phase', individually. lion , the l'team tcmppJ'A.tllrc, and the ~ondf!n se r
The increase in'enthalpy ac companying A. cillUlge in preSi;ure {:onstitute tile u$\ial st ip \lla j i()fl~. (;<.> ffi-
phase such as vaporiw.tioti-of water from a solut;~ _cielits of hellt transfer to the solution aH ri. function
may be estim'ated by the Clausius-CIa-perro., equa- of ooncentrntion , temperat uI'C, and te mperature drop
tiou, writing it in ratio with 3{l ~v-alualion for water mils l, be known- more or lcti15 completely_
at the same p teSSUrtl, The general procedure for delennining operat.ing
cond h ~ons and (irel\..'S i~ ~ follow~:
H- h,.,
(4"51). L As.'S ume a digt ribution (equal, if oonditions arc
only vaguely known) of the total evaporation be-
II'here H "" enthalpy of unit mass of. water vapol'll tween the effects to permit estimation of concentra-
equilibrium" with so\utiPTI., "'... .. lion of liquor~ leRving each effect.
H ..., = enthalpy of unit 'mass of walp.l vapoc in 2: On" the b:lsi~ of these coneentmtJons, estimate
equili brium wilh pure wate r. d ie boiling-point rose in each effect. a-l 'lts cstimlltcd
II ..... = enthalpy of unit mass of' water in the. temperature. EVllluate the overall effective tcm-
solution. .- ~ratuN! drop by subtrar.tinK the sum of th~ boilillg-
hWUK = enthalpy .of unit mass of pure Ijquid po-4lt >riSt,~ froJl.l . the . differeh.ce. Qet,veen the hent
water. ~ supplytand ~!l condenser tc~peratl.!res.
Tool - absolute boiling temperature o(~ution~ 3. Partltion...t11e overall effective temperature drop
T_ate. '"" absolute boiling temperature of lI'ate~ at ~ 'between the. effed*-Tt\vccsely with coefficien t.!!. Ad-
same pressure. just.nrent-s in-boiling-pointelev!t.t ioosnd temperature
The h~at of vapo~iza.tion of the: sol~nt from a solu- drop for each effect can he made as nece88ary by
tion, then, "is equal to the heat of vaporization of charting terpperat-urp!I as in Fig: 464 . :~
4. Writ~ enprgy -halances around_each effect, using
pure sulvent at the same pressure times the ratio - . .
of the squares uf the absolute boiling points divided tempcrature,, -and cor.centnltions 90S estimated, with
quantities ot"cvaporation in cMh effect and quantity
by thc slope of the DOhring line for the solution.
of ateam sa unlmowns. For n effeets, this yields n
Ii an enthalpy-concentration chart is a vailahle,
the energy balance around each effect takes the form : equat ion", in "n + I unknowns. An overall solvent
" bttlancc Permits solution for' evaporatio"i! 'a each
_-=-- effect and stfaffl quantit.y. > -

5. Inspect eva-poration per effect , and, if compu"",

- mpHp + mvHv + msHc + Hell.t 1068 (452) -
- ,
where m - mass of a stN!am:
H ... enthalpy above datUm per unil m888_
, Subscripts: F - feOO to the effect,
p ~ product-from the effect.
S OR heating vapor.
V .. evolved vapor.
C - condensate.
When an enthalpy-concentration chart is not avail-
able, the energy balance takes the form :
c'o
, ~ ,
valu~s &rewwely different fr6~ assu19cil values,
J ~pea ~ proced!lre up to this poin t:' ~ If -computed
values' he within abollt 10 pcr-,C'.ent, evaluate first
- _ the heat flux through -the heat.ing surface in cach
efi"eet, t hen the req ui red arta in each ~ect witb the
J a.,sumcd temperature drops.
6. II the d!ver~nce?! areas from thc desired an:-a
in each eff~t--n ormally they ::;hould be equal- il:1 of
the order of 2 per cent or 80 , the average area may
be taken and minor adjustment made in the tem-
 CALCULAnONS
perature drops to compensaw. If the necessary
adjustment in temperalure drops is large eoough so
that error is introduced in enthalpy values, repeat
the whole calculation, using the calculated conditions
instead of the previously lI.S8umed values, until
ca.lculated values check assumptioWi within the
desired accuracy.
This procedure of successive approximation using
simultaneous equa.tions is highly recommended to
the student, since it cmphasires the inevitable seek
ing of the most efficient operating level of tempera--
t ures and concentrations in the evaporator. An)'
attempt to force other operating conditions will
result in inefficiencies.
The cxperienced dCl:!igner frequently uses a simpler
met.hod.' Temperatures and approximaw coneen
trations are c!>timated, and a series of energy balances
design to equal areas may not represent minimum
total cost.'
IlIu.trathe E... mple. Sodium hydroxide IIOlution, at
100 F, U! to be concentrated from 10 per oent to 50 per oellt
by weight in .. tripl.l-effect for<:ed-cireulation evaporator,
fe..ding 2, 3, 1 (Fig. 469). St.c&nl at 100 pIIill "ill be the hca~
lOU~. The eoodeneer will be mainlAined at a 26-in. VIlCUUJQ
referred to " llO-in. barometer. Thirty--six toruJ per day of
N"OH will be pt'OOeSSOld. Cir01llll.tion rates will Ix maintll.ined
sufficient t() give eoefficienta of 600, 500, and 400 Btu/(hr)
("F)(1Iq it) in eRects I, 2. &rid 3, respectively. Evaluatfl tern_
perature3 and eoneent.n::.tioo in each effec1.. Ir all efiec18 IU'e
of the 811.100 1Si.e, det.ennine the he.o.ting swiaoe in e&eb.. What
ill the hea.t load on the eondeneer?
'-
,.,.,
9,281 b/hl

18 pw,
.....""
v.""
184"f
14"", .tIs
V.""
7.720 rtJ/tw
1.,.'
4" HI abs
are calculated around each effect in ser1ea, With
relative areas decided upon in advance, these energy
2 ,
balances and coocurrent heat tr&J)sfer calculations
for etWh effect in turn give sufficient information to
permit specification of areas, temperatures, and con
centrations with more than adequate accuracy.

..
The following procedure emphasizes one char--
acteristic which is of importance. By far the largest ""'"
IS.28llb/ht
19.40" NaOH "'
quantity in each energy balance is the latent heat condensinl
term, which represents the heat availabl~ to the next Product temperatu re
22r,
effect. If this wcre the only heat effect, th.e flux 6.000 tJ/trr
",,,,,.,,,
''''
..
50" NaOH
would be identical in all effects. The minor heat.
effcdS--i!ensible heat <'If liquor, heats of dilution,
crystallization, etc.-which are rendered unavailable
Drips
condensing
10," Nai>H
"'
condensint
tetnperatur. temperature
to t .e next effect may be significant. They represent DrF 1}6"F
a decrease in heat fillx through successive effeets in
'10. 400. Flow diagram for \.he triple-effect. enpol"lltor of the
almost aJl cases except the sensible heat of a hot illustBtive t nmple, 8ho~ing opera.tillfl: oonditiollll.
food, flowing forward through the evaporator. The
arej:j. and concentration calculations cat). he executed t Solution. (Baaed on 1 hr. RadiAtion ill UII~ed negligihle
on the basis of a seri~ of terms of the form (1 - rrao-- ill the first approximation.)
lion of heat rendered unavailable) for each effect. ,,"pI
This met.hoo of evaporator calculation emphasizes 36 X 2000 36 X 2000
the decrease in flux in successive effects. It is more T otal evaporation: 24 X 0.1 - 24 X 0.6 ... 24,000 Ib/hr
time cotUluming thlU.l aimult&ncous solution of heat
A8IJume eva.pomions, B :
balances when enlhalpy-concentration charta are
HI ... H, .. EI ... 8000 lb/hr.
~. F, ... feed to 2 ... 30,000 Ih/ hr.
In general, multipl~ect evaporarora are built FI .. feed to 3 ... 22,.000 ]b/ hr.
with all bodies iden~ical to save in the OO!!t of pre-
pariog plans and fabrication and for the general
advantages of uniformity of equipment. Where a
large fr8(ltion of the feed is evapora~d .o r wnere its
chararlteristics change radically, differences between
1\ - feed to I ... 14,000 ]b/hr.
P ... product ... 6000 lbjhr.

C ... ooooentratioo in 2 - = , <X 13.63 per rent.

C, ... concentration in 3 ... I : or 21.43 per <':eDt,.

'effectlli may be indicated. Under acme conditions, CI ... ooocentration in 1 .. 50 per _~.
 EVAPORA TION
Solvent bebnce:
Steam tempen.ture .. 337.9 F HI + HI + B, .. 24,000
Condenser temperature .. 125.5 F
whenoe HI - 9439.lbi'hr.
Totalovemll. (-47') .. 212.' F E, .. 684.'i Ib/hr.
From Fig. 0167: H, .. 711f Ib/hr.
Boil.i.ng point riae of 60 per eeut NaOH at 300 boilint: 8 .. 13,U4 Ib/hr.
point .. Sj" F.
Boiling point rile 0113.63 per eent NaOH at 190 boi1inc Cbeek 1 equality of areal:
point .. S" F.
A, _
Boiling poillt rile of 21.43 per cent NaOH at 125.5" .. 68hq It
boilins: point of WlI.ter _ IS" F.
+ +
OveralJ.effect.i.ve( -loT) .. 212.4 - (80 8 18) _ 106.4" F. A (9439)(996)
-M3sqft
S.... I .. (500)(34.5)

(684:i)(993)
A, .. (..00)(43.0)
tIOO DoT .. 500 loT, .. 400 DoT, SUp 6
-DoT. - DoT, - DoT, .. 106 ... F Inspection reveals that t be evaporatioa ill faz lronl equal,
becauee of the large I!f!n.sible heat reql.ilr!lment ill the fim and
w~1lCI! -4". .. 28.8" F.
-loT. _ M.5 F. IeOOnd efl"ect& A preliminary teet of IU'eIII! indicstea that the
-loT, .. 43.0" F. tint estimate of - loT in ei'l"lICt 1 Wall too low a.nd in effect 3
'11':" too hlp. A l100000 eIItbr~te may be m&de, usjllC con-
'this would iudi<;ate a templlrature distributlOD M followa. oent.ra1iona indicated by the computed evapontiooa, and AT',
, , adjueted AI ind..i~t.ed by deviation of _

..........
from all average
a nIue (thiIJ ill all apprommatiOll only, IIinoe t~ flux t.broti&h
337 .9 229. 1 186 .5 \be elICtII it not equal).
Liquor 309.1 194 .5 143.5
CoQndellleJ" 126.6 - .loT. -- 29 X -I-H .. 36.", ay 37.\1
'The values of boiliq-point elevation in thle cue are not -loTt - 34.6 X m .. 34..3, say 37.0
eensitive enough to bollins: point to j~tify adj~tment hem,
linoe subeequent adjustment. will have to be made lor a.eeu-
-loT, - 43.0 X m - 81.0, say 36
rate eonoentrati.one. Fittilll u-e -loT'. witb boillnc-point e1ev.tklo. l'al uea
lur the .-icolat.ed eonoentta ~iON yieldll temperatur..:
SUp ,
,
,., ,..
2
From Fig. 468, entblpiee of aoIutioll!l are:
, , s Food
S\.eaJ)l cbeat
Llq~
337 .9
aoo
220 l70

50% at 13.6% at 21... % at 10% at ColldeMer 12.5 .5

310 F 195 F 144 " F 100 F
JI Dtujlb
From &team lablell:
310
'"
,
96 00
,
From Fia. 468, enthalpiet of IIOluticllll are:
, 3
.""
...... From 1 to 2 From 2 to 3 To CPndenIIet
50% at
""'F
12.95%
183- Y
at 19.40% at
140- F
10% at
100 F

...
11- 1189
"".8
1196
'99
1146
".
112. H Btujlb
""
From 8~m tablet!, entbaJpiea are: '" in.' eo

Ileat balanOOll may now be written fOl" each etroct:

Arollnd 1:
......
1189
From I to 2 From 2 to 8 To oolldel\l!er
1191 1140 1124.
(30,000 - g., - Ba)96+ 1189S "".8 '88 '42
1t .1I pc.eible to make .. rough estim&te of radiatloo )a.ca
.. (6000)(310) + 1195--'1 + 308.8S fOIl ~on in the IiDaI beat belenm if demabIe. The beat.e11l
Around 2:
will be not over 00f' "I ft beatinc .uia.oe. H thia ill to be u
(30,000)60 + 1l95EI .. (30,000 - Bill~ + 114.6B't + l00B. I-in. tubes, 10 ft long, about 270 tubell will'be required. Theee
will require a i!hellll.hout ao in, in diameter, baving all extemal
Around 3: lurfaoe about 100 .dq It/effect. U insulated with 2 io. of
(a:),OOO - E,)145 + 1146Bs 85 pet cent maaneeia, the heat lee. Per.l!qllare foot willavenlgll
25 Btu/(hr)(&q It). Thil indieetell .. radiation 10M o! 7liOO
.. (30,000 - '" - BaWe + 1124& + IMB, Btu/ {bI-)(dI"tet}. Even if factor of aaftty of 6 iI ~. the
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 49'
~tU- 1ms ~ oo1y J.iper aeat of the hea.c. t.hrou&b Delli& uea, without factor of .rety - 490!IQ rt..
ea.ch :'!fillet, and ite ollliMkln from the beat balance equations n- chlngea of 1 and 2 degreel obvioualy do not justify
w..tmOilt alway", jWlilliab1e. A value of 25,000 Btu/ effect will reevaluating entLalpies and IOlving for new ev&pOl"&tiooa.
be included pri:narily tv mow the method of handJ.inc.
Entb.e.lpy balanoea around eac:h ef(f!Ct:
Coo
Around 1:

(80,000 - B. - B1l9'Hi + 11898

I'RCl.Jb~
l.biellllq.... 'b/ht
11.:1111

'."
.....
21.001

23 .001
11.111
0-

Al'OUDd 2:
.. (6000}(302) + 1I91BI + ao8.SS + 26,000
n.;.... liquor.
NoOR
EYapcndon, Ib/lo.
pel" "D~
....
9 ,281
IUl6~

..."
19.40%
7,7!IJ

(80,000')(60)

Around 3:
+ 1191EI
- (30,000 - Bvl86 +JI40E, + 188Bl + 25,000
T_-,,1"I"Q of . tu m

.
-""
T"""p.... t" .. o11lqor.

liN.1 aWl (Bu./hr)

X 10 - 0
AI--. OIl /I
..... ....
3:!7. V

10.63
n,
"
I .a l
".
,~

.w' .08
U&.I

(30,000 - BU135 + Il40Et

.. (30,000 - E, - 8.,)92.5 + 1124Ei + 142E1 + 25,000
Solvent balauoe:
The a.ssumption that solvent evolved a.t the boiling
point of a solution retains the l!a.IIle temperature to
81 + Bt + H, - 24;000
the condensing space in the next effect is questioned
wberloe BI .. 9281 Ib/hr. by many engineers. The superheat credited to the
Bt .. 699S Ibfhr. condensing va.por in this calculation representa only

... H .. Tl'JIJ Ibfhr.

S .. 12P16 Ib/bt

A .. (12,076)(880.2) _ 10,629,295 .. 467 It

1 (600)(37.0) 22,740
A (9281) (1003)
I" (tiOO){37.0)
A (6999) (998)
. .. (400)(36)
a few per cent of its available heat, and disregard
of it repreeents a small factor of safety. Obviously,
the ternpe.rat.ure drop ( - aT) in the next effect mUflt
eq be evaluated from eondensation temperature. The
condensate is assumed to leave the steam chest at
9,308,84.3 .. fI03 eq ft
its saturation temperature, but it is likely to lose
l~'"
additionaJ sensible beat by subcooling to the eJl:tent
6,985,002 of ODewfourth t.o one-half of the temperature drop.
14.000 .. 498,9 eq "

<Adeneer duty, ueum.in <))n.densate leavelll at 100' F:

-1... 7'nO{1124 - 78) - 8,075,120 Btu/hr BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Da.Iimwn deviation o( ealcula.tedevaporation from that 1. BAl)(J1!:1l, W. L., fI.lld W. L. MeCum, ElemtnI. of CllemiOO.!
UIOd in ettimating <))noent.f'atiomJ is .Bllghtly over 2 per cent B~"9, 2nd ed., pp. 186-196, McGr&lII'-HilIBook Co;.
in etfect 2. h is seldom ju.ti1iaMe to attempt t.o feline woo (1936).
n1uee fun.ber, bo.l~ if necNeU]', \he calculatloo ea.o be lII- 2. BoAR'I'8, R. M., W. L. BA.DGU, &Dd S. J . MImUlIIIlO,
peIlted t.o the deaired precision. Tt-cm.. AIMr. but.. e,,--
E,.., 3ti3 (1937).
3. BoNI""" C. F., TraM. Am4T. 1M. CI\.em. EI'IIJ., ~ 629
&.pO
(1946).
Tho ltipulation of equal &n)&II in eeeh effect ia not 8&tisfied. 4. B.ooI[I, C. R., and W. J. B.o.ooI!:R, Tra1ll. Amer. 1_
Thil is hndled by tn.J-and--errnr redilJtribv.tion o( the rotaJ ellm\. EI1{J., a.
392 (UI37).
elfeot.iYf! temper&t~ drop betWf!en the efi"ect.t, M8umlnc that 6. C.... WWEt.L and KoRLlNll, TI"ON. Amer. but. eMIII. Bal.,
boiliDg-point elevatiOll and lieu ftUI valuea remain UlICh~. G, 49.5 ( tOOl).
The aocuracy of dat. almost never justifiea refiDerneot doeer &. Fo08'l', A. 8., W. 1.. BA.DOEII, and E. M. B...... 7'r#u.
thaD. 1*. A few t.riaIo! reeult in -ATe of 36, 38, 36, in thai. AIfteI'. 1... C4em.. 8.,.,.,10, 46 (1939).
order, "beDae, 7. McCuz, W. 1.., .7'nt1U. A..-. 1M. CAern.. Eng., 11. 129
37.' (1036).
AI " 467 X
M " 492
8. M cCA.n, W. L., and C. 8. Ro.INBOli, Ind. EI1{J. CMIn.,

I
37 18, 418 (1m).
A, - 0O3X 88
- -490. 9. R.u and CoUN.... KANj Tram . ..4._. I,... CUm. Brtg., U.
263 (1946).
z. C1\eoL 111.
"
A, .. 499 X 36 .. 48li
10. VON ,\NTaoPOrJ' aOO
161 (1P26).
80~ pA~
 EVAPORATION
PROBLEMS
1. An &qllelMlBlOlution (at 60 F ) containing 10 weight par
0
Qent MgSO, ill to be conocntrated to :n.S ~ight per ocnt
MgSO, in a double..elfect evaporator Ullin, b&eh'aJ'd food..
No erystallization ill to take place in the evaporator. The
thiek liquor from the firet effect is to be at 170 F . Thle
t.hick liquor from the evaporator is then cooled to BOo F in
a ctyBtallioor with negligible evaporation. The Blurry from
the erystallizer is centrifuged, t he liquid removed beillf)
retlll'Ded to tbe evaporaUlr (finit effect). Twelve tolllJ per day
of >1ids from the oentrifuge &re to be produoed. The com-
position of the8c IIOlidll is:
(/I) The heating lIIlIiaoe required for eacb effect, IIIIIIllIllina
that equal areas are U8ed.
(It) The pouod.II of water evaporated per pound of !Iteam
\lied. ill the Iinst. eflect.
4. AI a plant engineer the following data ate avUable to
yOu.
Feed 00,000 ll>/hr of 10 per cent NaOH IIOlution to the fuet
effect of a tripJ&.effec:t evaporator (forward feed). Steam at
50 peia ia IlUpplied to the lil'llt effect. Solution leavin&; the
third drecL is 50 per cent NaOR. Each effect has a heat
traMfer aurfaee of 1340 aq ft, and operatinc conditiollll are
as follow. with .. ba.rometet 0114.47 psi&.

96 weight % Effect Firat

., weight % Condenare,lb,/hl
The boiling-point elevation of the MgSO, >Iu tion may be
negleeted. The p!'eM\lre on the vapor !Ipaoe :If tbe .eoond
effect ia 2 psia and each etfec~ h.w Ul overall coelticient oJ
260 Bw/ (hr)("F )(aq ft). DelVtnine tbe beat t rallSfer .... rface
required in each effect.
Eothalpiers of the 101ution ue givtln in J. H. Perry, CMmill
8~.' HaMbooIt, 3rJ ed., p. 1062, FiA;. 147, MeGra,,-
Hill Book Co. (1960).
2. A douhle..etfeet evaporator ill to be oolll!troeted to deliver
20,000 Ib/hr of SO per QeDt by weight NaOH. 'I1Ie feed ill
30 per eent NaOH !lUpplied at 90 F preheated to 140 F
by beat exeh&nge with product leavi", the firat effect. &.ck-
"ard feed iB WIed wit.h a vacuum of 24 in. of rnen:ury on the
.eeond effed with a barometer of 29.' in. Satural.ed . team
iB available at 30 psig. The ovemll heat tralUlfer coofficien1a
hued on actual temperatureA at the liquid_vapor -interfaces
are 280 Btu/ (hr)( OF )(1Jq ft) for the finIt effed., 310 Btu/
36,200 23, 000 23,""
Operating pf'ell!lUJ'e, pIig +13 .33 - 0 .35 -13.2
The SO per cent e&UII~ie ill concentrated to 75 per cent in a
l!Ii.ngle-effed eVaporator havin&; 210 aq it of heatina: llUliaoe
operating at a vacuum of 13.2 JlIIi (pl'!!ll8Ul"e of -13.2 paig).
Netr;leet radiation ~, MINIM all coadensatea !.eave at
oondensina temperature, aqd compute
(0 ) Temperature of feed to !.he Iinst. effect.
(II) Overal100effieienu of heat tBlllIfer for each of the t.hme
elfects a nd for the aing1e effect.
S. A tripledee\ foroed-ci.n:uIation e vaporator is t.o con-
centrate NaOH IOlution from 9.5 per eent NaOH to 50 per
oent NaOH, producing 200 toM of 50 PIll' cent IIOlution per
" ....
Sream to the firat effect: 3S pllig, dry and eaturated.
.....
\'acuum on the third effeet: 28 in. referred to a ~in. barom-

Feed IOlutJoo: 100" F. No appreciable impurities; no salt or

(hr}("F)(fIQ ft) for tbe !IeOOnd effect. seale on evaporation.
(/I) What heat tra.nl!fer . urface do you reoommeod for the
e YapOlaton;1
(b) What are tbe remperatlirel! of the e&UIItie 1It~ leav-
inc the evaporatol"l a.nd the heat exchanger!
Coeffieienta:

Forvrard feed,
F1~'
El!~'
""' ..
Eff~'
TIllnl
"'~,
3. A trip~ffee1. fomed-ci.n:ulatiotl evaporator is to be (Btu/ (hr)(OF)(fIQ ft) 1100 1000 700
designed to conceotrate 90,000 Ib/hr of 10 pcr ceot by ""eight Backward. flllld.,
NaOH, a t 120" F t.o 50 per eent by ..... ight. Back....... d feed (Btu/ (hr)("I')(eq f\) 800 1000 1000
is to be URd, and saturated eteaw at lUi psig is to be U!Ied
in thto .team ebeet of tile firlt effect. The J"Il"SUre on the ","",
lut e1Iect ill to be 3 in. of mercury, abIolute. Bream, 30 Qenta per 1000 lb.
TbC overall ooefficien~ of Mat tn.lIIIfer, oornICted for Water, 3 eenta p6r 1000 pl..

boilin&"-poi.ot elevation., ate II8III.IIIIed to be equal at :;00
Btu/ (hr)( "F)(eq tt) for &II effects when baekward f~ ~ UIIed .
The condeDMre leaYing the.!lteam chelt of each elfed ma.y be
NIIUmed to be eatUl1lted at tbe coneepooding preIIIIl1re in
the .team cheat. The heat _ from each effect ill estimated
to be .. per cent of the total heat input to that effect (based
on vapor to the dee\).
Detennine:
. -.....
Eftporatora, t40.00 per aqua.re foot, oomp1ete wtth all
Filled charpB, 16 PIll' (lent per year.
Water for condel1l!&ra: Entera at 70 F;!.eavee at 96 F.
P!&ot operatell350 dare per year.
What ill the diJIerenoe in -t. per too of actual NaOH,
between forward and b&cbard feed'

Crystalli!lSation
OLID cryst.alline salts are handled more con-
S veniently and economically than solutions when
the material must be moved outside of the pi&nt
ol origin. A crystalline prooud also has in general
more "sales appeal" than a solution . Alt.hough crys-
tallization .is ordinarily thought of as the separation
of a solid crystaUine phase from It. liquid phase by
cooling, evaporation, or both, the same principles
apply to crystal formation by precipitation caused
by the addition of a third substance, which may re-
act to form t he precipitate or simply decrease the
solubility of the precipitated material.
Cry~tallization ill important in the preparation of
a pure product, since a cryl'J taJ u8Ually separat(!8 out
&'! a 8ubsta.nce of definite oornposition. from a solu-
tion of varying composition. The impurities in the
mother liquor arc carried in the crystalline product
only to the extent that t hey adhere to the surface or
are occluded within the crystals which may have
grown together during or after the crystallization
operation.
The problems coocem ing crystallization which are
most frequently encountered by the engineer are:
1. Yield of a given product.
2. Purity of the product.
3. Energy req uiremen ts for cooling, evaporation,
,w.
4. Shape of the individual crystal!!.
5. Size of the crystals.
6. Uniform.ity or distribution of the size of the
crystals.
7. Rate of production of the desired crystals.
RATE ')F CRYSTALUZATION
The last of these items is discussed first in view of
itt! imj)Ortance in tbe analysis of. crystallizer opera-
...
CHAPTER
33
tilln. The rate of erytltallization iw,olvf!s two dis-
tinct actions: first, the rate of formatilln of new
crystals, or nucleation, either in a clear solution or in
a <IOIution containing solids; and second, the rate of
preoipitation on crystals already present, usually
ca. 'ed crystal growth.
l 'le de position of a solid from a solution onto a
cryst..J can take place only if there is a state of un-
balance with a driving force or decrease in chemical
potential (or concentration) between the bulk of the
solution and the crystal interface. This means that
the solution must be supersaturated with respe .. t to
crys tals of the size on which depotlit.ion is to occur be-
fore the crys tals can grow by de position from the
5Olution. Since the solubility of crystals increases
as the size decreases, it is often possible so to control
the concentration that the large cry stals grow or be-
oome larger by deposition' from the solut ion while
the smaIl crystals do not grow but, may ac tually dis-
solve.
Miel'!!' '" postulated the existence of a supcrsolu-
bility curve, charactcristic of each >IOlid , and of ap-
proximately the same shaPe as the normal solubility
curve but corresponding to a higher concentration of
solid dis$olved in a solution, at which new crystals
would form from a clear solut ion. The t.heory p0s-
tulates that the precipitation nf solid on a crystsl
from a solution (crystal growth) cannot occur until
the eoocentration exceeds tf,:Iat of the normal solu-
bility or saturation curve, and that the formation of
new crystals does not occur unIer;(/< the concentrahon
is equal to that indicated by t he .supcrsolubility
curve. This would be very convenient, if tnle, as it
would be nCCf:SSltry only to maintain the concentra-
tion less than that indicated by the supr(8Qlubility
curve and greater to!ln that indicated by the nonllfll
The bibiiocraphy for lhl' ch"flter " Pfl"U'l OIl p. 1101.
494 CRYSTALLIZATION
solubility or safulJ.tioo curve to insure the growth of
exi~ ting cry~ t nls without the lormation of new crys-
tals. Attempts to ~t 3blllsh lIuch definite superso!u-
bility curves have Dot bren 8ucressful, end the exist-
euoo of this supersolu bility limit is dOllbtful.
A satisfactory explanation of the experimentai
facts may be IJased 00 the theory that the formation
and continued existence of crystal nuclei dflpend
upon two conditions: first , the probability of the
requisite number of atoms or molecules coming to-
gether in such proximity and ordered arrangement as
to establish the structure of the solid phase even
though this aggregation does not y l't exist M a sep-
arate !IOlid phase ; second, the solution being super-
saturated with respect to cryl:lta\:; of the size of this
aggregation.
Th~ exact mechanism of arrangement. of molecules
from random di~trihuljon in a solution into the reg-
ular cry:;tal la ttice ia not cle~rly understood, a nd
lhe energy clT('("t" involved in !:!llch an orien tation
are elusive. In discussing the growth of a crystal
from the first orientation of 'I. s ufficient number of
m~ules to (on,;tifute the lattice unit up to what.
might 00 called a clystal even of submicrot!Copic
size, the form llti')n of the first crystal lattice unit is
considered l\J; a probability fuoction. If the con-
ceotration maintained in the solution cxoocds the
soh,lbility of crY!:ltals of the size of thi!:! first cryst-al
lattice unit , it will remain a nd gmw to visil1le or
practical size. If the .concentrat ion il1 n than the
!:lOlubiJity of cry.,; tal!:l of this size, snch crystals cannot
grow but ,,;11 di>il:!Olve. As the crys tul grows from
this sul.lmic~opic size, ilH!SOlubility in the solution
dccrcB.Se.'l. If the solution in which this crYl>tal is
being grown il:! mainta ined at such l'oncentrat.ion as
to be slightly supehltl.turated with respect. to t hat
crystal, a concentration dil ~ ren ce is cst al.llishcd hc-
t ween the bulk of the soiutiOO llnd the surface of the
CIJ'l1tal, resulting in transfcr of di$;olveU material to
the surface.
Since the !:lOluhility of small crystal::! is greater than
that of Ia~r crystali$, material may be simulta-
neously dcpositing on larger crystals and dissolving
from smaller crystals when both arc exposed to the
same so!.utioo. But in practieoe it is difficult, even in
spcciallabora.tory operatiolls, to mainttli n conditions
so completely unif6rrn \I'hile growing crysillis that at
no spot in the solution is supcrstltu ration allowed to
l'ea.ch that point at. whic.h new nudei will form and
pcr:!ist. In ordinaoy operat ions it is uSliully im-
poo:Iib&e to avoid locally the greater degree of super-
satu ratioQ which wiU rruLintain ~nd grow the crystal
lattice units which a.re eonsttlntly forming.
Thi& explanation suggests that a normal crystal
nucleus is an extremely 'ilmall crystal II;th a solu-
bility greater than that of ordinarily recognized crys-
tal l:lizes and that the growth or deposition of solid on
these sul1micr~opic crystals may depend upon any
of a number of factors 8\1(!h as irregularities of dis-
tribution of solute in the solution, impact of e;.isting
crystals, or breakage of a growing crystal, as well aF
upon a high deg ree of supersaturation throughoul
the solution. If a high supersaturation is maintained
during a crystallization operat ion, the probability
that each crystal w!"iich forms will persist is higner,
and accordingly more of the origihal crysta.l unit/:.
which are formed will havc n chance to grow to such
size as to be recognized i\8 crystals.
In order to control the numbe r of crystals onto
which a given amount of materia] is de posited, it is
common prac tice to inject into a solution , imme-
diately prior to i.'J.cipient crystallization, s.mall crys-
tals known as &etch on which the salt will be deposited
mOrt easily since the solubility \\ith ~t to crys-
is
tals of t.hl\t size IctlS than with respect to the sub-
micf"Ol!Cop"ic crystals. It. is impossible to avoid com-
pletely the fonnation of new crystals for most sub-
stances, and there is inevitably some breaking of
crystals in an agitated solution . The opcr.ation of a
crystallizer is accordingly plan ned to retain the solu-
tion supersaturated with respect to t he seeds \Vhi ...h
may be introduced and gro\\'l.l but not supermt-
urated with respect to crystals of the f;izc of t-he ag .
gregations wbicb will inevitably form under these
conditions.
YIELD OF A GIVEN OPERATION
Computation of the yield of a crystallization opel'-
ation involves a material balance. Thc yield can
usually be predicted from the solubility of the solid
phase being precipitated by assuming equilibrium or
saturated conditions. In!fOOle cases crystallization
oecurs very slowly, and equilibrium will not be at-
tained in a reasonable length of time. The com~
ftlerew separation of potassium chloride from the
more slowly crystallizing borax p resent in certain
brines de pends on the rapirl crysta.llization of p0-
tassium chloride bef9rc. significant quan tit)es of
borax pl"C\Cipitate. In sOlne cases no precipita~ion
occurs unlcss seed crystals are present. If solubilities
are used in the form of an equilibrium diagram the
 ENERGY EFFEcrs IN THE PROCESS
prediction of the equilibrium yield can be made by
applying the usual " lever arm ratio" principle (as
described in connection with phase diagrams for
liquid.liquid and vaporliquid transfer operations)
betwt'en the phases which are known to be preselJt at
the specified final temperature.
The solubilitit;sl commonly reported in the liter
ature are expressed in wrms of mass of anhydrous
salt per 100 or 1(0) ma..~ of pure solvent. The
prediction of a yield of a nonhydrated salt from a
solution is simple since the amount of solvent present
during crystallization is conEtant and t he quantity
remaining at the terminal temperature is known.
If the materiai crystallizes with water of crystalli-
ution or if evaporation OCCU!8, the total amount of
eolvent change!! dUrU,g the procet!S, hut the amount
of solvent present in excess of that required to hy-
drate all salt present does remain constant or de-
creases by a known amount of evaporation. On the
h:l.sis of this solvent whose quantity is known, a rna
!erial balance can be written relating the amount of
hydrate per pound of CXOO88 water in the original
solution to the final IIOlution. SolubilitiCfl are con-
veniently expressed in terms of hydrate per unit of
exoess water. This value may be subtracted from
the amount of hydrate in the oribtinal solut ion ex-
pressed on the flame baHis to evaluate thc yidel.
Exereiae. DcriV<.) the following fonnula for yield. assum-
ing <lquilibrium conditiollll.
100.... - X /;'i. + .l....1
C - R X 100 _ X (R I) (454)
where C. _mMII of crystals in the final ffilIKffia .
R _ the TlIlio, mok,eulll.r weight of the hydr:<tcd I<Oluw
over mok-eulat weight of the anhydroul !!Dluw.
X _ 101ubility (pB.rtJI by weight of the IInhydruus !!OI
ute per 100 partII by weight of the tota l !!DIvent)
o f thE! material at the final tem lICDture.
A. _ maIlS of anhydrous 80Iute in the original ba.tch.
S. - total m..ss of !SOlvent in ~he batch at the beginning
of the PJ"OOCS'l.
-flS _ evaporation during tbe ptoeel!:S in poun~ mass of
IOIV<.)nt.
PURITY OF PRODUCT
Even though a double salt may be deposit(:d, the
crystal which is formed during the crystalliza.tion
operation is pure, except in the freezing of a melt
which eolidifies as a ooIid soi.ltion in which an s.tom
or ;;nolecule of one substance is substituted for the
other in an identical crystal lattice. Impurities in
crystalliza.tion operations are introduced only from
the mother liquor which is not removed from the
solid product. The extent of occlusion and the com-
pleteness of washing are important factors in the d~
termination of purity of a crystallinc product. The
agglomeration of crystals into large p;rains \\hich can
occur during the growth of the crYl:!tals makes \rash
ing more difficult and accordingly mak('S for a IO\r('r
purity of product.. Agitation decreases the tendencr
to agglomerate.
ENERGY EFFECTS IN THE PROCESS
The usual crystalliza.tion operation is caITieod out
either by cooling a solution or by evnJX)rst ive con-
centration thereof, or by both simultaneomly. The
cooling of a solution may be accomplished by removal
of sensible heat and heat p.volved during (Ij'stallizs,.
tion of the product to cooling wa,er or air. If the
solution is cl)''Jtallizcri by evaporat inn, the reqliired
heat may be slIpplled by th,} sensible hent of the solll
tion as in vacuum crystaJlizers, or it mny be supplied
from an external sou rce as in salt eval)()rat.ors.
The values fOf "heats of solu tion" (- t:JI) of most
salts are available in standard tables IlS heats of solu-
tion into infinitely dilute solutions. Althu.:gh tht<
use of these values without oorrection for heat of
dilution as representing the beat of crystallization
from a saturated solution may lead to errors, for
tunntcly the heat of dilution is wmally small ,"om-
pared to the heat of solution, and m06t industrial
crystalliza.tions can be ev:aluated as far as energy
effeets ,.re concerned by the use of heats of solu-
tiun 8.$ recurded in the standard tables without seri-
ous error in the overall energy balance. The assum~
tion that the heat of vaporization of the so1vent from
the solution is numerically eqllnl lo the heat of vapor-
iZAtion of the pure solvent at the same temperature
is convenient and introduces 110 sigaificant error for
thcee solutions having a slight elevation of the .boil.
ing point.
The' mnRt satisfactory method of evaluating heat
effect>! d1lring a crystallization oper!Ltion is the use of
the enthalpy-concentration chart for the solution
and various solid phases which are possible for this
systel(l. Unfortunatel3'. complete enthalpy-con
centrat.ion charts are .v.II.ilable for relatively few sub--
stances. When the complete chart ill availtoble stich
as i!l Fig. 471), it is necessary only to rend the en
thalpy of the original solution at the initial temper
ature and the enl-Iln.lpy of the final magma inrlnding
 CRYSTALLIZATION
crystals and liquor to evaluate t.he difference MI as
the energy effect per unit ma~. If evaporation has
occlU'l'ed during the process, the enthalpy of the
water vapor formed in the process is obLainod from
particular consumer demand r as for medicinal mag-
nesium sulfate, or :Epsom salt. This :nay force the
W,IC of a particular type of equipment for making
crystals of the shape dcmanded for sales appeal. The

""""' .... III CokioIa c::w..-.

. '"
Flo. 470. Enthalpy-eoncentr&tion diacnun fOl' !.he ealciurn chlorid&-orrater s)'lItem. (H~ and IV~ ''CMM~ PTvcuI
Principl~r," IfII", Wile)' and &mI, 1948, p. !Jil, Fig. 64.)

stcam tables. The net increase in enthalpy 611 dur-
ing the operation is easily evaluated by subtracting
the enthalpy of a. given amount of .feed from that of
the corresponding lUnount of final magma plus
vapor, if any. Since til = 0, lJ.H _ q, the heat ab-
""bed.
The relative size of the aceEi 88 the crystal groWB
is independent of the crystallographic structure. 0c-
casionally the crystal habit (the relative 'sizes of the
!aces of the crystal) must be modified to satisfy a
crystal habit may also be modified 1.>:/ !lC addition
of an extraneous substance or impurity. Crystals 88
formed are Cfl8entially perfect in shape except under
conditions of vigorous agitation when there may be
mechanical breakage, and in certain types of crys-
tallizer equipmefJ,t a rounded struct.ure resu(tg rather
tban the typical sharp crystal..
 UNIFORMITY OR DISTRI BUTION OF S IZE OF CRYST ALS
AVER AGE S IZE OF THE CRYSTALS
The average size to wh.ich crystals nrc grown may
be dictatoo by the use to which they are to be put,
such as thc granulation of sugar or the preparation of
saiL for different uses, as, for example, table, ice
CTtUm, butter, or pretzels. In genentl, fine crystals
have less opportunit.y for agglomeration and ac-
cordingly occlude ICBS mother liquor; but fine crys-
tals have greater surface and offer greater difficulty
of complete remoyal of mother liquor entrained on
the crystals.
UNIFOUi\U T Y OR DISTRIBUTION OF SIZE
OF CRYSTA l S
The caking tendency of crystalline mntcrial8 in
storage is predominantly a result of the formation
and evaporation of a solution with recrystallization
on the surf!we of the crystals, result.ing in bonding to-
gether of cryst.als at points of contact. The number
of point.s of contact is significantly less for uniform
cryswls. Accordingly, hygro&:opic sult-s, or sa1ts
carrying hygroscopic impuritieH, will have cons.id-
erably less tendency to cake in storage if the crystal
$cize is uniform. When salts are to be dissolved, it is
advantageous if the size is uniform in order that the
solution of all crystals will be compl~leU at approx-
imately tbc same tim~. A uniformly crytltallized
product utlually offers considerably betwr "sales ap-
peal" and conveys the impression of care in tbe
manufacture of the product.
Solution of crystalline materials is likely to ocCur if
the humjdi ~y of the air with which they am in COIl -
t.aet exceeds a critical valuc corresponding tn t.he
vapor pressum of a saturated solution which may be
formed on the surface of t.he crystal. If the h.umidity
fluctuatcl! abo\'C tlnd below thi~ crit ical value the
saturated solution formed on the surface of the crys-
tal is evaporated, the ~rystulliwd solid bonds the
crystals toget.her, and caking becomes troublesome.
If it were possible to carry out crystal growth on
scM crystals without t.he formatioll of additional
nuciei, it would be possible to pred ict e.xuctly the size
di::ltribution of the product from the size distribution
of the seWs, since the rate of growth of a linear d i~
mension of the crystal is const.ant for all crystals in
the batch. ' This oomputation could be made by
plotting tt'l diameter of the partiC!~ versus the
number of crystals in the original ~ but ch (as ob-
tained from Ii. 8Creen analysis) and increasing the di-
omctcrs by the amount of growth to obtain directly
the size distriblltion for the product. Th is procedure
is no t convenient, !13 the size dillt ribution of crystals
is not readily computed on the basis of numbers of
crYJ:ltll.ls. The usual prnctice is to expreSi> tho size
distribution in S I:ICrccn analysis by mass fracwons.
Since an iu crea~ by a constant amount in B. chosen
linear dimension results in a greater fra.ctional in-
crease in ma.'lS for 1\ small crystal t.han for n large one,
it is necessary t.o integrate the change in mass over
the applicable size d istribu tion.
For prodncilltt; crystalline material of a given size
range there is II definite upper and lowcr limit to the
number of such crystals which may be grown by the
deposition of a given amount of solid. If the quan-
tity of seeds added to a specific quantity of ~lution
exceeds the upper limit, all crystals ill t.he produJt
may be smaller than desired. If the quantity of
seeds added is less than the lower limit, all cry,~ tals
in the product may be larger than desired. Some
_0.
quantity of seed" hetwt!en these Iimit.'! will yield the
maximum quantity of r u c t of the desired size
For transfer of solute to a crysLai freely suspended
in the slightly supersat urated mother liquor, there
must be a driving force or decrease in potential (or
concentration) between the bulk of the liquor and
that wetting the s\!rface of the crystal Wllich is
approximately satu rated with respect to cryst.als of
that size. As we do not know how much of the
~istanoo to deposition is in the liquid and how much
is in the interface, the resist.ance is handled as I.fl
oyerall unit.
T he rate of deposition is equal to a driving force
d ivided by a resistance or, as usually lIuted, a func-
tion of the cor.centration difference times a con-
ductanoo which includes shape and surface factors
and diffe rences in rate of growth of different faces.
dw
di = k[j(x - X,.)] (455)
where w - mass of crystal.
t - t imc.
k - a consttult.
% ... concentration of solute in the body of the
liq uid.
%,. .., concentration of solute in the interface.
For crystsJs of widely different sillCs in contact
with t.he I'!lLme solut.ion, the driving force for tran~fer
and d~po"ition , j(x - X,.), vrill vary beca.use of the
49. CRYSTALUZATJON
increasing solubility for crystals of decreasing size. from zero to a m~ corresponding to an even screen
It is possible, but not probable, that where the driv- size opening decrea:JCd by the value of llD. v.'
ing force is such as to result in deposition on lurge
crystals, small crystals will d issolve, t hat is, (z - z,) I llua t ... t iw Ex.... pJ e. A hakb 01 800d crystals has the
may have a ditTerent ~ign for differen t crystals. .&ile dilliributioll shown in the following t.&ble. If in a cryat&l-
Hzer the!lOO!b grow 90 t hat aD is O.l.lO\J em , compultl the qu.an-
In most. casea the !inear dimension of the crystal D tity of product per pound of soods.
as may be determined by a screen analysis is a more
convenient value to use than the mass of the crystal. Screen Aru.lysi~ of Seed Cry~ta[g

dD MAE FRACrlO;"l OP St:t:DS

- - Kf/(r - z;)] (456)
dt Mesh Differentia! CumullLtive
- 14 +2l" 0."'" 0.028
where K is a. oond nc ttU).cc including k and the rela- - 20 +28 0 . 176 0.""
tion between the dimension D and the mMS 10 of the -23 +~ o.m 0.407
crYstal. -35 +48 0 . 336 U.833
If the crystals are all of the. same shape the rem- - (8 +65 0 . 128 0.961
tiol;l8hip between the IIUl.8S of a crystal and it.s dimen- -GO 0 . 039 1.000
sion D is the same for all sizes. If the seed crystals
i .OOO
are of substantially uniform size (infinitesimal range
of sizes) and (z ~ xu
is constant,
SohnioD. T o rletcnnine Inn amour1t of produet, the Inte-
gral in equat ion 4M1 1ll000t be ovaluated. !;inoc the relation
dw. dwp bo..-twoen D. and aD, is given in a tahle I'\I.tbcr than by an equa.-
(457)
D.I - -(D. + flD)3 tion, the least difficult solut ion will he that of gl'llphiClli
in(egrat.km of equation 458.
wbere to "" the mass of crystal. T o obtain the rcllLtion bet,.Ctm D. and 10., the C'U mul&t i"e ,
! ilC analysil! i~ plotted in Fig. 47\11. On the hMis of 1 lb of .
subscript 8 refers to the seeds.
aced crysta'" the value of D. at a ny value of .... Dl.'ly be 0b-
. subscript p refers to the product. tained directly from Fig. 471a. The value of [1 +
{D. D/DJ~

Summation over the mass of ~s yields 0.1 4

01 2
(458)
b 0.10
There is always the possibility of dusty material
adhering to the seed crystals. of breakage of crystals,
"
; 0.08

1006
of dust,.like crystala floating in the air. and of sub-
microscopic crystala growing to recognizable size to
the extent that fine material is almost always in-
cluded in the product. The virtual impossibility of
~
<
...
0.02
attaining the same number of product crystals as 0 -\:--,to
seeds vitiates the accuracy of this prcdietion, but o 0.1 0.2 0.3 OA O.S 0,6 0.7 0.8 o.g
MHS 01 Seed Cty$llIIs ~;tjned on Screen
the approximate prediction "is highly useful.
T he graphical integration of equation 458 can be FIG. 471a. Cumulative "iw ana lysill of ooo.:d Cl'yllt.a.is for 1be
i11u~t.rative example.
II.CCOmplished directly for a known value' of W . v
For a known ratio of crop, or y ield, to seeds, it is may then be computed as a runction of "" from Fig. '471a
neeess&ry to fit by trial and error an appropriate and plotted, [1 +
(O.OO9/D.)]z as the ordinaw venus 10" in
valuc of t:.D u to dctermine the growth. A plot is ~'ig. 471b. The i n~ is ev.lual.ed by determinil\& the area
made of w, versus w. from which the mass product or tmder the curve oot" 'oon the limite of "'. _ 0 .nd w. _ 1.
This is bcIIt do ne hy diriJing the uea in w ~tanll.k>:e (Fie
corresponding to any given masS of seeds may be
47lb) such thD.t the arcILS or the n,ct.a.ngies equal the liTeM
read. In orner to determine the screen analysis of undo:!' the curve ... described on p. SO, and .lNmmih the &fe&iI
the product, it is most cOilvenient to "evaluate w. &8 f,ivea in Table :hi.
 EQUIPUF.NT

:simulta n(l('U8 evaporation may IJt"i!ur to the atmtlti-

piwl'c. This Iype of crYl!talli7.('r i~ incfficiml in

, n-gard to ClthlDtil Y pmdu(ffi per unit of floor l.pm:e

or fXlr unit of time, sinl'e the <.'<JOlin!1; rule i,. Ine'v jlahly
slow. It. ofTcT":l no control of gize rnngc r,( c ry;;ltll.~
except thnt it fnvo!"l> fonnation of l:ul!:e cfYl:!tai>l and
mOi"Cover il:! stlhject to occlusion of mother li1lw.lr tiS
cI'Yl'lll1il! leml 10 grow t~thcr under the' ::;Iugnant
ct'mditil)Jls whit'h uhtain. 'The provillion uf ugitntion
during the cooling pn,x:es; results in impn)\'('li cl'ysl:l1
IJ strucl ure at a moderate inCll'f\&l in operating COlli s.

, >"" In the cryscruiization of >$flIllll (IUnnliljcg of mater,al,

where size Nlnge of pnxluel. is not of particuLar
COf\lleCluc n ce, t.he simple oo.leh crystallizer may reprc-
~nt the m(Jijt eeonomiea.l pn~ as it is most. coo-
" - i'"'"
1 numkal in first cost.
The Sweosoo Walker crystallizer (Fig. 472) oper-
ates by cooling of the solution. The semicircular
o eooss section of the bottum uf,..the trough provides
o 0.1 Q.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 :l.8 0.9 1.0 tbe heat interchange surface between the an nular
Mass of Seed Crystals
cooling water jacket and the crYstallizing solution
FIG. 471b. G.,..phieal in1l;rntion for equlltion ..58 lUI" the
illustrative example. . which is inside the trough . 11:te flights on the central
shaft rotate slowly and serve the dual purpt 01
TABLE 63. INTEGRATION OF EQt.:ATION 458- BY keeping erystalliution from blanking off the heat
SUMMING THE AREAS m" THI: TWELVE transfer s urface and of continually agitating the

..
RE(.'TANGI,ES IN FlO. 47111

,
(0. 1 -tl.Q) X
( J +Jj;
'D)'
1.36
Are.

.. 0.136
magma to secure more unifor m' crJ'stJ.llir.ation con-
ditions. The crystallizer is ' nurmally huilt in 100ft

(O.2--tl .l )X t.4U .. 0.149

(0.3 -{).2 ) X 1.6ij -0.158
(0.4 -o.S ) X I." .. 0 . 100
(0.5 -{) .4 ) X 1. 71\ _0.1711
(0.6 -{l.,5 ) X I. ... -O. IM
(0 .7 -0.6 ) X I. ... .. 0.194
(0.8 -O. 7 ),X 2 .07 .. 0 . 201
W,O -0.8 ) X Z.28 .. 0.228
ro.9S-Q.9 ) X 2.b'2 _ 0. 131
(O.9S--{).fl5) X 3." .. O.O'JI
(1.0 -{).98) X 4 . IS .. 0.083

1 . 002
Therefore

(1 + ~:ydw... 1.\102

and the yield (If pro<.luct ii 1.00 lb/ lb uf a..'Cda.

Flo. 472. S"cll/jO,,,W,,lkcr c>mli "ul'u'~ CF)"t.;.la...r. (,s ..'C",,,m
EQUIPMENT EIIlJp<Jl'Qlor Co.)

'l'he simplest type or C(luipmcmt for er)'!ltallizat ion hmgth:s, oS which up tu fuur ,;e(,I.iuns may he oJ)('raloo
il a tank in which naturul cool ing h:l allowed to lower ill tufH.lt'm frum a single drive. If more th!\n {um
the leml*rll.!.llre of the ,solu tion, with whutever units illY! I~'illlirf'll, it is CllSt.omnlY ttl provide dri~'cs
 500 CRYSTALLIZATIQl"i
for grot:ps TIol to exceed four units, wit h flow of t.he or the (',ontrollcd evaporation in a batch vacuum.
magma from onc section usually clll!Cuding down crystallizer as the pre8Sure is lowered reslllt& ill
into the head of the next section. 'I1lc shook of cooling as well as concentration of the solution.
cascading usually increasec nucleation :lnd !;IIQuld be The provision of adequate. evacuator C8tmcity for
avoided if possible. Scad crystal ~ arc ~9metime5 the low pre&!ures required is a major c:onsidcration
added, or l!ponlimeous nucleation or the inevitable unless cooling wilter is available at. a tempo:!rature
seeding by microscopic crystnls of the salt floating sufficiently below the saturation tt"lrnperal-ure of the
. ,
Steam
W~ler
Water_ "'m
Steam ::~~w.'"
_ Stelm
fwuSl

-
tHot water
VlICYum f!a$ll-
.

...................
,...

Circulating

--
"mp
Baffle 10 red'iCII
5hort - c ifeuiti~a:

Crystal holdi na:

lind 5ettli~a: tank
I
Di$CIlal&e
~

FIG. 473. Vi\cuun) t!1)'5l ullizer ,,-illl recirculation . FH.I. 474 . \-" cuum cry~tnllizer ... ith a jti- FlO. ~75. Oslo vacuum cry>t-
(S~_" e...
porolDr Co.) ltt to!"8. (S\l.~'''''m Empcralur C.,.) talli.er. (Stt..mQnE1I(IporallYr
CQ.)

in the 9.1.l1loophere o(.l\ ,pllillt is depended UIJO/l t l)
start crygtal grow th. - Crystals Ilre removed at the
end of ~he cryst.aHizer by an iilclined spiral flight
conveyor which lifts them onto a drain Ixoard or a
com'eyuf which ra rries t.he {'rYisl !lIs t.o cclltr ifu~;;
any o ther d rying operations that may be required.
The vacuum crystallizrr is a device- for cooling t he
solutiOtI by evaporatioll uf a portiun of the 8Olvent.
It may be hatch o r cun tinuous in operat.ion. In
principle, tile vacuum crystallizer is little more
than a vessel which may be, evacuated t,o extremely
low pressure, ordinarily by s team jet ejectors. into
which t.he feed may be introduced. The spontaneous
flashing of feed in a continuous vacuum c rystallizer
vapor so tha t. d irect condensation of the sulvent
vapor iii iX-'dSiblc. Under l:lUch conditions a vacuum
pump o r a ont.... or t WQ--6tage !:Iteam ejcek f is a Je-
fl uate to mainta in the reduceU pressure by s i'1lply
Of removing the noncondensable ga.':ICS . Usually t he
operating pre!l8ure required to aHain t he desired
crystallization is so low that thc evolved V:J.por
cannot be condensed dim !tJy hy the cooling wllter
available. In this case a steam jet l>on<;tcr, as shown
in Fig. 473, is used to compress t-he Yap"!" and non-
cunden,sables before condensation. The removal of
DoJIlcondensables saturated at the temperl\t~re of
condensation is IlCcompli:;hed by steam jets as de-
~ rilJed .
 PRO!)LEMS
Tht' design of the crystallizer itself niust be such
that stratification of the fcro cannot occur. At the
low temperatures involved, the hydrostatic head ol a
few inches of the solution results in raising the boiling
point to such an extent that liquor well above the
satnration temperature at the pressure of the vapor
space may pass through the crystallizer. Agitation
neoe':oSaJ'y to avoid this is usually accomplilohed by
the joint ,..ffect of propellers and of spontaneous
vaporization of feed (Fig. 474).
If the crystallizer is operated batchwise, it is
eustomary to drop the finished magma at the end of
the cycle into I!. magma tank, from which it may be
pumped to any dewatering device applicable to the
particular installati'lll, that is. centrifuge, biter, or
thickener. If the crystallizer is operated contino
uously, it is usual practice to pump continuously
some 01 the magma from the body of the crytltallizer
to the dewatering filter or centrifuge. The type of
pump is usually any standard centrifugal pump with
adequate clearance for the crystals being handled.
The limitatior:.!> Oil slurry density are usually im-
posed by the viscosity of the magma which will
permit adequate circulation in the crystallizer body,
ratJ:J.er than the charact.eristiCil ol the removal pump.
Depending primarily upon the relative denaity of the
crystals and solution, the critical sluny density for
satisfactory operation of the crystallizer may be
from 30 per cent solids by weight for heavy crystals
to as high 8$ 55 per cent for crystals approaching the
solution in density. The moLber liquor separsted
in the.filter or centrifugal can be returned to process
or discarded as desired.
The types of equipment illustrated in Figs. 472,
473, and 474 have no provision for the removal of
large crystals of the desired size with retention in
the equipment. of small crystals for further growth.
The combina.tion of classifying action with crystaJ:.
Iization operations is incorporated in several crys-
tallizers such as that shown in Fig. 475. Classifying
crystallizers are available in which the crystal forma-
tion results from eitber cooling of the solution or
evaporation ol80lvent therefrom. In either case the
liquid being circulated within the cryst.aIlizer is
carried into the region of supersaturation in the
~.bsence of crystals. The circulation then returns
this slightly supersaturated solution to a bed of
crystals on which salt is dCpoiIited. This bed is
supported in &Jeh fashion that. crystals are re' ained
in the crystallizer until the size is such that they will
lrop out of the circulating liquid stream an~ then
50I
be removed as prc.JUCL Tfu:l classifying action
retains the small CI'.,:;lals if. the circulating liquor
stream in the cl1'fltaIIA'I1 un(ii ~ heir size has reached
the desired ranW".
Th( clasrifvill(j rryslalh-er is subject to operation
under vacuum for low temoerature if desired or Itt
moderate v~uum fOI' inter.r;-'tint{) temperature if
that is n8reSBlLry f01 phl\.Se stability or for rate of
deposition. Thus,' if it. is desired ' to produce
MgS04 6H,O, which i:. ~ I:lble in contact. \\;th satu-
rated solution only IJet\\'f'tln about 120 and 155 F,
it is possible to Ol ~ rate Ihe Oslo-type crystallizer
within this parl.icllla... mnge to prod\lC8 the desired
phue.
Multiple-efft'Ct (,vapurators arc also operated for
the production of a ('.rysla11ine product. The opera
tion of the eVllporalur S('ldom allow!fffiuch flexibility
as to the siz3 and shu.I)C of crysto.ls produced. Some
classifying action does. occur in tbat line crYl'itals are
usually carried in thf' circulating mot.her liquor until
they attain such size as will result ill their dropping
out of the circulating st.ream into the salt-removal
equipment. Where careful control of the crystal
size is necessary, or where Ihe de.sired j'ange of crystal
size is different from that which will result from
crystallization in the evaporator, it is common prac-
tice to transfer the hot concentrated mother liquor
from the evaporator directly to a crystallizer in
whioh the desired crystal 8ize. can 'be attained.
BIBUOGRAPHY
1. McC.A.B~ W. L .. "Cry.W Gro ..tb in Aqllf:OUll Solution. ,"
Ind. EI1I1 . CMm., 111, 80, 112 (19'l'J ). <
2. MuRS, SIR H. A.. ''The Gro~th I)f Cry~tals in Super
ea.turated Solutions," J. lrul. Meta~, 87, 1, 331 (1927).
3. PCIlRY, J. H. , Che>!liroi ElIgjrlNf'3' Ho.ndhook, 3ni N.,
p.19G, McGra ...HiD Buuk ('..... (19S0).
PROBLEMS
1. The IIOlubility of lIOdium $u\f..t~ ia 40 pa.rllJ Nat5(li per
100 partB of water a t 30 C, and 1.3..5 pullJ at Hi' C. The
la.tent beat of ctYl>t.alliution (liberated when crystals rorm)
is 18,000 gram-c:alorie. per gram mole NatSO.. GI:w~I'3
aalt (N;:,s<kl0H,Q) is tn be mad.! in a SwefUlOnW..lker
crystalliser by cooling 90 S<llutioD, satur!l.ted at 30 C, t.u
10" C. Cooling water cnt.:'I'S .'lot 10 C and leaves nl 20' G.
Tbe overall beo.t trarWer coofficicnt in tile crylltallizer ill
26 Btu / (hr)(OF)(sq ft) an d each foot of cryltallizer has 3 eq h
or cooling surface. How nuwy lO-ft unit. of ctylltAlliur ..i ll
be required w produot I t.on/ br of Glauber', .It?
2. One ton olllOdium thiOlJUlfate (NII.~I~oHzO) ill to be
eryItalliscd per bour bY oooling a ~Qlution oont&inlna: 50.5
502 CRYSTALLlZATJON
per cent N~ to 3O~C in II. Swelll!On-Wa lker Cf'YlIlalli~r.
EVAporation is nugJlgible . . The product b to he!li~ cimsely to
IPproxinu.t.ely 14 mesh. St.'Ild crystals dO/lO'Jy eiled tu 2() mesh
are int roduced wi Lh t be !IOIl,Iliun lUI it enters th., cl)'stallizer.
H oor. many tollS of sood crYBIIlI~ li nd. huw many tun~ of
OI(,) lutioli flte required per hour? .
3. A oonlinooWl ttdiaba!ic V1lCuum cl'Y.!'tal!i r.er ill 1.0 be
used for tbe produ ction of .\tIlSO.. 7H,o ~rye:tll.ls from 20,000
lb/hr of IOl ution containinll: 0.300 w~iKht fredian !\IgSO~.
Th is eoJut;on enten the eryllia lliacr at 160 f.' ,
The' cryalalber ia to be operuWd l'O thai the mixture Olf
mother li quor &nu cry!Stal6 Ie ,villI!: t~ eryatallizer oonta.ina
6000 Ib/ hr of :ltg.'K), ,7H rC) Cryst316. 'fIll, estimated boiling-
point eleV1l1lon of the lIOIulion in the cryostallizl:r is 11)* F.
Solubili ty d ata IU'e found in rdcrenoe 3.
How IIUl lly pound!! of "'atcr are vaporitcd pe r holll"?
4. Compote the screen analy8il! expeet.ed or the product
obtained from the CFytlt u.lliacr as o"P"rat.W. in the illWltraUvtJ
eu.mple, p. 498. -
6. A IIOlution 01 polll.ll!lium chloride oontai llll 30 per oent
potaseiwu chlori de (KCI ) by ..."\lieht Md iusul'licienl impuri-
lie- to al ter ita eolubili lJ llignifleantly from that in pure
.....~r. I t is tooled from iUi original t.empel1Lture (oYer 2()() " F )
in a tank 11.00 fed to .. Swenson-W..lker Ql"Y8tllllizer ju.,t
above the te mpcrr.lure at " 'hieb it is sa lurat.ed. It ill ~
,,'ith J.i Ib of KCI crysta ll! per 100 Ib 01 ""Iulion.
The seedrl h.ave the followillJl: ! crwn a oalysia:
M~ M AU Plill CI.KT
On.48 o and line 1,II>gths rcpre&lntinl/: quantitics .
&-OS S U) Di ~uS!! t he fortnation or Ill ek of fortnlltion of Nae l
'-'-100
100-100
Poe
"
23
12
100
Prediet the screen ll).aIYllU! of the crop if the . Inllgrn.& ill
IlOOIed to 70" F.
Specif.V the ...e iKht of iICI.'<ls per 1000 IL of hut fil t.el'L-d solu_
tion for the maxilU um yield of the 20-28 mee h "'reen ai~e.
7. Pot ll&'!ium ehl" ri,1e may be pmduect.l from aylvi ui t.e {a
na t ural mi~lure uf 42.7 per tell! Ky lvit., .. KCI, and 56.6 per
ce ot hlllite. N aClJ by the (olkw.itJ.lol pruam. The ore is
crushed ami M noell,~ 1 lu - .\ IUI.OIh I. ml "'Jnt to illCNu rilig
billl!. The <T\lsood ore f .... 11 I he- ",....... uring hilUi. t.ogether ...ith
re<'yd" lTlother liquor. i~ -enl to t.he d i.q;olv", wh,,", the KCI
is di-;.'IOlved ..t 110 C and the remainder of the 0"," ill ee ,.t. to
wllIIte. T Ill" liqU<'lr al. ! IO C II1Kl l!Olturated with boJlh NaCi
and KCl i~ ....l"kld io Vlu:uum coolers and crys!>.lI i~e", to
27 0 C. Wllter i~ added to the crysla lliu.-I'!I (in lUI>Ount just
equw 10 t he Wil Ier eVII[IOrated) to preveol NsC I from cryst.a.I_
lizinl/:. The "\I.'!pel\llion of KC! in a I\Bl urut.,.f 1I01u1ion formed
in Ihe crY'lt &lIizcno i6 n!l"werl to M:tt1e, decan t inp; the mothe,'
liquor .... hieh ill hea led lind "'!f':ycle..! to l he d~ver. The
thickened cIl'!!! ..1 ' 1lII.llS is filtered, wllIIhed, dried, Cl'"U8heo. l,
IIC reened. aoo conveyed to tho. wa""hOW!<!. The filtrate and
wMh ....lIter are lidded t n .he d,!"Cant.ed IJIOther liquor and
reeyclecl.
(a) Sketch /I fIow~h~t of t he 1l1J<:mt ion.
(b) I'lot an lIecu rat~ ptwoe diagnun (temperature ftl'SUlll
IIlMI<rat io of KCl to KCI + HtO) fur t ltc ayst.em KC I- NaCi
- H sO fur a oonstant NaCI to H tO !'Illl" of 0.274
k) Calculate, per ton of dried KC), the quantitieB and
oompositkuv! (mUl! (melion ) of all in11l<Jr!anl Ktret1.PlS, aDd
indiCllw these on t he' H"",~hecl.
(d) Irulicate and j\l.'!iify 1111 neces..kry !l!8UmptloM:
(d IndiCAIC lin thl> phue diagram the ~b of Lbc eJ'}'!!I.1-
liu.lioo P"'1OOf<S, poinl ~ rcpl'CgeDt inlt 5l~m oompoeitiolUl,
o:ryst.als durinlt t hi, I~.
SOLnHLI'fY OF Nnel A.Nn Kel IN H,Q
Temper- -'Ill&< % :\1l\.S!1 % :-S01,,1
.. ture . ' C ~"CJ K CI Pha".,1j
0 1!) . 1j S. 76 KCI

6. Sodium nitrl.t<1 ill to be purified by prepllring a IIOlutioo

0
20
".4
III 05
7 .2
11.36
K(,1 + NaCI
KCl
aatur&tOO flo! 212 0 F, filtering, lind eryIlta.llizing to a final 20 ~t.O 10.2 KCl + N.L'1
iemperature of 85" F. The dried produet. ....iH ~ si1ed by .0 18 .6 14.0 KCI
teteening. The matm;lI.l I"lltll.int:d on a ~h screen or 40 19.6 13.4 KCI + NaCi
pasIiI>lI by a 28-mesh ~reen ...ill be repl"O<lCtllle<l. 8eedIJ will 00 17 .96 16.65 KCI
hal'{; t he followin&!ileJ"een ...alysis: 00 18. 6 16. 0 KCl + Nael
80 17.4 19 .1 ]{CI
M !lIIuSJI M.!.Im FE!! Cl:NT 80 17. 6 19. 0 KC] + Nae l
On 35
35-\2 ,2 100
100
16. 8
16.9
2 1. 75
21.7
KCi
Kel + Nael
<2-48 22 1\0 16.6 22.8 K C] + NaCI
''''''
60-65
6.5-80
80-100
37
I'
,S

Through 100


Agitation
A
ITATION as ueed in the process industriru! is
the production of irregular disturbances or
turbulent motion within a ftuid by means
of mechanical devices acting on that 8uid. Agita.-
tion finds wKiespread application in industry 88 a
means of promoting certain operations such as ex-
traction, mixing, absorption, heat transfer, and
chemica.l reaction. Although agitation might be
discU88ed in connection with each of these operations
in which it is employed, it is so common to all of
them that it may be regarded as a unit operation
itself.
OBJECTIVES AND REQUIREMENTS
Many different requirements are made of agitation
systems, depending upon tbe desired result. There
are four general types of operations which may be
distinguished by their objectives, and each type rtllI,y
requif<.! different agitation equipment.
~IGN TrantJjfJr ill HfJtfJrfJ&eneow SytJtem.
This category include!! chemical rflactionf;, solution
of -solids, extmcliun, absorption, and acisorR-
lion. TI"IC re.luiremen~ of the agitawr are twofold:
It rI.ust dillpenre or suspend t.he di:iContinuolls phase
throughout the continuollS phftli(li and it must pro-
duce turbulence of high inl.ensity around the sus-
pended dropletll, bubbles, or part.icles to promote
mass transfer between the phases. This demands ILll
agitator prooucing velocities of flow sufficiently high
to prevent the settling out of partieWs or the strati-
{yingof phases. There must be 110 dead spaces in the
agitation system which would allow one of the
ph88e6 to concentrate there. The intensity of tur-
bulence should be uniform throughmtt the whole
,., operation is conducted in a batch in a large tank, a
CHAPTE~
34
tank if mll,.'1s transier is to be promoted at all points
of interCacial contact. Small impellers operating at
high speeds produce high stream velocities but con-
centrate the turbulent zone nea: the impeller; on the
other band, large impellers operating at low speeds
produce uniform turbulence throughout the tank but
may develop velocities too low for good suspension
or dispersion of phases. Consequently med.ium-eizc
impellers ' operating at medium epee<iB are recom-
mended for this type of operation.
Minn& or Blendin& oJ TWo uquuu
In continuous flow two I"liquids may be mixed
simply by paHage through a centrifugal pump where
intimate contact results. In batch mixing or blend-
ing in a large tank, the agitawr must pump large
streams of the liquids tQ all points in the sy&tem.
After the maeses of liquids have ~n pumped
around and mixed (In a bulk scale, th.e final localized
mixing depends upon the intensity of turbulence at
all poinls or upon molcc1tlar diffusion. The m06t
important part in this opemtion is the larg&-fICale
flow W all points in the system, for without this any
high intensi ty turbulence at any point will acedrn-
plish nothing. Therefore, for mixing or blenllillg
two or more fl1lids laJ'Wl impdlel'ij operating al. low
speeds are generally superior to small impellen;
opera.~ing at high speeds.
Phy,ical Chonge eN EmattJijicatWn
Some ope!ll.tion.~, such as the emulsification of two
immiscible liquids, re-<)uire an extremely hiJ;;b rate of
shear or intensity of turbulence at some point in the
system. Usually the liquids will be fairly well mixed
before arriving at t.his point of high shear. If the
504 AG ITATION
gradual hll'lIiWer of all the tank contents is f(.oquircd
It. h"inl/: all portions into tilt) highly turbulent zone.
Small impdl('l'S npcrnl ing at high bl)C(!(\S wi th small
dear-.lnC(>o:l .Je tWl..-e1l t:IC iml)(,U('r and fixed surroulld-
illg:; art' t"illt'cially lIuil (.,<1 to pnxiuce the high
shearing SlI"s."(.'s required for this operati(m.
Hea t 'l'rfl rlil/er a nd Un iformity oj Temperature
1-ll'a t Imllsfef is oft en Ii necessary &CCeSS(Jry to
certain 1Ila.&J transfer opera tions, especially li u l>'C
involvinK chemical [('actions. COmiC{jUcntJy, reac-
tion tanks are equipped with heating (or cooling)
coils or jacketed walls, and adp.(luatc veloci ties past
t~ heat. exchange surfru:cs arc ncressary to pro-
mote hent mlnsfer. In ~l l('h eases, the agitator
impeller shlJuld Uc located twar the coils or jacketed
walls. i\loT'CQ"cr, the imJl(lIcr must produce large-
vdlumc ~trelLms of flow ~u that all the contents of
the tank will he brought in the neighhorhood of the
beat tmnsfer surfaces if unifnrm temperatures arc
to prevail throughout the >lrstcm. Larg(> impellers
operating nt low speeds will usually be ~uitable for
thi!> operati(ln. In a few instances it may be ncccs-
sary to prevent localized overheating of 1:1. certain
area of heat transfer surface by Illlowing the impeller
to scrape 3tIch a surface or by employing a small high-
speed im~lIer to develop high turbulence in the
immroiate vicinity of the surface.
In eonside1"ing any of the above requirements, one
mu!St I)('ar in mind that the :tone Of high turbulence
surrounding thf' impeller is contained in a smaller
\'"Ihme at higher \i~itielS. Therefore, large im-
pt>licn; arc I"'C(lllired in viscolIlS fluids if now to all
points ill the syste m i:. desired.
Tl'Pt:S OF AG ITATION EQUlP!\IENT
The mechanical devices whieh have been em-
ployed ror tlw production of agitation arc e~tremely
vuri(l(l, rnnsinJ; all the way from the familiar egg
beRt~r to the high-speed colloid mill. The folluwing
arc the more impor tan t types of agitators found In
use looay.
R otlltin g I mpellers
Impellers of many different shapes and sires
(Fig. 476) revolve on shafts inserted in tanks which
may be cylindrical, conical, hemispherical , or rec-
tangular. Marine propellers, paddles, and eurved-
blade hl~ in p,s are p;ood examples of this type of
equipment. Marc than one im peller may be
mounted on a rpvoking shaft, and morc than onc
shaft may he !lst-d in a p;h'en tank . Sometimf'Stwo
adjacent imlX'IIt'Is I"Olate in llp~ile wreetions,
forming a Il('ater, and somc li m~ the impellers
ac tually IOllch t he Willis of the tank , giving a posit ive
scmping action \\"pidl is d ..sirable when thick layers
of muterinl tmd 10 st i("k tu the w(\.ll . The tanks lire
oft en eon:.trUl'leu wit h halfle:!, drrdt t ulJe;, deflector
ri ngs. or (:n'n ht'ating and cooling (:oils, all of whieh
!>,ve to dcAect 0 1" Rt.:dc the Allid ,trier it leavee the
impd lcl". III small c10scJ gla."j,.~ im;tallatiollS the im-
peller may ht~ maue of iron and drin'll hy a rotntin~
magnetic licit! wit h no shaft to (:ollnl)t't the impeller
with t he outside. This dimilltl\rll any p3ekin:t
pl'Oolcms in systems which must be airt ight.
Ci rculat.ion Pfl mp Sys t.e n.s
T anks ma~' be COTlrrech..'"<l to pump!! which remove
the fluid a t one point. and return it to the tank nt
some ot her point, thus sell ing up circulation in the
tank. Cent rifu gal pumps by t hernst'lves are good
agitators in continuolls-flow systems. If two l iquid~
nre led to the suction side of the pump, they will
come from the discharge side in a well-mixed condi-
tion, for the high-spt.-ed centrifuga.l impellert'. crea.l.e
con::.idcrable {.urbulf'nr:e in the small casings.
Reciproctltin ,
. s Puddles ,
Paddles or blades fiHY be moved buck and forth
through rectangular tanks.
RelJOiving Tunk s or PUlIS
A whole pnn of material m:.y be N'volved while
the hlades or baffles remain !ltn tiunary. Usage is
generally confined t.o mixing of n~ry pasty materio.ls.
Air LijtlJ (Iud Air Aj;ita tors
Air ill passed up wards through a large-diameter
tube, open at both ends and sllbm~rged in the liquid,
soU ing up a eirculat i UIl W! a result of the decroased
density of the air-liquid mixture in thl.) tu he, Air
or other gas may be admitted at the bottom of a
tank through small holes or from the end of pipe,
causing irregular disturbances 11.8 the gas bubbles rise
to the surface of the liquid.
,.
Collo id Mill , Hom ogen izer. a nd ftfixin8 J et
In the colloid. mill fluid is fed to a minute clearance
space between .. high-speed rotor and its casin",.
Extremely high 8hearing forcce are set up, and very
intimate mixing results. The clea.ral.ces arc of the
 TYPI<:S OF AGITATIO~ EQUP.UENT 54)5

Side.... uleriul': l'n)I~'"~r

Six-hlad,,;! . a~i;ll-ll!)w tur- O/J-eelill'I' mOlini.cd double Double-motion llflr>l('shoe allti CUI'Vl.. l-hhldl' I1HiiaI-Hnw tur-
l>i.ue in I~lffl"d t.t~llk paddkJ Juixcr ~ , hi""

.'
. ~'
'. ~.
" l!
J i<

,
$[CTJOoII A'A ... ~, '

t;hroud~d ttirbi"" Shrouded 'turhine with 81,,- Rudial turbi"" with 1("" ;,.Ic'"
tiunJry deflector ring ;7 pil'K'

,. "
.,
,
, -:l
,~
,} " ..
,
 AGITATION
older of 0.001 in. The Iwmogeniur compresses a
fluid to a. high pressure and aJlow8 it to escape
rndiaUy past a fiat disk hekJ agaios!. the end of a
discharge pipe by a strong spring. This produces
shearing stresses which emulsify the fluids. MUing
jets are useful for continuous mixing of two streams
and operate by allowing the discharge from two
nozzles at an acute angle to meet in the center of a
pipe which carries away the mixed product. High
turb\llence is developed where the two nozzle streams
meet, and intimate mixing may be accomplished at
that point.
POWER CONSUMPTION OF AGITATORS
Caloulations based on the laws of fiuid fiow can
be made for circulating pump!l, air agitation systems,
homogenizers, and mixing jet agitators. The general
resistanoe law (equation 10) for relative. motion
between fluids and solids can be applied directly 00
determine the power cvIlSUllled by reciprocating
paddle agitaoors, and can ai.so be used 00 develop
equatioos applicable 00 agitaoore of the rotating
impelk.r type. By far the majority of agitators in
use today are of the latte r type ; therefore, emphasis
will be placed on t.he development of a power equa-
tion for rotating agitators.
Rotating Agilator Power Equation
Fundamentally, a rotating agitator, such as a.
propeller, paddle, or turbine, is simply a mechanism
for moving a lIOI.id through a. fluid. Ordinarily, this
impeller is completely immersed in the batch, and
the wave formation at the liquid surface O1&y be
consKlered negligible. Therefore, the problem be-
cornea one of applying to a revolving body equation
10,
(10)
In the !lase of the rotating impeller different sec-
liolU' of the blade have different linear velocities,
depending on the distance of a given section from
the center of rotation, since v _ n.I. However, the
same form of equation 10 may be used with any
convenient relative velocity between the fluid and
the solid if the app ropria~ drag (friction factor)
coefficient is used. The torque on the impeller is
the product of an average force and moment arm
or radius to the action line of the force . Throwing
all oorrections for variable distances or moment
a rms to given sections inOO the drag coefficient J/,
the torque T on an impeller is
('59)
where the radius r to the tip is the chosen dletance.
For a given shape of impeller the area A CM be
given by the product of a constant and the square uf
any characteristic linear dimension of the impeller
!luch 11.8 the radius r. Since power is given by the
product of torque and angular velocity,
(460)
where J/' depends only on Reynolds nllmber cal-
culated as ~p/p, using""," to replace 11, and r as the
characteristic linear dimension.
In the derivation of the po\; er equation w is in
radians per unit time. In practice it is customary
00 give angular velocity in revolutions per unit time
n, while the diameter D; of the impeller is used more
often than the radius. If power is to be expreSsed
in foot-pound s force per second and the density p in
pounds mass per cubic, foot, the force--m&S8 'conver-
sion factor (J~ mlU!t be ~nc1uded. Thua,
(461)
where ~ is the function of Reynolds number now ex-
pressed as "Dlp/,.. Since w./ pn1 DIA is dimension-
less, it may be called the power number Po, which is
usuaJly a function of only Re.
The.limitations placed on the equation must not
be overlooked. Complete geometrical similarity
including both tAnk and impeller, must be main-
tained, and the only fomes of importance in the
system are thoee of inertia. &nd viscosity of the fluid .
The ordinate of Fig. 477 is the", or Po of equation
461 except in a f!!w cases when it includes the Froude
number, Fr - g/n~D;. These are situat.ions in which
the liquid in the tank swirls to such an extent that a
deep vortex is formed, and wave or surface efiectll
become of importance. In these cases the gravita-
tional force must be included with the inertia and
viscous forceis.
In employ ing the power equation for two-phaae
mixtures, average or apparent densities and ge0-
metric mean viscosities have been found suitable.
The geometric mean viscosity is calculated as
(P IS)&.2~ ' where ~l and ~-~ are the viscositiCfJ of the
individuaJ phase liquids and % and 11 are their re&peC-
tive volume fractions in the two-phase mixture.
Systems Not Geometrically Similar. If the
system in use is not geometrically s.if:1ilar to one of
 POWER CONSUIUPTION OF AGITATORS 507

Type of Impeller
1*, ~ I~ 1R,,- Type 01 Impellef
1* I~ I ~
I:~:::",' ".. i.', 0.17!1 7 I''"'' ".. 1.35 I" 0." , 0.11 I' ,
Same AI No. l. , " ,., ." 7 I~ Ie , ...
with. bItdo1.. See No. 8. I" , 0

Same H No. I. , i." i,' '-" I' ,

7 ! Piddk ",ttl 2 blades. See No. 8- ." 0

Same H No. 1. .... I. b . 40. , U

7 Ip~.,.;u, , IT ~;"
Z bl.:des. See No.8 .
I" 0,1 0 7

,..... , " 0." I' 7 I'"'' ... , ......., ... I" " 0.' 0." 0
~.,
U
, " i., 0." I 7 I"'" .,,"' ."',, ". O."D,. ... I" " M 0."
" , IM'''': ~,';""""" " ."" ,
'''''''" "",

--
$omiIar 10 No. II. but no! idenllcel .
", .."
,"
0.'

I"
, ,.
!Sa_a$No. 15,,, . 1.7,6.18.

I"
7 !s.ne I t NQ, 15. but prIctI " 1.330,.
."
I It- :;>'
,
,
,
,
D

0.'"
7

, ... " ....

Same n No. 12.but no

, "~; ~;' ."

0"
7 !s.amt n

7 ISame.
No.I~.
"
but pilch .. 100D, .

IS ~1~5. but p<ll;h" 1.050,

i, ' .7 ,~ 0
0.06

......, , , 0.50 , ::-:;. :.!';'.'" .. _.

,
,., .:,
LOW"

, ;; ij' ."
0 7

."'.". 52 52 0"
,
Sarne n No. IS. but p;\l:h .. D,.

,
7

SarM IS No. 19.

~~:: Q,LD. ,LJ .

,.
~~.
. , .'.'
O.
' .75 25 ,t
ls..~ ,U. No, IS. but pitch_D,.

,. ,.
Same " No, 15. but pitch", Dr

L.

D, .. dillmcl.l)r of Lmp"ller, Dr .. diameter of 11\.nk,,, - revolutiorur per l!eOOllU, ID - wrdth of balBI!, Zj .. ek,'ution of impo..lIl!r
7

above tank boltom, z, - heighl ol li'IUid in tank.

~
A
&
~
E
,~
0

~.
~
e
"
!i~~
e 1 2 4
~D,'"
R '---,-
Flo. 477. POW"e1' oonlSUlllption of n.rioua &gitaton e~ in Ie""" of Po 1111. function of Rey llokb nllml>f'r. Re. F or curve!'
ma.rlr:ed with .maoe efle.ets become importllnt MId the Fronde nllDlber Fr .. , l ..' D; is incJudAd l1li i"di..,.t .... for Rp > 300.
 AGITATION
those given in Fig. 477, the gt'ophs may still be He .. 'ltD" ... (~)( I.25)t(~.9) 72
used to make the necessary power ealculat-ions in .. OJI0874 " ,300
tile majorit.y of inslaUations if the impeller alone , ... 32.2(1b 1lWl!I)(rt) / Cl h roroo)(IICt) 1
is similllr to an impeller for which a curve is given, This impel ler is ~imilfl.r to the one nlS"d iudi eal l'<l for curv~ No .
provided some e!'itimat,c is made of the effect of any 28 of Fig. 477. At a Reynolds numbP.r or 72,300 the value of.;
changed conditions around the impeller. The three is read as 0.22 and the power oonsum ption from the graph i~
most important changes to be considered are baffling, ,"n'D,'
, __ _ _ .. (0.22)(80.9){5)I{l .25)I..., 11 It-Ib f orce!Jllc
/
liquid depth, and tank diameter. g, 32.2
If an im~l1er is to operate in a tank with Beveral
Thill l'l~ult will probably be on t.he low side I:N!-ealllltl the tank
hafflC'll at the wall and data are given in the graph
ill llI)t bflffied IIno t he riilUJlp. lcr &nd liquid depth are IIl't;11ter
for that same impeller operating in a baffled tank, thul t hoee CQrl'e$po:;mdillg to \.1m Jl:rBph. Thell!loI'I.', t he ap-
the grallh IIiIl probably give the eorreet power proximAtion faeton arc used lIS fonow~ to obtain the predicted
consumption even if the liquid depth and tank po~'er eOflsumplion.
diamete r to be lJl!Cd are different from those given.
If t he impeller is to be used in a well-baffled tank and , -'" ~(,'~) C~)/(3 ~(")
the data of Fig. 4n are for an unbaffled tank, the .. 414 ftlb forre / '!Iee
power so predicted will be. only onehalf to one-
'fourth of the power actually required by the baffled
.. m .. 0.75 hp
agitator. The reverse is also true; the graph will The result obtAinl'<l oilY'ctly from curve W o, Fig. 477 , which
&llow8 lor wave aetion with an impellcr "IX'rating ia A tan k
prt.'tIict two to four times as much power consumption only throe times tbe diametcr of the imJ)E'Jlcr, i ~ obtl!.i ncd by
if the da ta of (.he graph are for a IxLffied agitator and \I5e of the Froudi' number Ill! ~clllI.Il the Reynolds numl.lcr, .IJl
the intended use is in an unooffled tank. Increasing follows.
the tank diameter or the liqukl depth in cases where
no baIIles are present usually increases the power
ooosumpticn. Corrections for Stich changes in design
mAy be made a.pproximately by multiplying the
From the ,ra.pb, .; ... 0 .245, and, since
.-.....
predicted power oonsumption from the graph by .; .. ( nl~;ip) (/D)-'--
from Fi,. 477, (I. ... 2.1, b - 18,

Here DI represents tank diameter and ZI is liquid
df'pth.
Propellcrs entering the side of a tank or mounted
off-centcr and not qui te vertical will draw about
the same power as the centrally located propellers
in baffled tanks. . In estimating power requiremen ts, the frietion
1I1 L1~l rat h'e Enmple. &\imat.e the power required by
a thr()(!-bladcd square-pitched 15-in . diameter marine pr0-
pelle r rQI Miug fit 300 rpm in II. 30 pe r cent (by weight) Bodium
hydroxide "olu t.ion II.t 65 F in an unba ffied tAnk of to--ft
di",m ct(-' lind 8-ft liquid depth . The ~pneilic lI:l'I!I.vity of the
8O\!ium hydroxide 8OIution At this tem J)E'ratunJ lI.!ld concentrA-
tion ls I. 2'J7, lIml it.s v.iseosity iI! 13 OCIllipoise..
Any wno<i>!t.omt ""I of uni t.!! may be II.:Ioot.! for the CflkuJ&..
I;uu . Tholon ch"""-,, am feet , POUOWl 1<11"00, pounds mll8S, and
l!I!e<md~. Th w;,
p .. -,(O~.24
~~'~)f5~I~(~1.~"~I~("~.9~1.
I, I _ kIo: 12.100 ...
236 It-I b f oree / IMlC
(32.2)( 1.03) -- '-' -
This value of 23& is to be compared wilh t he 2 11 prll vlously
calcula led, si nce Any approximllte oorreetions for ta nk d i-
aDlCter or liquid deptb would be of the sam" or&- of magni-
t ude fOl" both.
losses in bearings, drive, and motor should be added
to those computed above for the impeller alone.
Always comput.e the power requirement for t.he most.
severe conditions to be encountered ; for example,
if the agitator is used for a polymeriza.tion reaction,
calculate the power requi red for the final maximum
viscosity and not for the initia.l eondit)ans. 'l1lis will
preven t overloading of the motOr.

Effect.itvmcu of ..fgitalion lind" Scorin g Up oj

Equipment
,. .. ( 1.2117)(62.4) .. 1J).\llb/ cu rt
The efi'eetiveness of agitation is best, exp1"Cl:'SlX1 in
D ... H _ 125ft terms of its eiTed upon_the deSIred operll.til)o, such
" .. (l3)(O.OOOO72} .. 0.00874 lb InUe/ft-IICC as promotion of heat/ or mnss transfer, solutio'l of

BIBLIOGRAPHY
solids, or blending of two iiquKis. Various tests
have been reported in the literature, but the fC>sUitS
are morc or lcSl:! spedfie for the part icular process
and (!(Iuipmcnt employed. ConBC<\ucntly no com-
pletely general correlation bas been uC\'dojJed.
OniiJl8.ry indust rial practice assumes thut the
effectiveness of lO imilar agitation equipment will
remain more or less the ~Ilme if l he 88mt! power per
unit volume of fluid is supplied the impeller. Thus,
t.he dC8ign of plant'''flizp. equipment requires a lab-
oratory expez'iment on the agitation problem in
questiun in equipment which is geometrically ~imilar
to that of the commercial installation. Knowing
that the small agitator will do the required job, the
large one may be !ij)eCified with the same geometrical
proportions and the same power per unit volume
of fluid as ,,-as used in the sma:ll 'lne.
At best the power per unit volume tbeory is only
a good approximation. It does not take into ttioount
the actua) ~ale lLnd intensity of turbulence or the
mn)(i-mum shearing rntc de\'eloped in the liquid,
which are t he real fact.onl governing the operalion
in question. For example, in emulsifica tion a definite
minimnm shearing rute must be maintained w
':'mubify t wo immiscible liquids. This shearing rate
might be represented by the tip speed of the im-
peller. C'A)nsider tho construction of a. piece of equip-
ment twice t he s ize of a n c)(pcrimental unit in whil'h
successful emulsi fil:ation was :!(.'i;omplitlhe<l. At high
HCYllolJs numbers the required power is propor-
tional. to 11 3 Dl, and in geometrically similur systems
the volumc of the tank is proportional to D?
Therefore, power per unit volume is proportional to
n3DND;3 or just tl'Dl. The tip speed of the
impeller is proportional to nD.. The same tip speed
of t hc impellcr is pleserved jf its diameter D,. is
dOlibled in tho nell' equipment and the speed of
rutation n is halved. This condition calls for one-
half ~he power per unit volume, 0-1;)3(2)2 - }1, used
in tht:experimental unit. Experiments on the blenu-
ing of t.wo miscible litluid" at"'l indii'ate :t. gl'f>atl'r
efficiency of blendinl!; in lurgc-lII.al(, tllnn in ~mu ll
scale equipment. Howc\,er, in fheut!J:;cnce of any
known controlling faclOr , th t' power per unit volume
theory is recommcnded M t.he hest m('uns of S(::lling
up agitation equipmc nL
AIUu)ugh in only II ff'w euSf'S is it pot;::;ible to de ter-
mine bcfordlRnd how II1ll\"h 1"Hlll"pr s1mulJ IX' ,,1I1,plil.u
a given system to !l{'eOlllpli~h a df':>ire<.i r('l;lIh, a
roulth approximatiun mny lx' mud!' frolll lhe fullu\\"-
ing empirical rebt iunship.
Horsepower per cubic fOOL
(Spcrilic gr:.\\'it.\-) ( IO + -.:;:;)
c
where /l is in centipoises.
C varies from about 330 for high-len>1 agita-
tion to 3300 for low-lcv(']' agitation .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Coon.II, C. M., G. A. "t:II,..t<TRO\l, IIn,1 f:. A. :>.111.,11.
hId. EII~. Ckrm., H,;;().I (l04n.
2. H"cso;o;. A. \\'., a nd S. J. 130.1111, /"'{. E "9. Chm., N, 1\14
(19-42).
3. ~1A c", D. E., and A. E. KR(lI.L. ('krill. if"9. rrOfJrt4~,
" , 189 (19-18).
4. !:\III.u : R., S~ A. and C. A. :\1.Ho'S, T rail!. :. .... /".t ot. CM",.
1:.'11" ., 40, 7O!1 ( I!l-J..l).
S. MIL ... r.II. F. D., a.nd J . H. RCIjIlTO;o;. / ,.,1. ,.....1}. {.'h~"' . ,16.
4~ (l!)44).
6. OLNEY, R. n., lI.~d C. J. C... RI.80;o;. ('nfl>!. Ellg. Progrtu,
403, 473 (1\I!7).
7. R tJ~IITON", J. R ., E. COS'fICII, and H , J. EVERI'lT1', Pre-
sented at Annua! Mrotin,; of tho An"".ic,"n l lllllitutc of
CIK.'miea.l Engiooct8\ Det.r\!it., 1947.
8. STOoI'6. C. E., and C. L. Lo"LL, I"NL EIIQ. CAl"'" 16,
SolS (1943)_
9. V.u.&loIT!N"l!:, K. 8., and G. ~lAcLI:..\s. in J . H. Pt:IIRl'.
CMmfcol Enginn,,' HtJlldOOot, 3nl ,-d . &et;on 17,
!ll eG ~all'_ HilI Book Co. (1\100).
10. WHITE, A. M. , E. BRI!:SSt:R, C. A. PlI lI.Uf'>', Rnd).(. S.
MOlllllSO:', T>1lM 4171. l nft. Ch,,,,. E"U'" 3D, 670 (1934).
 CH.~PTER

35

Mass Transfer 1

H E movement of on~ ur more component!; conditions of transfer at coTUltant temperature, the

T within or between phases occurs in many unit

operations and ill known as rna&:! trarud'er.
Absorption, erYlltallization, extraction, distillation,
energy relations of the component being transferred
wilhin the ph&..'18 and Il.Cross the concentration gra-
dient a.re expressed by equation 59 which may be
stripping, humidification, and drying are all examples written as follows.
of mass transfer operations, On the otber nand, the
6 0\1" of a fluid through a conduit. is not. usually con- I!F'f' + 11m -1< + -.w- .. - to - (lto) (462)
sidered as a mass transfer operation, since here g. 2g.
matter is not transferrecl between pha.&es unless a
change of phase occurs, nor is one component of a
phase in motion relative to other components of the
where tJ.F'f' - f V dP + J
/olB dmB + etc., frequently
phase. called the isothennal increallO in
Several of the unit. opel'll.tions involving mass free energy.
transfer ,have a.Iready been considered from the
In most cases where a component is being t r~
point of view of the ideal or equilibrium stage. A
ported in a phll8e, 6mZ and 6m~ are negligible and
more fundamental approach to the mass transfer
to is zero, 80 that equation 462 may be written
operations is through the rate of transfer of the
componenta between pbaees under the conditions /,
encountered in a given unit of equipment IUld the -llF'f' - RTln - .. (lto) (463)
correlation of the factors influencing these rates.
ThiB method becomes particularly useful when
applied to equipment such as the packed tower
where h,!2 "
fugacity of the transferring compo-
:=

nent at points} and 2.

\vhose performance bean e:mly a slight resemblance R "" universal gas constAnt.
to that of the equilibrium stage. On the other hand T - a.bsoluU! temperature.
the uae of the ideal stage is convenient and sa.tis-
factory in many applications where stage efficiencies Equation 463 indicates that the energy (-l1Fh.
are known or where the equipment approaches the required to overcome the resistance to transfer (lw)
operation of the equilibrium stage, such as a bubble- from point 1 to point 2 is dependent upon a difference.
cap plate in a fractionating tower. in fugacities.
n oJ decrease in fugacity (It - f" or - AI) repr~
sents a driving force tending to transfer the com~
THE RATE EQUATION
nent from point I to point 2 similar to the pnuure
Whenever thel is a concentration gradient of a drop (- AP) in trlUU!pod,ing fluids.
"lponent within a phase, there is a potential. avail- Mass transfer involves chemical energy, whereas
.e lending to transfer th ~ component in the diree- fluid transportation involves pressure energy. The
tion of decreasing coocenlra.tion. Under steady rate of transfer equals the driving foree divided :'V
SIO

 THE DRIVING FORCE. FUGACITY. AND CONCENTRATION
the reei.8tanoo, or thc driving force mult-iplied by the
conductance, or, in general,
Rate - (Drop in potential)(Conductance) (464)
Conductanze = (Area)(Transfer coefficient)
The following equation for thc rate of mass Irans-
fer ia equivalent to equation 382 for thc rate of hctlt
transfer.
N - kA(J, -f,) - kA( -of) (465)
where N _ mass (or moles) of component tranT
(erred per unit time.
k _ t ransfer coeffieient, maM (or moles) per
unit time, unit drop in fugacity , and
unit .cross-sectional area.
( -llf) ... decrease in fugacity of the trall/:lferring
constituent.
The ID888 transfer coefficient is written k. 01' kl
when applying equation 465 to mass trall!!fer in a
g!UI or in a liquid phase, respectively. Wben equa-
tion 465 is applied to mass transfer through two or
more phases in aeries, the coefficient il:I caJled an
overall mass trarud"er coefficient and is written K ,
whieh corresponds to the overall heat transfer
coefficient U.
Mass transfer tbrough two phases is illustrated in
Fig. 478, which shows diagrammatically the potential
of the transferring component as a function of dis~
tanoo.
Under steady conditioIlB, the rate of transfer is the
same in eacb phase and may be written
N - (K) (A )(J, -!o) - k,A (f, - fJ
- kIA (h-1t) (466)
where k, - coefficient of mass transfer in gas pha!!e
[moles/ (hr)(sq ft)(atm)].
kl - coetS.cient of mass transfer in liquid
phase [moles/ (hr)(sq ft)(atm)J.
In writing equation 4.66 it is assumed that equilib-
rium conditions exist at the interface between the
two phases 80 that the fugacity of the transferring
component h as the same in bot.h phases at the
interlace. This is equivalent in postulating that
~ interface itBeH offer1! no reai8t:ance to the transfer
Pl"OOO88. It is difficult and probably impol!8ible at
present to verify this assumption by direct experi-
mental measurement. The 8uccCl:l8lui correlation
Sll
of Jl1aSIJ t.nmsfer data baBed UP'I thid atilltlmplioo
is highly presumptive evidence at its validity in
simple mass transfer uncomplicated by chemical
reactions and selective adsorption .
. In most applications to fluid phases there is tur~
bulent relative motion of the phases. In such ca:;es,
the fugacity of the transferring component in etl.C1!
Gas pha5l! LiQuid ph".
f,
Flo. 478. i.)lq:tMlnmatie repnl88ntetion of dtivinl forces in
mR88 t!'lUl&fer.
phaee, /, or h, is determined from the mixed average
composition of the phase.
If the fugacity of the trarud'erring eortlpOnent at
the interface /; is eliminated in equation 400, the
relation between the overall tralll:lfer coefficient Bnd
the ph8lSe' coefficients is similar to that expressed by
equation 385 or 386 for heat transfer, or
[
K - =~~~ (467)
([ I t,) +
([ I k,)
THE DRIVING FORCE, FUGACITY, AND
, CONCENTIlATlON
The fugocitll of a component in a phatle may be
calculated rigorously by known thermodynamic
methods. In many of the applications of mass
transfer involving contacting of vapor and liquid
phB8e6, the gases am at relatively low temperatures
and pressUre6, and, where 1M gfU plu:uu 6thave /U Ukal
{J48e3, tJu fWJGCity of a oomporaenl in tJu phau it eqrul
to m partial presnue. Since the fugacity of .a c0m-
ponent in the gas phase is equal to the fugacity "
the component in a liquid phase in equilibrium wiUa
the gaIJ phase, the fugacity of eom.ponent8 of a
liquid phaae may be cakulated from equilibrium
data. Thus, when tJU! ga8 phaMJ be.havu (II an ideal
 ,
512 MASS TRANSFE~t. 1

gall (!lId llie li quitl pJIII8f' .rolliltu Ruoull', law, for any
comlJOllcnt
(4GB)
wherefJ = fllgnf'il y of ,(Jtnp(ln(,111 j il. a li{luid solll-
l il)l1 (.11111).
l' z 101:11 I'r " ';'il lI'e in Ihp ..q uil ihrium gas liQuid in
ph:l:' (a Im),
YJ = mol.. f,'arlion of e"m pOII('III j in Ihe gas
pha5e.
1) = \ap..,r Ill''''''UrP " f rumponer. t. j (ntm). liQuid flowing
downward in film
:r j = mole f ru,1illl! Ilf "' IlILp"nent j in t.he 1illUid QII inner surface
ph;I ~.

In man.\' ('tl.S(!!!, the ('(lllilibrillm behavior of Ihe

l\)'stem i;; d('~('l"iI~ by tit... rdlltion

Yi "" K J,l"j (4G9)

I\"here 1\.] ,.; rc tuilihrillm volutil it y constant.

For ~deal gu;!('>;

h .... Plli.llt f'/{ftJ (470)

Annthr!" form of I his rl.'ialion, knOll"1l as Jlemy 's
law; is I'xpr.'s.,,(,<j a.~

(471) Vlporln
t
F,o. 479. Cr'";"...." ti,,. ~. 1 ,Ii,,!!r:,," ()( a tYI.jl':'ll \\'CltN-",'all
whpl"l'. Hi " IIenry 'ti h I\' r on)!lu nt, culu'" n.
. Cj = Cllncf'n lm t i.m of (' ,Ill]xml!nt i (Ib mules
j ell ft (ifsolulivn).
When a \\"f'lted -wnll column if! insulated (l"Om its
In o(X'rnti ..nll illv"h'ing the l ransff'r II{ malf'I'i:!1 surrollnt lings So l Ih:ll it s UI)(!ra l i.,u is :w i!lhatic alJ(l
!'etll"('('n I W(I liq uid plla,':-!- ')I" 1K'11I"I!f'1I "" li.1,. and t he liqll i,l is 1"I'f'irt:ulahltl frum t he bot tom of the
fluids, (,llll ili]'ritt in n1alit1n,.h ip~ llIu:;l 1)(, known ur cul umn through thtl rc~rv~Jir 1.0 the top of t he
estimat('d. colnmn, t.htl upcmt i'Jn is dCSlril)()o.1 a..~ "adinhntie
hUmt-.iifil'!lt.ion. " Under Ihc::Kl Ilirc um~(a[l(:es. the
Wet~e(I-rr'ull Colu"," as a n rclat inn~hip hctll'ccn thp gll.!:l cumpl)i;it.ioll and the
AditllH:llic llilmidifier t eml)('ratul"es ill he gns a nd liq~ l id mny 00 calculated
Onc of tl\(' !:Iimpl~ ~t ~.r~I r. m!:l of muss tran~kr is the from t hcrmodynu.rnic pruperties and mMS and energy
v ~,porizatinn of val'ious liquids f l'lIm a thiil film of balanl:Cti.
liquid' n()lI"ill~ down t he wall (If a cylindl'jl'lll tube Cunsider the wetted-wall column as an a diabatic
couritprl'lIl"n'nt In U I:!trenm "f gll!:l /lowing Ih rough humidifier with PfO\,itli(m for temperature cuntrol of
tlu~ centr.r uf the tube, 1I~ ill' I~\Iat(.'l 1 di ugl':lmmat~ the liquid in th e rClM!rvoir and Ihe addilion uf
kaliy in Fig. 4i!). Tlw tr:ln~fcr :st'1''ioll i;,;,usIUllly "make-up" liquid toO the reservoir at. a con trulled
made ul gla!;/; about 2 in. in Jiumet e l' und 4 ft long. temperat.ure. A$$lIffiC that t he gas Ilnd liquid
Li.plill is in trOJd nct~1 al. I he tllJlllf \.lIC dl'culur ~I ion throughou t t,he system are inil ia lly a.t the same
which >;f'!"ye!:l /l.!:I fl weir Hnd (Ii~tl"jlm lc:< the liquid as tempera t ure. As m3SS i~ transfe rred from the liquici
an I'vl'n film oyer t hl' IIalls. '1'111' lifluid i;.; removed hy vaporization . a drnl\ in lemperature is required
tllrOllp;h the >;ea l a.t Ih(l !'ollum fro m 11\(' t<lip;ittly ttl SlIflpl.v Ihe lale n l heat 'I( v:lporitalion . As BOOn
fhrt'ti 1,,1\'1"1' ('nil. Calming IlC.t ionll are p ro'~ I('(r W'i IIie lirlHi.1 tcmlJCrature falls h(>]mv the guS tern-
fur t ill' WIS sl rt'am a t Nleh cnd.!l1S I:!hOWlI, to minimize ]X'r.llllre, h('111 is tr:lI lsflWI"I't1 (I"I ml IlltI gas 10 the
turl.ulcn("e. lirl Uid. In Ihi>l Im~' Ihp gal! b 1)(1111,>(1 and humidilied.
 WETTED W A.LL COLUMN 513

If the liflUid supplied to the top of the column is An equation similar to equation 473 ean be
npw mnintninru at the t('ml~'r:\llIre of the e",it writte n for the gas Ilt any point of a uni t of Ilny Si1.e
li(IUid, the temperature lc:vel ui,l lw IillUid decreases, but lI"il h an entering gas of temperature (1'11 Xl)
al:d the liquid temperature gr"lIit'lll. through the producing tile ilame adiabatic saturat ion tempe rature
column decrea.ses while the t('mlX'mture and humid T" .. 80 that
ity of the entering gas is h('ld ('unstant , The tern
JX'rnture of the exit. gas will dl'cn>[lSC us the liquid
T _ (Xu - JC.r+ T". (4i4)

temperalu1"2 dc<~refl.<W'; becall8l' uf the greater heat

transfer rnt(,f, ubt:lim>d wi th gn'lil cr differences in Equation 0174 rC'p l"t'5('nTS the relationship betwccn
temperature ue tWf'('n the gal:! IIml li(11Ii<l. T he exit the t em~r:\l u re and humidity of a gas passing
gas tem pemilu"\: will ahm.Yil be higher than that of th rough all adialJaT ie hUlllidifier. E(luntion ~ 73 may
the enu!ring liquid. This cooling proc'ess will oon- be used to cah:ulate the adiawtic suturntion tem-
t inne tllltil the rate of heat trnn,;f('r from the gas to perature 'and humidity re<tuired in equation 474
the liquid is just Cfluivulent to the latent beat fro'll the entering gas condilions. Th(>8C relatjon-
required 10 vaporize the liquid. At this sla.te of ships an! T(>]ll"'P>K'lltN on 11 humidity chart as aUin
dynamic equilibrium, the temperat ure gradient in batic cooling eunC8. For example, the adiabat ic
the IitJllid will iuwe disuPI>etUW . all of the liquid saturutioll t('m lX'rlltlll"C and mixing ratio (humidity)
1.x>ing at the "lI.di tlobntic satumtion temperature" corresponding to 0. If'mperuture of 144 0 F and a
ourresponding 10 t.he pro~rties !lf the entering gas. humidity of O.O~ nre 60 F and O.Oi, respectively ,
H the unit contained an infill ih! f'xtcnt of eontaet- as found by following the adiahatic cooling cur\'e
ing surface, the exit wet gas wou ld be in equilibrium of Fig. 498 from 144" F and 0.02 humidity to the
with the entering liqnid and thcrdore would be saturation line.
I!lI.\Iurntcd wi th vapur at the ad iaha tie satnratioll Bccallil(' the temperature of the Ij' luid is constant
uom perutnre. If the It'fercnreslal Ml are liquid at the in the weltoo-wall (:olumn whell Ul/prated as an
'U.li.wut.ir: saturation temperature T .. and d ry gas adiabat ic humidifier, t.he re is no fugacity gradient
at the I!.Uiabatie satu ration tempernture, an enthalpy in the hquid phase; the transfer process operutt$ only
balance gives, for a tower of infinitc height, through the gas phase, and the dC\'il:e is well lluited
to a study of mnss tran,;fer in the gas phase.
The transfer coefficient k as defined uy equation
~05 may be cllklilate<1 from eXI)('rimentnl data by
where 0,' ., mll!IR \"Clocity of the (Iry gas [Ib/ (hr) integrating C1"l uation 475 over the mensnred condi-
(Sll ft)J. t ions of the transfer sec.t iunof the wettcdwnll
XI ""' humKlity of t ill: clltel"ing gas (Ib column.
"apor/ lb d ry [OIS). For a differen tial el('ment of intcrf:l('ial area d.4 .
:JC.... - bumKlity of Sltturuh'C.\ exit gus at T .. measuring A from the bottom of-the Irdnsfer section,
(Ib \'apor/ lb dry v.as).
).ru ,..., latent heut of vaporization at the tern V' dY ,. k,( - At) dA (475)
perature Tu. (l3tu/ lb),
T~. '"" adiabutie suturation t('ml>erature. where k, "" mass transfer coefficient [m ol~/(hr)(sq
1', _ entering gas tcmpel"lltUl"('. ft )(atm)].
" '"" specific humid heat i'(lI)lldt y of the V' .. gas rate of flow of solute-free gas
entering gal> (lltu)/ (Jlr dry gns)CF) . (molesjhr).
A .. interfacial flrea (sq ft) .
Equation 472 may be rearrangt.'C.1 to give equation Y _ gAS composition (mole8 solute/mole sol-
473. ute free gas).
T .. _ T. _ (JC.. - X , ).ra, (473) -6/ -" - I, -- tugaci ty of the transferring
oomPQllent at the interfnee minus
" ita fugacity in the gas phase.
Equation 473 demonstrates that for a gi~n enter-
ing temperatu re and composition (T I1 Xd th rre is a
u.niquc adiabatic saturation t.emperature.
 51< /\lASS TRANSFER 1
Since
d Y = --=-~
dy (-I. Ii)
/\lASS TItANSFER BY MOLECULAR
O1F'H;SION
(I - !J)'l
and The " !l."!t majorit.y of trunsfer opprations occur, at
l "t~"\t in Pl1l't, within or between fluids in motion.
1"
V~ -- (-177) The rate I1t wldch rna&:! may be trl1n ~ fefl'ed in a fluid
(I - y) i~ determined by the physil'ail)l'opcrties of the fluid,
it s state of m ution , ana the driving potent.ial. As
where y - gas composition (mole frfiction solute), ha:s tJeen shown previously, the rate at which heat
V - g~ rate of fl ow (ml'llel:l of total gllS per may be tran::lferretl in a fl uid i::l determined uy the
hour), physical Pl'Opcrl~ of the fl uid. its stale of mution
(IllS may be descrilJNI uy tile Heynulds number), and
substituting C(llIationa 476 and 477 in P.(lnation 475 the tp mperature dilfel"e n<.'e producing the heat
and rearranging tran;d'er.

r '
Wben the fluid in whi(:h ma.~ transfer is occurring
dy is stagrlant , or i~ in laminar motion normal tu the
J. , (I -
~
,. ' dA (-HS)
di rec tion of ffi n&! t nmsfer, tll(' mechllni!:Ull of transfer
,1/)(1; I.) 0 V
is that of moJecular diffllaiull which haa been dE'-
Antil'ipa ling the re!luits o( t he Ivcttetl-wall exper- fined 4U a~ "thE' :1punluneo)llS intel'mingling uf
iment~ SVllllllI'hat, it has been {mmd tllat t lH' J.,'1L'I miscible fluid s placed in mntual cuntuct. at.'eum-
phase mll.il:I tnUlsfer coefficient is appn,ximatel.y plis hed wi llwut. tht' aid of mechanical ~I. irring ."
proportional 10 the total mass rate of gas fl ow .'1(' The analog .,f molecular diffusion in heat Il1lllJ:lfer is
that the qu(,lient t,f V may IJe (lun!;id(:rOO 8.'i a thermal conductiun. ::iimilarly the shear stre~
COIDJtnnt in the integration of the rig hI-hand side in fluids in laminar motiun, which can
as the transfer of momentu m in t he fluid s, exi!lt
'*
thought of
of equatiun 478. This procedure is further justitied
in most f!8.!!eS IJinee the variation in V is small through the action of viscosity.
through the transfer section. In the integration of The relat ions which describe tht' process of molec-
the left-hand ~ide of equation 478, the fugacity of ular diffusion ure del'ivcU f!'Um the kinetic theory of
the tranllferring component at the interface j; is a gMt's. According to thi!! theory,'" in an ideal gas
constant ami may be evaluated at, low pressures as the resistance to the diffusion of a gas A through a
the vlll)"r Pl'e8lllll'e of the li4ui!.1 at t he adiabatic gas B is proportional to (I) the number of molp.cules
salml!iun temperature. Thus, the integrat.ed form of gas A per IInit volume, (2) tbe number of molecules
of l!i.luat iun -li8 i:! of gas B per \mit volume, ':Z) the mean velocity of
ga.: A relat ive to gas B, and (4) the length uf the
I
- - In (I-~Y'
- -)(",
-- -',) k,PA
- __ _ ( 1i9)
diffusing path. The potent,ial grndient pruducing
diffusion is Pl'09Ortional to the resi::ltance to diffu.!Iioo,
YI - 1 I - Y2 !II - YI V
and, since in an ideal gus the fugacity is eflual t.o the
partial p rcs.~ Ul'e, thiR relationship may be stated
In many ca.ws, the g!l.~ mixture contains only a
mat.hematically as fo!lows.
small amollnt or solute, the values of y become

(~) (~)
negligible compuml tll 1.0, and equation -179 may
be simplitil:d ttl -dpA - (tMI (VA - VIl) d:x: (482)
lilA MB
!II - YI) k, PA
In ( - - - ~ -- (480) where VA - partinl pressure of the diffusi.lg gas A
Y;- Y2 V (aim).
(tAR - proportionality consta nt.

j;~ - -
V(y, -y,) (481) PA , PIJ - PArtial densities of gas A and B (Ib/ cu
A (-4/),. ft).
M A , AlB - molecula r weights of gas A and B.
where (- 41)1", ,. log menn valliI' of (f,' - I ,) at the VA , VB - mean velocities of gas A and B ~rt/hr).
top and hottom uf tile transfrr x - length of the diffusion path (ft) ,
section. The bibliogL'llphy for tbis "htlpt.. r a p pea~.,n p. 575.
 MASS TRAXSFER BY ~IOLECULA R DIfFUSION 515
The Diffusion of COil A tllrou gh Cas B Under these circumstances equation 482 beoomcs
Wh ('~ one gas A i9 diffusing through a second stag-
nant gas B, the te rm VB in equation -182 becomes zero. NA '_ _ D(J (dP')
('00)
Substituting PII/ MB - "pBIRT and N A/ A = "AP.~ /M.4 A RT dz
(by definition) in equation 482 and rear.ranging
Substitut ing from equat ion 490 in equation 48.';
N, ( R'1\ dPA (-183)
deScribing the unsteady-slate material balance.
A - - -;;;J 1>11 fh
iJPA D a'PA
TIle diffusivity Da ol the system ol gas .4 and gas --at = "() ax' (491)
B is ,defined 8.8 Do - R2T 2/o..~tJP, so that equation
483 becomci:I Under shady conditions where NA is constant,
N . DoP dPA equation 490 may be integrated to give .
- ---- - (41H)
A RT Po d:r. NA Du
In the general case of unsteady--atatc diffusion, ill A ... RTx /{p.~h - (p.tb) (492)
an elemeut of volume A dx, the rate of allc.u mulatioll
of gas A in time dt is Di.J1luivity

!.(P,A d%) _!.(P,Adz)
a/ M,t at
The rate at which gas A diffuses into the element
is N,t. and the rate at which glUl A diffuse,,; out of
the f'lement is [N A +
(aNA / aX) dzJ. A material hal-
ance around the element then becomCfl
Values for the difftt:<h'i!y DfJ in the diffusion
equations are preferably obtained from E'xperimentlli
RT valucs when available. The most &l.t illfa.ctury geo-
eralized correlation 1. :It of the djlft1 l1ivili~ of gAlS
s.Ylltems appeal1l to he

.(",ARTdz ) - " NA- ['N,

-
dl
N.t+ - dz J
ax
where Do - diffusivity or diffusion coefficient [II((
'N,
- - --dz (485) ft/hr or moles/ {hr)(sq (t)(moles per
% eu f t per (t)
or substituting from equation 4.84 in equation 485 T - abeolute tempe rature (OK).

and
aN,
ax - RT- at,-
A ('P'\ .
+A
DaP (iJpA)
RT ax PBaZ
(480)
P - pressure (atm).
VA , I' ll - molecula r vol lime! of gases-A and B.
M A iIIfJ =- molecular weight", of gases A and B.

TABLE .'">4. ATOMIC VOI.UMES

apA D P a ( 'PA )
at - "() ax PBaX
(487) Bromirw
Sulfur
27.0
21;.6
U:tder steady-state conditions, the rate of diffusion Oxy~n
N A in equation 484 is a constant, and, since (0--, as in a ldehydes, keUln~ and
doub~v li nked oxygen) 7.4
PA + PB - P, the integrated equation becomes
(--0-, WI in methyl elite...) U. l
(--O--, IW in higher e!ltel"1l &nt.I ethenl)
NA _ DaP In (P") _ Do~ PA l - PA~ (488)
(H--O-, Il!I in acida)
11 .0
12 .0
A RTx PBI RTx (pB)/... CGr~ 14 .8
Chlorine 24 . 6
where (Ps)/ ... - Jog. mean value of PSI and PB2.
Hyd~n 3.7
Nitrogen 15. 6
Counter Di.J1uilion oj Co. A and B eo. In priinary a~nes 10.5
In the case of equimoJar countercurrent diffusion In IIeOODdo.ry ami/'lC!/l 12 .0
of..,..AandB
For bcn.zene ring formation deduct 15; (or
NA Ns trAPA ~PB naphthalene deduct 30.
- - - - - - - (489) For the hydrocen mo!eeuk> . . V .. 14.3;
A .4 MA Mil ami (or ai r \l1li' V '" 29.9.
516 MASS TRAJ"IiSFER I
The valnes of the molee\llar volumes whirh shou\,\ mulcs JX'r un;t VtJIUOl<.' of liqukl are indl'Pf'ndent of
he U!4('( \ with C<I'mtioo 493 are obi llincd from the eOUlIJ05ilion. TIIt~ ,lilTrr~'III" IJCt\\'('('1l f'(llItltions 49'
a~)mic. volumes shown in Table 5-1, whit'h, by Kopp's I\nJ 496 ulld (''lual iom. 195 ami -Ifli is often nf)1;I(etcd.
lnw t)f additi"c volume!! with the appropriate rnlf'S nn,d the !Simpler furr.\ of Cf\uutiollS -t9li and H17 am
for !!peei:!1 cases, gives molecular volumes from the (,flt'll used for all cuscs. Equation 496 is oflclt calk,,:1
atomic volumes. . Fir k's la\\'.
Equations -182 to 492 aregenemlly sati ~f:tch>l',\' ~o genernliu:d corrriation of liquid phui'IC dilTll ~ i \'
when applied to systems which" closely approxinmtf' it ies SlIch as ecluutiotl 493 hl\8 bet, fonnd , uut. cerluiu
mal gast'6. cmpi rlf~al IY'l at ion~h i~ are avaiiable. M 'nlL'I prol>-
:\IolN;lIlar diffusion is u811ally of minor impmtance ably reficcts the- ina(!eq uacy of the kinetic theory
in rnfl,."\S transfer in gases, liS the gllll is usually ill il when applied 10 liqllidg. It. is the refore necessary
llil!;hly turbulent stale. The main interest in the 10 use e:q)('rimental dala for li(lItid phase LlilIush-'l:
diITu",i"n e(luat ions 3$ applied to gases occurs in tk",. Sint:e Ihest diffm",'ili~ as.-;ume a diffUSIon
Ul'ndcmic and theoretical work where the exp('!'i- eqllation in their ('alculalioll from experimental data,
/O('nttli conditions are carefully selected 80 as to the use of the vallll's in ditTu.~i~m C{llIations telld~ to
"]iminnle turbulence. ca.nCf'1 any crmrs in the Bppli4:ation of kinetic t heory
10 lirtuids, prltvid cd Ihe condit ions of the applicatilln
Diffllllliofl in Liquids approximate the- conditiuns under whieh the ditT\I~h '
Cll.:i(~S of mll:iS transfer by diffusion occur somewhat itie~ were m('3.'Snred. In e!Teet. the tlY'atmcnt tlf
mil", frequently where liq uids are involveci. Ho\\,- diffusion in lirillid ~ is. thereftJre, ~nliul\.\' cropiriral.
e\'t'f, a liquid is b .r from being an ideal gas, and no Tahle 55 pl'f'>;Cnts a number tlf typi('ul valnes fur
S:1.1 i1.Jaetory dCl:!Cription of the liquid state, !!Ilch -as liquid pitase JifTu~h:itit'6.<O TII(' !'au!!:e tlf vuriatitlll
the kinet.ic theory of gtlSe8 , is a'l'ailo.i)1e. In spite of ill the,;e valuex i,; 1101 hU'ge :sfl that in the ruJti('lIce of
th is fact and ror the lack of any better me thod, datn a ft"'..I:sf)hahle gHt.'SI> can ofte n be made.
diffusion C(luations similar to those derived for ideal
gases are often applied to diffusion in the liquid state. TARLE 511. DI"'~TSIO~ COEFFICIENTS mit DlLCTE
In IIIJch apr,\ication& it is customary to substitute SOLlITIO;\'S 01' (;.\:-iES IX WATEn AT 2O"C
for the partinl pressure potential a OOIloentratioo Sotm, (;u D L. Jq ft / hr
potential exp~ as rno.l es per unit volume 80 that co, 0 .1lOOOO1J
equations 487, 488, 491, and 492 become, respec- Cl, 0 .000062
tively, H, 0 .000202
OCA ~ oeA
H.s 0.000003
- ., DLC - - - (494) N, 0.000074
IJt ax CB i)x NH, 0.000071
N", 0.000068
NA D"C I<C.~h - (CAhl 0, 0 .000081
- - -- (495)
A x (CB)/ ..
Dijf~ion in Solids
ae A a~CA The diffusion equations have also been applied
- - D, - (496)
i)t ar with dubious ,success to the transfer of mass within
solids., Wh,ere, th~ operation involves a tnlly homo-
geneous phlUlC such as the solid diffusioD that occurs
in metals at high temperatu res reasonable resulUl
where DL ='< liquid diffusivity. may be obtained. Where the operations involn
CA. ClI "" moles per unit volume for 'A and B, the transfer of fluid phase through the interstice8
respectively. and pores of a. solid phase such as enCOlmtered in !he
(C8)100 - log. mean value of C81 and eM. drying of~Kls the applicatloll of diffusion equations
C - total number of moles per unit volume. is open to considerable question becausc of the un-
doubted influence of other foreea sueh .M capillarity."
. The \'lI.lidity of t.hese equatioo8 for liquids is rather
doubLful in v ielY of the ' ~mptions that the kinetic
theory describes the liquid state and that the total
 !\IASS T RANSFER IN T URBULENT } 'LOW
Dijfu ~jon in Fluid,. in. COfUl"it IJ
When one component A (l i lTlI ~ in more t-han one
di rcctlon through a second n ontrunijfe rring com-
ponent. lJ and is present in ~uch low concentrations
t:)(lt \he partial pressure PB is app roximately elllml
to the total pressure P and CB is npproxirr:mtely
equal to C, equations 487 and 494 may be written
"
-ac,
at
--
517
where p , - p.'Lrlial pll'ssme ur componen t .1 ill the
cn!(' ring gas (aim).
~ .. pll.rt ial pressure (If (.'Omponent ,I in 111('
exit glU! (atm ).
PI - partial pll'ssure of component ,4 0. \ the
interface (aIm).
TV _ mass rate of gas ni)\\".
L ... length of \\'ett.l..,,<\-wul! section.
(48ia ) Typical uata from we tted-wall eolimm (> xper i lm'n r ~
arc plotted in Fig. -180 which also' slip;\'" lhe curve
given by equA Lioll 4W." A beUer agrfreml'nt liS
(-l9-la) obt:lined If by the relation

P:! - PI .. 1 ( - ".~~~'iol. )
Tlu'!le. equations are exact. for equal molar cnunter
-
Pi-Pl
- = ,- 4 L-'
a~2
(500)

ditTll!lion.
For radial diffu~ ion in n cylinder where the con-
('{'utration of the transferrin g component A is sym-
metrical about tbe axis
where an - nth root of the Be~;;d fun ('t.iun J o.
Equation 500 was derived by assuming a uliifunn
vcloeity across the diameter in~tclld. of :~ parabolic
velocity di~tribution.
l5

.. .-....-
(--J87b)
'0 , ._- uTI -
I !II
-
os --
\\"hc~.l: - di>J timec alo ng the ~xi8 o f the cylinder.
:-,. _w_ - -- -
' ~F-
,.-.- I "' ~ ,:<"
.t;.r:"'''''''''10<

........
r - radial cli.!tance from the axis of the ' :'1~ 0
:ci.. 0.3
-:. :~~~- "

cylinder. ,
. . .. . .,. - HI ~' oq"'~l "-
For steady motion in which the nontransCerring
('()inp~:mcnt R m (jves only in the .I: direction with a
\('Iocity v, II. material balance around a differential
02

0,, . (~-
"'>'f oe . ....
A WP!V" ~ ~""

- , "- itt 'ZP7T;h

' " ","0 0
"
length of l:Vlld\1 it gi\cs
FlO. 480. ExperirnMlll1 " ... t... fn>m " ... II""I-...IlII cohmlo."
(498)
MASS TRANSFER IN T URRt:LENT Fl,nW
When t he fluid in which mass or hent. tmm:ff'r is
If " is knoll"n a functioo/of r as in the ca,..-.e of
W' .
occurring is in tu rlmlent motion, the secondary
laminar How when th ... parabolic YeJoci ty di!'triblJtion
motions uf the fluid in the form of vortiees ph.vs i('ally.
of Fi~, 120 and 482 may be 9.$I3umcd, if Do is con-

.
~t;,nt , if PA is uniform along the cylindrie:\l fluid
interface and if diffusion in the direction of flow is
' ni"m of d i ff\l ~iun ur conduction. As lhe t.urbulcnc<:
negligihle ( dd;A .. 0) equation -I9B may be inte-
gr::ted over the length of the cond uit or wetted \"!loll
6eclion to gi,(l ('(Illat-ion '19. 1T
Pi - PI
tmnsport the mll."-!j or heat t hrough the flt1id, this
action being ~ lL l~rimp()sed on the laminar mcch~
of the fluid i" increaJ'o('fl the turbulent mcchnn i~m
may become the " r('dominant factor. The turbulent
m{'ehallism is called "eddy diffusion ," or, in the CMe
of heat tnm ~fcr, "eddy conduction ," all.hough it ilS
ci{'ur U. at tlJt> tmn" fl'r illllCoomplisht>d by r.ollvect ioll
allli that. dijJ"NifJII or cmldl/ctiQII is not involv.... l .
If it \;'ere p06."'ihle to d C&'_ril:oc comple.t(' \y the
motion of turbulence in mathernati('al terms it. \\'1)111,1
prubably be possible to derive rela t i()n ~ I;imilnr 10 I he
dilfusioll rP-intions, giving the rate of 1'l'\1l.S8 transfer


,
SI8 i\lASS TRANSFER I
by the turbu lent mechanism. Such!L description of Heta inillg t he c:",)On(,ll l~ II 1I11d "
turbulence is at present impossible, although cl)n-
sideroble progress along these lines is being made in
pod
t.he fi eld of fluid mech:'lllics. As 8. resul t the trt.'at-
ment of mass transfer in fI\l id~ undergoing turbulent
motion is almost entirely empirical. Although our
k' D
Do '" r;
[(00) ( , )] '- <P[(He)(Sc)]
- ; pD~ (5(2)
prctICnt knowledge of turbulent tluids is inadequate
to calculate rate~ of tran~fer, certain theoretical ideas The dimension lcSI-i ratio /.1./ pDf) i.s culled the
are very useful in relating the associated processes Schmitlt number. When expe rimen tal data hom
of heat, mass, a"bd momentum transfer in fluids,. wetted-wall colu m ll!i 2. are piuttcd AS a fun ction of
In many Cllses, if the p ressure drop generated in a the dimenmonlcss rat ilis, ind icated by the dimen-
fluid is known, it is possible to estimate the mass sionle:;s equ9:liollS, t he excellen t agreement from
or Ilt'a ! tnm lSfer rates which might be expected. widely varying type; of systems indiC8.t.cs tha t It.
Similarly. if the heat or mass tra nsfer ra tes in a given powe r series lonn of the dim6nsionless {unc tion is
apparently correc t.
~.\s' t!m are known, it may be ~ iLle to est imate the
1l1'('>!IiIlrC drop in the fluid phwoe. The aliSUmption made in the integration of tM
Under conditioml of turbulent, Row in the absence rate equation over t he transfer section of the we tted-
of t.l. justifiable theoretical meclu:l.nhml of tran::<fer, wall column to the etTeet that the qu otient of the
empirical methods are u~ in mlloe h the !!ame mallner eueffil'ient ami the molal rnll.l:!l! veluc ity was almost
:lIS for frictiOIl h/ssp.s and heat transfer.
constan t i,. ;ol:w jllstilil-d by the fact that k, ilS tI.
function of 00 ,8, all other varia ule~ being held con-
lJimen,d onal Analysis stan t, II.S ilillicated in C(lua t lOll 503.
l)jmc n.iillnn1 analysis of experimental da ta depends n il! simililrit y i.s apparen t betlvccn equation 503
"IKIII the fu.ct thnt,each anJ evt>l'y term IIf II. valiJ which CQrI"\llat t!JS mUllS transfer through the gas ph8.ile
n' lu.tion~ hip bet ween physlca l vtl.riahles must have flowing in turbulent, fluw through a \Vetted-wan
the same dimensions. It is of vtllue in arranging column and t he Ditt us-Boelter equation 417 corre-
III+! variables of a cumplicated p hyskal rt'ltltionship lating heat transfer coefficients (or fluids fl owing
so that, withuut destroying t he generality uf the through pipe in turbulent flow. In place of the
I'elationt!hip, it may be more eB.l:!ily detennined Prandtl number (/l.Cp/ k q) in the heat transfer equa-
eXJX'rimenta.lIy. The application of dimensional tion there is the Schmidt. number (p. / pD(J) in the
I1nl1tysi~ to the<tlow of fluids through pipes indicates mass transfer equa tion. Similarly instead of 'the
tilat the experimental data should be correlu.ted as a Nusselt ~urn ber in the heat transfer equation (hD/ k,)
fun ction of the Rey nolds num ber (*le equations there is the group (k' D/ DfJ ) . The Reynolds nwnber
6-"1 to 70). Dill'lemlionai &naly!:!is applied to the is common to botb correlatiorul.
cf)rreltl.lion of hf'a t. trnntifpr coeffi cients indicates the
U:-;P. of various d imensmnless groups. "D
- -. 0.023 (~"
- ' (-"-).... (0(3)
Similarly, fur the (."u rreiut ion of mt\.<;$ t ranJer Do /J pDo
NJ!!fficient in wetted-wall columns, the experimental
da ta indicate the following funct ional reiutium;hip.
hD
- ~
(DGj'.' (,C
0.023 -
,)(Ul00.4
-- (417)
kq Il kq
k' = .,(G, D, p, Do, ,) (501)
Both equations 1.. may he arranged a s shown to give
,,'bere k' = mass transfer coefficie nt in concentration the same fllntJlion 11 the Reynolds num ber equal to
units [molesj (hr)(sq ft)( molcs/ cu ft )J. the prOOU(:t of a p"ir uf dimensionless grtmps.
G - mass \'clocit y f(lb ffi a.ss)/(hr)(sq ft )J.
Exp ~ing the ' -arialJks in tcrrru; of mass, length, k' G"
; - -- )U- 0.023 (DG)~."- I
- -I (504)
and time, " DG 8 /J
U-1 _ : (mT.. -2rl ) (I~) ( rnL -It- ' Y (L',-I )'' (mL -3)" . h (,C
J - ~ -
)O.l100.7 - 0.023 (DG)-O.20
p
-
I
--I (fIJ5)
I ut expooents uf III 0 - a +c + ~ vpCp kf p. ~
1: of exponent!! of I -1 - a - c- d This function of the Reynol(i'l num ber is ca lled the
~ of exponelits of I.. 1 - - 2a + b - c + 2d - 3e j factor when applied to heat. or mass transfer. The
 ANALOGY BETWEEN !\[QJ\fENTUM. HEAT, AND MASS TRANSFER
identity of the j factor for ffiall/j transfer and the j
factor for heaL transfer has been verified experi-
'IIentally, and certain theoretical considerations to
be discuSged later support this idea. The j factor is
fundamentally a rricti~ faetor . For Ho\\' in pipe
it is equal to one-eighth of the friction factor f used
in equation 63 and plotted in Fig. 125, or one-half
r
of the friction factor used in equation 62. In more
complex geometry s\lch as ftuM:ls ftOldng through lX'ds
of packed solids, the identity of the j factor.! for hMt
and mass transfc r and friction haa not bee..'l estab-
liShed with certainty. This is due prohahly to the
inability to characterize properly the state of motion
of the fluid in such cases by a simple tenn. such
as ~he Reynolds number,
Thus, heat, mass, and momentum transfer in fluids
are intimately related and are accomplished by
similar mecbanisms. Furthermore the j factor idea
can be used to predict any two of these three items
from a third, provided that the trali~r~1' pl'lx:esse5
nrc opetating through the same i:laths.
Sinee k' = RTk" anrl RT - .pM.v,lp the expres-
si>" k'/lJ, \,l1'iich appears in equation 504, equals
k,.un,Plvp or k,Mu,PI O, and with tbe exponent
% instead of 0.58, equa~jon 50-4 becomes
(50<)
where AI.vII _ mean molecular weight of the gBS.
In much of th~ litcroture the log. mean partial
pressure 01 the non.transferring componerrt replaces
P in equation 5O.ta because mll88 tnuwer equations
were origina.lly written 88 the analog of equation 488
for moiecular diffusion, The mechanism of transfer
is rarely pure diffusion, and the available experi-
mental data arc confined to dilute gases where the
value for the lo~' mean partill.l. pressure is approxi-
mately equal to t he total preIlI:lure within the limits
of accuracy of the data.
Similarly, for heat transfer, equation 505 becomes
i ,;. (_h
CpO
)(,Ckq
p
)" (5050)
These equations correlated data on absorpt.ion
and evaporation in wett.ed-wall ooIumllB, absorption
on cylinders placed at right angles to a gas stream,
_a nd vaporization from a plane surface.
TIle maM transfer coefficient K is given in equatioo.
1i04 as proportional to (DQ)G.6o. If the ttan.llfer
occurred entireJy by molecul&r diffusion . k' would
519
be directly proportiunal to Dr;. If th~ .transfel
occurred entirely by turbulent. action, k' \\;0111<1 Ilt"
independent of Da (Da woulrl appeu.r with Ih(>
exponent of zero). T!1e exponent. of O.5G on the
diffusivity is an indicatldn of the dual Illi,'c han ism
of mass transfer. GiIIila,nd "correIUI~1 m:us.i iran=d('t
data by the expressiun
_
whir.h may be N'armngt'fl to ,;i\'e
k, - (Ret~ [
90.1
I .
+ ~4.i / {)(i)
1 (MlI'i)
I
The term "':-:--:=-:--::C-=-7 Iwl'! the fOl'm of 1.\\'0
90.1 + (34.71 Do)
resistances to mallS transfer operut.ing in series, one a
resistance to molecular diffw.ion \,lII'Ying inversely
wit.h Do, and the other II. tul'lmlent I'CSi~tllfice which
is not a function of lliffulJivity.
In momentum transfer (friction lOMe!!) at high
values of He the frict ion becomes ~lmu~ independent
uf vi8Cosity (900 Fig, 125), Similarly, (;undir iun6 ffill.y
he encountered in heat transfer and. in mas.'1 tran~rer
where the raU! mlLy be almost independent of thel'mal
conductivity or. molecular diffusivity.
ANALOGY BETWEEN l\IOMENTUI\1 . HEAT.
AND MASS TRANSFER
The anaJogy between momen'tum, heat, and m~
transfer may. be approached in a theoretical mannn
by considering the mechanisms of nwroculat and
turbulent transfer procCS8C8.
Mo men t um TralU}er in Laminor Motion
The existence of shear stfesses within a fluid is
reflection of tile fact that momentum is being trans.-
ferred within the fluid . The pressure drop resulting
from the flow of fluid through pipes produces shear
stresses distributed throughoot the fluid. A section
of II cireular conduit t.hrough which fluid is fluwing
is shown in Fig. 481,
/"
,, '.
" Od
,
. -,(.
() P.~ : ~P,
,
I
s.J fo--L--ol
Flo. 481. Diq;mm iIIu..waun abeat at..- in fluid ftowoiOl';
iQ. cyliOOflr,1

520 MASS TRANSFER 1
Under lJteady-ftow conditiOlll, the difference be- Thus, whenever motion ceases, the viseous forces
tween the forees acting on the Hui:l (PI - P,)S disappear. H equation 51 1 is applied . J flow in
mlLSt be in equilibrium with frictional forces seting circular pipe, the Poiseuille equation (GaL) giving the
at the interface between the walt and the HuK! so pressure drop required to produt:e laminar flow is
that obtained.'
(507)
(63L) (512)
where rI- - length of the wetted perimeter (ft}.
L - length of section (ft) . - Velocity Di8tribution
TO - average friction stre!l$, force per unit area. The forms of equation 512 and similar expressions
S _ cross-sectional area.
for turbulent flow such as equation 62 indicate
Defining the hydraulic radius as SN r. th.e basic differon~ in the laws of resistance in
laminar and turbulent How. The difTerem:e i::I also
TO "" - - "
-.P (508)
apparen t. . in the velocity distribution. Laminllr
L motion lends to a parahula as illustrated in Fig. 126.
Typical relative velocity distribu tion curves fur
In circular conduits, the stress TO will be the same laminar and turbulent flow are shown in Fig. 482.
at all points of the wall so that TO '"" TO. In conduits
of other bhapes the shearing stress TO will vary from 2
point to point on the interface between the wall and Turbu~nt flow
the fluid, and TO is an average value.
It is clear that a similar relW'ning would apply
0i"" r---... -'- , ,,
to an inner cylinder of fluid with radius T, so that f"-.
the internaJ frictional strestl betwt!en the layers of
fluid at radius T would be L.mirnor flow
"- \
\

(500)
2
'\,
since for a circular conduit Tl. - r/2. Since.rlo in
equation 508 fo, a circular conduit is T1)/2, dividing
0o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
R.tio o! Point Velocity to Maximum Velocity
equation 509 by equation 508,
Flo. C. Velocity dilltribution of fluids f1o"'ing in cylindrical

T - TO':" - To(1
TO
-.!)
TO
(510)
ducta.

Local velocities throughout the central portions are

where y is the distance from the wan ( TO - r).
Equation 610 is.known as the law of linear stress
distribution. It is a perfectly genertt.l relationship
which indirectly governs the velocity distributions
produced under various conditiona of flow.
The mechanWn oj laminar ruUtance is compara.-
tively simple, the tangential stress being expressed
lJy the law of viscous friction .
" d,
1:.. - - - (511)
gedy
where T .. - molecular frictional stress (force/ area).
1 ;. viacmity f(force)(time)/(area). ,
d,
- - rate of increase in velocity across the
dV
flow.
far more uniform in turbulent than in laminar flow.
The average velocity in turbulent flow is about
0.8 to 0.85 times the maximum velocity Il8 compared
to 0.5 times the maximum velocity in laminar flow.
Distribution oj MoieculaT and Turbulent Shear
Stress
When the velocity distribution within a flowing
fluid is known it is possible to determine the prl>-
portion between shear stresses generated by turhu-
lent action by means of the law of linear stress
distribu.tion, equation 510, and the visc06ity of t he
flujd, equation 6ll. As illustrated in Fig. 483, the
total shear st~ have been calculated from the
measured pressure drop and the law of linear stress
distribution, equation 509. The IUTlOllllt of molecular
shear stress T .. has been calcula~ from a measure<l

 ANALOCY BETWEE:\1 MOMENTUM. HEAT. AND !\lASS TRANSFER
velocity distribution (~urve,6uch a$ that of Fig, 482
by means of equation 511, 'flu: amount of shear
stress generated by turbulent a('hon is then deter
mined by s ubtracting the molecular shl'li.f stress from
the total shear stress,
Uuder lamiosr Row condit ions, I-he molecular
;!hear slress is equal to the tl)tiLI s hear stress, and the
combination of the laW or lint-a r stress distrilmtioo
and the definition of vkscosity is whal, Icads to the
paral:lolic velocity d istribution in lamina r JlOIY .
521
In Fig. 484, two separate bodies Q and b arc shown
moving on parallel tracks at the respective speeds
v.. and VI>, or b is moving with a. velocity IIlI - II..
= tw relative to Q. Imagine body Q frictionlessly
mounted and attached to an immobile block through
a dynamomc!er D. Let body b be provided with a
row of maclline g\llu; ~t at right anglCll to t he
trajectory, which fire b~ I Jlets into 4 at a regula r rate
of w Ib/ sec: Under these c.ircumstfollees the forea

~L~r~__' ' ' '_'_I'_a_TiJ~~O

~= 1I$Ienint
I _.' .~. -~.
1 I I I RtlItMo VIIociIy
,
'---------
.... ------LT-~_-'-~'-L_A-'-~.fy...l_----.J
"..~
bullttllrom b 10
FIG. 483. Di~llm illuatrllting diBtribuuon betoreen moleeulllr FIG. 484. Diajj:lVnmatic IlMICIICY iJluetrll tin, mechanism of
and turbulent ahear. turbulent ahCMr.'

Under cooditions of turbulent Row, the total registered on the dynumomcter in the direction of
shear stress at the wall (velocity - zero) is due to the motion of b relative to 4 I" m be
mnlecuiar fl(;tion, Toward the center or the pipe,
the proportional part or the tolal lillear that is due w
F - - (v. -1'.) (513)
to molecula r action steadily decreases to an exceed- g,
ingly small val ue at the cenler. Furthcnnore, the
Thus a stream of iJull('1>:1 tired tLt lhe rate of 200
more turbulent the f101l', i.e., the higher the Reynolds
Ib/ min f rom a bod y p.'\,,~ing !lot a relalive speed of
number, the less the pMportion 0' molecular shear
30 mph will pmtlHl:C 3 fun 'c i'{1~lal tt,
stress to total ,,"lear s tress at any point away from.
the wall. 200
F - 60 X 32,2 X 4-1 - ~,57 lb
Mechani~m oj Turbu len t Sh ea~ S tre8ses
When water flows at 00 F through 1Z.in. com- If both bodics WCI1~ in ",,,tioll, firing from the
mercial pipe, 100 ft lonp;, at an average velocity of faster !Judy would ar.cC"ICl'lItC" tlir ,.lowcr olle wlwl't.'il>.l
IO fps, the loos in head. ii:l approximately 3,9 ft, If a stff'am of bullcts coming from the l;iuwcl' body
by some means lu rbulcnee could be supp~ and wOllld 1''lard thc f:....;t('l' OliO . ,
the wat.er WWj made to flow in laminar motion at :rhhf 1,~a~l)ning may be I\pplied to two udj:wl'nt
00 F, the 10li$ in head would be approxImately filament>! d and b in n moving fhtid. Let t.he IUl jul'l'nt
0.01l7 ft . The ratio of the re,.i,.tunce hC8fls and surfurc Ul'f"a fmder cun~i(le!'Ution be A, SUPPlllS('
therefore the ratio of the Dverage sh~uring stresses fmthel' that in addi tion to Il. rl'lut,ive dilTeTClicc of
in the two cases IS 3,1:1/ 0,011 - 33.'>. ThIlS, turbu- \ 'clncity in the a.xio.l direction tlv then' is 1\ CI'Il'SS-
lence eauSf$ tallgential st resses to be over 300 times C,lrrent motion, \\ith a vcl uci ty 1.1 , Th is (;rnss-cml~'ul
a.s large as th~1SC produced by purely villComf re~ist motion will cnuse nn ("xdmngc of partilh'S fruIU /.J
AIlt.'e. Thc!K' Inl"'"c tungent ial fur<lCs in IIlI'hulcnt. to 4, and, if this Cr'JiIS.(;UTl'ent v(,j'l('lt." \n-n' dis-
flow are proc.ludoU .,by II IJroc'C$ of m.,.'mcntum ex- trilmu'(! ull irormly O\'er the surr'l"~ ..I , (1)("11 (,lIt I)
.:haoge between ~tI laye rs of flu id. "'ould be the volume and puA Ihe m:u;,; 1.r:IIISI)< II,,('(1

 MASS TRANSFER 1
from b to (I per unit of time. Thus the force ~r transfer of mumentum at any point in a fluid. there
ated by the ex.change would be pAu dll, and the will be a similal' relation for heat trarud'er under the
streM betw~ the filaments is inftuence of a temperature gradient.
T -pUdll (514) q dT
A - -(k,,+k' ) dll (518)
I'randtl Mixing Urlgth
where kll - thel"tnll.l conductivity .
If l is defined as the er08.'H:urrent distance through k. - eddy conductivity or eddy heat transfer
which a turbulent, eddy retains its identity, the rela- factor.
tive ILxial velocity difference .u of the adjacent
fi l~ment.s between wllich the turbulent eddy travels is tLnd a eimiill.r relation for DU\.!IIj transfer under the
influence of a fug~ity or concentration gradient,
(515)
N"
- - - (D. + E) -de" (519)
A dy
where l = Prandtl mixing length,
11 = local axial velocity. where Do - diffueivity (mole.tl/ (hrHsq ft)(moles/ cu
.. - radiW distance. ft/ft), or 9q fl/ hr].
E - eddy difIusivity Qt eddy m8i!B transfer.
The distance through which a turbulent eddy retains
C" - coneentratioo Ob moks/ cu (t).
its identity is known as the Prandtl mixin~ length. 41
By the law of conser.'ation of momentum the The relationships between the eddy viscosity ~, the
product (mlUi8)(velocity) is constant. SiDt.e at any eddy conductivity k., and the eddy dilfusivit.y E is
axial section in the fluid there is OOlUltant mass, any exp!'e:S!led. by the folluwing equations.
cross-current veloci ty u is numerically equa] to 6,
and both are equal to lde/ dJl by equation 515. (520) '
'Iberefore EquatiolUl 520 and 521 Illay be derived in the following

l' _ p(o:1f1)u _ rR (d,)2_ t du (516)

manner.
The ...te nl heat 1,nonIIf...... by wrbulent Ktion ~
in tennI of the eddy ()Un\JuctiYity is
dy dll
q. dT
where f "" pI.~ (du/dy) is called eddy viSCOBity. me- - .. -4:.- (oj
d.
""'" chanica!Jriction ooefficient, or turbu-
Collflidering the beat trnnllfcrred by the motWo of an eddy
..... -,' fence factor.
t hl'Ollgb itt! mi~inl k-ngl h I, thr. inmlNC in tenlJlllrat.ure ;.
dr/ d,l) , thll "uantity of ma.terial l nuu;f"rrOO &Cf'OIIII & unit
The \QUiI t;t~ in a fluid in motion ilJ
&lU i. Up, 110 that

, _ '0 (1 _~) _:'" + (d')'

T dJl
pi'
dll
q, - - ( 1
-
d,
- { ....)e,.
"') (b)

Since II .. .&0, Bubetituti1l equation 615 in equ&Wn 516

_ (p+t) -
dy '" (>17) II
"d,
_r _
Substitutint; equation c "iD b, and equa1in.!! " to 01,
'The shear forcea in II. fluid are equal to the rate do
at which momentum is trlUlllferrod in a. croas-current
direction through a fluid . It has ~ sbown that a
dual mecllanism of molecular and t.urbulent IItCtioo
operates to trant;fer the momentum. When heat or
... P,. -
d,
.
k .. (lpCp -
d,
(lilll)

mMS is trarusferred through II. fluid in motion, it is (Ii~)

to be expected that the eame dual mechanism oi The proportionality ~t f1 is iotrodvoed \0 aooount fot
molecular and turbulent action will operate ~ the \Il&dequaclee in the tbeoty. Similarly,
transfer process. B .. ~ (m,
Thus, eorrespooding to the equation for the ,
 ANALOGY BETWEEN MOMENTUM, HEAT. AND MA~ T RANSFER S23
a. mined. This bo.s been done for beat transfer bet\Veen
E - - (521)
p a fluKt in a pipe and the pipe .... with good agree-
ment bet.ween mearored and calculated heat tfanIlfer
wh~re a and {J are proportionality coost.a.nta.
rates ; and for the mass transfer from a gas to the
f = eddy viscosit.y .
wetted wails of a cylindrical column (wetted-wall
Cp = heat capacity.
colunm) with similar resultB ....
p = density.

1n gener!\l (for Newtonian fluids) it has been Physical SignJficance oj llimensionleu G roups
found by experiment that the viscosit,y , thermal Sinee a numher of dimensionless groups con tin
conductivity, and diffusivity are physical properties mJly reappear in the correlation of momentum. heat,
of the particular Auid not affected by the motkln and rna&; transfer operations, it is helpful to place a
of the Auid or the geometrical structure of the equip- physical interpretation on the various common
ment containing the fluid. On the other hand, the groups.M.'!
eddy viscosity, eddy conductivity, and eddy diffusiv-
ReynokU Number (DC/,.)
jty are primarily functions of the state of motion of
the.fluid as described by the Reynolda numbe r and The sheaf BtrcSr! generated hy turhulent. motion
are not functions of the physical properties of the of a fluid msy be wriHen
system except in so far as they may affect the Reyn- d"
1"1 *' pu(.:lv) = p(.:lu)l - (516)
olas number. dy
From 110 study of transport of water vapor across whereaA the shear ~trcSll gc.}Cruted by molecular
!'I. duct through which carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and action is
air were flowing over a wide range of Reynolds
numbers. it was found a. ... that the proportionality T .. =-= ,. dy (MI )
coostant in equation 521 W88 1.6. The reiatiolLShip
Dividing equation 5 16 by 51 1,
between eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity calcu-
lated from these measurements is shown as a func-
tion of the R.eynolcJ.s number is Fig. 485.
r,
-
1'..
- p(llv)l(d!1/ dy)
,.(dv/dy)
~
p(.1.v)1
-- (022)

MlO The right-hand side of equatiun 522 i~ equl:Li ttl th~

5 l.
~",/
product of It croe!l-currcnt ma.<;g velocity and t,he
Prandtl mixing length (the di;;tanec through whieh
the Cr08Hnrrent m8XII velucity exist;,!) divided by
#' viscosity , and is t.herefore It Reynold.'! number. The

.
~
5 ~
.~~<I" /' Reynolds number is therefore a melUlUTe of the ral-io
of the rate. of momentum tra.nsfer by turbulent
~.. )tY action to the rate of momentum Iranl:lfer by m(,loo-
0
,~ f- ular action, det;Crihing t-he state of motion of the
,
/' fluid.

o W N uuel t Number (hD/k g )

o 20 40 60 80 100 120 The rate of hCltt transfer by molecular action mll..~
I.I.~---)( lo---~.jl be written l1.li
ReyooiIt$ Number Q", dT
-~--k (523)
FJa.48,5. ComparilJon of eddy viBOOl<ily "lid eddy dlfi'usivity.- A q dy

The eddy viscosity f - pi2(dv/ dll) can be deter- and the total rate of heat trnn8rcr ~
mined as a function of Reynolds number for a given q
fluid in a given system provided measurements of - - - hdT (024)
A
pre88Ure drop and velocity distribution data are
Dividing equation 524 by 523,
available (see equation 517). If the proportionality
OOb8tl..nt.8 a and {J are known, the rates of heat or
Dl8.I!8 transfer through .the fluid can also be deter-
q
-- h (~T hdy
(525)

524 M ASS TRA~SFER 1

T he right-hand ter m is a Ntisselt number hD/k., (}JCp/k.) is a measure of the ratio of the rate of
:since y is a linear d istance or a diameter. T hus the molecular transfe r of momentum and heat transfe r
Nussc.lt numbe r is a measuN of the ratio of the (or h eat transfer by conduction).
total rate of beat transfer to the rate of heat transfer Simiiar relationships for other common dimension-
by m olecular action. less groups are shown in Fig. 486.
Similarly the dimensionless group (k'D/ Dc) is a.
measure of the ratio of the total rate of mass transfer
PRQBLD I S
to the mt.e of mass transfe r by m olecula r diffusion.
I . A _ttctl-"... U column hlUl an i n"~m&l diarneU'r of 2 in
Prandd Num ber (p.Cp /k.,,) and .. tu be supplied ..ith " 'aler at the {(lp Jl.1l,J ~ir at {he
oot/om. T he Air velQcity ;$ \.(I be fil.od \1.1 8.3 filii II.I>d ..,ill
If the C<luation a ll for lIhear stress by molecular
enter at a temperature of 20 C. The ""Ill bulb temperature
action is divided by equation 523 for the rate of Q{ the Nr will be 9.7 C. TIIC entering "'Jl.ter temperature
heat transfer by molccl1lar act.ion, will be 10.2" C. .
Estimate the he~t I.nd TI"IMIi tn.nsfer oocfficicnta from the
~
q",
_,"'kq (d'ldY
dT /dy
) _.C(d'ld
P

k~
')
'dT /dy
(526) fridion factor expe<::ted, and oornpare the ~~lIlfficient~ witb
t ho8e prOOictl from correlations for heM trfLl\flfcr and oorrela-
tioIll! for mMS transfer.
Tllere i:; a constant relation between t h o gradient
dll/ rly and dT/ rly, so t hat the Prandtl number 2; 'Ethyl aootate i.s to be eVllp<lrated inw a etream of dry
air in a wetted-wall column which is 2.67 em in inside diam-

Molecular
"'"
,.
Transfer 4". +., ~D N
~ - T - ij
. ,'
Turbulent

Transfer
eter and 117 em long. Th'l "'ette,I_,,"&lJ oolumn is to Le
operated adiaba.tieo.lly "'ith N1eirculJl.tj<)n of the liquid. T he
opcmting pre$!UI"1i i.e to be 800 mm or mercury ai_luI" .
Cou ntfJrcUmlnt 6010' of p.Illlnd liquid is t.o:l be u.-ed.
" If dry air ente~ the bottom of t im (lul u'lln at 2l. 1" C and
II t&te. of 357 gram.l! / rnIn, ooternur>e t he te mperu turo..oo "om-
posi6on of!be glIS pha8c leaving the enlumn.

3. Pun;! eo.rbon d iOllide al 100 ' t' &ml I atm alJ80lu te pres-
sure ill fed to the bottom of a wetl~~ I -"'all enlumn 3 It lung
IUId 2 in. illllide diamtr.er at a r.ate IIuch that t he en tering
"-ciocit y is . 10 fps. Carbon tetrathlori\le ' 8 eh&rgl!d .... II
MoIeclila. ..!i. .. Re Turbulent Ii<Witl to the WI' of tho! oolumn "'hieh is then operated 115 lUI
_ ":..______-"'! ......-
Mo!neflfUm'L_ -"= :uliabatie hu midifier.
Transfer r Trans!er_ What is ~ho! rompoeit.ion <Jf the eJ:it p.Ilt
'. " -4. Ammonia pi! ;. diffusing at a cons!.ant r .... te through a
~,,,gllll.n tlayer (If air I rnm thick, I.hrouJth a eemipel1ueable
""""brane, and then through a st.llitnaM layer of hyclrugen
~c+_sc w. + ... pit.,
I mm thick. T h" ()flncen~m.tioll (If ammonia at the outfJr
'". puo --,,-"u
hnundary of the air layer ill 0. 75 per !)Cnt volume. The 0011-

t ! rentration of affilIlOflia at the outer boun<ill.ry of the hy drogen

layer i.'l 0.001 per cent by volumli. The temperature iB 2;") C,
a nd t he total pres!lute 011 the ~.YlItem is I.&tlll. Tht) I""Csistllncc

'".+
".'"'.*
Molecui<l. Tu(oo lent
MiSS Mass of tbe mem brau" to ctiffusi(ln is o<~gli gible. Diffusivity of
Transfer Transfer ammonia in air at ~. C and I &tm i~ 0. 186 cml/"Hc.
". ", (a) Calculate t he rite of diffW'lion (If ammonia in gra m
moIL'!! per "",,",nd oontimctert.
F IG. '-lilli. Diajl;r1\.l1l illustrating the relation between dimen- (/I) Calculate the plIttial preesure of t)~ ammonia a t the
8;onl""", i'"Qups and varioua t.r~lU!fer ope~tiOnll." IOOmbrane


CHAPTER
. . ,.
-'"
36
. ",

Mass Transfer 2

Coefficienl!' in Packed Towers

,
N ORDER to increase the interfacial area for V and L :,b'l'ate of flow of gRB and liquid,

I
where
f mass transfer and the intimncy of contact of respectively' (rno)Clljhr).
ph88CS between which mass trtmsfer 18 to be 11 and z - 'mole frtLetion of snlute ingas ami
effected, packed Ulwers are often used. Consider liqui~ streams, respecth'ely.
the abllOrptioo of a solute from (I gas phsse by a
nonvol,t.iie 8Oivent, as illustrated in Fig. -187. If the gas carrying -the solute is coDlfidered to l!e
insoluble in the liquid phase, and if the solvent ioS
eonsldered to be nonvolatile, the material balance
for the solute is more conveniently expre:88ed lUI
....
V' dY - L'dX , (521)
.' ,
'"
""
V+dV
L {, .j . :
" where V' and L' - rate of flow of solute free gall and
"" L+dL
"' -II liquid, respect.ively (moles/hl') .
'" Y and X - composition of gRl! and liquid
phases; -respectively (moles sol-
ute per mole of solute-free gas
,.
v
Ll1 or liquid).
The rate of absorption
, may also be eX I)~ bv '
equation 465 written for the (t8S phase, the lilluid

"- -.-"L.-' "lJ

phase, or for both phases.
Rate of,absorption = k,aSdZ(J, - !oJ
- k"s dZ(j, - h)

Rk h io1$-t
,,:I enlefiot; - '.
Rich I~~
IeIv...,
= KaS dZ (J. - /,) (528)

where flO ki -'mass transfer ooefficien"ts for gM and

Flo. 487. Diaanunmatie repnHlDtatiOIl of. paeked tower. , . . iiquid phases, ~tively [moleS!
The rate of absor:Pti~ or mlL88 tran'afer wbicb is (hr)(sq ft) (atm)J.
ac;compJished in the differential seetiM of height K _ overall mass transfer coefficient for
dZ roay be writ~n from a material ~Iallce as gas and liquid phaae.
dV _ dL a - interfacial area bet.ween gas and
liquid per unit empty tower volume
d(Vy) - d(l4) (sq ft/ eu ft.). "
,

S26 IllASS TRANSFER 2
S - empty tower c(OS$ section (sq ft). assumed that the ~&S8 transfer eoeffidents 1, and 1;,
Z - height in tower (It). are approximately proportffinal to V and L. respec-
1,./;./, - fugacity of the solute (transferring tively, &1:1 in the case of the wetted-wall column, 110
com()Ollent) in the gas, at the inter~ that for the gas and liquid phase, respectively,
face, and in the liquid, respectively.
dy k,a8Z
Equating the nt.te of transfer based on the material
bubt.nce, equation 527, to the rate of abl'lorpt ion ginn
- f ( I - y)(f, - f,) - - y- (53 \a)

by equation 528, and assuminll; V' and L' to 1)(' dr k,aSZ

COMtant, - f j;---Cf",)
"(,---:,,;;)('7 - -L- (5310 )

-V'dY - -L' IlX - ~raSdZ(J. - j;) In general. f lH~ iJlt.l>gration of tJ'H~ ler~hand side of
- k,aS dZ(fj - /J) f'l:lllttl iOfl'" 53 l a iUld 53tb muat be carr;oo out graph;"
!'/lily. /lnd the fu gacity of the solute at the interface
- K(Jl~ ,IZU, - II) (.'29) J; must be determinec.l as Ii function of eofJlposition.
In these relations the square feet. of interfacial area If the Il"l&!lB tranllfer coefficients for each phase are
per cubic foot of tower volume (J is difficult to deter~ !mown, this may be accilmplished by equating
mine experimentally since it is made up of the inter k,aS dZ(j, - 1;) ~ k,aS dZ(1; - f,) (628)
facial area between drops of liquid falling through
the gaa phase, between bubbles of gas ri!>ing through and, solving for /; and sllbstitllting equation 470,
liC{uid, and between the gas and the surface of the r ktcl, + k,a/, (k,a)(PKp'j) + k,aPtli
li1lUid on the packing. The surface area of the pa.ek- Ji - k,a + k,a "" kill k,a+ (532)
inX hulittle relatiun to the interillA';iaJ area between
Lhe phues. 'Iberefore (J is usually eombinal with in equations 532, 53le, and 531d, K i - (1Ii/%;) , the
and evaluated with" as a produc~ lea. equilibrium "oIatifity constant, not .to be confused
H is eoovenient to gnlUp the varial>&ca relat.J with the overall transfer ooeffictent K. Since a rna.-
primarily ki a single phase Z!C1 that tilt'. following teritt.l IJU.IU.fltJtl I!;ivetl the function % "" ~ (y), the term
eQuations result. " may be evaluated either as a function of % or y by
-f~ _ fk,aS dZ combining the material balance with equation 5.12.
It is somewhat simpler to evaluate the integral
It - J; V'
equations 63Oc. and 5.W, using the overall coeffi-
or, by equatIOn, 476 and 477, cient. The overall transfer coefficient K is 8.!ISumed
-f dy _ fk ,aS dZ to be constant over the small range of variation in
(53Oa )
( I -, y)(f, - j;) V L and V usually encountered in absorption and
strippmk operations.
-f~ _fk,aS dZ dYi KaSZ
J;-II 1/
- f(J Yj)(l. h)
- --
V
0' - f dx _ fk ,aS dZ (53()b)
(1 - 7)(f; - j,) 1, (/.I/i KaPSZ
or
-f(J t.'J)(/h Kp'j)
----
y
(531r.)
-f~ - fKaSdZ
I , - It v' dXj KaSZ

-f -f - f(J ~ ~

Xi) (f, f,) L

fly KaS dZ (5300)
(J - u)(/, - f,) V drj KaPSZ
- ---
-f~ _f 0'
- f(, (53Id)
Kal %j)(Ui K jXi) D
) dZ
I, -II 1/ Again the relation between y and %. is obtained by a
material balance, &nd the integration is completed
0' - f dr _ fK aS dZ (53<>l) graphically.
. {I - ~ )(f, j,) /,
A graphical interpretation of the relation between
In integrating equa.tions S30a through J)3Od, it is the driving potentials across each phase and the

 EXPERIMENTAL MASS TRANSFER COEJ<TICIENTS
overall driving potential may be shown by plotting
the fugacity of the solute in the gas phase &I! a func-
tion of the fugacity of the solute in the liquid phase,
&8 in Fig. 488.
The 45-degree line on the plot representa the inter-
face conditions of equilibrium. The point A repre-
sents a point on an operating line relating the com-
position of the gas phase expressed as the solute
fugacity to the compoeition of the liquid phase pass-
ing the same point, abo exprelEed &8 the solute,
SIope- -!!!
'"
Equihbfium
1.. - 1.
t
~r:.
I,
t,
1,-
F1O. 488. Diagram. il!ustrllting fugacity pol.<)ntiall1 in mMS
tl"afl8(er.
fugacity. This operating line may be calculated
from the material balance around one end of the
column.
Rearranging equation 528,
-k,a _ i, -"/.
('2!\a)
k~ i, -/O
shows that a straight line drawn from the point It,"
with a sJope ( - k,alk~) will intersect the equilib-
rium line at the mterface fugacity k
EXPERIMENTAL MASS TRANSFER
COEFFICIENTS
Since both kta and klG are requiI't!d for the integra-
tion of the equa.tions relating to one phase only,
equa.tions 5314 and 531b, it is not possible to calcu-
late k~ or kra directly froro one experimental run
in sn absorption tower. The average overall mass
transfer coefficient K, however, may be evaluated
from one experimental run by the application either
of equation 530c or 530d. The individual phase
coefficients 1:,0 and k,a , may be deter'mined from. a
series of properly selected data. giving values 01 l(a
as described below.
521
The magnitude of kta is primarily a function of
the properties of the phase as dcaeribed by the
Schmidt number (p./ pDo), snd the state of motion
or the pbase as described by Reynolds Dumber. Liq.
.uid Hawing over the packing complicateB the defini,
twn of Reynolds number and undoubtedly has !lOme,
at preeent unknown, effect on the. magnitude_of the
interlacial area ptlr unit. volume d . The product k"a
is affected only slightly by liquid rate of flow and
should be primarily dependent upon t.he Reynolds
number of the gas phase with a given system. Simi-
larly the value of kta is primarily a function of the
Reynolds number of the liquid phase and is only
slightly affected by the gas rate of flow,provided
Hooding and loading conditions are avoided.
Thus, if overall transfer coefficients are computed
from a se~ of data in which the gas rate is varied
and the liquid rate is held constant, equation 533
indicates that the overall transfer coefficient Ka variC!!
as a function of the Reynolds number of the gas.
III I
-Ka - -kta + -k,a - -kta + Comt.ant
"" <t>(Re),,,,, + COlliltant (533)
Although it is difficult to define the Reynolds
number and its fun ction in equation 533, t hP.Oreticnl
coosiderations previously discuMed in connection
with equation 503 indicate that k,a - ctG," for a
given' system, so that ll Ka should be a s~raight-line
function of l IG,,', provided the currect value of the
exponent n is found . Usu&lly a value of 0.8 for n
will produce such a straight-line relationship. A
typical plot :n._ for the absorption of 80 2 in water
from air ....ith 3-in. spiral tile packing is shown in
Fig. 489. An extrapolation of the straight line to the
intercept. (G, '" <0 and kta - <0) gives the value of
l / kiO corresponding to the average gaa velocity 01
the data. OIl which the straight line 1V8.S based .
Similarly, when II Ka is plotted lUI a funct.ion or
I/Gt' at constant gas velocity, the intercept will give
the value of l /k,a corresponding to the averuge
liquid rate of the data.
~'rollin8 RelJutancelJ ,
. The equation
I I I
-Ka - -kta + -/;,a JHii)
indicates that, where k,a is /.u.l"K1! compared 1.0 ktl1.
The biblio,rapohy for thi' ehapter a p ).Ii.';LI"li on p. 57:;.
523
the term 1/ k1 a is negligible compared 1.0 the ter'm
l / k/6> and '.berefore the overall trnnsif'r cooffi('.~nt
becomes approximately equal to the liquid phase
ooefficient. In such cases, it is said I-hat. the liquid
phase constitutes the controlling resistanr.e of the
operation. Similarly, when kla is large compared to
k,a, Ka is approximately equal to k,a and the gas
phase is said to be the controlling resistance.
When the liquid phase const.itutes the controlling
resistance, a large fugacity potential ( - tJ.f) aer088
the liquid pbase is required to tranlJfcr a given mas.s
12
I.0 y
r, ~'L
D.8
'",~
..I.: o. 6~
o.2
0 driving potentials respectively
o 2 4 I)
(~f')( lo t
FlO. ~!lfJ. Abolorption coeffieien\.l> of . u!fur dioxide from air by
water,"" "' plotted IliI! II. function of gll& TaU! for ~xtrapolntion to
obtAin the liquid transfer eoeffi.eient kp.
compared to a. relatively' small potential ( -b.j)
acrOSl! the gas ,phase for the transfer of the same
mM!!, flnd the potential ( '-" oj) for the. !;quid phase
is substantially equal to the tot.a1 (- llj) across both
ph8.'le!l.
For a gill! highly insoluble in the liquid, a given
fugacity potential tl.ctOliS the liquid phlUle is equiva-
lent t.o a relatively arruJl concentration gradient in
the lifluid phase, and the more insoluble the gas the
smu.ller willile the concentration gradient equivalent
tu 11 p;iven fugaci ty gradient. Similarly, with a
highly soluble gas, a given fugacity gradient is
equivalent to a rather large con~n tration gradient,
and, the more soluble the gas, the laitcer the concen-
tratiun gradient in the liquid phase. '
In early work on mass transfer, f1tt wa.s assumed
that tho diffusion equations applied to the transfer
prOl.,~ in fonn , whether or Dot the transfer proc--
c.'>!Ie!! were a.ctua.lly accomplished by the mechanism
of difTusion. As a result it became customary to
eXJ}l'cSI! the driving potential aeroea liq'~id phases in
tt'tms of concentration units rather than fugacity.
MASS TRA:'II'SFER 2
Thus, the tranBfer cquatioml corresponding to equl\'
t ion 529 were written
- V'dY';' -J.'dX - 1.:,aSdZ(1' - Pi)
- k,'aS dZ (Ci - C1)
- KcaB dZ (1' - p*)
- K tJJ8(lZ (CO' - C , ) (534)
where p, Pi - partial pteSl:!ure of the t run6ferr~
component A. in the p;as stream Mid
(n the gas at the intcrfa(.'(!, respec-
tively (atm).
p. - partial pressure of component A in the
gas in equilibrium with the liquid .
Ci , C, - concentration of the transferring com
ponent A in the liquid at the inte r
face and in the liquid, respcetively
(moles/ell ft).
C .. concentrat-ion of component A in th e
liquid in equilibrium with the gn..'S.
KG , KL - overall t ransfer coefficients expressed
in ~rms of K8S and liquid phase
. 8
[moles/ {hr)(sq ft)(atm). a nd moles/
{hr)(sq rt)(moles/ cu ft)J.
The overall coefficient could then be based either on
liquid phase units of potential, i.e., moles per cubic
foot, or upon gas phase units of potenlia! in a,.tm(lS-
pheres. The resulting overall coefficients were then
knol,.vn as overall gas phase coefficirmts or overall
liquid phase coefficientll and were described by the
follolvmg relations.
1
KG "'" (535)
(I l k,) + (Hlkl')
1
KI.. - (l / H k,) + (lfk/) , (536)
where H - (vlc) *, Henry's law constant.
Where highly insoluble gll-'leS are involved, the
value or H in t.hese equations is very high 80 that a
superficial examination of equtl.t ioo 536 indicates
th$t the term (l I Hk,) will be negligihle as compared
to the term (11k!'), and the overall liquid phMC
coefficient will be equal to the liquid phase c()('lfi
cient. If this were tnle, the liquid phase resistanee
would be controlling and the gM phase resistance
could be neglected. ' This idea is reinforced by the
fact that a.t a given transfer rate the concentration
potential across the gas phase is exceedingly small
 EXPERIMENTAL MASS TRANSFER COEFF1CIENTS
with insoluble gases and,small potential values indj... nent III . Tbc rung\'. of uponents 111 on HIe liliUid rate
ute low resistance, G1 which jl;iyftl rea..owllauiy s:raight lines f!'Om the
This entire argument, h(IWeVer, i" pl'e(iicnted on the datu. is from 0.5 to 0.9. The eorrClSpondillg valu!!s of
8!16umpt.ion that the high value of H maklll:! the term the intercept l/llk, a (or th!! d!ll;ht..'l\ i.ines vary from
(1I Hk, ) negligible ascompll.reci to the 1elm ( Il k,') . 0.0056 to ~ 0.00212.
But this is true only if the gas and liqu id phase The negative \'alues uf the intercept can h ave n')
coefficients are of t he samc Onlf'l' of magnit ude. ph.l'sir.aJ validi lY. If the litlllid phase Il'Hi~lance were
actually " controlling," the value of the intercept
OJ!0 ,
0.100
~I would be zero. 111is mar or may not be the co.se,
but utlfortunateiy thi" ;8 in no way proved by the
m-O.'j
I
1m ",0.7 i m - 0.6 data which would also currc1u.te on the ba8is of a
cOMider"ble gas pilaJ;e re~b,;t o.ll cc .
0.""
II Correlotion of Liquid PII"~e ~fficienlA
I Data 47 are available on the al.>&lI"ption and de-
007 0 sorption of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hydrogen
I
I /
11m -0.6
with air in water at gM maSS velocitim; of from 30 to
1300 lb/(hr)(sq ft.) and liquid velocities from 200
I A to 32,000 lb/ (hrj(sq ft ) a.t temperat.ures from 50 to
40 ~ C, using a large num ber of packings. These data
!/.' 0.5 ha\'e bIlen correla ted on the a,;sumplion that the gas
/
phase resis tance for these in>:lOluhle gases is n~glig i hle

0.030
/ V
0.020
,' . V
001 0
'/ if'
rf
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
I/O:'
FlO. 490. f'..ocfficienta for 8tripping ()xy~n fl"Om ,,at('r"
plotteU uguil\l!i t .... liquid rate for eidrnpo19ti .... n to !!Valuate
the iII.II transfer ooo:fficillnt k' p. Solid linCII t\~ Jrllwn through
\.be origin. Da.;hed linetl . n, drnwn to repreeent the data..
However, it is impossible to determine the values for
theindividual phase coefficients from a single e)"-peri-
mental run on a packed oolumn, and an extrapola-
tion eimilu.r t!) that of Fig. -189 is far frum satisfactory
in obtaining sllch information because it involves
selecting a . value for an exponent of liquid or gas rate
which will make n plut of l / Kr;a versus I/ O," or
I / KLa versus l/Gr a straight line.
Mass transfer data have an unfortunate tcndency
to scatter, and the amou nt of data taken under
suitable conditions is rn.ther meager, $0 that a con-
siderabi<3 runge. o~ vslues of the exponents ,of liquid
or g:).S rate will givf! apparen tly; _equally satisfactory
stmight lines. This is indit:ated in Fig. 490 by 'the
family of straight lines, each liM represe nting the
same data. plotted for different va lues of the expo-
and l hat the liquid phase is completely con~rollillg,
This is tantamount to ma king an extrapolntion
similar to that of Fig. -189, as shown in Fig. -100,
drawing the straight line thruug h the origin and t1iU~
evaluating the exponent of the liquid rate. all thi~
bMis, which ma.Il Qr ma y not be InU', a genet"":ll cMrf'l,l-
tion of the resuits wit h insoluble gas<'!:! hilS he('n pre-
0.05 Q..06 sented ill Ilw form Ilf th(' r" Uu \\"ing eqlllllion.
k,'. ~ (0,)'-' (-"--)'~
DL jJ. pDL
(";)
where k,'a "" liquid phase mass transfer coefficient
[lb mui el:l/ (llr)(clI ft.)(lb mole/ (cu
" II.
GI ""mass ye!oeit.y ofl itIUid, LM.,. / Sllb/ (hr)
(&j t)I. . .
8 is usually constant at 0.5
Equation 537 is a. modification of the functi!lnlll
equation 502 indicatetl by d imensional an nl~~i8 in
which the linear d imension D lUL'I hren nmi l t<'ti ill
the correlation because of the: d iffi culty in defi ning
an effective diamete r for the Row of liquid through
the pn.cked culumn. .
The Va.it!C8 of the c~nstants, a, ~, and 8, are Ii~~ed
in .T a ble 50 for the various packings invcstigat,cd.
Since {he equat.ion is nut dimcn~iunless, the cun8tant
... h:&.8 dimcnsions, u.~ d t he values listed in T aolc 56
are valid only when units of pou~ds ma.ss, hOUTS,

 MASS TRANSfER 2
and f(!('t are employed. The effed of temperature where G, and G1 are gM !JIIrl liquid Ill88S velocities,
olilhe liquid phase coefficients ill determined through rel!pecth'ely [lbj(hr)(sq ft)J.
ittl cJfeet. on tbe physical properties in equation 537. 8, 7f, and m are empirical constants specific to
The liquid phase diffu!livity DL for liquid systems the system of ammonia, air, and
at. tempe ratures at whieh experimental data are not water &.nd funct.ions of the pack-
available may be est.imated by use of the Stokes- ing used as given in Table 57.
Einstein relation "-M that the liquid phase diffusivity
mdirectly proportional 1.0 the absolu te temperature TABU: 67. VALUES OF CONST ANTS B. n, ANI) '" IN
EQrATION 538 FOR G.-\~ I'HAS.E COEFFICI,,:NTtl u
and inversely proportional to liquid viscOl>il:y.
Temperature 26' C
'I'AJU,g 56. VAI.I" ES OF .. AND n IN EQtTATION 537 Syalclll Ammunia-Air-\Vat-cr
mit DIFFERENT PACJ{INGSa8 (WITH . (''ONSTANT I'fI.."M!Oure lll.tm
AT 0.5)
Pack ing
1',,~ kiRK 8 m
J.i x !+in. lliw.hig rillgB 0.0005 0.00 0 . 39 11
2.11 2-in. R:il!Chig riup 0.22 I x l-in. Raow.hig riflfl;S 0 . 048 0.88
I..'> x 1:S-in. Raschig.rinp
I X I-ill. Rwo::hiK rinp
'"
00
120
0.'"
0 . 24
l 'i lr I !+in. RMchig rinp
l-in. llerl8ll.tkl1es
0.014
0.008il
0.72
0.75
0."
0.38"
0.40
0.5 x O.5-in. R.:utchlg rinp
% x }B-in. IWehiS rinp
'01
550
0.35
0.46
3-in.
g"nHl)
~ill,,1e spiral tile (stlLg-
0.01&1 0.65 0.20
1.5-in. Borl ea<idles 160 0.28 3-in. tdr)1e spiral tile (attlg-
I-in. Be.1 8&ddIC!ll
O.5-in. Berl saddle.
100
150
0.31
0.28
,,",,'
3-in. parl.ition tile (stAggered)
0.0083
000006
0.61
0.42
0.44
J.0iI
3 x 3-iD. siB&k. epil"Jll tile Wootl ,~without k-p
(. lag-emct) 211 O. IS (cl1l68ed) O.(XlI58 0.66 0 .61
3 x 3-in. triple spital tile Wood grid.-with IegB
(etaggered) 86 0.28 (cl"Olllled) O.02O'J 0.64 0 .31
3 x 3-in. partition .pi. a! tile 1"6295 drip-~int grid ~k_
(~taggered) Iti 0 . 09 ing, oontinuou& flWl 0.0084 0.83 0.27
W6295 drip-point Krid pIlck- .629.5 drip-poin~ grid pack-
ins, continuous floo . 138 0.81 ing, BMrt leg 0. 193 0.>4 0.1I
.W6897 drip-poin~ grid pack- ,.6897 drip-point grid JlIlCk-
io~ oonlinoous flue
Wti!46 driJl"1lllln~ pid 1*"1.:-
iug, oontinuous flue ..
til 0."
0.23
Equation 537 is u!!OO for the prediction of liquid
ing. oon tinuOUll flue
.U I.Jti drip-point grid jMlCk-
inc. cgntin\lOUl! Bue
0 .00-19

0 .010

Gas phase ooeffi.cients for systems where no experi-

'0.57

0.63
0 .&1

0.39

ph~ eoefficients for '!yst.ems un which' no experi-
mental uata are available. The experimental data
on which it is hased covered a tenfold range of varia-
tionib Schmidt number and a wide range of (G,/,..), 8O
that. the relation should be capable of extTllpclation.
Correlation oj GUll Pha.tle Coefficien,.
A correlation of gall phase coefficients similar tAl
equation 5.37 for liquid phase coeffic.ienUi has not
yet. been prepared. nas phase information is pre-
lICnted in thf' lit.f'ratllnl in a variet.y of forms.
Data on the absorption of ammon!&. from a ir in
water over a wide variety of packing h&.ve been eorre-
1l1tf'd 17 by estimating the liquid pha.-;e coefficients
k,'a br eqllation 537 and calculating k,a from values
of KGa by equation 535.
The values of k,a were then correlated as a func-
tion of the gas ami liquid rates according to the
relation
(538)
mental data are available may be estimated from
the data on the absorption of ammonia from ai r
int,o water at 25 C, by means of thejfactor concept..
According to this concept, at a given gas phase
Reynolds number, packing, and rate of liquid Bow,
k ... (k) [ (/J j pDa)NfL]" (539)
,a ,a NH. (~jpDa)
There are a few data on the vaporization of water,
methanol, benzene, and toluene in a tower 3,6 in.
ID, packed with 5 in. of ~in. rings.-! which indicate
tlaat k,a is proportional to Dou T rather than D a o.6T,
as indicated by the j [actor expressions. This
diecrepancy casts doubt as to the general applica-
bility of the exponent;.) on the Schmidt number at
least for packed towers. Poesibly the significance of.
the ditlusivity is' less under. the turbulent conditlonll
in .packed towc.rs.:thao in wettedwall columns wheft
k,a bas been..-estabfished aa proportional tAl DoOM..

 TilE mANSFER UNIT 531
THE TRANSFJo:R UNIT Also, lJince
An equivalent method of dealing with ~ trans- (546)
fer problems based upon the concept of a tl'ansf'er
unit hBB proved convenient. LIS
In the integr&l form of the rate equation as applied (HTU),--- (04')
to an ab80rption or stripping tov.-er,
.,p,.
where m - the average elope of the equilibrium
- f dv
(1- .)(/. -/;)
=- k,a...1i Z
V
(53la) curve II - .;(x) betwoon x, and .z or
approximately the slope at x, or x,
the left-hand side of the eqllation is a function only moo :to - x is usually small.
of composition and is a meM11te of the separation Similarly, the number of overall transfer units
effected. Assuminp; ideal gases, the number of gas based on the g.a.s phase concentration may be d<!fined
phaae traW!.fer nnits 71, is defined '" '"'' as
dy KQ4l'M
, - - f (l d"
- II)(Y - II,)
- -k,aPS
V
-z (f>IO)
na--
and
f (1 - ")(11 - II)
- G,
Z (648)

The height equinl.lent to one ga..~ phw;e transfer Z G.

(HTU)o - - - ("'9)
unit, (HTU), is 110 KQ4PM. v 1
Z VIS G,
(HTU). - - - - - - - - (5-1') where Ko - overall gWl phaso transfer coefficif!nL
71, k,aP k , aPAf M, .. (molet;/ (hr)(sq (t){atm)J.
Similarly, the number of liquid phuse trlUllJfcr The number of overall t.J'8.TI8fcr units based on the
. units is defined II.S liquid phuse concentra.tion may be defined as
<Ix

By equation 529,
nr - -
f (1 - x}(x; - x )
(0.2)
(1500)
and
Ldr /./.,\
-L'dX - - - - - kra(h - f,)S dZ (HTU), - - - (051)
(I - x ) KLa C
- k,aP(Yi - y)S dZ where x" - mole fraction of solute in liquid in equi-
- k/a(C. - CdSdZ librium with gas containing mole frac-
- k,'aC(xi - x)S dZ (543) tion II of solute.
KL - overall liquid phase tl'allilfer coefficient
where k14 - transfer coefficient in fugacil.y units fmoles-/ (hr)(sq ft.)(moles/ (cu ft).
Imo&es/ {br)(cu ft)(atm)J.
E......-ea... Show t hal
1:1'0 - trtlllBfer coefficient in conoentration . ...V .
units fmole!l/ (hr) (cu ft) (moles/ Cll ft)!. HTUG - HTU. +L HTU! (&52)
C - average molal density (tota] moles/ell
ft solution). L
H1'UL - HTU! + -mY HTU, (6&8)
". - mole fraction ohoillte in gas in equilib-
rium with liquid containing mole mY
lraction :t of aolut.e. HTUo - L HTUL (aM)

From equation 529 In equations 5-52, 553, and 554, the valuesoC m are

ftl _ -
f
d:t
(1 - x)(x,. - x)
kl'aC
---Z
L/S
( ....
)
not quite identical. In equation 552, m is the average
slope of thtf equilibrium curve" _ .. (x) between:r~
and x. In equation 653, m i. the average slope
.. that betw~:tOt alld Z,' In equation 554: m is the averap
Z LIS slope between z* and %. Ordinarily, the variation
I (HTU), - - - - - (0.5)
"I "/aC in the s&ope 1)1 the equilibrium curve between :tOt

 -',

.,2 [\(ASS
, ;rR:\.J," S~t.:R 2
a rid x is small so that, m may be conJ!.idered to be Sul~lilul;ngthe ,:alue,of :r. givcn by equation WI
constant over thf' rll.fjg~. in e(jUaliOll 555, the intt>gratinn may be performro
The height eqllh'1l.1ent. tva transfer unit is a con- 8nmYlirally to I!;ive t.he rl'latj .m
venient and simple means for expressing the per-
formance of vft,Th,lls packinjQ!. ii'J practically indf'- no - ._-,:(~= In (!II - mrl) <111 - y~
- - - - - (557)
)X'ndent. of flow ra h'>', und \'n rics only !!lighily from 1 - (m V/ L ) Y2-11I.l'2 (-6y ),..
, where
.) ' (y , - y ,") - (Y2-'-- Y2*)
, ( -'-" II I...... , 1-
11 lrl (Yt112 -- !IIY2 :).
..
0
) !\orany commercial a.bsorption problems involve
the recovery of a solute rrom
a gas- by absorption,

II
followoo by the recovery of the soiute from the
solvent by a distillat ion operation. If the recovery
of the solute from the gas ill fixed, the values fI and 1/2
are fixed. The concentration of solute in the ab-
sorbent is also known, fixing X2, which is ullunlly
j /

" 2
,
2

, j
11 "

,., J
0
, 0 2
mV/L
4 , ,.0
.
Fill. 491. Tbe h~ ight <If .. tr&lL'lfl'l" unit (HTU/) ve","UII mY / L
fur abBorptioll of aulru r dioxide in water Oil 3-in. apil1l.l rings, V
stacked slaggered....
.11
system to system. Its single linear dimension makes
it easy to'!estimatc. A series' of experimental runs ,
.. I

made~ith ~!l! give'rI"8Y8tem' in a tower may be corre- 2 "

lated by piottin!/," flTUo as a function of mVjL,
(Fig. 491). The I;lope of the' resulting line is HT L'I, .0 ,
' .II:
and its ~ntereept is HTU ,_ Similarly, HTU L might
,
rl.:
, ~
be p lotted as a (unction of Lm/ V to give a line
~ying a slope of lITUt with an intercept of IITU /.
Where the gas phase behaves as an ideal gas, and
, 3 in. 4in. WOQIj ~

oAr-
f-
GIt$ R~w.l50 Ib/(hr) (sq to 0
the equilibrium relations can be expressed as y - mx
and t.be concentration of the solute in the gas and
UquKt Rate. 250 Ib/(hr) (sq ttl Cl
liquid Rate, 400 Ib/{hr) (sq It) .. '

liquid pbases i~ !:Imnll, the number of overall gas
phase transfc r units may be expressed approxi- 0
I I
rnalely by the rel:\\ ion o U M M ~ Ih J2 JA Ih IB ~
,.V/L
. dy '- Y dy
1"i(; = - ry-:I1.~-[ . y
FlO. 492. The height of & tn.n8r~r unit (HTl/q) in feet YeI"IIU5
(555) m,' /L for absorption of ammoniA in water in 3-in. ~pil"Rl
mx
rinp, 4-in. partition rings, anu J+iri. wood gridJ. )~"
arid a material balance by
",' r negligibly small. Under such circumstances,the
V V value of the term mVj L is approximately .equal to
-' X- - Y+ 1"2 - -1I2 (556)
L L y,"/ YI or the fractional ap proach of the exit liquid I

 THE TRANSFER UNIT
to equilibrium with the inlet. gas. Thus, for a. given
By!tem the greater the value 01-mV/ L or of V f L, the
greater the eooceut ration of the solute in the exit
liquid and the lower the cost of the subsequent
recovery operation. On the other hand the greater
the concent.ration of solute in the exit liquid, the
in Figs. 491, 492, and 4~ as a function mV/ L, as
mdicated by equation 552. A summary of the
values or H TU, and H TU" IlS determined. from the
slopes and intercepts of the line!! on these figures is
presented in Table 58. II The variation in the values
from one /,ype of packing to another and even from
one sysUlm to another is very small. It i8 thie fact
which ma.kes the HTU concept convenient in esti-

V mating values for systems and packing on which no

experimental data are available.
,/ lIIunr. , iy" r.... n.pl" . It i.s deei11ld to l(:OOver OO.~ per
1 /' .
eent of l he II mmonia N Ul from a .Lream of ai r .... hieh ill1lll lu-
-A 111.100 ...ith "')l.lcr. The p&rtial presIIure of t1~ N ih ill 10 mm

~ of mercury. The p..I is ... pplied a l 7'r F and in a quantity

whi ch containi 2100 lb dry ai r per bour. U..e a packeJ column

,d!!..
8upplit~1 with .....ter at 72 F. Compute:
~ 1. The minimum water flow " " Wi red.
o. 2. T he dimcnsiolUJ of t he column if I -in. ccn.mic Ruchi t;
o Liqu id rate 450 Ib/( hr) (!Iq It) rin g!! tlrtl u!\Cd and it is operated. at ~ of the flooding gas
6 Liquid rite 250 Ib/( hr) ($(I It) vdodty with ten timeR the mini mum water flow.
- 3. for oomparilll.lu, the height of a wettedwal l column (no
.. p6cking) of the seme dia meter "ith the ""me WAter ra te 11.8
in 2.
0
o 1.0 SoIullon. A8sumpUoos:
".V/L
(fl.) :So trAllllfer of " -ater betwccn pbaa'fI.
Flo. 493. The beightof a traDllfeJ' urn\ (H T Uo) in feet-nus
(b) Atmo.pherie pressure of 760 m m mercury.
'" V / L ror abIIorption of ammonia in water on IX-in. to I U -in.
(e) The molal equilibrium ratio v" j~ is IlOlistan~
broken qUliN,".
(d) Th e heat elfiict of absorption 01 arum"nia has a lIegli-
gible effect on fluid properties.
lower the value of ( -Ay),,,, fur a given system. (e) Tbe thiekllOM of the h .lliIlIJ film in the wetted-Willi
There is, therefore, an optimum value of mV j L for column may be oolUJidered negligible.
minimum total cost of recovering solute.
1. The minimum Wtlter rate is ob~ned when NH. in exit
In general, with valuable solutes, t he optimum liquid is in equilibrium with NHa in ent('ring plI. From
value of mV/ L will range from 0.5 to 0.8 in absorp-. Fig. M I (AplM!ndi~ ) the "'tio ~ . / 7 i~ 'tstimaled to be 0.&5
tion operations and from 1.5 to 2.0 fo r stripping Ill! folloW1l: At 72 F the pan. ial preMllJ"t: uf ~H. in equilibri um
0

operations. wi th A .olution containing 2 Ib N1J, per 100 Ib H,<) ;3 1 3.~

Some typical values of HTUa for t he absorption nun, caJeulat.ed by finding the lWUI8 fn.ct.ion 01 NUl in t he
vapor in equil ibrium with NH I in &qUbOllfl aoIuLioo contllining
of sulfu r dioxide and ammonia in water are shown
o.m mUll fraction at 72 F under the lKJuilibrlum pnl!II5UT1:
01 0.7 pIIia, and converti.ng to pa.rtW p~ of NH , &.II
TABLE MI. APPROX I ~I ATE VALUES OF HTU, AN D 10]\1.> ..... :
HTU, OBTAINED FROM PLOTS II OF lI'i'UG VERSUS
13.5
mVjL y' ... 760 ... 0.01777
"
r"dring Solute G,' G, ' H T U~ HTU ,
3-in. 'pit,,1 lik;, n".,kd Z ... IT +ftW .. 0.0208
8':l!!IIC'"~)d so, 2 .85
3-in. ~Ifir:ll
~1"1:i."e f\.,j
til~, stlltked
Nih
100
"'" 0 .10
"
-
omm
- - - - - 0.854
4i n. rllHlir ivn ri ngs,
.;Iu<h.... ~t.:>ggeretl
200
"" 0 .58

0.55
1.27

1.22 For . partial ~

Z O.O'1ll8
of 10 nun
O.5-in. ~ 3-in. wood
gtKlr.; 0.5';". lIptLOC
NH, 200
"" 0.55 VI ..
10
700 ... 0.0 13l 8 and
0 .013 18
.. - - - - .. O.OIM
1.6-in. qUlLl"t~, llumpt-oU
Vermorcl aprny$
NH,
NH~
200
200 ""
350 0."
1.0
1. 16
0. 77
0 ....
For 99.5 per cent rerovery of :-.- H l a material balance giVl'tl.

Rough average valucs.

NH,. 200
'" '.0
water raW: of 61.1 moles Ol' HOO Ib H,o per bour AI 10Uowft :
At these low coccentratioU9 the moles NIl, per mole d ry air
 MASS TRANSFER 2
Y may be ...umed to 00 equal to the mole fraction ~ of NH. Integrati on of equation 6018 for the above valuet bet....flIm ,be
2100 Ib dry air .. 72 molell. limi Ul of ~ I - 0.0131 6 and,.. .. 0.000066 giVClt the number
of traDllfcr units no .. 6.M.
V'{YI - V,) - L'(XI - Xi)
An a ppro:rimation giving IMildadory resu!ta .... hen,. iaamall
L' _ Y'{ rl - Ytl _"
'"(()".O",':;:'",I6","O",.,,,;?, 1$ tiNed on the MBUmption that (I - ~) - 1.00; Lhen. by ~
XI - X: - 0.OIM2 0 tion M7
L' .. 61.1 lb molell Of J 100 lb HrO per hour.
2. The dimclU!iollll of the column for a water rate of 11 ,000
lb/ hr ILIId a PI rate of 2160 Ib (N H. + Hi> total about 60 lb - 6.77
in cas). The flood ing rate may be estimated from Fig. 367.
Dentity o f gu,o, .. 0.07~ lb/ eu ft
DelUlity of liquid ,oL .. 62.3 Ib( cu n
The HTUo may be ~tinu.ted from Fia:. 49'J:
~ _ 0.8M{72.4) _ 0.101
-G.~"
- - -11,OOO~07'
- - - .. 0.177
L 611
0, ,oL 2160 62.3
HTUo .. 0 .68 ft
From FiI. 367 fOt 600dinl(, and Table 36 for (a/ X'):
l/rigJoJ. of 1M paoUd udiom ... 5.8.5 X 0.68 ... 3.97 ft...
'(0)"
_ _ _ ,.0.1_ 0 .078
X' ,oL
(Jo
The value of ktlJ may be 6lltimated by enuation 538 and
Table (,7.

.i:.... (18M (~) (O.96},t _ 0.078

y - BOtGr
32.2 62.3 . - 0.048(53)l1li(2375)
- 3.36 ft/ rtee at flooding - 21.4 Ib mole!l/( hr)(cu ft}(atm)
At the Jlooding point the superfldal m8.!!ll ~locitia are The height of packinlll may al80 be t'IItimated by equation
G.. Of .. (3.36)(3600)(0.076) .. 906 Ib/(hr)(aq ft) 540, 8.!!11Wning that the resbtanoe of t he liquid phue to maa
transfer ia negliJtiblc.
Liquid. .. 4750 Ib/ {br)(1111 h ) y PSZ K(JtJPSZ
"" - - -
V- - - -V--
Tbeae may be compared with vall,l(lS on Fig. 366.
(.1..6)6.8.5 f'
At a design 1f1.8 velocity of one-half tbe 600ding ~locity: Z .. (21.4) (1)(4.90) .. 4.05 ft 0 packiq
De.i1l1 mua velocity O .. (.......) .. 4S3 Ib/iht)(aq ft)
The toW. height of tbe cohunn will be geater t.h.a that of
C:roeeectiONJ area S - <J(N) .. 4.7'7 lei It the computed packed beiPt... A typical demen miplt be ..
foilOlll"&, '-sed on no - ~85 I.Ild. 4 It of pWcin,.
Tower diameter D .. 2.46 ft "
Tberefons, WIfl a ooIumn 30 in. in diameter .. a lltandard llilMl. Computed height of pac:klol 4.0 h
Additional packing to ;nBllr1! liquid distribution 1.7 ft
TM MigM of/lit toI'umn depend, upon the required num- Height above packing for entrainment I!eptU"lluon 2.6 it
ber of b"anafer unita. Equation 648, H eight below paekinr; for vapor introduction and di&-
d, Z tribution and packing 8I.IpporI. 2 .6 ft
- f (1 _ r)(,. _ ,.., .. "0 .. HT UQ Five miolllAs liqutd ret.ention for control 3.0 ft

1 Total height of ooJumn exruuding heed, 13.7 h

mt.)' be intel'"'tcd ,vaphically by evaluatina; )
(1 .. r (r v'") 8. The height of ..mt.&d.-waI.l column by equatioo. 4-78,
for various values of ~ l1.li folio1l'8: By a material baluoe

- -
72.. Ut .. 0.1)00066) r"(l ..
d,
,.)Ut ,.0) -L"ko V
g
PdA

O. O!!I"

0 .001&42
.' .,.-...,..-..... ...,
'"
0.1)01318 0.011"
(1- .HII' - r'">
Upoo.lntearation and fUt.t.itlltion thia becomea
k,PrDZ
--V-no
0 .010000 0 .00118
0 .00...)1",11 o . urb',~
0.001018
Q. ,-"JOI~,,...... ,.-
' .m
..........,
111.7

,.......
0 .OCK571 ~ The va11te ofls may be Mt.im&ted by equation 503.

, ,,- ,.....
... . OOIlJfAI ... . IJ"--.U8
,.~ ,,-
... . O".lIIOI.
Il .IIIJ1"lIY/.I
O.OOOlliO ... JIOI I I8 ....uu..n ... III
0 . 000!165
0.00015.101
~

~ _ R~D .. 0.023 (~r-' (~yM

,.~ 0 16,tOO
 DIS11UATION
The dUlulliYity De. lDay be est.imat.ed by equatjon 493 alId pointed out previously, the transfer eoeffieieqts are
'1'abkM.
approximately proportional to mM8 rates of flow.
Do - 0.0160 [P(Y,I,t: V.,,)I] ~~ .. + ~. There is the further complication that the physical
properties of the fluids may change markedly, owing

L(29.94~.7H)'] ~~ + ~
- 0.GI66
.. o.7tl8eq ft!hr (An experimental value 60 ofO.91611q ft/hr
at 2&- C and I atm ill equivalent 1.0 0.90 IIQ It/ hr at
72- 1" .)
ViIooIity,. of air - 0.0178 e.1ltipoi!lll
.t.. .. 0.0r.5 Ib molee/ (hr){eq fl){a Lm)
The belch\ of the eoiumn if no paekiftllia used:
(&.85){-'i) 98J I
Z - (0.056){1){2.6)(1I') .. .t
DISTILLATION
The rate equation may be applied to a differential
section of a packed tower in which distillation is
oceurring in t.lle aame manner aa in absorption or
stripping. The equationa, which are anaIogoua to
equation 529, lake the following form .
- d(y.) - -d(Lz) - k.aS dZ (J, - JJ
- k",s dZ (J, - N - xaS dZ (J, - J,) (558)
to the relatively large temperature changes which
frequently occur. Such variations in physical
properties may also be reflected in a relatively large
variation in the mass transfer coefficients.
Under the&e circumstances, for lack of a better
procedure, it is customary to detennine average
values of the t.ra.n.sfer coefficient by a constant,
K.~ for K.
The left.baod side of equations 559a and 5S9b may
be integrated graphically by calculating t.he interlace
conditions 88 described previously. Again, it is
uaually more convenient to use equations 559c and
559d, the left-hand sides of which may be inlegrated
readily by re!ating u, x, jl> and h through a material
balance and the equilibrium relationships.
These difficulties in obtaining precise integration
of the rate equations apparently have somewhat
discouraged "*!arch directed towards the evaluation
of transIer coefficients for distiUation.
The HTU concept may alao be applied to distilla.
tion to give the following relatiooships.
Z f dy Z
rt, - (HTU), - - ~ - V/ k,aPS
(66Oa)

When the molal rate or flow of liquid and of vapor Z dx Z

though the column is the same at all 8ections, the
column equation 558 leads to the following integral
n, - (HTU), - - f~ - L/k,aPSm.".
forma, analogous to equatiOll8 530a to 530d. Z
(56Ob)
L/ k,'aes
-f~ _ fk,aSdZ (559a)
/6 -/, V Z
(HTUlo - -
f dyII' - Z
V/ KaPS (56Oc)
-f~-fk",sdZ
y -
(55")
/.-/, L
Z
'(~H7.T;;U;;:-)L- -
f dx
L/
Z
-f~-fxaSdZ
nL - - z* _ z - KaPBm ....
(55ge)
/6 -b V Z
(56Od)
-f~-f~dZ (559d)
/6 -j, L
'The integration of equation 659 ia complicated (HTUlo - (HTU), + -mY (HTU), (561)
by the wide variatioro in the mua rate of flow of L
hquid aod vapor through the column 18Ction. This
is due to the wide variation in the molecular weiKht (HTU)L - (HTU), + !:..
mY
(HTU), (562)
of the material as the composition ehaDges, 110 that,
although the mole rate of flow may be COIl8i.ant, the mY
1DMI rate of ' &w may VJZY widely. J.. baa been
(HTU). - T (HTU)L (563)
 It should be ,e mphasised that in distillation the
value of m may ' vary widely in a !If!()tion uf the
2 ,

column. 22
An investigation ~ of the distillat.ion of the
ethanol-water system over packings of ~-in ., I-in.,
and 2-in. 'Raschig rings and ;.rin. and I-in. Berl 20
0
saddles in a eoJumn section opernted as a rectifier ,
~
N{

indicated the data were correlated by the equatiuU8 8 ", ~

~
' {

I
. ~

0<
"(HTU)o ~ 1450. .

[;C')]'''
(5tH)
'- F
-

,
{
,~,
'1
{
{
t:~
" ,,{
"
I

O.~ [~(:') til I {

{ v
~/ ""
1/ ,f
- '._._ " Kco - (565) 2

, [(HTUloj (0,)'
wberem'" =
0
/1 -.(\}~j;,-
(H7'U)L , G,
. '.
-
A ,.
"
Koe ." ov~rall gas pbJl!le transfer coefficient
8 &-- \ +

OJ
lib moles/(~r)(cu ft.)(atm)].
, / ~'i:;/
,
= arithmetic mean or average liquid mass
1/
velocity [Ib/(hr)(sq ft )].
M / 'lJ1\'~ \~
II /; v-
Or =_arithmetic mean gas mass velocity

:~
~b/(h<)(", ft)] .
JI. "" liquid ':iscosity [lb/ (hr)(ft)J. , ,- ,
,
These results show little effect of the size or type "
of ;w.cking and a large effect of the rate of liquid 0 _ M ID l~ W 25 r W
flow on the transfer coefficient. This implics that a AIH!"OIie ~pII (m...J 01 Yapor-Uquid ,Er\ui).ibrium Curve

major resistance to transfcr is in the lii1uid phW>e. FIG.4()-l. The height.o! /l, t l'lll'lllf"r \luit (HTUa) N<ll'!lutll~kJ"'"
of equililJrium di... gtum (~ - l:) for varioWl reflux ratiQll (~' I L)
ConC'3ntration is also an important fact.or through
in the meUlIl.llo1_wat.el 5yl1f.cm. 1I
its effect un m, but this was nut brought out in this
work which was limited\o rect ificlltion' over a con-
centration range of ff9lll 6. 1 to 51.6 mole per cent LlQUID-LI Ql:1D EXTRACTION
in the vapor phase. ' The mw equatiollll may be written for a ditTerential
Additienal investigations 18 showed a succcs;,1ul sect ion of a packed tower or similar contacting equip-
cmpirieal correlation of the results over .!?in. ring>!
men~ in which !,!xlract.ion i8 OCCUlTing in the same
by plotting (HTU)G versus m as de~lH..'(1 byequa- ma.n~e r as for distillation or absotption. The cq\\a-
tion 566 for systems having equilibrium curves tions are iucnlir.a! to equation 558, provided fl.1e
typical of relatively Weal systems, as in Fig. 49.t. symllils l', y, 'f" etc., refer to one liquid phn.sc and
the s:rmbols t , x, !I, elC., rder to 'the other liquid
,- -. phase. .. - , I,
Whcre the t i\'o<8olvents C an>d S are OIily slightly
(506)
y~ ....: y, miscible and rfltain>their immisciliility regardlcB.!! of
I ' "" solul.e- oontcn't bver thl!. opcrating>'range, the ratio
However, this methud of correlat.ion was nut, snc- of thE!' quantity of .,solvent C in the raffill1lte phllSe
~flll wilen applied to syStems. having. irregular to the (Iuantit.y of dOlvent S in the extract phase
equililorilJBI ,'urves such as ethanol-water: _p~lng one anot.ho:r at any point in the unit will be
 UQUID-l::iQUID EX1 'RACfIQN 537
substant ially con's tant, This is strictly analogoull t{) It is usUally neeessary , beeause of the
lack of
the situnt ion CQmmonly encountel'ed in' gas absorp- thelmodynamic d a ta for most liquid-liquid systems
tion or stri pping when the solvent is relat ively of interest, to a;:;Sllme thaL t he fugacities are pro-
insoluble inthc gas phase or the stripping medium portional to the molal COClcent rat ion!l and to write
is rela tively insoluble in the liquid phase. Tbus, in equat ions 567a to 567d Ill! followlI.

d(VY) J .
this C&.'le the equations describing t.he operat ion are
identical with those Tor gas absorpt ion or stripping.
Jc-
- --- -
C,
k .'aS dZ (5680)

J J
. dy J k.aS
dl (53 10.)
- J (1 _ y)l/. _ /;) - V -
d(L x)
- - - "" k/ aSdZ (568b)
C. - C

-: Jcd(_Vy)c. - JKvaSdZ
- "" - J -A-,aS dZ (531b)
J (I - x)I/, - h ) [, (56&)

- J(I
dy
a
/;) .
f -J\uS
- liZ
V
(53Ie)
u)(l , (56&1)
" KaS
J dx (531d)
(1 - x )(f, M - J - L ~ dZ where the t.ran!lf('T coefficients are all based on liquid
ph li~ concentrations and have the
In the general C{l.'!e, the li11llid-liquiri extr!Wtiun unitl:l, Ib moles/{hr)(sq ft)(moles/cu
>ystem is of the type in whidl the two' solvents are it). The bar over the concent.ration
II.ppreciably miscible lind to a varying d~ term C delliglUlUls a concentration in
throug6out the rttnge uf opel'afiull, Il.i> has been one phtI.tIC V as di;;tinct from the
del1Cribed previously_ I,n Uljg c&:;e, t1 ~ inola!
rate unoorred C, designating a ooocentra-
of flow of each phu."*!-and t he molal rule of flo,, of tioll ill the other phMe L,
a compone nt of each phtll'le " ary over a w;de range. (J. - concellll"Htion of the solute in the phase
Thus,. the previous n.et hoos of arra nging t he nile V which would be in e<luilibrium with
equations for integration ror di!stillat-ion o r uhs orp- the concentra tion C in phase L .
tion or stripping a re no loogt' r tlUtis ractory. T he C - C(Nl(:entrtl.IWn of the solute in the phase
equations analogous to t(1"a tioms 53 1 are wri tten L which woukl be in equilJbrium with
below, without ass uming V a nd L to be c()n~tllnt and too (:oncentration C in phase V.
using the sub8eript t' to rep re!lent the V phase,
H owever, the right--hand side ",r equations 568a. to
- J d( Vy) - J k ...~ dZ (567a)
5H8d is no lunger suitable lor inrogration because
(f. - /;) wide ,variation in the rn8.$l rates of How or the phases
may pro(hu:e wide variation in the transfer coeffi-
- J d(Lz) - J klaS aZ cients. This ~it.uat i on migbt be,improved by writing
(567b) equations 507 to 5!i7d as
Ii - II

-
. J d(Vy)
-- -
I. -II
J' .
KaSdZ (567c)
- J d(V/I)
V(f. h)
"" Jk,pS dZ
V
,( MIla)

- I-d(Lx) J J d(l, x) J k,aS

f - =
. - J, ..
KaSdZ (567;1) -
L(f; - f;)
- - -dZ
L
(569b)

The left-hand sides of equations '567a to 007d may d(Vy) JKaS

- - - - dZ (569<)
be integrated by me thods previously desc ribed and J V(f, - J,) V
DJ relat.ing the quantity of the phases to t heir com-
JKaS
positions, pTvvKled the fugacities of the compon'!nls
of the phases may be evaluated. - f d(l4)
l,{f. ' f,) - T dZ (569<1)
538
MASS TRANSFER IN SYSTE~ I S OF FLUIDS
AND GRANULAR SOUDS
Dalo. on the rate of rnllSS transfer in fluid phases
fl owing through beds of granular solid! are of
fundamental imr--ortnnce in l:Iuch operations as the
ndsor))! ion of li(luids or g~ by solidlS. ion exchange
rcnetions. the tm nsfer "of heat and mW!8 in packed
,
MASS TRANSFER 2
number based .on particle size as a paT8JIleter. The
j factor is defined by ~ Illll.tior 5O-I.a, discusscJ pre-
viously.
In calculating the i factor from the experimental
data, it is Il88lImed that all the surface of the particles
was effective in the transfer process.
The Reynolds number is based on the mean sur-
face dinmeter (po 20) or the diameter of a sphere

o.,
,
2

1
1"-

. .
0

"""
""y NI_..,...._
~.

'" ......--
.....~~.-
M~
-
"",.. kltQnt._
R~.

"
"
"
o.,

0.. NlpMhl!ftlt ....
"
j ,, o. '" Nlpllth ....... J!,
N."",""It", u tbon diooidl
Hlpllt""It .. _ hydrol""
"

~
o.
o.2

~ ~
~. . ~ "'-
L ~"..
1
.... 0.08 -"...,
0.06 ""-J, . 8-10 ,-.~ J _ .~

,
0."
0.0
"'"
""
0.0 1
~ 0 N
" ~ ~ o 0

Reynolds Number, Re .,
FIG. 4!lS. j flleto!' for mBIIII trll.lJ!!fe.r lUI " function of n"yooldl! numher And PlLrtielc sile.... ....

columns, the dry ing or leaching of solids by circula-
ting Iluids through solidI:! beds, and the interpretation
of kinetic data for chemiCal reactions between fluids
Il1Id solids, or f or chemical reactions 'in fluith which
are catalyzed I)y solids.
Fixed Bed.
The experimental basis of pre!;Cnt correlations of
the rate of mQ8S' transfer in fluid phases flowing
through fixed beds of granular solids is data on the
drying of Celi te cu.t.u.lyst particles by air,!1 u the
vaporization of nllphLhl.llcne particb by air, carbon
dioxide, and hytirogcn,A.42 and the leaching of
organic solvents from Calite catalyst particl~ by
water.- The correlat ion ill !ihown in Fig. -Ins where
the j (actor is plot ted Il8 a funct ion of Reynolds
having the lIame surfaoo area as the avtl ~age IIUrface
area per particle.
The ,upper curve of Fig. 495 is based on data for
the drying of Celite particles ,vith air and the
leaching of eelite particles with water. All the
particlell in these experiments were greater t ha.n
0.09 in. in diameter (0,) , !W) tha.t above this value
there is no effect uf pltrticle dill1l1eter in the correla-
tion other than t.hat included in the Heynolds num-
ber. On the uther hand, the' experiments on the
Vaporization of naphthnlcne in air, carooll dioxide,
and hydrogen show an effect of purticle size. The
PMticies in these experiments were all sinall, as
indicated in Fig. 495. The inco;:sislencies between
the data of Hurt ill and those of Resnick and White
shown in Fig. -1M on the vaporiaation of small yar-
 MASS TRANSFER IN SYSTEMS OF FLUIDS AND GRANULAR SOLIDS
tiel$!! of naphthalene are due, probably, too the fact.
that. the incompletely reported properties of one
bed oN were assumed to be the oame a:; those of the
other beds.~!
The similarity between Fig. 495 and a plot of
fTietion factor versus Reynolds number for flow in
pipes of varying rollghn~ (F ig. 125) is interesting.
539
fluidized beds of granular naphthalene indicates two
types of fluidization. These I \\10 types of aggregativc
fluidization are charactflristic of the behavior of
clOllcly . siwd fractions of p::u-ticles. With low gas
velocities there is no observablo motion of the bcd.
AH the velocity increases. lhe bed begins to expand
and bubbles of gas pass through the bed which

....,
Figure 125 showl! Ii series IIf lines luwing tlte relative re8embles a gently boiling li(luid. ill! the velocit,y
increases further, the bubbling action becomes morc
violent until finally slugs or streams of material
are lifted from the bed. Thcse streams pass upward
for & short distance ru"od. then drop back onto the
o.
'"~ bed. UlOinp;" descriptive terminology. the two ty po:;
nl 0
_:=
"'"
".
14.20_ . . . . .
.!() . ... -~ . .
o 2*-11_ ..-.~-
. 1I-f8_"'IfIl/IIin'* -
..... ""
. ..
:; 0.04
,
ir~~
.
S:o.o3
. .
I
D
... .,o-'JJ .....


."
." . .
.
_...-.00. .......

lIi-._. . . . .
14.111_'-00
e- o
... " o.31s1~

0.0I
- 11...
H

, - , .... "'-
." - .,.... :0.
'"'" 140 .....
D ..... o.~)
FlO. 490, Correlation of <lILt.:. on [naSI! tr,msfer in etrellm ing
Buidbalion .. by plotting j/ /&) t il l'llrsul Re/~ .

rl~l i' I I of aggregative fiLiidil.3tion A.te tenned " bLibbling"

and "streaming" fluidiMtion. When the material
I
0.0 1.0 being fluidized is not closely sized the bubbling type
1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 &.0 S.O 10
R.~noIds number, D~I!P/~
FLO. 41100. j factor for hef\t t/'&ll8fer alia.
" 20

function of Reynoldl!
" of fluidization persists at much higher gas velOf.ities
number and particle ei~e.-
roughness,fj Das a parameter. the lines corresponding
to large values of roughness being closer together-than
\hree corresponding to small values. Similarly Fig,
495 shows a series of lines having particle size as a
parameter, the lines corresponding to large particles
being closer together than those corresponding_to
&mall particles. Figure 495a. is a similar plot. of
heat transfer data 1110 which mow the same charac-
teristics. The d imen!uonless parameter for fiJ!:ed
bedt corresponding to the relative roughness in
pipes has not yet been detennined.
Fluidised Bech
..Mass transfer in ftuidiaed beds has been investi-
gated by vaporizing naphthalene with' air, carbon
dioxide. and hydrogen. Visual observation of
than when the material is closely sized. The wider
the size range of the fraction , the higher the velocities
to which tne ao-called bubbling region persilts.
The m&118 transfer data ~ in fluidized blxis in the
streaming region are correlated as shown in Fig. 496
which plots i/(Sc)o.f>7 as a function of Re/ 4>. Thc
j f&CLor is defined by equation 5(}.tu, and again it is
asaumed that all the area. of the particles is active
in the m&!l8 transfer process. The Reynolds number
is modified 8.8 in the fixed-Qed correlation, The
group q, is defined
4> "" Dp'p,g(p. - PI ) (:;70)
"
The curve shown in Fig. 100 correlated lhe data for
closely sized fraction~ ranging from 14 to 48 Tyler
screen mesh.
The mass transff'r data for fluidized 1)('; I~ in the
bubbling region arc as yet too mcagt'r I,} 1 ~ "'! ll i t de-
 MASS TRANSFER 2'
veiopment of a generalized correlation. The short rnaIII' trAn~fer relative to the lobI re~iKt"n"" to transfer at (\
liquid rate of 10,000 lb /( hr)(liq ft).
horizontal Iinc!:! in Fig. 490 prf!Sf'nt the da.ta avail-
KLo,
able at the present time. An appl'oximate OOTrt'la- 1b moica/
tion of the 'Velocity a.t which the bubbling region 0" G" T empcrn (hr)(eu ft)
tr-,msfonns to the streaming region for closely sized Run to Ib/ (hr) Ib /(hr) lure, (II, moielJ/
fractions of naphthalene is shown in Fig. '497. In N". (M! ft) (eq ft) "C eu ft )

.,
this figure , the area abm'e ELnd to the right of the
.,".
13.2 in. of dumped 0.5 in Bcrl ...addlel!
16,000 H10 " .0 1M
27 ,000 H10 25,0 ' <8

0.005
\
""-
Citrbon djg~i clt 67
58
8,000
000
2,000
100 ' .
100
100
"'
".0
25,0
25 .0
' 04
16.7
42

eubbling
~ Strelming
3. A feed mixture eonWIL8 25 1l'...IL$!I per cent ethan"l, the
ool~ce .... IeI'. It is dcalred t.o batch dis t ill 8JOO pi of this
mi:rtlUTt through a to...e r 2 ft in oiiamet"r, po.eked to a oiCI Jth

0.00 1
\\. of IS f1 ... ith dumped J-i.n. RaliChi! rinp, to reoo""T OJ.O
per a~nt of the ethanol a& II. distillate prOOl.IC~ eont...ining 90.0
mal'll rer ('en! ethunol. The operation will llIJ e<:>nduet.ed at
1 Mm pl'C8Sure under cunditiO/I.!! of OOl'l.'.lllln\ distilll!.t~ com-
pc.-irion. The liquid IIh&!le diffusivity fu, ethanol-water af.
ISO- F i$ 2.35 X 10..... 11() (t/ see.
III there BUflicicnt packing in the to ... er fot thla (...etion -

0.000 2
OJ 0.2 0.3 0.4
Par1ide o;.,mett. D~ mm
1\ ation!

4. An..absor ber 011 having a rnoJeeulRr weight of 300 contaillll

FIG. 491. Rou nd",,), 1,,,(,,'(,,,," Imhhli"l: ~I)OI >;1"",alUil1& flui"i-
U.ti(lD .... indieat.ed loy 11.0:/ + MIlU pnrlid<! " "lIncle r V,. ...
curve rcpre:;ents conditions of ."Jrcaminf( fluidiza-
tion, whereas the area belol\' and to t.he left of the
curve reprClSents conditions of buhbling Ruidization
IL8 long 1\.S ftu Klization exists.
" abeo rbet oil at 86 - Fie 2.0 X 10---- sq ft/8ee, the oil having a
PROBLEMS
I. A t ower h""inll: an illl!i<1c d wu)Oeter of I fl is Il6Ck(.-u tu a
licpt h or 2.0 It "' jl h I-in. Il,,~dli, rinp.. GM {,<" UI",.ing of 3.0
IICr c.)n l by ""lu'oo ace t ou" "0097.0 pl"r cellt air (.Iry I~)
!Lnd ""tUI".lh.-u lI'ith WIlIl'r i! int1'floduoeJ unlicr 1he buttom
of tho packing at R ml" of 300 Jb of olry gas j ... r hour and
R'IUM'C f,.,t of col umn CTI .... "",etion, at a u,l1lj'Jll1'l:ltum of
8(1" F (Illol '" lu't)/jIjure of 760 mm lllercury. Pure lI'uler is
inln-...JuceU at .,he Inp of the pAc king aL U", r .. le of 400 lb/ (hT)
(lI<'l ft) at a lcm l'cmLUre or so-F.
'1oe l",et i,,1 pl'Clt'lu re p .. r acewne in millimel"''''' (If mercu.ry
in equilibrium with olilute a.oetone-.,,'ake mixture s at SO F ill
p .. 2661'. wh nro z i~ mole fT!I.Ction of acetone. Diffusivity of
aCIJlolle in Wl.l.e r at SO" .F iM 4.88 X 1O-~ sq ft/hr.
F.Iltimate ,he fl'llc!K'" of Melone 'IIi'hleh ill rceovered in the
liquid phal!e.
2. n.e l lIhlc gi V\!ll d:ot.a nn the ~tion or M;)'ll'en from
.",,,we i"',, ait. LoltiuUltc the l't.'/!i"ance of the &U phase to
2:601 mole per cent pro"a ne: This oil ill to be ,tripped to a
pmpo.ne oonten't of 0.().5 mole per cent tiy superheated eteam.
The ,trippeT will be ope".ted "t 20 psia a nd II. tempe","""'" 01
280 - F ... ill be mainl4ined thl'1JUliliou~ the t ripper by intemnl
hmlin,. Four mulct! of eteam will be UIIed per 100 mol .... 01
oil (propane-free) stripped.
Eelimate t he height 0( II. packed loI\'er o<>nte.ining I-in .
RMcbig ring!! ~quired to D.ccomplisb thl8 8eparation.
Equilibrium relationa nf propane oot\O'eon Bte&m and oil
at 280 F and 20 psi.. all:! expre:!l!leol by the eqwlIioD II - 33....l',
" 'here 1/ - mole fruct inn of propane in llteam and z - mole
fraction of propane in oil 1be diffllllivil)' of propane in thl:
vi~ity nf 1.0 centipo;9!l3. The vi8C08ity of the oil at 280 F
is o.2Il centipoises.
6. Ammonia iII ' produceol "t' a rate 01 7240 p1UIlII/lil.l)r nf
c.. talyst per hour at 300 atm and 380- C , in a 1:3 molal m;"-
tute"of Nt and fl1 /lnter;inc II. bed.of a granular iron catalyst.
The gu flow! through the calaly!t at a rale of 600 ib/(sq et )
(hr) . The catal),8t 'is in the form of cyHndrital pelleta J4 I".
b)' J4 in.., a nd the void in. the bM is 38 per cent.
I::.!rtima\.e the lemperature "nd pulial pretll:!Ur1.! of oitrocen.
at t he 8lIrface of the c:a.l&I,n;t at the entrance of the bed.
6. A liquid mix t ure eonWning 35.0 mole per cent othanol
ILlKi 66.0 mole per cent beruene is to be cxtrnlited with pu re
wale r to produce II r,/finau, product (benzene-rich phUll)
oontaininll: 1.0 mole per amt ethanol. and an extnw:t product
aontaini ng 35,0 mol" per eeM ethanol and 59 mok. per ceM
water. The extrnction operation ill \0 be eonducted iIothc>r-
malty at 25- C in I. colu mn packed wilh t.O-in . :tMchiJ rinjl;ft.
the benr..en.c heiDI: the dillpf!n!ed. phue. The masJ velocity
 PROBLEMS 541
;" the feed (35 per ccnt EtOH, 66 per eent C.H,) ",ill b.. S. A wMte PI (rom lin amlnAUon Pr~ f)')IIt.Ilns 500
~ Ib/ (br)(eq h) of echllon c:ros6 8ertn. Ib/hr of ammooia a od .'iO Ib/hr of bydro~o. Tbe ga5 if
The pertinent. tllita un the physieaJ vropP.rt.ies and eq uilibria IRIl ural~ "'Ilh wa ler valJ< ,r Dt I p!!ig ~ 1;10- F. An li b-
o. the 8DturalNi lIOIutions are given in the Appendix., The !IOrbinll: ~t riPVinlil: " I)l'ratioi, \IIIing water ~n ~l.I mn. packL.u
vis<:<:lIIitkla of the saturated phases at 20 C O1&y be II.IIII1Imed with I-in. H.uach iit ri ngs 11M been Jlro~ to recover th~
llClIll!tant at 0.9 ami 0.75 oentipoP!e for tbe water-rich !Ind a mmonia for re-use in the proDC8/!. Th~)OI'; of Ammonia
benzene-rieh phage5. J'eIIIJecwvely. T be difflllftivity of et hanol oIDould not exlftti 3 Ib/ hr, a mI t:.." ammonia ..hnuld' be re-
at 2S o C in 1M 'frater-rieh and benune-rich ptu.a:. nlay be cyeled t.o the amiDBtiQn pl'UC'UI$ ILl a It&8 a t 00 peia .. ild s/tQuld
:ISIIIlmed ooMtAnt IU 3.~ X 10- and 5.8 X 10--6aq It/hr, reepoo- bot contain mNe thlln 0.1 mole frnetioo of water. C oolin,
tive1y. Tho fugacity of ethanol in the feed ie 46.0 nun of ...ater is available at:Jl F.
nereury. Prepll.N! a Dow di0.irl!.m specifylna: all operatin, oond itions.
Estimate the heia;ht of packing required. i.e., temperatures. preo!lIUJ'e8, flo ... ra~ (lOmP'D"i tions, encl1lY
\, ~\ ,l
7. Dry air at 100 F is to be preheated to 2180 F in a
I qqantn.ibi. aDd .diriM:naiou o(.~r aDd etripper.
"pebble beater." The pebble heater consists _ntially of a 9. Five hundred pounds per hour of pure pl'Opane are to
r.ylindrical shaft having lin inside diameter of 19 in. 0014 ai~ ) qe O?OIlensf:ti fro]n and lit 10 psia In .. ~heH and tulxl exch.lI.l1Ker.'
<>nte1"ll at the bott01l1. Hot refra.ct.Ory pebble!! ni 2230 F The ,.,frige;"nt "amUlonia 3ulll,l io.....1 by an ab!orlltton .<.<Iri",-
eoter at the k>p and move doI','n""1InI countercurrent to the e .... tion Proee!IlI. A u rnp in JlI'C&'IUft 01 2 pai is pennia!5ible In
air. The .air ro.te is 1800 lb / hr. The pebbles are ~D . diam- ei ther or botb propane II.ll<.l >l.lllOlonia $'reams. '
eter spberet "" ith 86.5 eq ft of surface per cubic fooi of packed (al What ~nqen..ooer area ia r&l}uired il the tu~ a~to.be
volume. The a~nige specific" beil.t'is 0."27 Btu/(ib)(-F). The ~-in. on and 8' (t in length? ,.: .
aver&gll specific he&i of air i8 0.267 Bw/ (IbW.F) .- .. - 0.005 (b) ReeomnM!od a 80w dia~ foe the abeorpt ion refric-
Ib/ (It) (hr), and ,,/J.: _ CU>5. Determine the effcct.ive entiotl Unit-.1 . ,
height of.ahaft required if hH.t." - may be considered t.o (0:) Whal :..~ the o(llll>\tint; eonditionB .. nd .tIseI 0( major
be lieglillibJe, and, ~ rate ie 2150 Ib/ hr. . itemll of equiJluJent in t~e ~fti&t'ration unit?

, . ',.

.'

~. - .. " "
., '

,.. ..
 CHAPTER
37
Simultaneous Hea.' and Mass Transfer 1
Psychrometry
P
SYCHROMETRY refers mai nly to the I':ys-
tematized knowledge of the pl'OJ.lert ic~ of air
8Jld water, but its hroader me&ninp; inclutl~ the
principles wlUch go.vp.m the propert~ and behll.\'lor
of mixtures of the so-called "fixed" gases with can
densable vapors.
The system or air and water ~ impurtant-, not only
with ' regard to air conditioning fOf physiological
comfort, but also with regard to wat.er cooling and
drying. There are frequent opportunities tu apply
psycbrometric principles to other S,)'lOlcms in connec-
tion with problems of solvent recovery ami the
removal of organic vapors. ExampiE'-s of this are in
the dry-cleaning indnst-ry where recovery of the
Stoddard's solvent, carllOll tetrachllJride, and other
valuable materials is C'88Cntiai fur aconomical opera-
tion. Again there are c~ wh(!I'f! it is dCl:lired to
recover organic vapors but at lhe same time to
prevent air from coming in eont.a.ct with the:te vapons
because of the expi05iQo and fire haza.rd. In such
cases the carrier gas may be nitrogen, or a flue gas,
instead of air. All these operBtions are ooncerned
with the vapoI'-Carryillg capacity uf the carrier gas
and with the engineering variaulel:! which affect this
capa.eity.
DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are t'Onsistent and avoid
the present confusion in psychrometric tenninology.
The mixing ratio ur ms.ss ratio Y expresses the
mass of one component carried by unit ma.ss of the
vaporfree gas.
S4I
The humidity ratio X expresses the ma88 of water
vapor carried by unit mass of dry air. The- S&IlIe
symbol, X , may be used to express the mass ratio
for other systems by special designation 9.8 "ethanol
humidity."
The term humidity is normally restricted to water
vapor in air.
The humidity of any ideal gas is related directly
to th;) pa~t.ial pressure of the vapor being carried, if
p "" partial pressure of the vapor.
P - total pressure of the ga.&-vapor mixture.
M . - molecular weight. of the vapor.
M. - molecular weight of the gas.
x ~ (p : p)(~:) (571)
The 8tlturaled humidity x. of a gas-vapor mixture
expresses the pounds of vapor carried by 1 Ib of
vapor-free gas when the vapor is in equilibrium with
liquid (condensed vapor) or solid (as tee) at the
temperature and pressure of the gas.
where P. - saturated partial pressure or vapor pres--
l!Iure of t.he condensed vapor.
The relative BGtvration , is the ratio, usually ex
pressed as a percentage, of the pound.!! of vapor
carried by lIb of dry carrier gs.e at any given condi
tions to the pounds of vapor carried by 1 Ib of dry
 HUM!DITY CHART
PI! when in equilibrium with water or other liquid at constant pressure. Thus, if
-Ubder the same Condit.ions of temperature and pres-
C, - heat. capacity of the carrier gas at the stated
",re.
pressure (lltuj lb OF),
C. - heat capacity of the vapor at the stated
pressure (Btu/ lb OF),
II-C, + 3CC, (579)

since the specific heats of the gas and vapor are

The relati~ pa~tMl 'Prt~tlUf't is the ratio of the addit.ive.
partial pl1':l'lRllre of the vallOr ttJ, the vapor Pre<lSUI'e of The enthalpy of the humid (l(U mil'ture .)C exp~
tbe liquid at the same temperature. as Btu per pound of dry carrier gM i>; defined as
follows, whel''e the reference state for the vupor is the
Relative partial pressure "" !- (574)
pure liquid at the l'efel'Cnoo temperature.
P.
In the paBt the relative partial pressure and the \ H - C.(T - T,) + XIC,(T - T.) A,I (580) +
relative saturation have both been referred to as rela-
where T - temperuture,
tive' humidity, and care must be taken to avoid
T, - reference temperature,
confusion with relative saturation.
X, -- latent heat of vaporization of the vapor
The relationship between relative partial pressure
at temperature T" 'e '
and relative saturation is indicated as follows:
H - .t(T - T. ) + x>..
Relative partial pressure - i (PP -- p.P) (575)

H UM.ID,I TY Of ART
The dry volulrW! V. is the volume in eubic feet
occupied by 1 Ib of the earrier gas. F or ideal lases, ~ TheJilO!lt convenient method of handling psych1'Q-
, metric relationships makes u~ of the so-called
V _ (359)T _ _
_ O.73T
(576) hu:nidity chart, whie:' is simply"a plot of the proper-
r PM, (492) PM, ties of the mixtures under consideration at a specified
total pressure, usually ooe atm08phere. Fi~re 498
woore T ,., temperature (OR,("F + 460). shows such a plot for the system air and ethyl
P ,. pressure (atm).
alool:I(ll, amJ Fig. 499 i! a IHlmidity chart for air and
1be humid !.'OlU1m V Je is the volume of moist gas water. As indicated, the foll owing properties are
per unit mass of dry gaIJ. It is the volume occupied usually shown.
by 1 lb of the carrier gaIJ and the vapor carried by it. 1. The humidity X as pOllOds of vapor per pound
For ideal gases, ' of dry ~ is plotted agaiflBt temperature with lines
of ,COIlBtant relative saturation. Th4. relationship
Vx- V,+JC ( -O.73~
- (577) is shown by the family of curves beginning in the
PM.
lower left-hand corrier of the plot and sloping up-
_ O.73T (_I +~) war$ to the right, ea~.h curve being labeled accord
ing to its relative saturation (equation 573).
P M, M.
2. The Ilpecific volume of dry and saturated carrier
The M!tura!t volume V. is We volume occupied by gas expressed &8 cubic feet per pound of dry carrier
1 Ib of the carrier gas and the vapor which saturates g88 is plotted as a function of temperature in degrees
it. Fahrenheit. , Only the two curves (or the dry volume
V. -- -+-:JC.0
O.73T( I
P M, M
(578)
(equation 576) and the saturated volume (equation
578) are UBuaIly IIhOWD. Specific volumes of ga&-
vapor mixtures" which are unllAturated may be
The humid ht;o.t of a gss-vapor mixture is the evaluated by a linear interpolation between these
energy required to raise the temperature nl 1 Ib -of lines. These curves are labeled dry volume (or
the camer gas and ita aecompanyinc vapor, 1F specific volUme) and saturated volume, respectively.
 -

280 450
260 440 28
240 430

" .
i 200 ~
. ~180~400
410 .~

, -;- 20 "
~

as 160 i55 390 0(.... 18

~ ~

b 140 ;;~.o ~ i
. .
j
-
120 '&.370$.14
>
ill 100'5360 u
~
,
"~
,E"/
'"-~ ~
80 350 '"
~
~
60 ~ 340
~

4. 330
2. 32.
31
300
. W.30.5000ro50~~ l wwrn~m_rn~mmm=_=_
Temperature. 'F
FIG. 498. Humidity chart fur the a;r-clhanol sy.tem.'
 B= ~ . -
Humid Heat, Btu/lb dry aif eF)
=- = 1 1
~
21 ' 40 0.14
-- Adiapafif' _
~ . 1 rrauo!)

~
19
.

.
-
'

;
~
}!
~
~ .
;'' wt
. W~8
~~
<I)' 'IJ 0'\

~i~
'
,
ftC.
0.12

~ 18 ~'L Il'll'l. ,

t17111 III I II II II; 0.10 'iii

"
""
~
~
E "
~
""'"
0

0.08 ~
..;;
~
" 14
~u((\e \IS \e
~eriJ.'~
Tfl
'.
13
o
S'3\11t'3\e ..,0 ..'" tel1'~e'~
0.06 "
~
~
12 __ hritic "o\~(r . E

'""
0.04

0.02

~. ~ m 140
Temperature, or
,. 180 200 220 240 250

FIG, 499. Hwnidity wart for the, air-water system of

 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER I
3. The latent heat of vaporization of the vapor, transfer multiplied by the increase in enthalpy
exp~ as Biu's per pound of ,'apor, is plotted between a pound of the liquid on the wick and a
ngninst temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. This pound of the vapor in the gas, so that
curve is labeled latent heat of vaporiULt ion:
4. The humid heat 3 expressed a8 Btu's per pound h,A (T - T .. )
of dry carrier gas per degree Fahrenheit is plotted
as a function of humidity expressed as pollnds of ~ IX,. + C.(T - T.)lIk,AM .(p. - p)J (581.)
vapor per pound of dry carrier gaB. This curve is For practical purpoees equation 581a may be written
labeled humid heat (equation 579).
5. The enthalpies (total heat) of dry and of satu- h,A{T - T .. ) - 1o. r ):,AM.(p.. - p) (581-)
raW carrier gas, expressed as Btu 's per pound or
dry carrier gas, referred to dry gas and li<lUid at 0 F when T .. - temperature ol the wick or wet-bulb
are plotted as lunetions of temperature in degrees temperature (OF).
Fahrenheit. As with specific volumes, o nly the two p. - vapor pressure of the liquid at T.. (atm).
curves for dry and saturated carrier gas are shown, T - gas temperature (oF).
labeled as enthalpy of dry and of saturated Ilurricr p - partial pressure of tile vapor in the gas
gas, respecti\-ely (equation 580). Enthalpies of mix- vapor atmosphere mixture (atm).
tures of intennediate humiUitics may he evaluated h, =- heat transfer coefficient {Btuj{hr)(0F)
by a linear .interpolation between these curves. (sq ft)].
6. Adiabatic cooling curves appear as a family of Je, - mass transfer coefficient {lb moleaj(hr)
lines plotted us humi.t1ity expressed as pounds of "s- (sq It)(atm)J.
por per pound of ClI.rrier gas ap;ainst temperature in A - interfacial area (sq ft).
degrees Fahrenheit. These fa milies of curves both M . - molecular weight of th~ vapor.
begin at the 100 per cent humidity curve and slope AT.. - latent beat (t.JI) of vaporization at
downward to the right.. The basis for thCi:lC curves T.. (Btujlb).
was discuSlled in the derivation of equation 474. Rearrangio8 equation 581
The wet- and dry~ulb temperat.ure measurementJ:I
of a c.a rrier gas and vapor mixture furnish a con- h,
venient and reasonably accurate means of evaluatip.1!: P - P. - k M' (T - T.) (582)
the humidity. They illustrate Ii:n important applics-- , ""T.
tion of a process involving simultaneous heat and Equation 582 may be uaed to cal~ulaU;''tbe J)JU"tial
mll.88 transfer. ~ure of the vapor in the gaB;-V&por mixture from '
The dry-bulh temperature ~ a gas and vapor mix- !he wet-bulb deprelJ8ion -(T - T .. ), provided that
ture is that obtained by placing tbe dry bulb of the the tenn h,/ k,M ,,),1'. is known. This term is approxi-
thermometer in oonJact with the gas and a1lowing mately a constant for a given system 80 that for
diem to come tu equilibrium . . C3ch value of 11 IUld T there is a unique wet-bulb
The wtl.llulb temperature T . is obtained by cover- temperature T... Solving equation 571 lor p.
ing the bulb of the thermometer with an absorbent
wick saturated with the liquid phase corresponding {M, / M~) JCP M,
P- ~ - Xl' (683)
to the Vapor in the mixture. When gas not saturat~ 1 + IM,/M.)X M.
with vapor is passeci.rapidly over tho wick, vaporiza-
tion of liquid occurs, producing a coolingetfect, and If 3C i$ small, p ... (M.I M.)JCP 88 indicated in
as soon as tho wick ..cools to a temperature below equation 583. Combining equll.tions 582 and 583,
that of the ga,s..vapor mixt.ure heat is t ranrl'erred to
the wick. The wet-bulb temperature is that ob- :JC _ 3C .. _ _ _ h,__ (T _ T ..) (584)
tained ' when thc process comes to the dynamic k,M,PA T ..
equilibrium or !deady state at which the heat tBn6- _
ferred to the wick frum the gM is equal to the where :!C .. - saturated humidity at the wet-bulb .
increase in ent.halpy of the liquid vaporized. This tempcraturt' T ...
process may be described mathematically by equat- Equat.ion .'i84 represents a family of parallel wet-
ing the rate of heat transfer to the rate of mnss bulb curve8 on the humidity ch3.rt which may bt: used
 THE INTERAcnON OF AIR AND ",,'ATER' 547

to determine humidity rrom wet- and dry-bulb where heat and mMS transfer occur Mross the same
kmperature measurements in the same way Ulat
the Il(iiabatie cooling lines are used. Knowing the
path,
j _ k,Mu. P(-"--)" _.~ ('Cp) U
(585)
value of T. and consequently 3C,. on the saturation G, pDq CplJ, k,
line, the wet-bulb line is fGllowed downward and
to the right to the intersection or the ordinate corre- In the equation for the j factor the average molee
sponding to T. This locates the humidity 3C. ular weight of the flowing stream M.v~ is used.. If
In the specific case of air and water at tempera- the humidity 3C is small, the average molecular
tures up to a.bout lSO Q F, the wet-bulb curves are weight of the flowing stream is approximately equal
practically coincident with the adiabatic cooling to M" and equation 58li may be simplified aa
curves becau9E! the term h,/ Ir,M ,P is practically
equal to the term , in the adiabatic cooling equation -- -C, (/A/--
"
k,Af,P
pDQ)"
Cp~/k,
(686)
474. Under these circumstances, the adiabatic
cooling curves may be used w; wet-bulb lines. Values calculated from equation 58G are &bOWD in
The wet-bulb temperature of the mil!ture repre- the last column of TabLe 59.401
sented by the point A in Fig. 500 is T. 1 88 given by
TABLE 69. SUMMARyG OF VAUW.8 OF '''It.M,1'
CALCULATED FROM WET-BULB Df..'TEm.IINATIONS
IN AIR

I .... ...,
_. ... """.
...,- <><.... '" .... ' ,-
f
% '- ",...t-
...
~

,-
....'
~
-I

Temperatun. ~f
A
--""""-
.........
....-
""""'-
' .tl

.. **
. *

,.~

.0 ....

0.11

."
..*
'. t7
' .ft
'.0

."""""_
Flo . .500. DiAgram showing oonstruetion 01 adiabatic liDeI-iio. .J.. 0. 41
, humidity chal1. I.
bhyloM ..... ido o.u
my\fM1t~ '.M 0.1 '

......
..,......
EIbI prapio:oo.Ia '.M
-
'.0
,."

-- .. ...
equation.584. If the mix t ure represented by the 0.'1
'.R '.0
,." ,,."
point A il fed to an adiabatic humidifier, its proper-
ties will follow the path ATu lIB given by equation w_ .. "

'.ft t,,. '.n
0.1'
0. 17

474. When the mixture has reached the condition

represented by the point B. its wet,..bulb temperature
will have decreased along the aaturation curve to
. .n..ftIo..lOtDtocI~ _bo.."'-"""N"'I"'_"_' '-..
. _ _ _ ... - ' i..I ' - ..... _ _ .....
~
.
.
.
.
u
<
l
N
e
r
i
l
l
o
o
l
l
1
o
T.. I . and at point C the wet-bulb temperature will ":tI~ ==-...::."'::=;~::~.:"':.::..t::,.;:~
have decreased to T ..3. Sinee the wet-bulb tempera- --.w..u..' \of 11 ........ - : .
ture and the adiabatic saturation temperature are
both on the lIaturation curve, when t he original TIlE INTERACTION OF AIR AND WATER
mixture becomes lIaturated, its wet-bulb tempera.-
ture becomes equal to the adiabatic eaturatioo The evaporation of water into air for the purpose
temperature. of increasing the air humidity is known as humidifi-
There are relatively few experimental data OD cation. Closely aU)ed. to tliis. is the evaporation of
wet..bulb temperature for II)'IItems other than air water into air for the purpose of cooling !.be water.
or rrom
...
and water. These data are summarised in Table

The values of h,/ k.M,P for systems where no

Dehumidification consists coodenaina:: water
air to deereaae the air humidity. All ~ prooe-ee
are of considerable ioouatrial importance and involve
experimen~ data are available can be estimated the contactin, of air and water accompanied by heat
from the j factor analogy between heat and mass and ma88 tranBfer.
tranafer. According to equatioM 504a and 5000 The b1b1iot;..-.phy fOr u.. chapter appeu'll OD p. 675.
 SIi\IULTANEQl1S HEAT AND MAS$ ~A.t"SF~R 1
Consider a packed tower to which nir tit a tern- follow ttl<> adiahatic saturation eurve wbooe cqua-
pcrntu~ T. 1 and humidity JC I i'l fed couo lercurrent t ion is
to water entering at temperature T,'l' The air 1C'J.\'cs (JC". - X)
T - "r&< T.. + (474)
die COI.tll.ctor at a tcmperntUl'e T I'l and humidity
.3C 2 , and the \rater at a tempernture Tit,

A mntcl'ial balance over a differential element of For an adiabatic humidifier dT, = 0, and ('<Iuntior.
height dZ gives 588 becom~ -dT./dX - "/s, and, since T/ - 7';
(587) .. Ttl .. equation 500 becomes indetel'minate, Eq'l:a-
tiotU! 587, 58!), und 59 la may ~_ integratl.'(i ~cJluratcly
where 0, - mass velocity of wnter ilb/ (hr)(sq ft)J, tc give
0/ - ma.'l8 velocity of d11' nir [lb/ (hr)(sq ft)I, (592)
An enthal py balance, assuming 'no heat tl-ansfer
betweeD the tower and its surrou ndingti, jl;h'cs (593)

OtC, dT, = G~'sdT~ + O,'~ (lJC (588)

(SW)
The rate of heat transfer between the nir stream
and" the int~rfac~ between the air and water is
given by Figure 501 iIIu~ ratps diap;rammati(:ally how in an
-O/s dT. = h,<J dZ (T. - T ,) (589) adiabatic humidifitll", whcre the tpml)Crulu~ of the
and the rote of heat transfer betwccn the liquid
stream and the i.!lterface is given by

ellj dT j = hj(l dZ (T t - 'fi ) (590)

Finally, the rate of mass trans fcr between the air Water
stream and the interface is give:n by !em~.ture
T, t0t!5!an!
- 0 / dX - k.aM ~ dZ (J. - h) (591)

or, since the fup;ucity of the wa.ter in the air is prnc~

tically proportional to the humidity for the system
air and water

-O.'dX - kxaM. dZ(:IC - !iti) (5ma)

where kx - mass transfer coefficient 1(1l> molcs)J(hr)

(sq f")Ob waterJlb dry air}l,

E<luations 587 and Wia are of g1!neral applicability

to all pmce~s whcre air and w.8.U!rare hronght. into T,-T, "T...
('olmterx:urrent contact, the e(Juipment, heinp; insu- Distance _
< .! ' Surruun
I,:d()(1 f rom tu(l '__L d,fmgs,
, \" ''-'..:,1 , ,,,I ,I
IlU<.l opera....,.,. Ulluer
FIG. 50! . DhIST(l.m roprL''IcIl(illg ~(1nditi(1n~ in tm IIdi6.hntie
Hrady O()!\dit.ions,
humidifier.' The term adilllYlt.ic humidifier is applied t() a
bUmj,Jifier in wlikh tho! temperll.tu". of the ci rculating _tel'
Adiabatic Humidification
Th(> opt\ratio n uf the utl iaha t ic humidifier, whe re
~ CO/lStant..

, .
. \~ .
make:-ul> I>;&tcr enters lhe tiyst.cm at the adiabatic walerl remain~ cons tant, a ll the heat req_lircd to
:<atura.l,ion -temperature, ha:s I~CD discll~ in (.'Cn- vallllrize the wuler i!i supplied from the sensible
neetion wilh the wetWU-~'all column,. lJnder these heat of the ai r,
conditiol)! , the temperature of the wawr in the Where the make-tIP. water enters an Bdia\..atic
:;y-'<tem ig constant at the adiabatic $ll.t\lratioo tem- humidiRcution sytitem at a ten,perature 7', diffcrcnt
. ,
perature, and the uir tcmpcro.turc and humidit-y frum tile adiabatic saturation temperature,' Ian eu()rgy
<
 TIlE INTERACfION OF AIR AND WATER
balance around a ~tion of the eontaetor gives
equation 595 irustead of equation 474 for inlinite
COIltacting surface.
(Xu - X)I).T, + C.(T - T~)J + T
T- , N
Equation 595 indicates that the temperature T ".
is no longer 0. function only of the entering gas
temperature and humidity but is a1so dependent
upon the temperattlre of the mak~p liquid T ,.
Thus, a family of "saturat-ion" eurves with T, as a
parameter results for a given entering air tempera-
ture .and humidity instead of the single adiabatic
saturation curve.
Usually T, is not great.ly different from TIU, 80 that
the tenn C.( TIU - T,) is negligible compared to the
term ).r.. This means that the family of "saturation"
curvet with T, as a parameter is orrlinarily very
closely spaced around the adiabatic saturation
curve. Therefore, for practical purposes, the adia-
batic saturation curve and equations 592, 593, and
594 for the adiabatic humidi6er will give results well
within the range of engineering accuracy for these
cases. Where the temperature T, is greatly different
from T , it is neoossary to use the methodsdeecribed
iii the next section for design purpoee8,
Dehumidification
The decrease in both the temperature and humid-
ity of air by contacting it with cold water is illus-
trated in Fig. 503.
In a dehumidifier both sensible and latent heat
are transferred from the air to the water, resulting
549
in lin increase in the water temperature from the Lop
to the bottom. The general relatiqnships are iUllB-
trated dio.grammat.i('ally in Fig. 502.-
In the dcgjgn of B. dehumidifier, a1l the ge~ral
equations (587 to 591a) a.teapplicable simultar-
(595)
neously, and a trial-and~rror numerical iritegration
of the equations is necessary. This calculation it
illustrated in the problem of estilIlRting the height
oi the dehumidifier recjuil-ed to chan~ the humidity
of air at temperature T,l from Xl to :Jet, with 0 12
lb/ (hr)(eq t) of \Vater at a temperature Tn. The
air rate is Of' II> per hour of dry air per square foot
of column CI'OS$ section, and all the rate coefficients
h.a, h,a, and k.a are known. Thecalculation may be
carried lIS follow,;.
Step 1. The mass velocity of the liquid leaving
is calculated from a material balance.
Step $. An energy halance is made to determine
the relationship between the exit tempcmtuTe8 Til
and T d .
Step 8. The exit gas temperature Td jg ASl!umOO,
and the e.... it liquid temperature Til is cakulated.
Sl.ep 4. By combining equations 588, 589, 592,
and 501a,
hjG(T ..;... T,)
- h,a(T, - T,) + k"aM ,A(3C - "') (506)
which is used to compute the interface conditions
T oj, Xi at any point in the column where values of
T" T and JC al'e kriown or assumed. These valUCf'
"
are initially available only at the top and bottom.
Starting at. the bottom the interlace cooditioos are
caleulated.
Step o. A second point on the curve represent.ing
humidity JC as a function of gas temperature T,
may be obtnined by assuming average values lor the
following qcrivntives over smull .incrementa.

--
dT,
dZ
-h,a(Tf
G,'s
- T.)
(589)

--
dT,
dZ
htCJ(T, - T i }
G,c,
(59<l)

80 100 00220

FlO. 602. DiAgram oL humidity ch:ut indicntilli: dehumidifi-

--
dJC
dZ
"x.M .,a.(.1Ci - 3C)
,
G'
(5910)

catiOD by (.'OlItact with cold wllter &II computed ill the ilIUII- (The VltluN' of the above derivatives as computed
tmtive example. for the bottom conditions may be used Q,ij 0. guide
550 ~IMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 1
for a first approximation ror the average values in Step 3. The lint t.rlall! b&I!ed nn an .... med temperatore
computing values for T, tl.nd TI at Zo + .1.Z.) fo. the out let p.!I 7',~ 01 III ' F. Then "u '" 103.7 ' F.
& tp 4. Por the pa rliCI'/(lr '/I" l", oj !role.- and air 0" /11, U,,'
St~ C, Values for To' and X; are then computed numerical value of t he hum"'l hea t,
at Zo + .c1Z by equa.~ion 500.
This process is repeated over lIuccessive incre- '" h,I It.." t.l/ (507)
ments unt il the ai r hum)di ~y X I equals t.hat specified.
H, at the same time. the calculated entering air
temperature T,I agrees Wilh that. specified, the 2G2O(T; - T ,) '" 200(T, - "J+ ~ (:Ie - X J (lO!M)
original assumed exit air temperature Te2 wa:s
oorrect. Otherwise. the entire process must be
re;>eated.
lIIu II.trativlI EUnlple. A mi,;tul'e of air Ilnd ,,'ater vapor
.
Usin, an avera &e val UIl "f 0 .2& r....,. " t hill eqUJltiilD rOOuCt-'S

10.04"1'; + 384UX; '" 9.041', + 1', + 3840X

at 2.';0 F, oontaining 0.1433 Ib 01 wllter vapor [lC. po und of FOT th.., ~"floli tiun~ Ilt th ~ h"ttl ~lI of the tower, u.sin ll the
dry air, ;8 to be dehumidified by eoontcrrurrcnl contact with !Iltu."t.ien ~urve of rig. 4Q!:i or Fill. :..02 for valll'-'ll of 1', and
... ater in & packoo to,,-e. . The (.Ower ;6 to be packed Wilh Xii by Irial ~nd error T; '" \30.\ " F II.nd JC, '" O.1l18.
I-in. HlI.IIChig rings and it to be op<,rll\.od III atmosphe ri c SlfP 5.
p~ure. The tj,nlperalunl or the water enwring the t"""cr
;$ 75 F. The Air Ie/wing the. tower ie to oonutin O.O~ lb 2!IO(T, - Til
- '2.3~~T. - TJ (58")
of water pee pound of dry ai r. - 431(0.28:;) '"
The maY velocity of the water at the wp of thc tOllcr is
to be :nJO lb/ (hr)(1:JIl ftl, and thllt "r th., air-wnter vapor _ - '2S2 I!ot. IWIU"'" of tower
."ixture at the bottom of the tow('. is to be ~ Ih/(hr)(sq hl.
dT, 2(;20 (1', - T i )
For theo!e r.teI of flow the a~rage valUelI of tlte heJ"t t.al18fer ;m '" 201 8( 1) '" - 1.2'J<.){Ti - Tv (690)
coefficients are eatlmated ... to be
heel - m Btu / (hr)(cu ft) CF) .. - 34.3 lit bOW ."L of tower
4/<1 '" 2620 BlII / (h.)(w ft)( ~ d:IC 2')(){.1C, - X l '2 3C (591el)
dZ " O.21!-5(437) .. - .as( - 3C;)
Determine the te mper1l ' ur,; of the ai r Jee.ving the lower
and the beiVit of pa.eked 8e1:"tn n:quin:d.
'" - 0 .0740 at buuom.
Solution. The ma98 vdorilY of dry air is
SUp 6. Table 00 gives the a verage value. for th6 deri va.-
G ' ''' ~ ''' :.on _437lbdry ai r
tives U3Cd over diffel"o!nt inerement.8 in tower height, tGiteth ...
f I + X, l.I433 (hr)(.., fI.)
\\"it h the rolIlIlts obt.a.ined from the ao.lcu lalions. The desired
Su:p I . The mU8 vetocity of the liquid lcavinr; the to"-e'
iI calcuh.ted from a n overall nat.erial balan"" (""uation S8'1).
G/(Xt - Xv .. Gil - GI1
Gil '" 437(0.1433 - 0.0560) + 2000 - 2036Ib/ (hr)(aq h)
Sup t. The humid beat (e<luation 579) for air-water vapor
mixtures is
... 0.24 + OAMe
At bottom, '1 '" 0.304 At lop, st '" 0.265
Average ~ .. 0.285

1-0 '" 1094 Btu / lb (obUincd by extrapolation of the iateDt

heat of vaporisation of liquid water to 0 , F).
The overall eneTKY 1I.lanoe u$ine reference state!! of liquid
water at 0 F, air at 0" F,
G/('IT.I + ~u + GttC,Tn. '" G,'(~ TII + >.&'IC2) + CuelTn
t371(O.3(H){2ro) + ( 1004)(0 .1433) 1 + 2000(1){75)
'" t371{O.26S)(T.tl + (1004)(O.055O)j + 2036(1)TQ
Oisunu_
Til - t \0.0 - O.O!7OT.. r IO. 503. Diav&m iUldl...tm, coodilionll ill a dMamidi6er.
 THE INTERACTION OF AIR ANI> WATER 551

TABLE 60. SUMMARY OF CAWULATlO~ S FOR ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLF;

Fi ...t Trial: Outlet Gg TemperAhll'e, T,to AllSUfJled 10 he 111 0
. ', Tn Cakl,llsted from F.no.r~,.\' Balallt~', 10:Uo F

Ao, Ao, ",vtit

Z

"
T.
"F
"
T, .
"F
T,
."
'"
dT,
dZ
dT.
dZ
dT,
dZ
dT,
dZ
""
-
dZ
;IX
-dZ
0 " '. 0 0 . 1433 103.7 130.1 O.lllS -282 -34.3
- 34.0
-0.0740
-0.071)-1-
0.1 224.4 0 . 1354 100.3 126.3 0.099! -2311 -2'" -33. 7 -0.0848
-210 - 33 .3 - 0 .0882
0.2 203.1 0 . 1266 "' .0 122.3 0.0876 -100 - 32 .9 - 0 .01115
-175 - 32 .3 - 0 .&.131
0 .3 18$.9 0 . 1173 03.8 lIS.2 0.0770 -1 59 - 31 . 7 -0 .0'.1-1(;
-1 47 - 31.0 - 0 .(1!H8

.... -80.3
0 .' 171.3 0.1078 00.7 H4.0 0.0674 -135 -O.O!).'>O
-1.25 - 2\1.5 - 0.()!;38
0.' 158.8 0._ 87.7 . 109.7 O.OS90 -115 -28.6 -O .OIr2t1
0.' 148 . 1 0 ._ IOS.5 O.O,'iHi -lOll
- 107
- 26 .8
-n.7 - 0 .0f\&!
-0 .0007
- 93.5 -2Ii.Q -O .os.'J8
0.7 138.7 0 .0807 82.3 \01.5 0._ -87 .0 - 25.0 -0.082!l
0 .8
0 .'
1""
123.2
0 .0727
0 .""'"
79.9
77 . 7 .'"
03.'
0.0398
0 ."'"
-78 .0
-68.8
-82 .6
-73,4
- ~.I
-22.7
- 21.1
- 23.8
-21 . 9
- 20.0
-o. on~
-0.070.1
- 0 .0801
- 0 .073H
-0 .0671
1.0 1I6.? 0 ._ 75.7 00.2 0.0314 -62.3 - 18.8 - 0.0038
-.59 . 1 - 17.9 -0.0606
Ll 110 .8 0 .0526 73 . 87.0 0.0282 -55.9 - 17.0 -0.0573
"

humidity (3C _ 0.(660) if! reached when the outlet tempera.-
ture T" i4 113.3 F', u compared to the u.umed valUll of
III " F.
TAt cakuWiom /O'f .1M ucc>nd trial, based on An aMumoo
v.lue of T", - 113" F (Til - 103.6' F), are lIUflllIIariaed in
Table 61. FiRWe 502 Bhoon the satunltion .-:urve (:Iei vel'flWl
TiJ and the CI.U"Ve of X ver8U.6 T~ for this trial. In thie CBI:!e,
tbe value of T i l eorrespondlnC to the desired humidity is
113.4" F. This m.y be ~idered ". .. ..ue.f~ cheek
of the...u.~ value. The requirOO height of packed eection
ill between 1.0 IlJId 1.1 ft.
Comparilon. of the' eakuLe.tioIUJ summMi-ed in Tabiell 60
Uld 61 IIbowa t.ha~ ortly minOl" variatiOll$ occur between the
two, iudicatin, th .. t.!-he results are not eensit i~ to small
varia.tione bct.... een the aaumed IlJId ea1eulated val ues of
the outlet v.s temperature.
A similar graphical procedure which is more con-
venient has been described." Unfortunately the
transfer rates required for these calculations are not
generally available, and most commercial units are
sized on the bf.L6 is of previous operating experience
as indicated in the following discussion of cooling
towell!.

TABLE 61 . SUMMARY OF CALCULATIONS FOR ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

Second TriAl : Outlet"<lu Temperature, T"" Ms':lmed to be 113 " F, Til ClIleul...ted from Energy BIli:mee, 103.6 F

Ao. A", A,.

z r. r, T, d!, dT, dT, dT, <IX
It "F " "F "F
X;
dZ dZ dZ -
dZ dZ -""
dZ

0 2.50.0 0.1433 103.6 180.0 0.1116 -282 - 34.3 - 0.0745

0.1 224A 0 . 1352 100. 2 126 .0 0 ..... -231
-256 -33 . 3
- 33 .8 -0.0Im
- 21 1 -0 .....
-33 .0 -0.0892
0.'
0.3
OA
0.5
203 . 3
1&.7
171.0
158. 7
0 . 1263
0.1169
0 . 1074
0 .0080
,...
116.'
93.7

87.7
122.1
117.9
113.8
109.6
0.0871
0.0763
0 .0070
0.0587
-191
-159
- 1,.
-115
- 17&
- 147 .
-125
-107.5
-32.7
- 81.4
-30.0
- 28.4
-32.1
- !Kl.?
- 29.2
-27.4
-0 .0\1'21
-0.0956
- 0 .0050
-0.0\1'24
-0 .0938
- 0 .09S2
-o.ooro
- 0 .0Cl04
0.6 148.0 0 .0890 85.0 105.4 0.0514 - 100 - 26.4 -0.0884
-03.5 - 25. 5 - 0 .0856
0.7 138.6 0 .0804 82A 101.-4 0 .0452 -87 .0 -201.6 - 0 . 08Z7
- 82.0 - 23. 6 -0 .0795
0 .8 130. 4 0 .0774 80. 1 .7.3 0 .03\19 -n.o - 73.0
-22.7
- 21.6
- 0.07f>3
-0 .0732
0.' \23.1 0 .0651 77.' 93.8 0.0353 -69 .0 -20.6 - 0.0700
90.2 . 0 :0314 - 65.5 -19.6 -0 .0!.w.i7
1.0 116 .6 0 ..... 75.9 - 62 .0 -18.5 -0. 0034
- 59.0 - 17. 6 -0 .0001
1.1 110.1 0.0524 ' 74 . 1 87.0 0 .0282 -56 .0 -16. 7 -0.0568
 SIl\1ULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER I
COOLING TOWERS advantagc8 ment.ioned p~\'i ously, lack of data and
laborious t rial-and-el"Tor calcula tion . I t is customary
In cooling towers a stream of hot waler is cooled
in practit:c to e:stimate the size of cooling tower!:!
by cx('hanp;c of !;en!Jible and latent hen.t and water
vapor with a !It ream of relatin:ly cool, dry air. The / " ",. 'nltrl~l lOl\e
bamc relation~h i ps developed. fvr dehumidifiers abo
a pply to cooling towers llltJlOUgh the transfer is in
t.hc opposite direction, the tower being a humidifier
rllliler thM a dehumidifier of ai r.
The operation of a cooling tower is indicated
dillgrammo,lically on the humidity etlarl in Fig. 50....
The hot water at TI2 is introdUl.:-ed at the top of the
tower and 1eavos the bottom at Til. The air flow!:!
cuuntcl'C11I"!1'nt to the water, entering t.he bottom at
cvnditi()n.~ indicated by point 1 and lCtwing the tup

~-
,,#; 2 Di~t.Jnce _
q.'
FIU . .505. DiaKrum rep r<.:l'lt ing conditioM at the top of "
L-....- co()liUK tower.1
1
accurdillg t o empiril':l1 correlations of operating
To, To, expcricnct>:S..
TtmpllJtU ff, or
An approximate method of handling cooling t:.mvc r
FlO. 004. Di:lIlr:1I1\ of humidity chtt. rt ilIU!lt mling operation
calculations which has shown some promise involves
01 a. cooling to"'~"'."

at conditionfl eorreflpoooing to point 2, following the

paU l shown.
AIS in !I.. l\\Imidifier, the temperatuI"C of the inter- T, _ _ -<
rac:e tend" tu approach the adiabatic saturation ur
wd-Imlh lelTl~l"ature of the air. At the top uf the
tuwer (Fig. 5(5) heat is being transferred from the
hot wRler to the air, the temperature of the water
i" hil-!;hc r than that. of the interface, and the interface
temperature is u~unlly higher t.han that of the air.
Tll i.~ S('n~ihlc heat. rcmov(l(i from the water appears
a~ &' n~ible und la.tent heat. of t.he air~ \\'ater mixtu re.
At thc hottum of the tower t.he t.emperature of the
water fu nl of the interface may both be lower than
that of tllIl air as shown in Fig. 506, with sensible '- ......,., I rl'...,I lOne
heut bciu}I; t mnllfe rred both from the liqllid and air
to llie illterface where it is absorbed as latent heat Oisu nce -
in \"al~)rizing water. Thus, water llllI.y he cooled Fw. 506. DiagrAm rt'pre!;enting oonditiooll at the hottom of
hy air at a higher temperature provided a humidity A cooling tower.'
gradien t which proc.iuCC8 evaporation il! maintained.
The !!;enerui t:(luutions (587 to 5!Ha) may be used the water temperature;! and the enthalpy of the air
t o (It',,;!!;11 cooling tOIVCl'l'I in the manner "escribed for passing through th(' cooling t.()we r.~ Thisrelation
,11humidifiers. Thi8 procedure suffers from the dis- ship may be derived as follows.
 COOUNG TOWERS
The equation for mass transfer may be written The application of equatiOil 602 is illustrated in
Gt'dX .. k,x:aMv(Xo - X) dZ (591a) Fig. 50i in wh.ich the upper curved line represents
the enthalpy curve for f;8.turateci air plotted 88 a
and the equation for heat transfer i~ function of temperature. The lower curve is an
G,'adT, - hr4(T, - T ,)dZ (589) operating line denved from the entbalpy balance
Multiplying equation 59la by A and adding the CIG,(T, - Til ) - O,'(H - H,) (603)
produc~ to equation 589 gives
The vertical dift'erenoe between the operating line
G,'{. dT, + AdJC) and the saturation curve represents the po>tential
"" kxaM.{(h,/kxM .)(T. - T , ) + >.(Xi - 3C)dZ producing cooling in the tower.
(598) 120
For the air-water system ;,
I - h,/~. " h,/k,M.? ~lOO r7
Therefore equation 598 m~y. be written "
~ -/
0t'(.aT,
o
+ AdJC) ""
~ Saturation
(U~vo"\ / '/
- k:JCGM.[(sTI + AX,) - ' (sT, + Me)T dZ (599) ~60
lUbe interface temperature T; is ~umed to be
~40
y ~
the
--t:'i~'1
equal to the temperature of the water TI and if 1;
~20
V I '-"':'''''''r''"
humidity at the interface JC., is ll88umed to be equal
w that of a.i.r in t.qui\\briwn w\\.h w"''''''',
o.,erall transfer coefficient K x is equal to kx . These
or ;JC., tho ~ 0
60 eo 100
ssumptions are equivalent to assuming that the
liquid phase offers no significant resistance to beat
W.tet Ttmwlturt, Of
""
FlU. 507. Diagram i11l18tn1.tlng tht applieation of equation
01' masa transfer relative to that in the gas phase, 604 til the deeip of a eooUllI tower."
Under these conditions equation 599 may be written
G,'(. dT, + A dJC) Although this method is approximate, it is simple
and helpful in understa.nding the operation of towers.
- Kx:fJM .(.T , + >.JC.) - (IT. + AX)JdZ (600) One consequence of these relations is the fact that,
The quantity in brackets on the right is approxi- since enthalpy is dependent prinlarily on the wet.-
mately the difference between the enthalpy oJ the bulb temperature, the outlet water temperature is
air stream and the enthalpy of saturated air at the found to be independent of the dry-bulb tempera-'
temperature of the water. This is not quite true, ture. This method presents the possibility of
since the difference is actually about 7.0 per cent designing a tower on the basis of transfer coefficients
greater under a~tua1 operating conditions. Tbere- rather than on empirical perfonnance chart8 and
fore, approximately may permit a comparison between the performance
of cooling t~wers and &milar equipmCII.t when used
G,'(.dT, + AdX) - KxaM.(H* - H) dZ (601) in absorption or stripping.
where H - enthalpy of the air and water vapor
,. (Btu/lb dry air). NatUTtJI Draft
H - enthalpy of the saturated air at the Some idea of the construction and operation of '
water temperature (Btu/lb dry air). natursJ-draft cooling towers may btt gathered from
Figs. 508, 509, and 510.
and when equation 601 is combined with the en-
An empirical correlation It,ll for estimating !rileS
thalpy ,~ce '.' and capacities of conventional louvre-type natural
C,G,dTi_ O,', dT, + G,'>.dX (588) circulation towers is il1ustrated by the use of Figs.
equation 602 result.8. 511 to 516. Figure 511 shows the temperature drop
produced in the hot water as a function of the tower
C, G, dT, - K~ .(R- - II) dZ (602) capacity expressed as galIOO! of water per square
 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRA:XSFER 1
foot of deck area, in a 35-ft high 12-deek tower J \-ith
a. 3-mph wind and an !'Iir wet-bulb temperature of
70 'F, and also as, a function of the approach to
F IG. 508. AD Rem.tor-type cool:ng tower. (PlIUK Corp.)
t.he l1'et.-bullJ temperature (the exit water tempera-
ture minu!; the wet-bulb temperature) . Figure 512
presenti! a correction factor by which the capacity
FlG. 509. SpnlY heade in opcrntion in a cooIil'lg tower. (PlIlOf'
Corp. )
(quantity of wal,er fed to the towcr ill gallon!; of
water per unit d~k arCla) should be multiplied whcn
the wel-bulb temperature is other Uuin 70 ~ F .
Figure 513 presents a lSimilar correclion factor to
cal>acity when t he towe r height is other than 35 ft.
Figure 514 s.hows the relat ion between the water
10lit due to windage (not evapuralion) as a fun ction
of wind velocity. Figure 515 shows the relative
tower sire as a. function of wind velocity, the size
at a 3-mph wind velocity being taken arbitrarily &3
one.
The size of a tower required to h a.nd le a given
heat loud varies greatly with t he performllnce re-
quired, and care should be u$e(1 in specifying the wet-
9ulb temperature, the final al>proach of the tower
FIG. 510. Up-spray head in o)'N~rtltion in oooling towl!!'. (nHOT
C~p.)
water to the wet-bul b temperature, the wind veloc--
ity, and the quantity and tem;JCrnture range of t he
tower wattlf being circulated.
If plant operation requires the maintenance of a
dcfinite miuimum tcm pcmture the highcst prc,'ailing
wet-bulb temperatu re, 113ually occurring during the
summer, must be u:;OO in rating thc tower Or pro-
vilSion must be made (or addin,!!; cold wal.er when the
tower ('.a,nnot maintnin the minimrnn temperature.
Then, when the wet-bulb temperature drop!! a nd
colder tower water is obtained, t.he quantity of
cooling water being circulated may be decreased.
Final tem perature of l ower water should be well
abovc the wet-bulb temperature t.o avoid unnecc~
sarily large towers. Figure 516 illu!;trntes the above
point by showing the relation between tower aile
 COOLING TOWERS .1 55

o~~--~~~~~~-t~~~~~~~~~~~_
0.4 0.6 o.a 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
C6PKi1Y. pl/sq tt 01
Suis: 70'F Wet -bulb Temperillu,e, 35-ft 12 -dtc;Io; lOWer, 3 -mpll wind

fiG. MI . Cul",cityof rooling 10...:..,'$ Il.8 <'U ntrollild hy temperature drop a nd approllch to wcWMllb temperature a t ro-.F wet-
bulb t"tnIICra4lre,and.3-mph wind vel.ooity, for a 35-lt 12-<.1cck tower."

80

,
li

..
zlO

,
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 I.' 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4
HtlJht Cotrection Factoi', eN
I.B
WIt- Bulb COrrection Faclor. C w
11'10.512. CorTeCtion factor for use with Fig. 511 for \Io~t-bu llo FII,J.513. Correetion betor for use with .-jg. 511 fo r tow
temperat.we other t.han ro o F." bei,M other than 35 I ~."
 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT ' AND MASS TRANSFER 1
and approach to the wct--bulb temperature while
circulating a constant quantity of water through a
giv~n temperature range. In specifying the operat-
ing conditions an approa.ch of not leM than 5 "degrees
:wd preferably 10 degrees or more is reoommended.
WI", Yo""". m,.'
FlO. 514. Winda.ae 10M (water iose other than by'evapomUon)
l1.li a. function of wind veIO(lity."
flIult ... tlve E mpl.,. It i8 desired to estimate too 0001- tower, a
ine tower uea re'lu~d in fI oonvenHonal na.tur&! draft tmit - trolled -velocity and airection is brought into inti-
to 0001 1500 IiIpm of water from 85- to 70' F. The Wet-bulb
temperature is SSo F, and the air vulocity ill 6 mph. Space _ mate contact with the falling water with consider-
limit.ation@:lUgp!it that a tower 53 f~ high be selected.
Solution.
CaPlLCity, gprn!~ rt It 70 F wet.-bulb tempera-
ture, 3-mph "'illd, 35ft tower, from Fig. 511 1.20
~t.funracLorfor 65 F~tbl.ll b. fromFig. 5 12 _ 0.85
Conw:tjoo factor tot 18 dedtll from Fii:. 513 1.63
Coneclio.o faewr fot 6-mpb .. ind velocity, from
F~ 61ii, (1/O.71) 1.3
C&p&ci~y, IilPDl! 1Iq It at 66- F ""elrbuIb t.cm.-a-
tun, 1!kIeek lower, 3-mph wind, (I .2){0.8ii)
(1.63){l.3) 2.17
Area required, eq f\ with 6-mph wind, (HiOO/2. 17) _ 600
1.0
Size
1.1 1.2 1.3
FIG. 515. Varia.iion in ~i ze of cooli ng tower wi t h wind velocity
rdatlve \.0 unity tot a wind velocity (If 3 mpb.1I
lo'eclum.i-:al DroIt
The mechanical dra.rt. towe rs, -both rorced arid
induced draft types, bring into t.he cooling tower
design three important clcmentll of control of the
air entering the structure-volume, velocity, and
distribution. By means of fans blowing fresh air
horizontally into the foreed draft tower or drawing
saturated air vertically out of the induced draft
Fro. 616. Relative , ize of tower lUI affected by appl'Ollch to
wet-bulb temperature."
.-
predetarmined quantity of air at a con-
able turbulence. The final result is a tower requiring
less ground Space and less pumping horsepower--
advantages which are somewhat offset by power con-
sumed by fflJls and by the inherent. mechanical prob-
lems of ma.intaining equipment in Sfturated vapor.
Design data for mechanical drait towers are pre-
sented in Fig. 517 which shows the nominal area
required per gallon of circulating water for an
average tower 20 to 26 ft high, in which closely
spaced d eck:! fi ll approximately 12 to 15 ft of vertical
dimension.
The relative effect of wet-bulb temperature on the
area required is approximated in Table 62. An ares.
calculated by the relationship of Fig. 517 which is
based on a 70 F wet-bulb is multiplied by the factor
indicated in Table 62.
TABLE 82
T. ,'F Factor T..,r Factor
-
"'"
1. 66 70 1.00
1.46 0 ....
OJ 1.28
1.13
" 80 0.""
" " cooling circuit in
The basic requirement of the
0 .697
the average industrial plant is hcll.~ dissipatioll with-
out critical regard. for temperature. In some planta.
constant. te mperature of water is essential. Tem-
perature Auetuat iOIlS will OCcur in both types or
towers with flu ctuations in wet-bulb temllerature.
I n~ mechanical draft towers the change in off-tower
 SPRAY PONDS 557

water temperatures can be held to a minimum by
adjusting the piteh of t he fan blades, reducing the
speed of the fans, or by bypH,*>ing some of the hot
water direeUy into the basin by means of thermo--
atatically controlled, mcehanienlly actuated values.
In atmospheric towers, wi!h the wind velocity also
affe<:ting the water tf'mrlE' mturc, bypulSl:! lines to
secondary distributing sYlItcms or din.'Ctly to the
'"
22
less operating and maintenance cost than a mcchan
ical draft tower. If power costs are exceptionally
low and a m!tintell~n ce cre w is (lvtlilable, the me-
chanical d rnft tower might be lIle eeonomkal selec
t ion. If unuSually high (800 F o r more) wet.bulb
conditions prevail for relat ively long period.!:! of time
wit h no appreeiable wind, t he mechanical tower has
certain dist inct advantages.
Co nsidering only initial cost, if towers of like
quality in wOl'kmanship a nd matel'inl:! are compared
for a plant whic h has avo.iluble open space, the atmo&-

20 II pheric tower usually will be Ivwe r in first' cost for

average wind velocitic!! above 2.5 milCh per hour.
/
'" rf."/
Below this average, for COml)uTnl)Kl cooling, the
'- I I
6 -t"~,/I ~
meehanical tower will represent a lel!!K.'r inve~tmen.f..
In operating cost, if bot.h fan horsepower and

/f pump horsepower are cvahuttcd, the atmospheric.

type unit will show a saving in almo~t all Ca5CS. In

,I /'"

; locatil'ns in which the operutinp; Jirnit ~ of the atmo&-
pheric unit are appronchcd-in high wet-bulb areus
where hi~h relative suturuti')I\I, pl'evuil during periods
0
V V of unusually low wind vc\o(': ily- the mechanical
02 0.3 0.4 draft towers show a distinct adnmt'age to the
Sq Ft/ Gal 01 Water per Min
(B, sed 01'1 300 Fpm Gron AM Velocity) operator.
Fla. 517. I)o;,sIKD ro!a.Uombill for a meclutlliwl tl roft tower'" COOLll':G PONDS
basin can be installed to effect. the 8.'UIle degree of Tbe cooling pond or reservoir is used for removing
temperature .contr61attainable with t he me.challical a relatively small a mount of Ilcat ~rom w~ler over a
draft towers.. small temperature range. The pond area requifcd
Al t hough wind definitely affects mecha nical tower .nsy be eslimated from a relationship giving the rate
_performance, the errect is seldom more than a 10 of evaporation of water into still air. One !.lIch
per cent decrease in capacity due solely to redueetl relalion a. is
air flow through the tower. However, another
-element of design enters I-be pict_u re when the wind
w _ ~ + 3.7 (Tl : T2)
(1'. _ p) (604)
causes th~ hot, saturated vapors discharging from wbere w .,: water eVal)()rate? [grai&/ (hr)(sq ft)].
the to}Ve r to recirculate back into the air intake of
the tower. This means the "entering air" is at a -'~- Tl T2 .
+ "" arltItmetla' average 0r entermg ' and eXit'
higber wetr-bulb temperature and higher relative 2 water tellI peruture (OF).
saturation. The water temperature ri3C5' in approxi p. '"' vupor proSSut'fl of wllter at (T 1 1'2)/';. +
mate' proportion to the inel'(!RIIe in wet-hulb tempera. .' '.
(in. of mercury)
.., .
ture. p, = part.inl
. preAAunl of wat.er vapor in air
One large user of both induced and foreed draft (in. of mercurYl'
towers "determ'ined by actual fi eld test that it was The evaporation rCfluire<! for the disSipation of a
true operating economy to build the discharge stacks given heat load is calculated from the latent heat of
of their towers up to a point 50 ft above the ground, water. Equation ()()4 is based on zero wind vc\ocily.
or 25, ft .al:M;tve the, top of a 2&-ft tower. By thus Any wind will incrense the eapacit.y of a given pono
discharging the ,hOtsaturated vapors I.he moisture so that equation G04 gives con~r"u.tive res\ll~ .
and.heat were $0 diffWJed into' lfUlTOUnding fresh air
that the effect of'recycling ,vas
negligible.
SPRAY PONDS
If open space near the plant Site is -available, for
normal thermal ranges an atmospheric tower will If a SYlltem of spray nonl1'8 i:! insltdled ahove Ihe
do the same cooling job for a lower ioit-iul eoot und surruce or a cooling pond, the cooling capacity it;
558 SI~lULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 1
(b) TIle aaturated volume vel!lUI dry-bulb temperature
curve.
(c) Humid heat 8.Il a fun ction of humidity.
(d) The adia.b&tlc cooling line f (lt an adiabatic uturatwn
temperature (If 60 F .
lro~----+-----+--- (,) The humidity as a function of the dry-bulb tempera -
ture for A wet--bulb tempere.tul"ll (If 60 F.
if) The enthalpy of the dry g8.Il as a function of the dry
bulb temPllratlln!j the entba.lpy of the uturated p& !Ill a
function of the dry-bulb temperature. The reference 6tate
will be pure methanol in the liquid a!.ate at U" F II.lld 1 atm.

VAPOR PRESSURE OF METHANOL

......re. T emper&- "-re. Tempera-
mmHg ture, "C mmHg ture, "C
10
50
- 15.7
+8.4 .,.
400 49 .4
,4.7
100
200
20'
".3
600
700
59.'
62.'
300 42.9 760 64 .'
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF ME1' HANOL
Temper- Heat of Vapori..tion,
dure, "C Btu / lb
51'
..,
20 503

..~--~-----t~--~~--~
"~ 7l) 80 90 100
Temperature 01 Water Lnving Spray, or
FlO. 518. Operating oonditlollll for a pa.rtirular spray pond
witb wind velocity or
5 mph u.~ing a I_in. orifice with a !"lOU!"
pMlS'Ure of 7 P'Sii."
greatly increased, at. the expeIll!e or pumping costs..
A typical cooling curve for spray ponds is shown
in Jo'ig. SIS in which a particular type of noule at
one particular "pressure is 'raied at. a wind velocit.y
Ijf 5 mph.
PROBLEMS
I. Determinations of humidity in rot,&ry driel'll UIJIld for
dryirc wlI.l.eI"-+.lluble SIlltli arc difficult to make beeaUllO'! of the
effect oJ the s..llll on t~ wet-bulb lIlI!&auremen1.3.' It ill
p~ 1.0 ove~ this difficulty by mp,king the wet-bulb
mea&urenlCnUl with water aatup.ted ..,jth the ~ ult to be
handled iJil !.he drier. Derive '~he oorL'SpOndioj form of the
wet-bulb equa.lKm for such .;:Me. 11lilicat.e 11.1\ wOII!: clearly
and define all symbol:! Ul!ed.
2. Co05truct the:! foll()wing parts of a methanol humidity
chan for llir and methanol fot B.. barometric pretl!lOJre of
760 mm.
(0) The rcluive 8&tunuAoo. line. for loo and 10 per cent.
....
400
60 471
473
SO 45'
Speeifio heat of J'lV'.thannl vapor - 0.89 Btu/(~F)(lb).
For metbanol vapor,
where ", - he&l trnn~fcr cocffi.c:ient, Btu /(hr)(F)(aq ft) .
klCM. - maIlS trsnsfer codficir.l1t, Ib/ (hr)(1q ft),
(Ib mctha()ol; lb dry &.ir).
3. It is desired 1.<. re move . metMno] from naphtha.lel1c
crysta.iII by paMing them, on a belt, th~ .. cb&mher in
which wann air ill blown countercurrent to the cr)'Itala.
The air, on leavi..nc tbe dryin& ehamber, P"*lII tb~ a
condllfl'er and thenill recircula.ted back into the drier throuP
a bank of !Iteam mils whieh brill& it back to ita orilinal tern
perature. TIle air ill to enter tbe dryinJ; clwnber at 110' F
and with a rnethlnol .(uration of 10 per cent. 1 ~;1 N leave
t he drier at a tempera ture 5 F above i1.3l.diabatic tat.oration
lOmperat-ure. The uystall .enter at 70 F: and may be as-
.sumed to remain at tbe adiabatic u tui'ii.tio" temperature
throu!;:hou~ the pl'OCllS!l and leavo methanol-free.
(a) To what tempernture mWl~ the &ir be cooled In the
oondenller?
(b) If 1000 lb/hr of wet crystal", cOntaining 10 .. eiKh~
per cent rnethancM on the dry baM, el~ the drier, .specify
the volume Q{ air (unde.r C!JDllitiollll at ,.... hich.it entera the
drier)" recirculllt.ed per minute, the heat Mmowd per l.ou.r in
tbe cendenllOf, and the heat added per hour in the lteal, will
 CHAPTER

38

Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer 2

Drying

RYING is usually distinguished irom othor

D
vnri ution in which the solids arc trnMported through
operations, such Ill; evaporat iull, 83 t1w ro the dry ing medium on a belt conveyor. Frequently,
moval of re l a~ivcly small amounts of water ag in I-he d rying of paper ami !t!xtiles, the !,elt itself
from relatively large amounts of solidli int.<> a gas or ')(!Comes the materia] being d ried.
air st,ream. The removal of wator from sol id~ is
similar to the cVllporation of water h, humidifiers
and cooling towers in thl\l. it involves both the
transfer of heat nnd material. Xot only is the I,tans-
fer of heat and material th rough t.he dryi ng med illm
involved but allw the transfer of water through solid
material.

Although many materials may he economically

dried by proper expotlure to the atmosphere, modem
industry usually r~ uire8 more control of the drying
medium and its circulat ion.

Tray or Shelf Dri4!rlJ

Wet solid!! such !lS graJIulll.r material aft! frequently
d ried in t ray or shelf uriql"S (Fig. 5 19) . The wet
solids are placed on t rays or shelvC$ within an en-
closure or cabinet, and the drying med ium is cireu~
lated either across (Fig. 520) or through the trays,
depending on the uature of tne material (Fig. 521 )
unt il lhe desi red dryness hag been reached . The
drie rs may be equipped with dampers and hea ters I FlO. 519. TrllY dncr. (N (ll in...u Dryi~~ JiacAi,,(f'J/ co.)
to control the humidity and temperature of the
operation. Rowry Driers
TNa general type of d rier is frequently designed Gnl.llUlar solld" and some slurries may be dried
Ii<> a continuous unit in which the tray!! are mounted im:lide rotat ing cylinderll IICt at a small angle with
upon t rucks which arc moved continuously through the horizontal (Fig. 522). The material to be dried
lbe drying tunnel. The conveyor-drier is another is fed at the upper end, and the dried mat.crial is

""

 SIi\fULTANWUS HEAT A.~D MASS TRANSFER 2

discharged from the lower end. The rotation of the The large specific surfac~ area of the 1illlB.1l particles
cylinder whi~ -may be equipped with vanes lifts the allow8 the solvent to evaporate quickly, leaving a
solid materiai and drops it through the drying dry product in the form of a powder. The essential
medium to a position each time lower or nearer the components of a spray drier are the (I) means of

FlO. 522. It. d i rect-bea~ oounl.en:UITeD~ rota ry dner.

fluid dispersion, (2) contact of spray and drying

Fla. 520. Diagram ilIust ro ting air drying in 9. tray dri er with
air ciroolating over or IlCro.! the trays IlDd through the heater. mediwn, and (3) recovery of the dried produl" ,.
(NaNmallftving J/ao\i lltT)l Co.) Figure 523 shows one arrangement of parts and the
fl ow or material in a spray drier used for drying a
di!ICMrgo end._ The drying Il'!edium is usually lotrO:' solution or suspension. The direct air heater is
d'ueed at the lower end and' ieaves at the upper end, replaced by an indirect steam heater if the product
flowing countercurrent to the solid. 'The time re-
quired for a particle to pass through a rotary drier
depends upon a number of factors, including t.he
angle of the axis with the horizontal, the lift given

,
FlG. 521. l)illya.m iUu81ra.ting II. t roy drier wilh dryin &ir
cimulalilll through the II'II.YS Illld by.p&SSing lhe hell.ter. FlO. 623. TypicaJ lIpI'6y drier lIIins direo=~ beat and prerIINnI
(National ~III Mac4i~ Co. ) apray noule. ( 8 _ B~porator Co.)

the particle by the rotation, the size and density of must be free of contamination. Air filteN! may also
the particle. and the .velocity of the drying medium. be used. DifJerent arrangements and flow are indi-
cated in Figs. 524 and 525. In !lOme cases the dried
Spray Drier3 product and exhaust air are tiot.h removed from the
&llutions and suspensions which can be pomped ' bottom of the drying chamber, and the product is
may be s prayed into a stream of the drying ffietlium. separated ill a sepamte cyclone.
 EQffiPMENT
The fluid may be dispersed or sprayed by pressure
nozzlell or by centrifugal disk or bowl nozzles. In
preMUre nozt/a the dispel'tlion is obtained by forcing
56'
In the ringle-fluid nozzle, }o'igs. 526 and 527, -t.he
spray is formed by the break-up of the high-velocity
fluid stream upon encountering the surrounding va...
por. Single-Huid nozzles will not, therefore, produce a
spray io a vacuum. Pressure may range from 50 to
10,000 psi, depending 60 the degree of II.tomiza.tion,
the capacity, and the fluid properties. Maintenance
of pressure nozzles is important since erosion will
occur with even the hardest material of COIU!truction,
and, once the orifice hfUl become scratched and non-
uniform, good atomization is no longer ~!ble. As
the orifices are small the danger of plugging by

Dried
mltari.1

FlO. 624. Splll.Y d rier in&tlllbtioD with centrifugal disk

aprayer and !lteu.m-beatOO air. (Niro Co.)

the fluid through a very small orifice at a high veloo-

ity. There are two general types of pressure nozzles,
the single-fluid , ype exemplified in a cmde form by

Drying air admitted at top

(and around periphefy

..,
Ai<
It

\.. 1 \ ....-.,""
F lo. 526. SinglG.Buid p ....
sure sp .... y ltOZZIe. (ScAulk
and Komil'lfl Co.)
FIG. 527. Si",I.,.Ouid
pl'(lll8U.re "Pr.y nonle.
(.8o\ldk Cln4 Komil'lfl
Co.)

foreign matter is always present. Spray charac-

+ teristics of preSsure nozzl~ depend on the pressure
and nozzle orifice size. The pressure drop affeclJl not
only the spray characteristics but the capacity as
well. If it is dcsired to reduce the amount of liquid
""'"S
chamber sprayed by .reducing the pressure drop, then ,the
Cyclone for spray may become coarser than dcsired. To correct
removinll fines
this a smaller orifice would be inserted. Tho use of
multiple nozz.les tends to overcome t his inflexibw
""do characteristic of pressure atomization, although
discharae
F IG. 525. Spray drier with diroot hoat and oentrirugal di!k
several nozzles in a drier complicate the chamber
'Prayer with d ryilll air &dmittcd Ilt top aroUBd peripbet'y. design and the air flow pattern and will cause colIiaion
(8 _ E"9irtriJt4 Co.) of particles, resulting in nonunifonnity of spray and
particle size.
t he ordinary garden hose, and the twO-fluid nozzle In a lwo-ftuid awmizing notzle the liquid is de-
which is illustrated loy a paint sprayer or a perfume livered to the nozzle and dispersed by an impinging
atomizer. stream of gas. The two-thUd nOlzles .:>perate at.-
562 SIM ULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
relatively low pressures, the liquid being introduced
at pressures up to about 60 peig while the atomizing
ftuid is under only slightly greater pre&'!ures. The
atomizing fl uid is usually steam or air. Atomizers
of this type are classified as either outside mi:<crs or
"inside mixers. An example of outside mi~ing ill the
Fm.628. Centrifupl diU: sprayer. (Bowen Enqinuring Co.)
impingemel.it of a horizontal jet of compressed air
on a stream of liquid issuing slowly from a vertical
t ube. The perfume atumizer is an inside mixer.
The use Of low p rel:!8uroa is in itself an advantage,
and the large orifices make for low maintenance cost
oo!llpared ....,th tne sing\e-fl,uid type.
Pressure nozzleS produce a relatively wide range
of particle d.ires. T his cllaracteristic may be unsatis-
factory from t he standpoint of sales appeal and may
lead to losacs t-hrougb excessive dustiness or fines.
Sinee ~oa.rsc particles dry more slowly Ullm fine
particles, thc throughput of tI. d rier is controlled by
the time required to dry the laCgcst particles. I
the coarsest. pll.i"ticle il:I satisfactorily dried, I' ': smaller
droPs will have rcmaiued in t he drier for Il.Il exces-
sively long period. The capacity of the d rier would
be greater if the spray particles were of it. unifonn
size just smal1er than the largest partiele found in
the spray of a wide range in sizes.
Cenlrifugal. did: ato'tliuTI, Fig. 528, disperse or
atomize liquids by causing them to become extended
on the disk intothin sheets which are d ischarged into
thc !!uITOumling hot gases a.t hig"- speeds from the
periphery of the rapid ly rotat ing, specially designed
disk. The prineipal objectives in disk. designs are
t{l illilllre bringing the liquid up to disk speed before
it leaves the disk and to obtain a unifOiTIl size dis-
tribution in the atomized liquid. Disk diameters
may range from 2 in. in. ema.llla\>oratory models to
12 to 14 in. for commereial driers. In one design a
32in. wheel is uSed with the liquid Bowing through
the spokes of the wheel to tl:.e periphery. Disk
speeds rll.llge from 3000 to 50,000 rpm, depending
upon the diameter. Large drienl usually use disk
speeds from 6000 to 12,000 rpm, corresponding to
about 7000 to 12,000 rpm peripheral velocity.
Centrifugal disk atomization is particularly advan-
tageous for atomizing suspensions and pastes which
would plug nozzles or cause exce;"oi.ve erosion. Thick
pastes can be handled, ' although special pumping
methods may be required to feed them on to the disk.
Disks have considerable Bexibility, being capable of
operating over a rather wide range of feed rates and
disk speeds wit hout producing too variable a product
and generally produce larger particles than spray
noz:des. Nozzles must operate at rather fixed condi-
tions to Kive a specified product, but the smaller
particles dry more quickly , thereby increasing t he
capacity of the d rier and prcveilting overheating of
t he particles during drying.
The oonlact between the 8pray and the drying medium
may be a.ceomplil!hed in a duet or chamber whose
shape depends largely upon the shape of the spray
and whose size depends upon the velocity of t he
particles and their drying times. The centrifugal
disk atomizer t.hrows a more or less circula.r spray
with the particles moving in a direction tangent::!l
to the circumference of the disk. Such a spray
requires a circula r cha.mber of sufficient diameter
and dept h to pennit the particles to become dry
bef(..re re.~h i llg the circumrerenoc, or bot tom, of the
chamber. Pressure nozzles m"y be designed to give
sprays of different shapes and t herefore permit a
wider rWlge in shapes a.nd sizes of the dryllig cham-
 EQUIPMENT
bel'. In BOme cases relatively small cylinders can be
"""".The gases entering a spray drier may flow down
around the atomizer (Fig. .525) or be introduced
beneath the atomizer (Fig. 524) when the latter is a
centrifugal disk, combined, in BOrne designs, with
tangential flow into the chamber from sM:le in1ets
(Fig. 525). Countercurrent flow is difficult to use
with the disk type of atomizer because of the fiat
or horizontal particle trajectories it produces. In
the case of noz;r:les, the direction of flow may be
co- or count.er-(urrent to the spray, or a oombinati..m
of both, because of the more nearly vertical particle
trajectories.
Tht drying-medium may be the product of combus-
tion from oil-, g.a.s-, or coal-fired furnaces, or waste
gases from plant boiler houses, or it may he air or
other gas heated by indirect steam heaters or indirect
ooal-fireQ heaters. Inlet gas temperatures may be
0
&8 high as 1400 F .
Some designs may provide cooling air to enter
around the chamber, wet dust collectors to recovel'
exoossively fine dust, and air sweepers or mechanical
rakes to rem'ove dry pnxluct from within the cham-
ber. These last are essential for continuous removal
of dry product from a flat-bottom drier. Wherever
sufficient headroom is available and particularly
when the product is sensitive to beat and should be
removed from the drier &8 soon &8 it is dry, the cone
bottom drier is preferred. In BOme case8 the dried
product may all be carried along with the exit gases
and recovered in a separate device.
Spray drying is useful if a unifonn powdery prod-
uct is desired, as the ~raying in the process breaks
up the feed into smaIl partieles which then dry
individually. Materials whiCh are heat sensitive
are often spray dried because the residence time
in the drying chamber is short. Moreover, the rate
of transfer is sufficiently high 80 that the incom-
ing hot air is cooled quickly IUld the zone of high
temperature is relatively small. Spray drying
tlBually results iD a finely divided pnxluct; conse-
quently the process may acev..!plish both drying and
pulverizing in a single operation and it often elimi-
nates the, nocd for a grinding operation that might
necessarily follow another method of d rying. The
unifonnity and the good appea'ra nce of the product is
often of considerabl ~ importance in t hc selection
of It spray drier.
Spray driers have been used for drying many
cben:icaJs, resins , pigments, soaps, miscellaneous
by-prociucte, and wa.stes. Because of the 'short
exposure of the material to high temperatures, spray
driers are common in the food industries- for mate-
rials such 88 milk, eggs, soups, and st.arches.
This type of equipment is also readily adaptable
to processes in which mf188 transfer is absent 'or
negligible and ooly heat transfer is of any conse-
quence, &8 in the solidification or crystallization of
liquids such 'M sulfur or molten metals.
The design of a spray drier must include considera-
tion of the rate.s of dryillg of the particles, the tra-
jectory of the particles, and the pattern of flow Ot
the drying medium in the drying cbamber. The
time required for drying will determine the necessary
residence tune of a pa.rticle in a drier. The gas flow
patterns and the particle trajectories win, in tum,
define the residence time. The residence time (or
drying may be computed by the methods outJi..ed
in this chapter if the physical properties alld particle
size of the spray are known. The particle trajectories
and residence time may be computed by the methods
described in Chapter 7 if the gas propertitlS and the
particle sizea are known.
Unfortunately, lit tl e is known of the particle 8ile
distribution of sprays, and either. pilot-plant expe-
rience or empirical methods are usually relied upon
to design spray-drying equipment.
The first calculation to make in designing a spray
drier is an estimate of the ratio of hot air to feed .
This may be done approximately by making an
energy balance on the basis of the weight of water
to be evaporated from I Ib of feed Bnd the known
or desired temperatures of the streams in and out oI
!.he drier. The desired moisture content of the prod-
uct should then be checked by 8.88uming the vapor
pressure of water in the exit prod,u ct equal to the
partial -pressure of water in the exit gas, and appro-
priate revisions made for increasing (or decreasing)
the air-feed ratio to obtain1be desired product. The
energy bll.lance is then repeiited. on the basis of tile
revised exit conditiolls to ,check or determine the
required temperature of inlet air, making any allow-
ance for heat 1013:5 from the drier.
The capacity or size of the drier depends upon the
path of the particles being dried and the time re-
quired to dry the largest particles. Usually no
definite information is available about either ol these
important variables, and it'is necessary to estimate
t he time required to dry the wet par:ticlc.s in a manner
which is little more than a gueM, unless the results
of piloto-plant tests on the material t.o be dried are
 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
available. As a crude blU!is for a preliminary guess
of the "residence time," the following expressions
are oITered as a rough guide.
For disk sprays,
For pressure spray nozzles,
where td or tp = residence time of the feed (or drying
gas) in the drier (sec).
LIS ... mass ratio of water to solids in feed.
These reLationships were indica.ted from an inspec-
tion of about forty tests on commercial driers from
10 to 18 ft in diameter and were based on the as-
sumption that the residence time of the particles in
the drier was equal to the residence timc of the gases
at their average temperatures. This is equivalent to
assuming that the particles are distributed radially
through the gas and flow axially with the gas down
or up) through the drier,
l<m. 5:;'9. A dO'Jble drum drier, atmospheric pre!l/:lure. (Buftooak Equipment, Llivisit>ll oJl1lnw Knw Co .)
The required residence time as estimated aboye
may. be assumeq to vary directly with the diameter
of the largest particles produced by the spray. The
values for t.J or lp estimated in this way should be
multiplied by 2 or 3 for those materials which form
large drops or particles, and it may be ne:cessary to
multiply Id by 5 or more in extreme cases.
It is always necessary to provide sufficient distance
in the line of the particle trajectory to enable the
particles to become dry before striking any surface.
Drllm or Roller D',-iers
All or part of the heat required for drying may be
supplied directly to the material being dried. The
drum drier, Fig. 529, is one example of such a device
which is wiJcly UBCd for drying a variety of fluids
and suspensions. The fluid is spread in a thin film
upon the outer surface of a heated, rotating drum.
As the drum !"otates the fluid becomes dried by
evaporation of the solvent and is removed from the
drum as the drum moves past a knife or scraper. As
the drying is accomplished in thin films which remain
in the heated zone for relatively short periods, this
type of drier is suitable for handling heat-sensitive
prooucts.
 EQUIPMENT 50S

~,Jttl~ ~ '
FIG. 530. T1ri.n drum dip-
feed drier. Tbe eoIut.ion
fed into the ahaliow paD b&-
low the dl"lJJlU. The liquid
level is adj\l.S~ and con-
trol'ed "" tbe.t dl'UIIll! pia u~
'.be~ quantity olaJURy.
',De knivee Ill'Il Iow.tI to
provide the nuu::imum dryirli
.. tw.. (Buftow/c Equipffl$ni,
Di~m of Blaw Knr:n; CQ.)
FIo.63I . Twin drum eenter-
feed drier. The lIOIution is
fed directly OOt1Veell the
drumll and ia retained by end
boarde. Center feed 18 ree-
ommended when & product of
hiYI moiatum CODtent and
0081'!1e pnular IItl'\lctUI't! is
de!:l.ind. (Bujf-u: Equip-
nunl, DiuitiOft of BMW Kmn
Co.)
Flo. 632. Twin drum i!plastp Fro. 533. Twin dnmi eenter
feed drier. 8y impit\cing the feed. drier with l(lreader rolls.
wet material OD the bot (BIif/""llk Eqllipmtllt, Divi
druD'Ul, the tendency of some Ilion of B/.Qw.((noz Co.)
&urrye to be repelled by
bee.t.ed IlUrfaooe it overcome,
and ee.pa.citie. may be in-
<:~. (BwftocW; Equip.
mmt, Dil'in- of B/.Q1tI K~
Co.)

Flo. 634. Double drum driet FIO.~ . Double drum drier Flo. 636.. Sin&Ie drum drier FlO. s.n. Vaouum drum
with perforated pipe r. with pendulum feed. (B~ with 'Pray film feed, (B")1o- drier with p611 rMld, (Bu)fo-
(B...,floI:uk RquipmmU, Divi- mk Equi))ll'lt'ftl, Dinmn of IlfCLt Equipment, pirMirm of Mk EvujpIMrn. DirMi<m oj,
lien of Blaw Knvz Co.) Blaw Kno;c: C~.) B/.Qw Knoz Co.) BlaUl KOO'l! Co.)

Because of drying in a thin film , products are re-

moved as flakes, which in many ca.o;es enhances the
"salc5 appeltl" of the material. The drynel!8 of the
,.
product may he ea.'Iily controlled by the temperature
and Ute speed of t!:.e drums. As illustrated by Figs.
529 to 538, there are many varia.tions of drum driers
which have been developed for varying services.
For example, dip feeding (Fig. 530) is not satis-
factory for suspensions of solids wb.ich are apt to
settle; trough or overflow feeding (Figs. 533 and 534)
to the t,op of a. drier is better in this case. For certa.in
materials which do not adhere well to the heated
surface, a more foroeful method of feeding, either
by splashing (Fig. 532) or spraying (Fig. 536) is used.
If a. 008.1'8e, granular PrOOuct with a. high moisture
content (up to 25 per cent) is desired, spreading rolls
may be used in con'j unction with center feeding
FlO. 638. Vaeuum double drum driPr with pendulum feed .
. '
(Fig. 533). (Bvftotook Eq!>ipmml, ~ of BlaID K_ Co.l
... SDIULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANS~ '2

The drumll may be operated in the open at ... tmo&- indicates the water content of, the slab (f!XP~
pberic pret:l8Ufe or may be totally l..'IIcl<JSed for -as pounds of water per pound of water-free solid) as
vacuum operationl:l or I:IOlve nt recovery (Figs. 537 a function of t he drying rate (expressed as pounds
and 538). of water per hour pr pound of water-free aolid).
This is a typical drying rate curve. Slich a CUrl't':
JlltCUum Dr-!r. may be divided into 8e\-"eral distinct periods 8S the
.AJ5 hlUl been indicated the dmm drier may be
operoted und(>f a vacuum to deerelllle the tempero.-
ture required to vap()rize til(! l!Olvent from -thl?
solution on the druml:l. (n the case of air circulating C' R~' ------------- --- --~
this lowering of the required temperature is altaioN.1 ! R LR, - - ------- ---.---,..:: ..... :
1.... ___ ...1 _
by circulating more air (or decreasing the fl'ed) 1<1
lower the partial pressure.of the solvent. In other-
t Ro, ,
I
,
,
CMea where the solvent mU$t be recon~red, or for ~~ I I
other reasons, yacuum drying may be desirable in ~ ,
I .

COl.nection with driers which supply heat directly R. I

I
to the material being dried. The vacuum tray drier I
c'Jnsists of a chamber, capable of supporting a R,
vacuum, equipped with shelves through which hest- x'~.<."ECX".----Cx".---Cx".---cxO.-.-x".
ing (or cooling) fluids may be circulated for supplying Total MoiIit~r. Content. X. Ib/lb
the necessary hps.t to the material to be dried which FIG. 53!). Typi",,1 drying CUT\e 00 Ihe b:1~ii of toh. lm(JVlture
may be placed in trays on the shelves or on the oonten~.

ahelves directly.
Frt%u drving consists in freezing the material and
drying it, in the frozen state, usually in a vacuum
drier. '111e material may be frozen quickly outside
Itw. drier or on the shelves or the drier by circulating
a cooling medium through the shelves and jacket
of the drying chnmber. When frozen , vacuum is
applied and a heat-6Upplying medium is circulated
to IIl1pply the required latent heat of vaporization
II the evaporating solvent but not sufficiently wann
to melt the frozen product. Freeze drying hu been
found of advantage in drying many heat-sensitive
rr.aterials, particularly in smail quantities, and in
preserving the flavor in dried foods.
MECHANISM OF DRYING SOLIDS
Consider the drying of a porous, insoluble material
such as sand in an insulated tray. The surface of
thE sand is exposed to a drying medium such as hot
dry air pa88ing over the surface. All the heat te'"
quired for the Vaporization of the water and the
heating of the 80lid ("slab") is supplied directly by
heat transfer to the slab from the hot drying medium.
If the drying medium passes over the sllih at. a suffi-
cient velocity 10 that its temperature, humidity, and
velocity are virtually unaffected by the transfer of
water vapor frolo the slab to the drying medium,
data are obtained .. plotted lo VIC. 539 which
moisture content of the slab is reduced from the
high initial value 00 its final value, as follows.
Ptriod 10 An initial period during which the
drying rate may increase or decrease rapidly from
an initw value. 111i~ period is of relativcly short
duration and in some experiments ~y be un~
servable.
Period I . An early stage of drying during which
the drying rate remains at a constant value.
Period 11. A period of drying during which the
drying rate decre8..'le!!, more or less linearly with the
continued decrease in the water content.
Ptriod Ill. A.stage of drying immediately follow-
ing Period II but not always clearly distinguishable
from it, during which the drying rate decreases more
or less linearly with decreasing wat.er content, but
in general at a different MY! than during Period II.
On prolonged drying under constant conditions of
the drying medium, t.he rate at which the slab is
dried becomes zero. The limit to which the water
content can be reduced by drying for an infinite
length of time is known as the equilibrium moisture
",nI<nt.
The equilibrium nwUture CQlllclit. X" is the limit
to which a given material can he dried by means of
a drying medium of given temperature, hun:aidity,
etc. It is determined by the nature of the soOd
material, the t.empn...rature of the drying medium, aDd
 MECHANIS~I OF DRYING SOLIDS 56T
lhe-par'~ia1 pressure of \Vater vapor in the drying Heat is transferred to the relatively oold wet sur-
medium. face of the slab from the relatively hot dryiD&
The relationship even for IL given solid material medium. Thil! heat. raises the temperature d the
is exceedingly complex and in general must be water in Lhe ,slab to the temperature at which
determined experimentally. Typical equilibrium evaporation take8 place and su.pplies the latent heat
moisture relationships for various humidities are !Jf vaporization. This heat also serves to increase the
MOwn in F'lg, MO. The equilibrium moisture con~ o.JO
tents at any given humidity of the drying medium II
may vary widely, depending upon the type of mate- 02 S
du. A nonporous highly insoluble material may 0'
have an equilibrium moisture content of practically
IefO, whereas some organic materials such all soaP. 0,2 I
10, I
~-
leather and wood have equilibrium moisture contents 2
~t may vary over exceedingly wide ranges, 'depend--
$." i
ing upon the temperature and humidity of the drying
~ i
medium. The water that makes up the equilibrium
j::
S
II
I
i!-
/ '7
~V
moisture content 0[ a given solid may be adsorbed
on the solid, it may' be held by capillary forees in
the pores of the solid, or it may be in chemical com- J O.14
bination with the solid.
j 0.12 / j V
The free moUture content F is tbe differen~ be-
tween the total moisture content. X and the equililr V V
~
10.10
rium moisture content X*, expressed as pounds of
JO.08 /
watu per pound of dry solid.
1/
p _ X - X" (605) "" "'::: V
;~
For a given total moisture content X, the free ."
.., ,
moilJture content F will be a function of the same
variables .. the equilibrium moisture content X*. o """
un.
'Ibe value of free moisture OOIltent is mea.ningiess
the conditions of temperature and partial
pre88llre of water vapor in the drying medium are
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RNtNe Humldi\y,,,
Flit. 640. Equilibrium moisture content of VllrioulJ materiaL!.

atated and tbe value of the equilibrium moisture
coatent is known.
UBUa1ly, the value of the equilibrium moisture
content is 6tnall compared to the total moisture con-
tent, 80 that the variation in free moisture content
with t.be temPFrature and humidity of the drying
medium is alsO small. ..'be drying rate data are
frequently plotted on the basis of a free ltlO\sture
content rather than a total moistut'C conten~because
the dryiug rate of a given ma\crial at a constant
temper.ture and humidity of the drying medium
b8comes aero at a zero free moisture oontert.
PeriGd 10 is e8genti~lya period of unsteady
operation during which the drying conditions within
the slab are adjusting themse1ves to the steady state
fe))ft!8ented by Period J.
When the , slab is initially cold, i.e., below the
adiabatic saturation temperature of the drying
mediW!l., the mechanism may be uplained as follows.
surface temperature and ave~ temperature of the
slab. During this ProCess. evaporation of the water
from the surface of the slab ~to the drying medium
takes place under the influence of the driving poten-
tial of the difference in the vapor presaure of the
water on the surface of the slab and. the partial pl'ftl-
sure of the water vapor in the drying medium.
As this process continues, the increase in the
surface temperature causes a corresponding increase
in the evaporation rate and a decrease in the rat.e a\
which heat is transferred-to the slab. After a rela-
tively short time, the rate of heat tna.nsfer becomes
equal to' the heat required for evaporation, and the
rate of evaporation reaches a eonstant value at ap-
proximately the wet.-bulb temperature.
When the slab is initially hotter than the wet-
bulb temperature of the drying medium, the mecha-
nism of adjustment is similar except that the latent
heat requirement is greater t.han that tranafflrftd
 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
to the slab and the drying rate decreases to the steady .AS the drying prooess Jl'"OOI!edI. 1\ time will be ruaobo;,d
condition. when the menisci nt the IO"lrer ends of the 11"8.wr oolUffin in
IIny lIystem (If inll!rconnecting pMS&geIl. are. in guDl!nJ., abouL
Under special conditioll8' wbere the init ial tern
the /lame IIize all the ~mal lest cross acel;on of t he surface (lpen-
perature of tbe slab is at the adiabatic saturation inp., a nd water ..ill no longer 00 dra""11 to the lIulfaoe through
temperature o f the drying medium, no initial varying these~"
rate period is observed, the drying sLart ing with a
With the above mecbaniam of transfer of water
constant drying rate.
through the solid , the critical mois ture content it;
Period I , the OOIlstant dryingrate period, begins at
a function not only of th~ material being d r ied bur
the free moisture content FI and ends at the critical
al80 its thickness and the rate at which it is dried.
m oisture content F 2 as shown in Fig. 539. It i:;
Duri1~ the c:on~t8nt rate period the wet :mrface of
characterized, by a unifonn rate of drying and a
the solid behuves 81:1 a free water s urface in that the
constant l!!Urface and interior temperature of the
water on ~he surface exerta a pressure equal to the
slab "'hen in an insulated tray. It is the steadystate
vapor preSBure of water at the surface temperll-
perioCl. reached at the 'end of Period ro. ture p.. ,
The HCriod continues as long as water is supplied
Thus, for a drying medium of a given temperature
to the sdrface of the slab all rapidly as evaporation
takC$ place. When the rate at which water is sup-- '1'" partial prel-l.'lure of wllter vapor p, and .velocity,
plied to the surface of the slab becomes les9 t~an the
the drying rate may be expressed "", . ,.
rat~ at which evaporation cu.:) occur, the rate of dX .
drying decreases fWd Period r of constant rate drying - - = k,M ,(pO - p) (600)
terminates. Thus the duration of the constant rate
A'"
Similarly, the rate of heat transfer may I.>e written
period depends directly upon the mechanism by
which wllter is transmitted within tbe 8Olid.
In the drying of porous, insoluble solids, the mech-
,
- - (h, + h.)(T, - TJ (607)
A
a.nism of liquid wlLter tl'"9.llsfer from the interior to the
surface Ilppears to be by capillary action.- It is where la. and hr "" heat transfe r coefficients by COll-
aasumed that surface menisci of l!nlall radii exert vection and rodiution, respec-
81.fficient 'capillary {oree to draw water through ti vely .
intricate in~rior pass3ges ending in gas-wat.er inter- T. "'!" temperature of solid s urface.
faces of large radii.
Since the temperat ure of the surface is conl:ltant
The .ater dre.lnl to t.he swfaoe ;. flIllftIIIIUiJy n!pkced by du ring the COll8[&IIt rate period, assuming that the
air . hic:h enterl! the IOIW throuah the larger ~ con- enthalpy increase of the water vaporized' il:I equal to
neeto:d with Ihe k\rllr open.inp a t the .,.uface. Because of
the enUlplic:aled int.eroonncel.in, rm-ga beae&th the lJUrtace,
the latent heat.,
it i.J PQ8IIible for the ncceeaary air to ent.er thrOl,lJl;h a n!l&tively k,M.(p - p) _
(h, + h.) (T, - T;) (608)
("w ,ufflce (lpeninlP' and thU8 {(lr tbe, mob!ture concentration
l"IIJar the .urface to remain rebitively hilh.. .. The water and
'r,
...ilI continue to rille to the 8Urfl(.!t! through any ey>!tem of
interoonnec:\lng JlD'I$8gil' until all of the variOUll! IllIinil!ei at p - p" -
he + hr (T, .- T,) (609)
the lo .....er cndl cf the water column have the I!8.IllIl radiUII of k,M')'r,
eurvat\ln! BII the amall In(lniaci at the eurfa(.!t! from which
It is a.pparimt tha.t equa.tion fJ09 is identical to the
evapc~tion ill )-akin&: place. When this etage i, reached, I
small amount of eVRp<lI"ati(ln from the mrfaoe menisci may wet-bulb temperature equation 582. It may be
!"eIIult in a rctreBt (I( ttiese Burface menisci into pIlSS&gll8 of concluded, therefore, that when material is drying.;
3maller C~ mion, .anl.l the increaacd capillary telllliun is during the &Instant rate period in insulated trays,
RUffioient to draw alldit:.on!ll water. to the lJUlfaee. [t is the surface temperature is the wet-bulb temperature
pDeIljble. in faet, f(lr the iocreaaell tellllion caWled by this of the drying medium. .
..ttN.t of the IUrfllce meoiBei to draw !lOme of the moni!!ci
~ . the lower eude of the wat.et column through the na.JTO'fI" Period I I , the first falling ra.te period, starts at
O<ll>iltrietiont in\.Q la.tgtr cavities and thUII reduoe the tellllion the free ml)1sture content F2 and ends ILt F3 (Fig.
nereoosary to eauee mo~ment to",ard the IUrf&oe. The me- 539). It is cbllrncteri.r.ed by a decreasing rate of
nisci in tile p&aages at \hoe surface oon then nee to tbe fot"l"lle evaporation which rosulta from tho' spot-wise reoos"
ptvoitio .... and the p , , - eu rontinU&.
sion of the evaporation surface into the first layen
T he bibli.JVaflhy f()l" tbie ehapter IIppetU1l (II) p. 575.. of the stock, lrith the consequent expo!\ure of small
 CALcuLI\.TION!)
radii of curvature. The momentarily undiminished determine the time required and the tray area. At
neat supply caullCS an increase in the temperature t.he present time, except in rare cases, it is neeeasary
at the receded zone of evaporation. This tempera- to have a reasonably complete aeries of drying data
ture appJ"()Mhes a changing equilibrium value deter- relating the time required to dry the material in
mined primarily by the radii of curvature of the layers of known thicknesa u~der cerla.in drying
menisci slightly below the surface. As drying pro- conditions. The details of such calculations are
ceeds, the fractional surface area accounted lor by iUustrated by the foUowing examples..
the receded water menisci increa.ses to unity and
D1u,trat!.... Eprnpl.. (lnlul. ted Tray.). It ill ~
the frac t.ion of " wetted surfa:le" decreases to zero. to det.ennine the toWJ. time required to dry I!IaDd oonttJnint;
At trus time, all evaporation becomes subsurface M .O per cent water (dry bui. ) to .. final moisture content of
and Period II terminates. 0.377 per oont water (dry basie) by p~ng air at 60" C, with
The second critical moisture content Fa, like the a reI.tlv....tumtion of 10 per cen t over the BUnsee of the
first PI, is not only a " property" of the stock but is IIIUld, at a veloci.ty 01 10 meten/ Bee. The dry Mnd hu a
denei ty of 1.38 p;ana/~ The sand ill to be dried in layel'l
dependent also upon d rying rate and st ack t~ickness. 6 tJ1l thick in insulated tnlyt, .nd it orill be MllUmed tbat the
Pn'Wd Ill, the 8C00nd failing rate period, starts sand is init iaJ.ly .t the wet-bulb lem perature of the Air.
at F8 when capiUary flow to the surface has E :rperimentll in the- labora1otY have resulted in the dat,a
ce8.l!ed _,M and continues, un<'ier prolonged time, to 8hown in Fige. 541 and &12, and the fact that the ra t.e of
F - 0, when t.he stock is at its equilibrium moisture oA
content X." This pcrioci is characterized throughout
by subsr ~ evapo--:ation from a continuously re-
cedin{: phWe, and by t he necessity for the heat for i,
-:t~
//V
evapo:ation to penetrate increa8ing thickness of
partially dried stock. The surface of t he stock
approaches, bui; does not reach, the temperat.ure of
the drying gases T, . The temperature at the reoed-
.2 ,~
ing plane of ,evapqration app~Oaches a changing
equilibrium value determined primarily by"thendii 1 I /
o ~V
of the exposed menisci.
The oDeTOll drying procc3I may include aU periocis
or only parts of one or more, depending upon the
initial and final moisture content!!. Although the o 10 20 30
rates uf heet. tramsfer , rate!! of mass transier, and the Aver. Ptreellta&e oi Water
heat and material balances may be set up it:. mathe- FIG. 64 1. Dryifl&: rate!! of Mnd M detcnnined in layerfl of
different thicknelR!, dryiIli from the top surface only.-
matical form for all periocis, the mathematical
equat ions are of little practical utility because dryina duriq: the OOllIItant rate period ia oorrelated by equ.s-
virtually no datA on ''ly of the important proper- t.ion 6 10. T he equilibrium moisture con tent of 8&lld l . neJIj-
ties cd rate coefficients are avauable and the solu- ';bIe. Tile dry;fl&: rate ill
tion of the mathematical relationships wowe!' be too dX
complicaied IUld tedious for practical use. R - - Adi - O,~'(p - JI) (610)

where R - the dryiIltt rate [grall)s/ (hr)(sq em).

CALCULATIONS
As our understanding and knowledge of mass and
energy transfer improves, better design of drying
equipment is po88ible. But. in all C4SC$ the dry-
ing properties of the material must be determined, or
known,
Troy Drier.
In designing tray driers and operations to be
conducted in tray driers, it i.a usually desired to
I' - air velocity (metel'l/IIe<!).
p. - plU'ti1l1 p"""ure of w.ter . t the drying 1IUrf_
(rom Hg) .
1> - part.W ~ of wstu In the ail (mm Hg).
A _ dryinc ......ace area pu unit mIIIl8 of dry tIOlid
(IIQ em/a mm).
Solution. Too data of Fig. $41 an! interesting in that the
t.hn)e important stllges of dryitli are clcarly evident" and the
eritica] mol. t un. contents !leparatlnll t he period.!! lITe markedly
dependeM u pon the thiekneall of t he layer of S&nd beina dried.
Durina the DIlDSt.aDt rRte period t he 1'IUl"fa.re of ' the IIIUIdo
ft'mair>a we t even though the moisl.ure content 00. a dry-
570 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
weicht baait ill dimi";.hi.., The lint eritkal. poiat _oceun Water removed durill, the constant ~te ~riod
.ben the ....t'_ water film ~ .CId eJ;~ a gaduaHy
reduced auf&CII to enporalioo wi!.ll eorreepoodia&\y redueed - (8.25)(O.M - 0.2''')
ral.e of ~ The KnIct.uJ'e of the 'nter film duritt& .. 1.13 ,rama/1Q em
tbi, periI is _timea refened to ... the funicu!u state. . _. -' . . 1.13
Anoli>e- breUt ill the dJyina eurve may OC<lur ..ben continuity T l1lle requl""", dllPlnc the oonstant rate period .. -
0.40
of the water lilfll. DO kloaer maintained in the water "'oovd
bet'll"eea tbe &JIIinl, t he -ned pendulu llta,tfl, &nd t he .. 2.82 hr
IlUtfllooe <rtwater evapon.tin,: begins to, retreat .progressively StC01W dr1li"q ptriod. Since the rate of dryin, i, a function
~ the lIWfaoo of t he sand. of the moiMturc content. the rate eqWltion for . different;&!
When the and is dryiog from the bot((lm 8U1fa.ce only, increment of .time m&y he obtained from eqUAtKm 611.
Jivinc the data IIhown in Fig. 50402, the n.t.e of dryiDi remains
l'OMtant until the peodular mat.e hu been reacbed throughout
the cntiro 1t.yet'. The pendulr.t lltal.e IJtartt firIt At the top L 'cil .. _ .!. r x ' dX
(lit I )
o A J K, Il
wrf~, the effect of cravil&t.looa1 loreee 1WI.iDt.ainin the
bntlQltl.eurf&el! v.-el unti l the pendula:r "Uile bas ~ reached For t.he IOOOnd period R ia a liDeAr Function of X . Therefore,
Q indi ealoo in Table 4!J, p. 428, the Loprithmie mean ia the
os ~t II'II,!an value of It to UI!C in evlllu.tin, equation 6 11 Q

~llo.4
folio",...
,_ (~) X, - XI (612)
A RI",
4 --
1 i Time required for thl' $Crond period,

.~
N
f-Ii'/ III I
I 0 .2U - 0.0475
t .. {8.28) OAO _ 0.\26 ..
(8.28)(0.214 - 0.0475)
0.238 .. 5.81 hr-
"
j J!
.#
"I~
I
I
I~

,
.OAO
2.303 I"" 0.126

.I! I ~ - II,, 0.' 26

I
I
Third drvi"9 period. Sinee R is a linea:..- fuoctioo. 01 X
d urin& the third period and sinne the equil ibrium mot.t.ure
cont"nt, X, i. aero, the rate at .. moi.al~ OOIlteot of 0.377
.1......, I~ per OOlIt (dry ba.si.&) ..ill be (1100 Fig. 542)

I/!~ 1 1
I I 0.126 )
I I R - ( 0.0475 o.coon .. om
0
o 10 20 30 40 Thc1'l'fore, from equ&tion 612 the time reQuired for the third
Aver.ge Pel"(:.n~p of Watllr
period,
Flo. 642. Drying rnt.es for moo in laY<lf (j (In thick, drying 0.0475 - 0.00377
j - (8 .28) _ 6 .06 hr
from the bottom only.- 0.126 O.ot

throo&bout the IIIlDd &bow. For lhill re&IIOD lea l ime is 2.303 log 0.126
o.Ot
required "ben dryicg from t be bottom than ", hello drying
from the top, other eoodiliona renloltining the 1IIllIIII'l. T he to,a! ti lne required is 2.82 + 5 .80 + 6 .06 _ 14.68 hr.
C~ raU period. At 60 C, aod 10 per omt humidity,
the 'II'Ct../)ull> t.empen.ture 01 air ill 00,11 0 C, and the de .... point If tho rsa.nd " eft) dried from the bottom only, under the lame
iI: ~.6 C. Tlx.,refuI'l', durin&: the Ct.l~lllnl, rate period, conditions, the time for the constant rate Ill'I'iod would be
(8.28)(0.35 - 0.0475)
Partial pre!1SUre of water- at the !urf~oo
t .. 0.40 .. 6.28 hr
0
_ Vapor preJlllure of water at 30.6 C
The time \'equired for tho final period wou\d be the same
- 32.6 mm II,
III!that in the previous calculation, or 6 .06 hr. ThUll the total
Partial pnlIIKlln'l of water in the a ir tiroo f'I:~ lUjred ..ouId be 6.28 + 6.06 - 12.34 hr.
- Vapor p~re of water at al.6C If the aand WtlC dried from both tbtl top and the bo\lom
;.. 18.0 mm II, simultaneously,
Rate 01 drying - (O.OOf33)( loG.I)(32.6 - 18.0)
'nme for ton $(ant n.te period
8.28(0 .36 - 0 .21t)
_ 0.(0 gram/(hr)(eq em) .. 1.41 hr
0.4 +0.4
Dry aDd per unit of drying ISUrface .. (1.38)(6.0) 8.28(0.214 - 0.(476)
Time for ICcond pniod .. 2.16 hr
_ 8.28 gralt1$/ 1IQ 'em o f _ 0.4 + 0.2;$8
 CALCULATIONS S7l
The heat of vaporiatton includinc _pen-I .. 1068
rime f~ t hird period - 3.93hr
Btu/ lb at 87 F. 1lle eon'eIIponWng heat tn.IIafer eoe. . . .t
fmm alr to the wett..rt I!IJrflLCe 18 therefore
Total time _ 7.50 hr
(0.84)(1068\
1I1""tr.tl.. e Ex.... ple (Unlnsula ted Tray.). Althouglt A... 14() 87 .. 16.9 Btu / {hr)("F)(Mj It)
labOl _~ory experimenta designed to eo!Iabllah dryilll rate
curvl)$ a n!! U8I.I&I1,y earned out 'I\<i t h t rays t hat are insu1a.ted \Vi th heal fIowinc inlo the bottom of the tray, the It'lftPl"''"
apin.~t heat tnl.lwer Ofl all nondrying surf__ , iD commernial
ture (If t he . 00 riSCl! above t he .... et-bu lb tetnper>olti"" of t~
pr-ac:t~ unillllllll.ted t ray. arc used . air. -rlu! totlll ",Ie of heal lran~"t to IIIl' c""V'oI'lIlin& !lUda.,..
II ie deairW to determine the time needed to dry a gJ'IInular dil'l!<'tly from t he sir and 'rom t he air th''l>UKh Ilk> 1""3' to the
maleriall in. thick from 35.0 per cent to 10.0 per ClJut moistunl 8urface is
(dry basis) in a tn.y drier. The ~ock ill to be dried by blO'l\<ing q T. - Tj
air horizont&lly over the top surface, with the Ut at average - .. 1a.(T, - TJ
..
+---
I
(614)
conditions of 140" F, 10 per cent relative 8lltur&tion, and a -+
I!~
-k,
Vf!locity of 1900 fpm. The st.oek is to bI:! pla.red in large
iJUvaniled iron tl'ays ..... it h uninsuJa.d bol t0m4e:rplltlCd 10 the wbene ~ is the heat tra MJet coefficien t by CQO Wd.ion .
aif nream IU\d -is ir,it ia'l prehe.ted to the lem per&tulIl of tht:I :I: i8 tbe lhich e. of t he dryill& malerialthroup which
NlBtalIt raUl period. the beal. flolI",
In the laborawry it haa been determined th&t the critical
m()i~ure content of thia IIUl.teriAl for top dryi", of a layer In this tolutlon it ill l.89umed that the MOle value of the heat
1 in. thick in iJll!ulated tray! is 9.2 per <'Alnt (dry buis). The tt"arUlfer coefficient may be applied to both the lOp and bottom
delll!ity of tho dry material ill 86..5 lb/ cu ft, IUld the thermal aurfaoea, and the hcat t~ftlr throuKh the sides of the tra)" ia
eonduetivity of t he _ t material il estimated to be nedoeted. Substituting the numerical va!uea in equat\ou
2.0 Btu/ (hrW F / ft)(.!,q ft). The rate of dryinc duriq the eon-
IllaDt rate period was correlated by equation 610, which for ~ _ 16.9(140 _ TJ +( I I~ - ~i ) Blu/ (hr-)(Mj ftl
~ units becomes
i6:9 + (1 2){2.0)
l) di"
R-- ( A dX -2.W1(J)._p) (613)
,.,.btore T, - temperatufI! at surface ("F').
II'bere R - mu. \lb/ tlu)(.sq ftl! The rate of drying from equatiOn 613 is
" - air velocity (f ",,).
p. _ vapor preuure IX equilibrium partial prelllUl'e of R - (2.68) (-4!I-JU (p" - 0.0237) Ib/{hrJ(Mj tt)
lI'at.et at the llUrfaoe (atm).
p - pa.rt.i.aI PftSS\lnl of wa.tu in !.be alf (atmJ. Multlplyilll this equation by the laten t heat of evapor-Woa.
1068 Btu/ lb, and equaling the product to t ho preeeciblt;
Solution. Where the tray iB uniDlllllated. bt.at fin" ;nUl equst.ion beeaW!e , / A - R>.,
tbe IIOlid from tll'O opposite tiides, 1I'hereslI evaporat ion take8
place from the 8Urfa.ce only. It is I....-ry to ealcu.Iate the 4860 - 26.8T.
(61 ~)
hut tnm.sferred t :J the eVapol'fLtLng surface. The coefficient P - 46,000
of heat transfer between the air and the dryingllUrfaoe may
be (IItimated rrom. the reeult.s of the Jabonr.Wly 1el5t.11 in tht! Equation 615 give!! the partial prel!8ure of water at the
evapontin& !ll.U'fl.Cl8 as a funot ion of temperature. The IUrface
iMOlal.ed trays.
temperature must. -alao tatisfy t he rolatioftship between thll
In the laboratory 1ei5t.a, .... hen!! t he tray ill iDllulated. the
flW"fac:e of the stoek is a t the .... etrbu lt ll-mperaHIn!! of the air. vapM ~ of water and iUl l.empen.tuJe. Tbel\lfore "'I ~
rue rean.lting tempcnr.tu.ree and pr.-ure are ~ folio".,:
in, eoquarJoo 616,simull&nt.~l\Mly "" ith vapor..-ue data for
"ator, T, "':' 92..2" F and p- - 0.0:\10 atm.
Dry-bulb 140" F The COrmlponding late ol drying durilli the ~ant rate
Wet-bulb 87" F period is
De", point 69" F
Vapor ~ p" - 0.04211 atm R _ (43.6)(0.0610 - 0 .0237) .. 1.19 Ib/{hr)(1Iq ft)
Putial pretlSUl'I) p .. 0.0237 at m and, slnoe the drying specified lies enlirely wit hin t he CONtult
( p. - p) .. 0 .0192 . tm rate dryir region, the t ime required "ftll' dryin& In &rI UlI-
ilUUlaled t ra,y is
AeCo.ding to equat ion 613 ).0)
,- - _ I.M hr
R _ (2.68)(.1.fti)'''(0.0l!l2) - 0.84 lb/(hr)(sq ft) l.19

The toW water evaponr.ted per !Iq\l&l'(! foot of drying EUr-

Drum Drier
face .. (86.6Kh)(0.S5 - 0.10) .. 1.8) Ib, and the eorrcspond- When the required heat is supplied to the material
in, time of dryin& in the labon.tory would. be independently of the circulating air, as in ~he drum
IlJI drier, the drying rate may be calculated primarily.
t - Oii" - 2.1. hr from oonaideration of the heat trtUlsfer rates.
572 S1MULTANEOUS HEAT AND )IASS mA~SFER 2
ru ...trati.."Eumple (Makra.1 "<;alai DI"ldly). In CnntinuOtlI' Driers
tbt: dryin, of JM.per 00 " 4--f ~ stool drum, steam ia Illpplied to In the design of continuous driers, it is usually
the drum at 200 F, and air ill pASSed Over the surface of the
~pet on the drum at 100 F tIJ1.d 40.0 por ~n ~ relAti ve 811.tu-
desired to determine the length of the drier required
ration a t II velocity of 800 rpm. The parer is thin 110 that to reduce the moisture content of a given quantity
con~nt ral.e drying ~itinl\.8 may be MSUmed to apply. of wet material per hour.
For the removal of tbto free m~ure during the constant rat(!
Period the folktwin& reilltion holds. lU ..ar ... ,I... E.s:.mple (Concinuo ... Drin). A counter
current ~ve drier is desired for d rying 10,000 rJciNl of
H _ 2,4W'(p - p) (6 16) chromo leather per 24 hr. TI'w! imide vert icsl CI'OIIII se~'ior.
of the drier i.J 10.7 ft "'ide u:, 7 ft high. The skill.'! are hunt;
when R - rate or dryinc [Ib ....terJ (hr)(eq f~ ).
- air velodty (f[lll).
croM\\Ue, three abnllUlt, in rol'l'3 averaging 8.6 skins per
'po _ vaPor pn!MUnl of, ,,".ter
lit the mcfl\.Ctl t~mpol'& foot of length. Propel!er fans fire plAced a.bove the IItook at
100ft intervals to circulate the air downward through the
lure (atm).
p _ pMtial PI'ellSUI'e of water in ttlt: ai r (atm) . vertical sheelll, and to by-paSlil it throulilh side ch alUl!,!ls on
each Bide of thil drier to the adjoi nin; 100ft lII!et.i"Cl. T ile
Eatimale the 1"Ilt.e of dryin; of the pi per. cn:lOII5 sect ion of the air !trcam ~ thu~ 107 fIq ft .. i ~ . . -
SOh.I...... Ro.m&n(Je to the Row of hell! is otJetud by the do"'n through the lead,er. ThilJlIJ)iraJ flow of air is ~
ooodensal.e font'N:'d on the inside of the metal drum, by the 1-0 iMUn: a uni fonu ci~lI","tion ""itbout channeling or tem-
meal .....11. by the paptr, and by the ""Illide ISUrfa.ee. Heat perature stratification. Air is taken from the outllide at
'ik;1'1I to the surface of the paper by three resistances in *'~ SO F. 70.0 per ront roilltive satura tion, and heated to 140 F
and into the air frum the surface by Ihn:c pa.raUe l paths, bcIol'O it enten the drier. Steam coil~ in the dri~r rnaint.,in
namely, by' radiation , by convection, and byevaporati,?". the ai r at a tempera'""" of 140 F. The 9.VCf8.&e weight 01
The rate of heat flow i.J given uy the eqUlltion dry leather per Akin is 1.162 lb. Too initilll moisture content
of the att)ck il 1.562 lb per pound or dry Il'SUoer. Tbc IIVCrace
! __
A T I , I
-;...;:"":;:--..:1;::00, -;,_
1
(617) t j,kkoesa of the skin is 1.03 min. I t is desired to lIry t loill
lo:Ilt hcr to. fina l moisture con tent of !).O per rent. '
A: +0\.. + ~+Ao + h.+It. In drying thillMt~ri lil , e v&pohltiun i>J tloe ruolr" l lin; rlW:tor
and d rying takes p[A~ fruln both 1Iid..", of the $l.oot. The ral.o
wbert) It. (oondensate) .. 800 Btu! (hrWF) (8q ft)
of dryin; i8 correlated by the following equation.
It.. (met&l) \ _ 1000 Btuf(hr) ( F)("q ft)
.. 8bo Btuf(hrW F) (sq fi)
dt " (0.00239)
- . - (6)'"
Itp (paper)
II, (convection) .. 1.1 Btu/ (hr)(F) (sq f t) .. dX 60 (F}{X - .1C) (618)
II, (radilltioll) .. 1.6 Btuf(hrWf)(1Iq ft)
2.4;Jc11_
. .. -
II. (evapoRtlOII) -T ~"",-~.)""
"'here f .. rn:e mui..tlln! <:UnIt'll! (Iu wa ter / ib dry lIOIid).
T, T. z .. t lti"k ......... (ft) .
(; .. air m illIS velocity [lb/ (hr)(1II1 fl)[.
It is Jl()'A' MrulllLod th. t the IlU rl~ tempenlou"," ( T,) is 183 F. X _ air humidity (lb "'atc rf lb dry air).
Then ., - .;c. - Illr humidity when in equilillrium with the watt'r
p* .. 0.547 atm on the 8kins (tlPPI'O.dlt1ately the Mturateoi
humidity a t too wet-bulb temperatuI'C T ..).
p .. 0:0.13 atm

p. - 'II - 0 .514 atm

-dX
-
til
- .. nte of drying po!r pound of dry 80Iid [Ib
(min) (10) ].
,...""'1
). - 988 Btu/ lb
The equilibriu m ~ content varies wit.b both tem-
... &.0 fpej ,,'" - 3.62 peratlln'l and relative 811.turation. Values of the equilihrium
rnoi$ture eon~nl are ~ted in tbe followiog table eltprtlleo.>d.
_ (2.45) (3.62)(Q.614)(988) _ 54 2
.. AI! pounds of mou.ture pel' pound of dry 5took.
83 .
q 200 - 100 100 TABLE 63. EQUlLIBRW:-.t ).IQISTURE CO:iTF.:NT,
LB WATER/ LD DIlY STOCK
l" ttl I " 0.0211 R.elativ.,
00() + 1000 + iKiO + t.l + 1.5 + 50U Saturation,
% 8O ~ }' 100 F 120 ~ F 1 40 ~ F
_ UtO Btuf (hr){8q ft)
10 0.071 0 .000 0 .0<8 0 .0<0
0.08)
(T, - tOO) .. (:200 .. 100) t.l
1
+ 1.5 + M.2 .. 83 '"
30
40
0.103
0 . 128
0.162
0 .000
0 .115
0.140
0 . 105
0.12\J
0.07.
0.095
O. ll S
0.173 0.162 0. 153
T; - l83 F
0.0211

TherelOnl the MSUI'tIoIld va lue 1\'1.8 oom ,ct. The ra~ of drying
"eo
70
0.198
0: 232
0 . 190
0 .'"
0. 181
0.212
0 . 142
0.17U
0 .200
SO 0.282 0.270 0.2-" 0 .245
as (2.46) (3.62}(0.514) .. 4,55 ~bf(sq f t )(hr). 00 0 .302 0.338 0.323 0 .""
 ESTIMATING. DRYING RATES
,Eatimate the .ength of the prosreIIIive drier required l\i\en
.i.be mlU!ll velpeity 01 tht! air Rowin, throul!;h the-drier of the
above dimeru;ione ~ .0 lb/(min}{1IIl ft).
SoIutOon. In calculatiQllJl dea.l ln, \\ith oont;nul)ll.S <.:Irien,
it iIIllOIl.venient to eoMider a differential se<:lion of the drier tiL.
Equating the 1'Il~ of dryin& IllS given by a moi~ baJan.re
around the differl!nu..1 geCtion 01 the drier to the rate ,;iYeD
by dryinc equation 6 11Ii~'t'II
.. 5i3
latter ,ill given &II a fUDet;on of the ai, Icmpcr:ltur~ flnd
h_umidity in Table C,3. _ Theec n:iatioll'lhijJII may be I.. Ltt1lt.l~.,j
as in Table 64 and inlcgrutl-d ,rnphiC-'lly by plotting
1/ f'(:;t: o - .lCr as II functiun <lr X and detehnini", the an.'11
under the curve bcl"~...-n ll~ l;mi l ~ 01 X .
1f no healing ooil. had llI)(in inwrpontlLod into the drier and
tbe operation had hoc n adiat.ali(', all heat ~irud would
have beo-.n supplied b)' Uoc air lind the. humidiV and tcnlper1r
tUIl! of the dry in!! air "" uuk! have (,,110\\"00 a n .uJiabal ic coolin,

~w dX -
"It. RALti!, .. - (~~) (~L') tiL (619)
eurvc on t he IIUI" idi~y ehan iWilcad of remainiDJ; at 14lI" }'
with incnssing humidity IllS In the eumplo prubIolm.

, . .,
..here W - I'Ilte or Sow of dry rnatMi&l (Ib/hr).
X - mol~tul'll content (Ib 1I(&t.erjlb dry IOJid).
L - drier len~th (ft).
R - late or dryin~ Jlf'r unit upoeed area lib ..ater/ (hr)
(Rq ft)l.
AL - 8<1 ft o( d rying ~urf,~'tl per foot of drier length,
A - IIq ft of dryln, ~urfe.ce Jl(lt Ib uf dry fJOlid.
TherefQl'p., substit.uting the value or - dXltit
e<'uation 618 In tqu"tion 619,
t W
i dL - - (~) (E.)'.' (e=)"JX1D11I0l (Ji1 (X'
r 60 A (6al)
In order to ~rfonn t ho intesration indlcated in this eque.-
lion it is neoeeeary to oolnnine P, X ' , IUXI .'lC u a fUD<'tion
of x.~ relation bctU'(!(!n JC and X is Iivan by the nutcrial
bahuioe .roolld any IIOOtion of the drier from one end, 80 that
OS
Xl - X -!V (X -Xv
.. here S - cmo5II eee t.ion of lhe path of a ir Dow (IKI. ft).
I - the condition at Olle end of t he drier,
The va10e of :!C' is lCIIdily detenninOO from tbe hlUll>d ity
:Ie and lem~llI.tun. T, of tbe &it and a humidity chart. The
free I(oiHllm contcM JI"
t!qual t.o the total mJrid . ire CQIl-
t.ehi X , ~ the equilibrium moislu're ' eonlent and the
F.STDIATING DRYING RATES
The engineer is sometimes required to estimate th~
time needed for drying where available labor&.tory
'
data are inadequate. He must thcll estimate thc
drying rate ' curves fur conditions other thaD those
applying to the data availa.ble.
&5 given. by As has been indicatl in the example probletrul,
lhe drying fate during the constant ra~~ period,
r XIItoal dX where the !illrfllC(! of the wet stock exhibits the 8!UJle
JC)
equilibrium partial pressure characterifltics as a free
wafer surface in so far as the partiai pressure of
!\vate'r is concerned; is'proportional to the mass trans--
fer C<lefficient and is equal to the rate of mass t ra.nsfcr
during the con.stant .rate period. The illIlS8 ~:a~s
fer ooefficient is in turn proportional to the air
. velocity raiSed to the power 0.8. It is po6Sible,
therefore, to estimate the rate Or drYing from oorre-
latiort8 of the ral..e of mass transfer to flat surfaces
from fluids pAS.'Sing over them.
The rate of heat trruWer from a fluid to a flat
surface can also be cmimated, and the rate of heat
tnwsfer-di"ided by the latent heat of vaporization
X,.. is equal to the rate of drying during the constant rate
.. peri.oo. One difficulty in these estim'ates lies in the

.. ...
'FABLE-64
fact that in gencral the experimental correlations of

......
"'"
Equilib-
MoioI ...
the heat or ma.ssjtrart8fer coeffiCients between fluids

-,.........
c..,.., and flat sllrfac{s are based for the most part on
Cool..,
Z.'
'"
Hulllldlt,o
Noircur.
"'"~, (,-X
relatively smoo p surfaces. In most drying opera-
X.lb
..""J1b -,.
XO,tb X. II>
..lOt/II>
- X'J.1t>
....Ior/tb tions the drying surface is far from smooth and the

- ...... ... .
~
d"oi,
O.OI6l
d:,.1r
0.02'11
........"".'". ..o.tu
aoIjd
~
,(;!C-X)
lUI
actual drying rate is generally higher than such esti-
.... ~
~
".
O. OlDO
O.Ol':!JI
...
p,(IUD
O.coeo
o.con
0.057 O. H3
0.1::17
,
"'
mates.
If a drying rate curve is available for one set of
.o.
'"'"
tlir uunditions, the rate during the constant rate

.. -
. m . m
....
0.0410
.. '" 0 .11341 1."'.:1 . on . m period at another set of air conditions may hi, esti-
.. ~
0.1D7I
1."'21 0.0'" "' ..
1.217
" mated_from the fact that the drying rata is propor-
n. ........ 1l.o ...... oq.... . . " tional .t, lPe 0.8 power of air velocity and directly
propohio~1 to the parliuJ pn!88ure driving force for
~(UUKMOl mass tran;;fer.
'r....... IotwIIo~ (14) - 1~R.
(O.IlOD)(12 X .t) (U x 1.Im (4)'"
The most impOrtant datum is a knOWledge of the
fi rst critical moisture con'~nt ending period I.
57. St:\IULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
Although in ~ the value of the critical moisture
~Ient. is a functkm III many variables, ,,.hen ~
dill}' in tbe absence of complete data it may btl
assumed to be independent or drying rate and other
\ariall&es. When only the fir.;t critil'al moi3lure con-
It'ot is: known, the drying rate curve ' during the
f:lllininate period may bt> a..qlllmed to be a straight
line connecting the origin and the critical point.
terminating !.he constant !':Ole period when plotted
on a free moisture content btuiis. On the basis of
the;;e latter assumptions, the drying rate at any
given moisture content b(>oomes proportional to the
PROBLK\IS
1. Deo.ip I'IO-eUrrent .rlillt..tic tunnel drier to handle
2000 Ib/ hr 01 II-et und from II. free moisture contcnt of 1.0
t" 0.1 Ib of Wilier Jler I".und of dry lkJlid. The equilibrium
moisture tonlent ul the nlllieriul i. nClllillible. The air II.vl!.il-
able for dryin&: htl' . dry-bulb tempc1"lllunJ of 200 0 F and
wl!t..bulb tcmlM'mtUr<l of 0"- .t'. .The air Icavus the drier .t
tOO F. 'nil' ~I,oek eOlen . nd Ie.VOl the drier .t 94" F . A
l:Imrc 01.' 11.it!und when dried "ith the above hot air under
COlltUmt dry',ng conditWIll had critical moisture content of
0.5 lb of wllter per pound of dry 101,d, and the rate above the
critieal moisture content ....... 1.0 Ib oI .....tcr per 1IQuan! loot
per boor. Below tile eritiCllLi moisture eontent the rate ft.J.I
to IIT!I"O .t Ief'O In,le nlOMture _tent alon& a' IIt.raigb.t line.
'nlecffeetive dryill&.rea in tbe continllOUll drier isO.311q ftllb
of dry ~ki. Nes;1t ehrinbce.
Compute the ~ of the drier if it boIdI 20 Ib of dry
material per foot allcntth.
2. A countercu.rrtnt oontinuou. drier is to be desiped. to
remove ,.ater from 8.16 Ib/ nUn of dry material. Dry air en-
tere the 5l'lIIAlm .. t 428 Ib/ min . nd a IAlmpertLture of 140" F
and is maintained .t that temperature by Iteam coils wiWD
the dritlr. nlt entering .ir humidity ill o.OI~. Twen ty-five
pc. ecnt nf the dry air pMIinc tbrouCb the drior ill n-c:in:ulated
to the inlo.:L
partial pre.ure driving force and the 0.8 power d
air velocity. regardless of whether or not the drying
is being condllcted in the eonsbnt or falling rate
periods.
These assumplions are undesirable and lIhould be
&\"oided where poMible. The assumption that the
critical mOisture content. is independent of drying
variables and is 11 property only of the material being
dr'ed is most in error for insoluble poroUII materials
such. lUI sand, and i.!i leut in error for materiab which
hold a large proportion of their water by chemical
mean!'l.
The entering materilll halt total moieture content of 1.M2
Ib of moisture per pound 01 dry IOlid and it to be dried to a
total moisture conlcnt of 0.000. The equilibriuln moilltQl"e
CODtent is constllnt lit 0.05 Ib of " 'Iller pcr pound of dry 101id.
4boratory dIIla fn. this malerilll were oorrelatoJd 00 OM
basi8 of th.. lollm''''n" 1I'lualion:
,J /o'
~ - t.625P~
....here P - free moiature eunlel!.t.
t - time (nUn).
X - humidity of air ,,ht'fl in equilibrium with water
00 the IOlid lapproximately ulurated bumidity
at the wct-bulb lemperature T.).
lC _ humidity of air.
If the drier bolJa 10 Ib of dry material per foot of ie~
bow long should the drier be!
3. Compute the dew-pom~ preaure of a mixture of ai ...
cazboo. tetrachloride-walAlr at 38.7 C. The catbon tetra-
chloride min", ratio X 111 2.00, and the . .1Al, humidity is
O.OS. The vapor preaaire. of ca rbon tetrachbride ud water
at 38.7" C are ~ and 151.6 mm of mercury, reepective.ly,
 BIULIOGRAPHY S7S
I. ARSOI.D, J. R ., [mi. Ertg. Cltnt., U, 1091 (1930). 3[, HIG"t:. R., Tnm . A .... 1"11f1. eM"'. E"IIf'L, 11, 3ft
2, An,,:o!.D, J. H., TnlM. Am. In~ . Che",. En~"., ~, 361 (1935).
( 1\144 ). 32, HOUQES, O. A., "Tea.ehin" of (' hl'mieal EngineerinK,"
a. A,nI:RY, J . H .. and K GRI ... Il'II!!. PtVit. PilI/I . Soe. PIOC. eMm. ell9. Di~., Soc. Prolll . Eng, b'd., 2Dd Sumnwr
(Lonli')n ), " ' PI. 2, 132 (t!l32 ). 6.:hO<.>I in C~f"" E,, ~. , Juoe 1939, t'hapter Oft "Dr)iu,,""
4. HA\XI:':., W. L., .nd W. L. McCAal:, E kmfl"" of Chemical 33. HURT, D. Mo, Ind. Eng. Chem., 16,522(1943).
EJlgiIl'1'"f/, MCCra ...1li1l Book Co., (1936). 34. KE ......T. R. C., papet" publil<bc.'t./ by t~ F1UC)t Cort,.,
6. R,U;:H)a.""TEFI!", 8. A ., The M I":mi.... of T url", lnd PlfNJ, preeented bc{gre the California ~al Qral Gaeoline A""J>I.-il<-
Prin('Clon UnivOl""ity P n:!18 (1936). tion, Dec. 3, 1942.
6. ibR'fA, E. J., and H. G. G ARD ER, CM .... <t Md. Eng., '7, 340". ~t cADA_, W. II., J . B. POH!.I: );!, and R. C. 81'. J"NX.
m (19-'0 ). CMm . En,. Provrnt, 46, 241 (April 19411 ).
7. C fHLTO);, T. II., and A: P. COLllllflN, Ind. Eng. Clttm., is, 35. M.ult:, J. C., data preeented by SHt; RWoon, T,,"..-. Am.
1183 (11134) . lnat. CMm. Enprl., 28. 107 (1932).
8. CHILTO"', T . R., and A. P. CoJ.,8URN, I Nl. ErI{/. Clum., 36. M.u.W&LL, J . C., ScicnlUil' I'Dj It!I"$, I, 1', 625..(""mhri.l",
27,255 (1!l35). Univerllity Prees, Cambrid&c, En"b.nll ( JI"!I(h. th~
9. CoLDUR);, A. P ., Ind. EII(J. Cheln., S51, 967 (1930). printed from EItC!ld~ptdia Bri lcuw i(vI, Jl.rlil'lr nn "Dif
10. C',oI.P\Hl N, A. P., TfIlII' . .Am. Inti. CIIDn. 8"91"'" . . lOS fusiOfl," 9th ed. (1877).
(1932). 360. ~hCItJ,.ET, H. S., CIwrt. Eng. Pro,rr"", U, r.Y.I ( ~"'l'
~1. CoI.DUR);, A. P., TraM. Am. I-Ml . Cht ln. Engr8., til, 174 lx-r 19-19).
(1933 ). 37. ~fOloSTAI>, M. C., R. G. ADDf:Y, A. It. T lln.I II .........:. ",,01
12. GW.IWffiNE, S. , K. J. WII>LEIl, a nd H . EYIUNG, Tile J. F. McKIHHIIY, TI"OM . .... m. b Ull. Cllr"'. F."{P"I. as.
ThWl1J oj Ra! ~ Procr831l , p. 517, ~tcGra"'Hili Book Co. 387 (1942).
(l9m. 38. ~[O L5T"'D, M. C., J . F . ;\kK.l'x"", an.l H. tL .'aaEY.
13. CoLaURN, A. P., Tm ..... Am. In#. CMIII. K" , .... , _, 21l TmM. Am. 1""- Cum. Ertgu., :n, 606 ( 1f143).
(11130): 39. MURPHREE, E. V., Ind. Ellg. CII"'I., 14, 126 (I!l32 .
14. COLDURIf, A. P., Ind. Eng. CIIl", ., a, 459 (104 1). 40. PERRY, J. H ., Ch~miml E1!gi'l~r&' I1llndbook, 3 ... 1 ,~J..
16. Dwn:1l, O. E., and B. F. Dooo.:. I'lli. Ellg. CMm., sa. ,Jp.. 539-696, ~f e{;IlI.\\"-Hm Book ('..0. ( l!~'iO).
485 (I!M I ). 4 1. PRANIITL, L., Z. PAlllik, 11, Ion (UllO) : II, 41r1 (1!1.l8).
16. DREW,T. B., J. J. HOOAS, and W. H. McADA)18, Ind. 42. REeslCJ(, W., anli R. R. \\'HITE, Clu. ",. Eng. PHJQmH,
Eng. CIIe",., 21, 936 (1931 ). U, 3n (1949 ).
17. DREW, T. B ., T,gM . A",. bUll. Clum. E"9I"'" n, 26 43. S HER." OOP, T. K., A baorption (1",1 A'rtmrli--. III ... 1.,
(1931). ~fcGl"&wHi11 nook 0.. (1937).
18. DUNCAN, D . W., J . H . KOI!""ft)LT, and J. R.. WITtIlWW, 44. BIJEflwQOD, T . K., llId. Eng. Ch">I ., as, 424 (1941) .
Trau. A .... I ,... Client.. E ..... as.
259 (1942). ~ BHUWOOD, T. K., TroM. Am. bUll. ('lttm. EIIg ...., ...
1&. EJ:CHIIO~, J ., Ph.D. dia!lerta,tion, UniftT"lJityof ~ttehipn 817 (1940).
(1950). 4fI. SHIi:IlWOOD, T . K. , and E. W. CO~II);G!!, 7"fG M. Am. Inti.
19. FLUOR (".oRP.Itro., B ulkl i n T 337 (1939). Cum. E. , 28, 88 (932).
20. FuRlfA$, C. C., and M. I... TAYLOR, TTl"'" Alii. 1.... 47. SHRWOOD, T . K., and 1". A. L . HOLLOWAY, T_. ,{m.
CMm. ngr., 18, 135 (HMO). 1M. Chem. E"f}., S6, 21 , ao (1940).
21. C.UISON, B. W., O. THOoos, Arld O. A. HOUGEN, ;'1"4M. 48. SHI>IIWOOU, T . K., and B. B . \\" om~n , TraM. A . /II..,
Am. IMl. CAe",. e"grl., 19, I (19-13). Cum . Eng., !e, 517 (l 93'J).
22. GILLILAND, E. R., I"d. Jo;,,~, Cke",. , 16, 681 (1934). 49. TOW LE, W. L.,and T.li:. SHERWOOU , In.:l. ETlI/. CUIII., 11,
23. GILLILAND, E. R., Ind. EfIfJ. Ckem.., 30, rot! (1008). %7 (1939).
Z4. GII.J.JLANI>, E. R.,l.Dd T . K. S HEJllI' OOD, btd. E"fI. CIIe",., 50. VAJoi DRS'ST, E. R., J . Applinl M/"",icr, 1S, 34 (I..w).
se. 516 (1934). 61. VON KlRIIIAN, TaJroOOU:, 1'TaM. A.m. &!e. Jltdt.. Engn.,
2&. GJjQ8Vl:NOB, W. M., 7're", . Am. InIl. Chern.. Engr. , 1, 61, ~ (1939).
184 (1908). ~. WALUIl, W. H., W. K. LEWIS. W. H . ~lcADA),f", and
JoKN.I!T'ONIl, H. F., and A. D. &NGK, I nd. Eng. C/leon., E. R. Gn.LILA,...p, Prindpln of Chemirol BIIIIi,,ring, 3 ... 1
19,286 (1937). ed., McGraw-Hili Roo k Cn. (1!l37).
n . RMLA).!, R. T., R. L. Hl:RSHEY, and R. H. KEAN , l mi. sa. WILU:, C. R., and C. A. HOUGES, TrGni. Am. buJ. Cite....
Ef&Q. Cllrm., 16, 12"24 (1!n4). E1tf/I" , 4.1, 446 ( L94:t).
28. HASLAM, R. T., W. P. RYAN, and H . C. WEIiEIl, 7'ro" . 54. WILII:~ , C. R., "Eetimation of Uquid Diffusion Cod' ..
A m. l 'tlll. Chan.. Engr, ., 11, Pt. 1, 177 (1923). cienta," CM",. Eng. Prog"u , U, 218 (:O[a:-c:h I!l4U).
29. HIJ.PI:RT, R.., Fon dlluflJ, For. cJlUflgftft, SU, 21 (l932j. M. WII.JJ:, C. a , " Diusiot~tI Propcrt.jcaCJl i\luitioompon.:ni
80. HOBllON, M., and G. TflODOl3, Cllnn. EnQ. l'Togre.., U, GII_," Cilem . Ellfl. Prdf1ffN, " ' 96 (Feb. 1950).
517 tAupst. 1949).
 Nomenclature
Elloept when' D31cd otherwise, tbe following nomend .ll l W'C if u~ t hrnu" houl the text.

., ArH; Cf09S-IleCtional arra .. r IIjlle, or t hat n.rea E ~trieal fIOt .. nti ... ,'011,.; " v"P<'.ral iom (lbl
tbrough whieh l lllO- fl'T (Ilk" place. ~r); 11<'1'1";0' ; Hl,i..,. in' PI,""..
r OJr cDO"l13'
.... -L/ KV Absorption factor. tmi U~ jM!r un it 0( . n ... in ...... "'liOll;
.4' Projected a rea . ffldJ' ,Iiffullivi ty.
.4. :'I lean at ave ra~ area. ~ BMe nf natural losarit hllll, 2.718, <limen-
.A.'. ,. Croes-eoetion.e.1 An:. of onllce
Angle of nip.
ope.nin~ .
F
'lioul~; emiS:'livity in I"I\I.li.. lion.
Fo,"", (dirnemi'lllS, ' System n , Table 2<;
Are.. per unit volume;
vol atility.
It ' ''''lIltlLnt; nlIItive 'luantity of fl'Cll ln<l.teri,li ; aha lX' (actor iu
radill.tion ;f~'1uency of f'uil!&tion; If - 1'8;

.'

B
Aet'l! lerat ion ( L/~) ; IlbiIurptivily in ra uiatiun.
Acceleration in "Koos."
Quantity Qf bottom product !l.II from frac-
t ionating column; II. eowrtant.
F

"
f~ l11oiRturp. I"Ontcnt ,in d f)~ng .
Sh.a.pe fll.ctur in rMlilition induuinli: ..tred 0(
eon~ting refl'll.ctory \\'..11$. .
Force (dhncn.'!l(ln ~, Sy~tero I , T .. ble 25).
b Width of alielementof tluid; linear tlilllf.lIl8ion /0'< CentrifugII.l fon,' .
in direeti'On of axis; II ool1!\t.nnt. PI Frietion.f"rtor ("'Cl OT fOT flow of flujd~
c A OONtact; 'OODOODttatioh; volume capacity throulijh Porou~ bed~.
in ,lipiD, bet~ IIOUtoe ol pulsation &lId F/ lo'rictioo ' .. olot (or nOPl'oetting Huld bued on
metei'. I' wetted sphericity oJ,' ( t .."O-pl~ flow).
c Con ntratioo of component in liquid in FN Nonna.! force.
equilibrium with vapor. FM bullant foree.
Ct C', C" Dimensionless coefficients for primary lIII,.>tCl"- Fr TangentiAl foroe.
illi elementa. FN Reynold. nwn bt:r flloeklr for flow 0( ftu~
c. Dimensionleee coeffi cient ol Illicharge for t hrough ))OI'OUII bed&.
orifice. FIll: Reynold. numbf.r f&\Clor for " oowetting fluid
Cr.,Cv FiI~ration constant.!! for noDoompreBHibie in t~ Ro... bated on effe<:tive
cakee and OOMUUlt ~ filtrat ion; poroeity :C.
oonoent.ra.t ioo in liquid auo.! vapor pb&ecs, P, Ft.elor fOl" hindered III!t liinl.
respeeti vely. ,. F t.eLor for radiation Incl 'llt i", $Impe and
e,," Filtrat.ion constAn ~ for comprwsiblt! cakes. em_vhy and effe-rt of nfnu:torie<.
CI'-{dlI/ dTJp R efi t Cll.-ei ~y ; a*' apeeillc he!it Cp a t eon- I Frietiorl. fad for flo .. of ftllid, i n mnduil3
etaM~. or pipe; fee;! ' lap (the , lace whir.h re-
Cv- {dU/ d1)" He&t eapM! tY j a1ao specific heat r .. at eon- Cf!iVl!ll the filed) ; fupcity of oomponoot.

, 1Un~ volume. r Friction faew for seneral relative motion

Coefficient of perfot!lWlUe of air lift; con- of .eoIido! IUId fluidll.
eentratlon. I" :\todi6ed frieHan f.. Mo(l' f, ... wetting IIuid.
A consta nt. in filtration of compressiblt. r' :\Iodified frif t.loo factor for noowettinc'brid .
cakes. ' ID Friction lactor, or drag roefficient, foc !"Ill...
D Di&meter or dimenlliouj qU&lltity of diletillate t ive motion (If I!Olid particlEs cnd fluid!!.
or extl"ll.Ct product . G M .... velocity (II> TnaII/(eool(eq ft)].
D.~ Avcl"fOiC fI(1l"01!D Bizo of PI'orticles. G' Maa8 velocity of II(Ilute-l~ .u-m Ilb
D, Dilllmeter of veE/ltd, container, Ol" conduit. m&Il/(eeoJ(~q ttll.
D, DiStanCe between tu~ in a bank. g A_Ier&t.ion due 10 force ')f gravity.
D, Diameter o( f~L.J IJtU'tidc>1. g. Convensi.on fa.elor betllo'een diroell!iione of
Do ),tolceu\.ar ditfmlivity in g!I.Il ph&Se. SyeteDUI I and II, Table 2<>.
D; Partl culu d ill.me~r Of averqe size of par_ H Enthalpy (U + PV); n,
spo!Ci6c ~tht.lp1,
ti clee. partieululy (Of vapor.
Molewlar difTusivit y in liquid phMe. H Henry 's law oonetant (Pr/ C) .
Diameter of ori6 00. .'.Ie lJumldity (I1:l vapor per ]b dry pill.
Diamct.cr 01' d imlllJl:llon of pact.icle; dillt.ance X. Sa.tuTated humidity,

D,
betw~o f'Qlb..
Dianlcter 0( roIbi in roll. crushinl
X.
I 8aW.rated hUnUd it y " adlabalie ptur&tiOll. ~
Ulm.-ature.
D,
d
Di"II"IC t.et of "pOOre of _ "me volume
DilfCffnti..1 o JM'".r&I,o r.
. X
..........
Hwnidit,. of atutated PI .~ .. liquid tern-
.7. NOMENCLATURE
JC" &Iun.t.ed bwnKlity at the wet-bulh tern P ~ (lbforoe/~ft);at..aut.e~
peralU"" T _ P Product, in screening, ,II en9O'"ation.
"FaU" of hydrauJio; ram; or "tIllhrnerxen<:e"
of air lift; coefficient of heAt u'.lUIferj
P'
P,
G~~ prI'fIIlU"e. . '
l tefcrence pressure for p;lI.IIll"M<IIlI\lJ"elllO..' flt.
enthalpy of liquid. Po Peelet number, Dl>pCp/k _ (Re) (Pr).
'0 Liquid g&<.Iient IUlI'08ll pJal.e in fmctionat-
ing column.
1'"
P,
Pow~r number, pgdpfl~D.
Pta.ndtl number, I'Cp/k.

'. Submergence, height of liquid above top of

slots on bubble eap tray .
-aP Pretillure drop; (-::'Pf) due to friction,
required for Duiduing.
01

" Coefficient of heat Il'&IltIfef by turbulent

DXltioo exeIWli~ly .
"Lift" of hydraulie raiu or oJ a.ir lift.
,
(-.4.p).

Coefticientofbeat U'IUl8ftl' by"coDvtiWl."
&no.I. by " radiation," respectively.
I
i
Current of electricity.
lDte08ity of radiati01l..
J Conven.ion factor between dimemiorls oJ
S)'IItems II and III , Table 25; -.ddition of
qu&Iltities of stl'C8m4" L. + L,.
; i laetor, approximately 1/8 or rJ2 or (0.023
Re-o2).
K Conductance; permeability; equilibri'lm
coIl8tant or ratio, .. ~/%l overall llUI8S
tran8l'er OOfIfficieD~.
~ conductivity.
RaUo of heat eapa.cidel C,./ Cv, dimen-
lion_ factor 01" ooo.at.a.Dt; rna&< of
aorution relained per unit _ _ 01 wet
,.
PreM~ drop through filter CAk~.
Partial~; pow~r.
Vapor preIII!We of pure OOI'Dponent at til,::
temperature of the gas.
Partial p~ oJ , eompooent 'PI it.
" equilibrium witb a liquid. V .)Or ~
MlI\l of, liquid.
Partin.! pressure of vapor in .. ...wrated
.... at the w~t-bulb tempe ....Wf'e.
Q Qua.ntity of material; quantity of heat;
volume of fluid pumped per unit time;
number of Btandan!. cubic feet of au
, measured at TI s.nd Po per wtit time.
Hcat abaorbed; heat traMfeiT6d per unit
,. time, dQ/ dl.
Heat abIoTbed in condemer.
Univeo&! gJIII ooastant 1eoerI)' /(rnAa)
(degee temperature), .., 15440 , ft-Ib)
(Ib moIe)("FJ1;reei8tauoe, in OOma, 01" due

.... dids; coefficient 01 .... trusler.

Eddy conductivity .
Coefficiellt of m.- traoIfer in pa pbur-.
to foulill& of heat. transfer INI"f_; m-
)eel. in --.inc; rate of dryi.oc; lfJIux
ratio Le/ D.
0" Coefficient of maa tBoIfet in humidity
writo.
He
lib
Reynolds number, Dvp/,..
Reynolda number, DpF~p/,,"
0, Coefficient of mal'll u.llIfer in liquid phMe. "," Reynolds number for wettinJ lluid,
0' CoefficienT of mUll tl'lJlllfer In conoentn.- DpFRJlP/~I.
tion wliw [1lIOIe8/(ht)(eq It)(nwlea/eu lib'" ReynoldR number for nonwettinc ftu..J,
ftl]. DpF~'~/".
L Leoa;tb 01' liaeaI' dimenaion; thick.- 01 , RadiIUl, 01" radial diRtaDoe; d~La.norI from
bed 01' eKe; quantity of liquid or kIwer oeatet of rotatm
~ Hydraulic radiUll, ~tioNJ aru
L' ~tity 01 BDlute-f. . (or iBert) liquid, + wetted ~.SN.

,.....
qU&Dthy 01 liquid or lower stream. below

Equivalent Jeu&t.h or thiet-.

8 Eotropy; sat.unu.ion volume of vokll filled
with wetting fluid + total volu'ne 01
L. voids; area; ~ 1U"e&; qW'D-
I. LoBt work (eDefIY tbat mi,ht have daDe tity of 801ids; qlWltity of eoIvent.
work); aU irrevenibili..... 8 Strippina; factor (KV/L).
M
M.
Moleeular wei,ht.
Mach number "/".'

S.
Relative saturation.
Elleetive _turation.
m M&$S; any~. s.. Minimum Mal or a1bmergenOl, or help.t
m' M_ (dinwrsion. 01 SyMeIn fl, Table 25). of liquid above slot. on bubble-can :.o&y.
M..,. or IIlIIIE fractioa of D"lAt(ln,,1 of par- RmiduaJ. I!ILtumtion.
~KlullU" propertn. Fbo:I saturation.
N Number; ~voIutiont per minu te; rn.t.IIII (OF SehmKh number, ,,/pDo.
mOles) tranaferred p. ~ unit time; mIit!t- Stanton number, lie"..

N.
_factot,di~/LID.
NU6!eI.t number, W /t..
OifJtance; IlUrir.ce per unit T?lU!M 01 ..,....
t.ideIs; humid beat. (increase in ~nthaJ.py
Ratio of IIpecitie !IUrf_ (of particle! to
spbcn.s); CXpllMllt rOf V ill oqu&Uon for T
0: .... et. gas per lb dry gaB per oF).
Tempe....ture, partM:uI.rly abIolute ; t.omo.
pi! expallllion (py~ .. Cl; number of per hour; torque.
1\.af;eII; lowest
tra.nsfer unit&.
01" 1Mt lta.p; awnberoJ T.
....
Tempe....ture of interface, or of pid -.r
 NO)IENCLA.1TRE 579
T, Ref~1l<:'e tempt .... tu"' fOIl' p l ~ , 1)I,.,"I\('t., distanro from ...U; IIlfpoat"nl
in ,w...pbro..,oc Bow; mass (or mol.,)
fOl' S.
fnl<~
ment.
T. Adiabatic _turalion tmopenuure. I' .. n, I'Ilr.iruhrly in st R.-am I'.

,T. Wct-bulb tempcralun.

11me.

,
Hd~Il! ,
pI~r ..'.
v~nical di~tance above I'I!fcr.:n<:"e

U Intemal energy (not incJuo.li ul!I: "1"IL'I'g)' of Di~IHnc'(! , tlinwn~ioll!C$I ordlici,nt in tli-
position, motion, or dCl:tricr.I) ; ave~ nlt:n~ium" lI-l ... lr~i"; COIDllroMiuilily '-actor

- overrJI heat tranArCr cooffieicnl.

Yelooity of fluid dcriv~'<l from pIlrtieJe;
for reallluids (PV ... flO R7').

.
periphflraJ W!Jocity; IIlJ\iCntial wlneily
of impelk-r. Greek Lcttel'll
' Velocity of fluid relative to impelk'r .
VIl,''''
y

v,
........
Volume; quantity "f

Equivalo:nl volume of fillrate.

01' uppPI"
V' Quantil,)' of ifll.... t. insoluble, or IIOIUIe-rn~'
pa; quantity of vapor or U))J1Cl &t n.'II.n1
belo'" f...ed .
, Velocity; avtlrqt! aupcr/icial velocity;
velocity of fluid rclatiV1l to pump eMilig.
Aooustic Ill'" critiCII.I "I'll,"ty.
"
."
~ Horizontal component of veloci ty "r pjU'-
tide.
:'Ilaximum velocity 0' freely r..uil\JC ptU1i~Jc.
Radial velocity.
Velocity of 'lavon throuch .tot. in bubbll!
" ~p.
Tan~tial velocity 01 pankIe.
" Vertical c:ompooent of velocity.
Velocity (Illperficial) of air in tw~
flow.
Vclod!y of liquid in t,,<>phue b .
AIMS flow rate; m-. rate of rondellll&te in
eondcllting vaport; fl'l.UII of fluid ex-
ha!qtOO by hydraulic ram.
W' Mass of fluid pumped by hydraulic ram.
Work done by ayatem, or material ftoto,;ng,
on IIUITOlIndinp (alao ",J; mMI of 8uid
displaoed by aolid.
}{ Volume fraction ofaluny ooeupied by 1Iuid.
}{ Porosity. volume of void ~ + 101 ....
vollnne of bed; raW of qllAftlity of
COIUpo!:'IClIt in .t.reatn L to 'Iuanlily of
otoo, apeci6ed component..
}{ MaID n.tio of one component 10 IlnM!M'r,
u; pound. of water per pound of dry
IIOlid. . Surface 1In'1I; SlefllnBoIt.lma:ln oonstant in
Equilibrium TTIIUII!I ratio, &II pounda of
waJ.er pet pound of dry aolid in equili
brium with a partieula.r medium.
Equivaknt poroeity of ....ettl bed.
Diflt.anoe; mMI (or mole) fraetion, pal'-
tkuJatly in It~m L.
y Volume fraction of lIurty oeeupied hy
aolid; n.t.io of quantity of eonlp'lOOlIt in
atream Y to quantity of otn.,r 1IpIlci6ed
eomponenl ( &II moles 0: aoIute per mole
.\, .;lil,., bclwct"n ".,lorily of fluid (.) and laD.
!t" nl illl vdueily "r imp'ller III) vi' fluiu anKi-. j
oull(le Let " 'am tlin.~t i.m IIf mut iun anu louri-
I4JIllal; .l!pccific I'\!Si,stanl't< of lilt l"r (Ilke; t~ ...
.'a,lt.
,\n,,1e bc.',,,ccn IK:p.tivc Vl;)lodty uf Auid rela-
tive to impeller ( - ...') and ta"lIent; ...[
ve~lCity of impeller (u) or vant: anllle; t .. n-
IIlInt.
1' 1I;MUUIIII ) ::5urfare "~nsiOD (fol"<:e per unit of lenllth).
.1 (,lelta) OjJC.... tur eignifyinll the finite iDtI'C"", in VIIlue
frllm initial 10 later ur fin.I'tatc; tlw diffe ....
ence in v.... ue between t1ll"O llream., &II
Le - Y.
, (delta) Operator ei&nifyiDK a amall Ineremmt or
value.
(e.-Ion) t :ddy viacosity; ~ne. of turl~ as hei&bt
or depth ot irn'llliarities.
(eta) Pruportionality COMtIlnt in eo.lU) fric:tion.
, (I.hcla) ,\npe; angle r",m the normal; I!OIItaet ancIe
(nlt.'&IJl1red in more '~m. ph..'!!;!).
~ (hl mhtla) Latent heat of vaporizlltion (IlH ).
,. (mil) C<.ocfficitnl of viacoo<ily.
~ Bulk vieo:usity, lIS villco!rit.y "r suavctWtm or
dpi)
emulaioo.
Geometric ratio of circumf....n:ncc '" tii&mf'ler
of circle, 3.14111.
p (rho) Densi~y (DWIII per unit volume).
:\Iea.n 01' aW1'&gll d" Mit.y of cootenUt ..I ""'urun
ul air lift.
Bulk density.
Density of heavy Iiqllid.
Density of li,ht liquid.
Density 01 801id.
radiation.
Frictiollltt ~trcss (fol"t'e per unit fU'e1>,)j a~....
friclwlIIll BIMIII.
()pcllltor signifying "fune{ion or" (u,lI'el'llnt
opt...... tons distinguiMM..-d by diffcrent nUnKl-
it:'li mbsc:riptll) ; fraction of vap -... by
pas!ltlcfin eolumn; a tcrm n."I~t inl a
complex group.
I .. -ngth of welted pcrin~tl"'; ~rit ...,
ltU,f...... of sphere uf <'QUIll volume + Mlrra-

.'
of 801ute-free pal; oom..... tion fllCwr fOl' uf polrtidc.
multipte;- beat OJIchanlCfS (1,.'Quation Welt,,.) aphcridiy,
402). .. (onK'p) Anguiar vtllocity; eotid ,,"gie
 Subscripts ..
AdiaOaUc: 8ow. " "
A ,B,C,~. ' Designalinl tbe component: stream, Of' phase C'Qdilion~ 1I:t. end of pi~ oorrespondina: to
ot material w \\'bieb tM ' symbol. is re- condillons of' ma~mum mM8; di..:-hArp or
~trieted, , "critical 30,,'."
., J" ,
f Designating Jr'reversibility due to friction; n IMOlhennal.fto ....
ftuidizati~;;; fOOd $Ug.,. ' .d For nnulil alone (L _ 0, N _ 0),
~tiug gas or Ps lIhue. o " " In reservoir ~ of pipe or DO'f1c. ,
" Desig!l&trn,; interfa<:O'!.
Designatio,; liquid pI'we, or phaee L.
r
2
I n. t,hroat of noule, or outlet to pipe.
At any point Uistant L oo"'nstream f~

Ile.'!ipating' any Jr.~; by rnoIecub.r action;
mean or -maximum vaJuc.
1:lre.i~(jng by lutbu\c.nt ou;lion.
n,;;j(I\!I ting vapor, or Ilbft,ooe V.
thro&t- '" D"~jp illiLof. or exit of pipe.
i .. .., 3
II). re!lervoir into ,,hich pipe di8etut.~
Dar Ovt'f' a. symbol-mdiea.1.ee po:r unit rr:8S,

B. 1. 2 .3.0'1<: , Dceignaling puint>l ot 1St""" in tile opcraliQD.

or aH avcrag\: 'va.l~.

I ~rJ.4!

-. ...
' .. I

..
! 'V" , . c'.
'r
"
"
"
.,. " ,""h'

..
00
k'n

"

. '
 ,

Appendix

UQUJD.l.JQmn EQUILIBRIA
ACE'J1(: ACII: W"T~a l sorftOfTl. FiTHI:II Sn,Tl:1II BEII :U:.HE.-ETIUNO .... W ..TU BnrrnI
Qboo.r V!'.t Ou, .. Itl 20 C . nd I AIm Ob&ervQll 0.1 t 26 ~ C and 1 Atm
- , , ., -,' I4ht Layer Heavy Layer
WilIer l.:\yur, lIl1l8S % Ether J..ayu, rna. % M ... J'raetn ~I_ Fraction
. . . . .M Ethanol &nseoe Ethanol
Achl Eth.:r W ater Acid I Etber Wlltel' 0.9935 0._ 0 .0013 0 . 1120

- 0.9l3OO 0 .0185 0 .0028 0.2200

"' ..
0.9630 0.0300 0.01>.13 0.8000
0.0
1-.0
2.0 1.6
...
1.0 99.0
97 . 6
96.'
0.0
0.33
0.63
98.95
US.60
0.6
O~72
) 0:77
0.9525
O.9S:lO
O ~ 9200
0.044.5
0'.04.50
' 0':'11740
o.oun
' 0.0110
0. _
0.3600
0.3640
0 .4350
S,!:' -1., 93 . 1 1.4 97.6
-
1.0 0 : 9180 0.0756 0 .0370 .0.4410
10.0 2.10 87. 80 '/ 3.0 95. 0 1.4 0 .9075 ' 0'.0846 0.0480 0.4590
20.0 2." n .20 7.0 . 00.8 2.2 0. 8440 O.I3M 0.1310 0.6220
00.' 11 .5 83.' 4.' O.SOOO 0 . 1745 O.2Ot1i 0.5216
'),0
40.0
.0
3.'
'.8

54.2
4vA
I ".,
". 1
00.4
69.1 10.8
9.7 0._
0.6005
0.2415
0. _
0._
0,3490
0._
0.4120

...,
45.0 1I .6
16 .6 I
43.4
36.'
31.9
36.20
66.3
".7
U .8
15.1
O.tWll
0 .520
O.203Q'
0 . 374
0._
0.520
0 .4400
0.374
" .8 31.3
I 23.' U.S 31.3 23:9 K . A. VutereMlian aDd M. R. Felltke. 1M. B1I4. CII.a~t"
II. 928 (1 936).

,.. H EI'1'AI'i'&-:\1 ETH'I'1..C1"CI,.OH!'X.... N.:-ANIUNE SVS1'P.)f

Observod Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium CompositibM at 25 C

and 1 Atm
lIydrucaroon-Rich Layer Aniline-Rich i.&yer

,,'
~I ssa

Me thyl-
FractMln
. M!ISI! Fnu:t.ioo
Methyl- ...
cycle>- ",d~
",He~ta.ne
"'-
0
n-Heptane
0.926
hexane
0 0'. 062
0.092 0.831 0.008 '- 0.000
0 . 186 0.734 0.027 0.053
0. 220 0.698 0.030 0.051
0.338 0.576 {l.046 0.04.5
0.400 0.504 0.960 0.040
0 0400 0.4.50 0.074. '<. 0 .036
0 .597 0. 307 0.092 0.028
0. (;72 0.228 0.113 0.021
0 . 7ltl 0.182 0.127 0.016
0 . 731; 0 ,100 0.131 0.014.
0.833 0.054 0 . 156 0.06 ,.
O.M I 0 0.1 69 0
K. A. Ya.rl eres.o;i.1 n and )1. R . Fenske, I nd. BI'I(}. C~
to,:no ( 1 ~7).
531
S82 APP [f\DIX

\' 'iPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIA

E'rIlANOvWATER SV8T1!.1II AT I ATII '

--
Obeerved Data at 1 Atm ' .. Referenoe ttatee for enthalpies aro pure liquids at 32 F
under their own VA por pres"UreI!
Mo.
Sa\wa.tiou Mole Fraction n.-HepUlne &tu.ra- Ethanol Conoent nu.ion
","Heptatlt! T empera- tion M~ M= Enthalpy, Btu/l b
in Liquid tW't, "C in Liquid in Vapor Tempera- Fraction Frution. of Mixture t

00."'"
o 100.80 0. 0310 Lure, OF in Uquid in Vapor Liquid Vapor
0.07117
0. 1538
lOO. M
100.35
0._
0._
."""
0.1030
212
210.1
0
0 .010
0
0 . 103
lSO.1 1150

0 ..... 100. Iii 0,1330 0 . 1430 208.' 0 .020 0 . 192

0 .4.12'6 ". 70 O. UOI 0 . 1920 206 .' 0 .030 0 . 263
0. 5186 ".20 0.2160 0. 2290 20<.8 0 .040 0 ,325
0._ 119.00 0.21 75 0._ 203.4 0 .0110 0.377 169.3 1115
0._ 98.85 ('1.3170 0.3330 197 .2 0 . 100 0 .1127 159.8 1082
0._ " .60 O. a630 0 .3810 189.2 0.200 0.656 144 .3 1012 .3
0.""" ...ro 0. 4010 0. _ llW.b 0 .300 0 .713 135.0 943
I ".40 0._ 0.4760 181.7 OAOO 0 .746 128.2 873
0.5010 0.5210 179 . 6 0 .500 0 . 771 122.9 ~
O.MOO 0.1)780 177 .8 0 .600 0.'" 117 .5 134
0."'" 0.6180 176 . 2 0. 700 0 .822 111.1 00\1
0 .6470 0._ 174 . 3 0 .800 0 .858 103.8 596
0._ 0 .720) 174 .0 0 .820 0 .888
0.7660 o.nlO 173.7 0 .840 0.877
0._ 0.'8100 0.860 0.898

....
173: 4
0.8430 0."'" 173 .2 0 .880 0 .900
0. _ 0 :8900 173.0 0 .900 O.1H2
0 ..... 0.9130 172 .9 0 .020 0.9\l6
0.9310 0 .9400 172.8 0 .' " 0 . 042
0 . 9540 0. 9625 172.7 0.960 0.959
O. !lI!OO 0 ." " ITl .8 0 .980 0 .978
E. C. Bl"OIUiJey oUId D. Quiggle, Ind. Erog. eMIII., 25, 173.0 I 1 89.0 457.6
1136 (1933). ComeUand Mont.onna, Ind. Eng. Chtm., 25, 1331 (1933):
Noyaaand Wtuit!l, J . A .... C/wn. &C., ::t. 463 (lool ).
t Compoei.tion for liquid and vapor is thO) same .. given ill
the eeoond col umn under ma.u fraction in liquid.

Obe&rved Dat,s. at 1 Atm Maes % Sat\ltat.ed liquid at

Ethanol Liquid IOO 9 F
Mole % Aoet.ooe
, 0 9 .952 0.992
Liquid V..,., 20 0. 905 0.959
118. 1
,o o 40
.,
0 .859 0.920

.
110.0 16 .2 60 0 .813 0.873
103 .8 0 .7M 0.827
93.1 " 30.'
56. 7 100 0 .721 0 .172

.... 72.'
85.8
79.7
74.6
70.'
"'" 8<.0
91.2
"'.7
66.1 70 96.'
62 .6 80 98 .'
".,
116. 1 '"
100
".,
HlO
o D. F. OtI.uner, I nd. E"ft{}. eM"'., 35. 617 (I~) .
APPENDIX 50S

~
,
~
,
~

.-.
,~
l"-

, ,,
~~ "

." .a
0

,!
~
~

.'
584 APPENDIX
VOLAT! LITY F.QUJLIBRIl!M DISTRIB UT ION THERr..tAL CON D UCTI YIT IES, k,
R.UIOS, K - 11/% 1-'OR IDEAl. SOLUTIONS Btu / {hr){eq ft.)( "f / ft)

... ....
.-
Tomp.... loro. or
,.,. T"'~,OP

Off.
el"t '"
..' .N"
7.Ii! !7$
38.6 .-- 611 .0
.. m
."M.' ."
e.....
AI..in"",
7 2011" - 1011"

~ ...-223
112
:m
0"

114
~
I II
1110" 2OiI"

218
1I ~
301"

!If
11'2
..

ZI2
11&
P.'
toO"

!1~
130

... :~~
"~'7, 1r.il11
C.Ho to.O 25.0 11.0 71.g
,:.c,B,. ' .G l3.7 ~. O U . 52.0
17.i ;Ii.! au 10)4.1 U.O
...c,H"
,"C,R ..
I.It
0."
'.tI'
l.tO
MI.,
5..
to.'
I :.~
U.!
~ ... 2!. O

. . St.,.....
1oI"'I....c
oIftI ON)
17. 0
7.7
:I..
3.1
:11. 2
W
26.0 11U
'.0 ~.6
If>.i
10.0
%5.1
10.1
....c.H"
...c.a"
...erR" ....
0,001
l.OZ
O.U _
t. IU
Ut
1.I1I
GoU
1. 15
" 00
I.at
14.2
12.0
,.. IS.'
I'.''
o'
1. '1l1o\~

F'" 14"""'"
Motor;'

,.MoII
....
Ir:;,~ 1.Ge:! 0.01' 0.013
II'.~." ' .001. t.W 0.010 11.l1li7
" ' - " _ ill p:,;". "..
/
12.ZI'>, .. 1t o.lm ~.eztII O.'~ Q.O%8t
H.' U.
.
Off. &4.3' 71.1 83.8 IU UIb/' lllt (I .(lIB 0.!!20 O.1m O.o:!t _
C,H .
' .... ", IU
:I.U
21.0
1.118
11.&
iU
2404
11.'
H.'
~.,
.,,",,-~boo-.U
0.'.
'.H .." " .0
11',1 ft 0.011:% '.017 '.11 0. 115 IU2

.
f-C,IIOI 4.\lIi '. 1 .It. O
...c.R" '.H -~.

.. ..
1.%4 &.1 U IVI 111.0, .,.11 '.O\D 1.011 . COO 0.021 0.031 0.041
ioCiH,. 0.1 1 US I. 70 4.05 1.16 "1.1 0.015 G.on UG5 D.(w7 0.0115
,..U
3 Ito/.. It ~.OI3
I .a~ /. 3. 4i
...coli ..
...coK"
0 . 1(14
0.01'
0.312
G.\I.I 0.61 1.113 "
.,
Colloh, fit-
O.Olt 6.11!1 0.031 ~.6U D.OI4 ,.II(,G
...coli,. 0.011 O.03(1l o.n 1.01 " o.-il v. I() Ib,.. II
N bw.I_4 I Y""'"
' .851

P.-... _ too.,... 1;""1

I_tl'. 15 Ib/.. [t O.C!.I a.ml O.02t a,Q2!I r O.OS) o.m O.0.J8
Off. "..... ,..
17.8 41 .8 43.1 U . u. M"Ill.... (Y');,)
Eq./I,,),.,,. Mol"",;,...
O.~6 O.IXI' O.1l-I1. 0.0401 O.CH6 0.049

...
C,K,
'1oC,"" O. a!
e." .
....I.m
1.10
0,71
10.6
' . 11
~ 14.'
on
1'.0

... .."
II.'
..U
U .

......
- i\.f..r;l ....... pp
Bot~
of""'_r ....t&i.Io

,. .....--
' .0

.- .....'"
...e,K" 0.211 ' 1.11
t t0f2
...5:'
..,.;0,;';11 0-07S 0,11l-I 0.130
t.c,H"
,..elf("
..coli"
..
O.OS
~
o.tlll1
'. 17l
'.N
,.740
~L"7
U t
.. "
", !.(If.
I. T4
'.0
'.0 U
Wllb ....II1l_ ..
um '.PI 0.1138 1t.0I1
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 APPK"'D[X 585

)0'10. 544. saturated densi~ie8 of various liquidli aD d gas as .. fUDct ioo of tempertLlure.
 APPENDIX

':

2
I

.
0.8
, ~
0.'
~~
.J'.
~

0'

~
~
0.01
0 008
0006
700

Jo'IO. lH6 . ViIsooe;it;"'S of various liquius alld ga.se;; M n fun ct ion of t.empcratuMl at I &\m.
 APPEN DJX 587

,.
o
I
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o
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,

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. Water v'r
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FlO. Mil. Specific '-hi of vano"", !''luirls rmd g:;;...,. ",I ] 111m prftItIf'fl loll " function of lempenltuf'fl.
588
APP&,\,OIX

1;'10. ,547. Enthalpy of p&l'ft.ffin hydroea.rbonliquid5 &8 8. function of temperature ill Btu per pound mole.
 APPF..."'i'DlX 589

",000
1 1 1
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lbove liquid at 3T f
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tempe"tU
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FIG. MS. Enlm.,lpy of paraffin hydr-oe..-bon 1__" a8 . {unction of \.empoeratll!'e at coIllltant Iov. p~M.
 APPENDIX 591

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1100

1000

900

700

"'"

200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
 -'

Index
AbMrption, m, 333 Agitation, equivment, colloid mill, .504
ammonia., iIIu:tltntive examp}e, 533 ". paddle type, 504
ooefficient8, ammonia, 330 rotatint; impeller type, IiOS
sulfur dioDde, ~28 illuetn.tive elt3lIlple, 508
faetor method, 372 Agit.\tors; 280, 505
graphie&! solution, 374 power oonsuJUption, 1iOO, !'JY1
vaporl.l in liquid, 822, olIO AggreGAtJve fluidization, 210, m
Abaorptivity, 4~9 Air blndiltL centrifugal pumps. 189
Ac~leratioo, 132 Air CONlUmption, flotation eellB, 101
in oentrilupls, 258 Air-eth&ool humidity eh&f~ 544
Aoetie acio:t-.cewne (VIlpor-liquid equilibria), 582 Air lift, 100
AOf!tic Il.cid_water-i80propyl ether system, 581 io agitation, 504
A~tone-ae(!tie acid (vapor-liquid equi libria), 582 flotatJon cell, 101
Aeetonf .... ater-ffiOIIoOChlorben.oene system, 009, alii Air-1Vater humidity ehut, M.'i
Acid egg, 19-4 AkinB eI&!I8i6er, 89 .
Aeoustie velocity , 194, 199, 200 A.I&ebraie nleumtion of exlradion. 284
Addition point, 288 Arnmon~' .. ter (vapor-liquid equilibria), 692
. Adiabatic aU!IOI"ption, 408 enthaJpy-concentmtion din.gro.m, 592
AdiAbatic coolinc curvel!, 513, M6 Ammonia ahJlorption, eoofficienl.ll in pack6d coJumlU!, KI
Adiabatie flow, 200 height nf transfer units, 532
muimum, 201 illlJllLrative cnmple, 533
Adi&b&t.ie hwIDdificaOOn, 512 Analogy, momentum, he:lt, and mass tnul!fer, M9
Adiabatic humidifier, 612, 648 Analyaie, chromatographic, 400
Ad.ia.batic II&tuntion temperature, 513 Anemometer, eup type, 153
relatio ... to wet-bulb temperature, M6 hot-wire, 153
Adiabatie wall temperature, 204 Angle of aliue, 51
Adllclli)(lnts, \Wee of variou!!, 398 Anguku particles, 79
Adaorbe.., methode of e&leulatkn, 407 Aniline-heptano-methykycloheu.ne SYlltem, 581
Ad.orption, &dif,b,.t.ie, 408 Anilin&-methyieydopentane--bexanc 8)'Slem.. 304, 317
bibliogr.phy, 411 Annulus, heat transfer in, 444
break point in filled bed, 4.07 Apertur.!, of IICl'OOI"IIII, 17
e&ibon dioxide on eubon, 404 Appendix, Ml
chromatolf"llphic, 400 Aproll conveyors, .58
contact phmt, 399 eape.cit.iM of, 61
ciilferential beat of, 406 power ret"Juiroment for, 61
dillperaed contaet, 399 Area mete", 161
~ of p&eB, 400 Arithmeti c average temperature, U2
fixed bedB, 399, 407 ~sted manpo_r, 49
HypertIOrbel"ll, 400 . Atoinlc wlumes, diffusion .'ilS
U1U11trative exampll)!l, 407, 408, 409
Atomizer, centrifugal die.lt., 562
iIothermal, 408
${)BY, 561
movin beds, 401 Ave.... diameter, 20
peROIa\ion plf.nta, 399
IUrface, 20
-pol" reco~, 399
_ter on silica gel, 4()<l temperature dilferellce., 434
A&itation, 503 Azeotropell, 393
bibliography, (ffl benz~th&nol system, 393
effeetiV1lMell, 506 buta.nol-weter l!.)'Stem, 39-1
equipment, 604 bet.erogeneouA, 393
lilts, !J04 '_393
~nc .ymma. 504
,..
Azootropio diIItil!&tioD, 393, 3S6

Backward-feed .vBporatol'll, 482
&f&e, bubble p lBta, 358
heat u ctllmglll'll, 420, 422
lWl miD, 38
capacity of, 4.1, 43
cioeed-eif(:uit.4 1
compound, 39
critieal maximum.speed of, 40
Cr,l.t(>, 3D
POllieJ" ""1wrementa, 43
mte of rot ation, 40
~nnion. 39
BBnu of WOOS, nad ialion to, 4(W
Bll.rometrie ~r, 480
Ba.tch centrifugala, U9
Batch oontrol1 enl, automati c, US
8akh cxU'action, 283
Bateh fractiOllll.tion, 300
column holdup, $1
wllIltllnt reflux, 390
r.ons\.ll.nt product, 300
&teh I,,:.f fIltera, 233
Hatch lie<.iinwntutinn, 110
beight of inwrfu.ce. 11'1
related to con ti nuous, 117, 11 8
Beam lengths, radiation, 470
Beer's la ...,4U9
Belt conveyor!!, 6S
'pproximale ..-eights, 58
M pMitie&. &8
gravity "\.:lklH.lp," 66
maximum tump si&e, 58
,..,,'er requiremen t&, 67
~fOl',58
'lfeid>inc -Ie, 63
unloadin&. fi6
Ben,ene-ethanol system, 393
Hemene-1rthanol-waw.. ~1AmI,
llernoulli', equntion, 1~
Bibliography, adaorpti on, 411
agitation , 509
centrifugation, 268
classification, 97
crystnl1i&ation, WI
drying, 574
evaporation, fin
filtrati"n, 266
lIu1.Mt.iUD, l OS
110... of fluids through porous media, 218
flow of ''''0 phWlCfl throe; :, porous media,228
f1uidw.ti<:m, 274
heat 1nmilfer, 472
hib-velocity flow, 209
liquid.Jiquld "xtraction, 320
ma.ss tranllfer, 574
TDCliLBllremen\ of 1\0... , 163
pipca aoo fittings, lao
l"Ychtometry, 674
pumpinc and ClOI1l~ng,IS1
nutia lion, 472
ac~nifl4. 2'l
INDEX
Biblivgraphy, .!Iedimentation, 120
size reducti<:>n, 45
lIOI id-1i'lutd extraction, 2G4
ltansJlO<tation of fluids, energy relationll, 1.(6
vapor-liquid opeta tiOAIl, 395
Binary syriClJl!I (vllpo,-liquid traI..ter), 328
equi lihrium line, 371
open.lilllt Ii"", 371
Black bo-Jy, 4.57
Bl&ke jaw cru~hcr, Z7
capl!.city, 28
m"ndinl!;, 001
DIo,,' cs.'Ie, 194
Bk)\\''''''' 174.
ecntrifugal, 178
lobe, 175
power requirements, 101
rotnry vllcuum filtet1, 263
i!lU8trlltive ample, 253
Boiling, ad!lOrption of gaees, 4M
e/t"ct of preSllun!, .(M
film, 453
liquids, 454
maximum hea t flux, 4M
nud"ate, 453
temperllture dillel'l!IlOee, 4M
Boilin~ point elevation, 4.85
80"'1 c1sssilier, 89
Bo...1 mill, 37
Bradfom 'brcft.k". , 30, 31
Bmke b"I'!IO!,lOorer, centri(upJ pu~"" lag
Drusk. ,..illt, fixed-bed IIdllOl'ption, 407
Break time, adsorption, 4(f1
effoot of particle !lise, f07
BubMc cape, cut. iron, 869
cif(:ul/l.l',358
tuonel, 368
581 Bubble pb.te columna, 346
OOIltro~ 363
desi,;n and layout, 353
illustrative eltllmp!e, 357
Hooding, 349
ftow 01. liquid, 351
liquid eapacity chaJU, 356
liquid gradient, ::54
liqu.id seal, 354
maximum liquid flow, 8.S6
phl<! byoutA, 367
spscing, 353, 361
stability of, 355
vapor-liquid transfer, m
vapor capacity, 347
wa.t.er under oil phaae, 392
Bucket oonveyonl, capacities, 61
po"'er requirement&, 61
Bucket elevators, 59
centrifuyll discMI'I<', 60
contin~ discha~, 60
.,ootive di5Ch.'1 r~ ~Y JMl, tIO
poIOe. requireroents lor, 6 1
Bur.kingh" m, pi theorem, 137 '
 INDEX
Bulk density, 78 Ct-nll;(ug!ll T"um llll, terminology, 177
Bulk n.c.o.ity, 78 virtual he:I<I, 188
"Bumping, " 302 vi8l"06itiell on rharnct~mlies, effect of, 100
But.tt.nol-wilter.,.stem (vapor-liquid e<]uilibrf:!.), 394 Ce1.trifugtlls, 251J
Butterfly valve, 125 ~- ' batch, 25!l
lI.utomet.ie.263
Ca.ieite, 21, 42 1I(,li,[ hnskel, 2flO
Rittingtlf'. number, 42 '<U$]lI'n<loo ooskl)t, 259
8perific surface of, 21 uIHI" ... h;''Cn, 200 ~
~fic wrfaee ratio, 22 eonti nuoU5, 201
Callow-McJnt.:.h flotation cell, 101 horiuontnI1)('r("rate bMket, 261
Caloric, 41~ horiwntal /lolid bo\\'I, 261
Copacit"-. ball milia, 43 ('~ntrirug:llion, 258
Blake crusbera, 28 l ~"'iOltl"llphy, 2'(18
bubble-eap plate eolumns, 347 Ccntri fugee, 2,i8, ~
eenlri fupl pumP'. 189, 100, 11)1 lli~l:-boll'l, 264, 2(15
molina towenl, SS5 optimum height of dum, 267
CI'1.UIhllll roue: 36 l ubulllr_lw,wl,2(\;l
~ Cl'U8be1'll, 28 uht'..,2(l5
extraction equipment, 301 CcntrilMltul foret", 258
filte .... 247 C h"r.l cteri$lic curve!! ,,( centrifugal pumpc, Ig9, 100, 19 1'
Starity filtent, 229 C hem ical cne'lO' .510
I)'Tatory ~ 29 .. Chilean mill , 37
liquid, bubble-eap plates, 356 C I,imney, in hubbJe.e:.p plates, 359
packed eolumllll, 361
pipee. calculation of, 205
., Choke (<'Ct.Ii ng, z:;
('hord wei .... 3.52
("'I,romalottt"lll,hy,400

....... "
pumpa and eompl'MllOrs, If>6
Cbrifien.tion capacity of thickt'llers, 1 Hi
-nmentation equipmf!n t, li5 CI~ssifie:D.tion, 73
Tagart's ronnu\a. for CTUsho),.,., 30 biblioJl:ruphy, !l7
Capillary fOlWB, 221 dilu1c pulpe, 00
Capillary number, 223 elcctl"Olltat ie, 00
Capillary tube4, 221 lumirv.r conditions, 84
"Arbon dioxide, 147, 468,585,586 , turbulent . CQndit.ion~, 84
emilsivity, 468 , CiIlllSifK:re, 280
phyaical properties at 95" F, 147 boll' l, 89, 00
c.-de plate, in bubhle plate eolumt\8, 359 ooun~reurrent, Haro inge, 89
c.t.-i.ron bu bble capos, 359 cnlfl8-o-lIo ... or Aki ns, 89
Cae,"" rractiolll\ti ~ eolu mns, 361, 391 double-cone, 87
CaritaUGn, in eentrifupl pumps, 190 free .eetWio&. 86
Centipoiee. 67 pneurmltic, Gayco, 87, 88
Cenlrlfupl blower, 177 1Xl",'cr and openIting -te, 90
CeI1trifupJ diak spray, 561 rake,88, 89
Centrifll&lll extractor, 2Q9 ! pirnl-vane, 00, !II
CeotrilU(lll fUtel'll, 266 surface velocity, 8.5
~trilupJ fOll:e, 258 Clalll!ius-Clapeyron equation, 488
in centrifuges, 267 Cleavage pllUlt'll, 25
CeotrilupJ pum pa, 177 CJ<Wld-cinluit crushing, 27
et.pAdty, 100, UH_ Cloeed-tank ex lracwl'll, 279
chu&cteriat.iea, 189, 190, 19 1 , Coal, .eettl'ng velocities, \)2
_182 , Cocks, 126
dift'_, 183 Cocffieicnl3, 157
~182 diffusion, 516
et6ciency, 189, 190, 19 1 he:lt l =>lrl'er, 41 5
impelle ..... 177, 178 tubcllJ, 438
muitiataKe, 182 finned. 4 18
power, 189, 190, 191 overall IYllic(l l, 425
_ 182 mlLlll! transfer, 5 11, 578
!lelf priminl!', 184 t'XperlmentaL 627
aide .....ction, ISO orifice, 158
Ipoed on characteristiC!!, effect of, 189, 100 C'A>lkcwrs, 105
 INDEX
Columns, 298, :wi, 362 Coll!lOlidaUon tri ckling, 93
baffte plate extmd;un , 298 Co1lll1ant-boiling mixture, 393
bubble-co.p pt..te, :we Contact, Z77
oontroi, 300, 362 oontlnuous, 282
desi&:\, bibliOYllphy, 3M oountercurrent enrt.etion, 200
fractionation, 347 diJ!pened,7fT
didi!lation in pIIcked, 635 multiple, 28:J
fioodin of packed, 362 single, 28:J
Boodinc point, in extBt.tion, 301 Contact anIle, lOS, 451
p.at.ked, 361 Control of rraetionllting column-, 346, 363
characteristics, 362 Conveetion, 415
coefficient.!! in, 525, .530 heai trsnsCer, 431
.!eve-plate, 301 natural, 417
IP"'Y, 300 Converging-divetJ;ing nonie, 199
. .pa r-liquid trantfer, 340 Conversion factor, 439
" eUed wall, 5\2 Connyo.... ~58
ComprMhili\y futor of ps!S, .591 bel t, 55
Compre!l!lible Hulda, 142, 143 C&l"rler, 55
Itow,l98 DiKht, 53
illUlltmtive example, 144 rne<:hanir:al, 52
moderau, velocities, 126 IlOeumlltic, 273
Compl'!llll!ing and pumping. J66 Redler, M
Comp~ion wne, in thickene ... , 117, 118 slllt or d r~, 54
Com~1'B, hihiiotl;raphy, 197 zipper, 58
centrifup.l, In Cool ing: ponds, 557
hiah-~, 171, In Coolin~ to u'CflO, ""rator type, SM
reciprocating, 166 Cllpe d ty, ~
lIPOOial types, 191 ooCilltruet;nn, 554
Conoenttat.e, Hotation, W desill:n, 553
CotIdel\8ation, 448 Il"W:hlmlCll1 dmft, 556
difretentW, 300 natural draft., 553
drop1\'i~, oWl operatilll conditions, 552
promot.ioo., 453 perfomarll:e, 553
filmlriBe, 448 wind velocity, M6
beAt. UuMfer mefltcieDta, 4M w~ loss, 556
preeenee of noncondensable gas, 451 Coordinates, transfnrmed, 371
t.ubel, 9 Copper, extraction of, 278
turbulent lim\', 451 Cotrine law, 461
vapoJ'8, 448, 451 Cottonseed 011, properti e$, 445
...turated, 448 Counter tliffusion of g:t.'IeSj SIS
IlUperheate<.l,451 CouplinXl5, 129
vertic&I mzrf:u:eJ, 448 Crane, Gantry, 51
water from air, 547 Criticai llow prover, 202
CondCD8er, 339, 43 1. 480 Critical lIow of a-. 194, 198
barometric, 480 Cril.ieal point, of liquid-liquid Iyttem!l, 304
jet, 480 Critieal p~", rll.tio, 198
partial, in fractionation, 339 CriUCAl speed of rotation, t"rommel~, 14
Cond uctance, 416 __prOSOt-Dow c1aellifier, 89, 90
hee.~ tni.ll!lfer, 416 Cr\i$hed material, specific aurface of, "21, 22
IlU.!I8tmmtfer, 511 Cru!hcl'B, B radford breaker, 30, 31
Conduction, 415 closed. ci rouit.e., '1
eddy, 517 cone., 33
heat tl'1UlSfer. 426 " disint@&fl.tol"S, Z1
thick-walled boxes, 429 eflecti~, 43
thi elr.-""alled cylinder, 427 eDeI'lY requirem.enta, ~
Conductivity, 426 fl'M, 26
eddy, 522 gravity . temp, 37
thermal, 426, 522 iYrat.ory, 29
Cone ernslu,nl, 32 jaw, Blalta, '(t
Coo,jugate lines (I)quid-Ilqu.id equilibria), 316 ....... 77
Coaoinc, in bubbkH:ap plaia. 348 open cirellit3, 'n
 INDEX 5.,
CrudJers, power rcquirementIJ, 29, 30 DifferentilLl didillation, 388
roI~ 3-1 Diffuse r, 194, 199
ana)e 01 bite, 36 );lfUllion, COIlnter, 513
an&le 01 nip, 35 akly, 517, 521
CIl.pacitiut, 30 fl uid~ in conduots, 5 17
Telsmith Gyl'tl8phcre, 34 li.,uid8,516
toothed roI~ 31 , 32 mok.'(:W!Lr, 512, 514, 516
Cry&a IliUltioo, bibliogrLlph,., 501 I':I<Iilll,517
calculatioN!, 498 !iI.1id!" 516
energy effeetIJ, 495 un~te:ldy ~tage, 51.'\
enthlLlpy-coneent.;dion diugr"IT\, 496 DiffU8iun coefficient,., KW!II8, 515
product purity, 4!)3 liquid.. 3 16
",i.e of, 493 Dilfusivity, 515
aize distril>u.tion of product, 497 computa tion of, 515
yield, 404 11"-' .515
Crystalliwra, 499 Ii.,uid!!, 516
batch,501 UioW'!llIriorud :lfl:'l/Ysi.<J, t36
cw..ifying, 501 fluid fl.",,,, ]36

_000
oonlinuoua, 499
evaporAtor, 50
hl'lIt trnnsfer, 438
mf11!8 tmn.'lfer, 518
porou. beds, m
SWetl!lOO- \V alker, 4P9 DimensionlcaG. KI'OUps, 136
vaeuum, ~ helot transfer, 440
Crystal8, &f'Owth, 493 mn811 tmMer, SI8
habit., 4IM "hy!li(':l.1 mgnifi<"."w:e, 523
nucleation, 493, 500 roL'\.\,ion Uctwoon, 524
nuclei, 494 Dimer:-~iolll5, 131
seeds, 494 bell- Bnd spigot-pi'pt:, IZ7
lIOIubility, 493, 4IM reciprocAting pumJll5, 169
aupenoNIJi lity,493 S)'IIlenu of ( l.:I hle), 132
CUl'Tent flowmeter, 153 lh.,."uIOO pip", IV
Cyclone fJepamwrs, 119 tubing, 420
Cylinder, thick-walled, 427 Diph~[\yllw.xane-d()Ct)S.... oe-furfural ~yst.cm. 803, aoo
Di""h"TJ:e of pipes. 20:'.
Dam, hei&ht, in centrifuges, 267 mltximum, 206
Dareyequation, 217, 229 D i""I\.'\.tlj:c oocfficienl!l, orifioc!!, 158
Decok>rillng of lI}'I'Ilp, L'< lllilibrium ,bta, 411 tota,met.ers, 1.58
DHIumidifiestion, ilIu;.t' l1tive eum,,"', 5;;() Di..... h:ITgft P""""I~, eenLrifupJ pump!!, 189
Dehumidifier, del!ip , ~D - l)~h:lrw: 8l:J.cks. coolin!!; lowers, 557
opemtiAc OOI>ditioN, 5,S() Di>lint.egrutnr, '1:1, 32 ...
Dehydration oJ 1MeII, 400 Disk-fl.nd-doulI:hnut b .. me, 422
Denlity, 585 lli!1'I'1'8:U\t.s, 107
_~7 lmJocned contact., m
hulk, 7, 78 Di$pJllcemcnt fl.owmetel'll, 149
ea.rbon dioDde ..t 96 F, l4.7 Distrihut ion, two ftuida in porous lIeds, m
saturated, p8IlI!I and liquids, 686 Disti!lc.tfl, 831
mcnJM IOlutiona, 147 pure, controlsyatcms for, 364
OMver Bot.&Uoo cell, 103 , DistiUMtlon, 322, 388
l>eIJliminc. 91 IIIL~'tropie, 393
Desorption, 398 Bdditi/m of third.oomponent, 394
Dew point, Wculatioo 01, 378 differential, 388
Diameter, 19 ethAnol-water in packed column, 636
a rithmetic .. ~ U'\III, 20 extrad.ive, 393
a.verll.ge, Dn ., 19, 20 t, .ll.Mh,388
me&llllUrface, 20 ideal atagee, sao
mean 'VOlume, 21 packed ooIurwls, liM
pao:ked columns, 361 B\.eam,391
p..-ticles, 210, 211, 215 trAMf",. uni ts, 536
Diaphragm flowmeter, 151 V:\'cUUIU, 391
DilI'erence point, 288 DiHtrihuleU COfll JIOI"ICDta, fractionation, :Tn
[ijg~tiNcon~tio~, 390 o.-ne-t'urfun.J.di ,*",nylbeu.ne eyMcm, <tOO. OOG
 INDEX
DoeWr knife, 241 Ejector, 194
Dodge jaw 1ll\IIIbw, 27 Eleettie-etornge-battery truck!, 4\1
ca.pacity.28 Electrical p",-><:ipit.o.tors, 120
Doublo-con~ clM8lfier, 87 Eleetrom:lgnctic vibrator, 12
Douhle-pipe beat ucbangerw, -419 Elecll'Olltatie el'L8!lifi C::llion, 00
[)owWlpoutB, bubble p\&rea, 360 Elutrintion, 16, 72, 87
dist.m_tion columns, 350 Emissive power, 458
Dowtbenn, heat transfer medium, 3U Emis!ivitY,4S9
Drag \&.... 10 iuminnU8 g.'lS!.oS, 4"1
DriCl'1, M9 non\uminoWl ~, 468, 469
oontinuoua, 672 lIOlid su rfa.oes, 4"
OOllDwrourrent, 6110 Energy, intern.a.l, 133
desi&u of, 569 kinetic, 133
drum. 565, 570 lost, Ruid flow, 137
freae,566 potenlia~ 133
","",i164 proMUTe, 133

....,""
rotuy,569

_pray, 560
tray, 669, 569
Energy !:lilian..,.., 3
enthal py-di:llp1lm,
fuma~ 466
328

EnerlD' equiva lent of mMS, 3

vacuum, !i66 Enthalpy , 134, 156
vacuum tray, 566 humid g:u< m.ixlu"" 541
Driving force, heat tmn.efer. 41.'i, 416
mMI tnMfer. 510
isothermal decI'ClI8e, of gn.scs, 500
EntiUl.lpy-ron"",ntmtion d i!l.jtrtlm, 325
,
Drop wei&bt elWher, 42 amorption, 4.00
Dmpwiae oonden&&lion, 451 &mmOrlla-wuter, S(}2

Drum drier&, .56.5 t.l!.1e\um chloride-water, 400
feed afl'UlgelD .... tB, 566 weul/llion of idcaJ. !It.Itt;ClI, 330
Dry-bulb temperature, M6 calculation of minimum reHllX, 338
Dry screening, 9, Ii collllUuction of, 326
Dry table, 96 energy and mat.erial b4l1ances, 328
Dry volume, 343 entrainment in fr&ctionation, 342
DryiIll, 669 etha.nol-water, 327
..,..,,,,
. biblicJcrt.phy, 674 BOdium hydrolride-water, 487
wa:.er-eiliea ~~ 406
equipment, 559 Enthalpy-maM I'&tio di.!.j(ra.m (wll.ter.silica. gel), 409
..-,400 Entzainm~nt, 340
illast.rative eumpje., 568, &71, 671 fraetion&lin columns, 343
i factor, 538 "Equal falling " partieles, ij4
IJOlida, 666 ,.. Equation, Bernoulli, 135
DIlhrilll plot., 48!i ClausiU&-Clapeyron, 488
-.odium hydmdde-water, 486 Darey,217
Dust col\flCtol"l!l, 11 9 Fanning, 136
Dy namic limilarity, 68 ftow, 133
K O&eny, 218
Economle desigu of columne, 339, 360 Poiseuille, 139, 221
Eddy conducOOn, &1 7 rate, mass trancl'er, 5tO
Eddy conductivity, .\22 Rayleill:h (dilJeren~ial di3tillation), 389
l"...ddy difusion, :il1 Ruth,218
Eddy difWliVity, m weir, S52
Eddy viIooBity, m W~ymouth (pi; flow), [43
Ecfut:t,I94 Equilibrium, 3
Efticieney, 166 oon,to.nt, K, 375, 584
eentrifupl pump!!, 189, 100, 191 curve, vapor_liquid t.ran~er, 371
~erams, IDS liquid-liquid ternary, 303
pipe Un&, 147 aoetone-water-monochlorbenlene, 309, 316
~te, 843 d.iphenyl-hen.ne-dOCQBalle-furf1,Lra~ 300, a06
pumpl ADd com~ 1M methyleyclopcntane-Mxane-eniline, 304, 317

..
meetiveneas, 1& 8~,283
agitation, W8 heiht l!O;Juivalent, 400
""""""
lC1'eeo., 15
in adsorption, 400
iu paeked oolumllll, 361
 INDEX
Equilibrium, 'yrup decolorilinl, -416 Extraction, equipment, eolid-liquld, dUipenred-eonta.et, 280
vaporilation, 388 , agitator&., 112, 280
natuml ga8Oline, 389 rotating pint(>, 281
vapor->li<l, .,..ater, 404 thickenera, 112, 280
on silicw. gel, 405 morine bed, 279
volatility eutlIItan~ KC, 512 Bollman, 279
F'.quivakml be:tm knaths in radiation, -470 m
H IlTUJa-)10hlc,
Equi valent Cfl ke tbickne., flltera, 24"- l!Oybean l'I.:U1Ietnt, Z79, 281
Equivalent diuneter, 443 open lank, 112, m
Equivaient length, fitt.inp and V1I.Iuea, loll , 142 fish li vel'll, 283, 29'l
pipe, 139, 140 liquid-liquid, 297
Equivalent porosity or beds, m bibli......,ny, 320
Eq...ivaJent '"-'huBe of filtrate, U4 calcullltiOnt, 302
Et.hanoJ.air bumidity chart, M4 graphical, 306
Etbanol-ben.ene (yapor-liquid equilibria), 393. intennediate feed, 309
furfura~ 300

Etbanol-berllene-water I)'lItem, 681
Ethanol-water l)'ltem, 327, 582 minimum reHuJ<, 318
dilltillatlon in packed column" 536 minimum I!Olvent, 308
pbysical and therma.l dau, 582 nomenclature, 30.5
EVllporation, 474 packed columns, 536
bibliography, 491 solvent requirement.&, :J07
ilIWitrative example, 485, 489 solid-liquid, 277
water into air, 541 bibliography, 294
En.pol'l!.tor, 474 illustrative e""mple, 284, 292
auxiJiariel!l, 418 algebraic, 284
barometric leg, 418, 4SO gm"hicnl, m
jet condenaer, 479 ..ybea.n$, 279
mrface eond<!ll!ll!f, 479 Extractive dilltillation, 393
trapll, 418, -47t1, 480 Eye of centrif\llal pumpa, 177
feeding multiple effect, 482
heat lranafer oaeIfieien'-, 483, 484 FIlgf'rgretl Hotation celi, 102
bydl'OBtatle head. 4S3 Falling rate periods, in d ry i ni, 600, 670

_ ...
correo:tiou, -488 F&nning equat.ion, 136
materia.lt 0' COMtruetion, 418 Feed plllte oornpo!!ition, multieomponent l"IIcHonation, 380.,
mult.iple-etfec~, 481, 488 385
tripje4ect., 481 iocation, vapoMiquid trantfer, 337
boiJina-point e1eV1l.tioll, m Feed ...ater beater, 422
comporoent parU, 423
flow diagram, 481, 489 Feeder, meo:banical, 5 1
tn-,475 ~Feeding, choke, 2ti ..
bNket type, 475, 484 Fico 111'11",516
fOl"Olld-cin:ulation, 477, 484 Film boiling, 453
horilODtakube, 47~, 4&4 Filters, 119
Ionr:-tube vertleal (LTV), 477, 484' aids, 241
natural-cireulatton, 476, "84 lLir,560
Btaodard vertical tube, -476, <1M b.:t.g, 231
Exhauating, in extraeUon, refl ux, 302 b.:t.tch I~ ... f, 233, 236
Expansion, reversible, J 98 blowe ... for rotury VI\CUUm, 253
Extrac:Yon, 717, 297 cake, 232

_.m
ootch, oounterC\lJ'1'M~ 283

equipment, 277, 297

compres!5ible, 246
deposition, 242
dewatering, 237

liquid-liquid, 298 noncompJ'l'S$ible, 241
agit.atol"8, 504 ccnlrifugnl, 266
centrifugal, 299 cloee<.l-d<.livery, 232, 233
eoIUJ':lIlII, 298 comp~ible c:lkos, 246
u,pacitY,30 1 nmtinuoUl! rut:.ry ,'"cunni, 235
control of, 300 intcrntl~ 239
plate,298, 301 disk,238
_pray, 300 uavity,229
a>lid-Iiquill, 277 cil'arins. 230
cka!d tank, m internal rotary vacuum, 239
 INDEX
Fnters, Kelly, 2S3. 23IS Flo'!!' of fluidIJ, ilIU1t.r&tive ~ple. 112
lear, 233 laminai', 138
operation of, 241 meawrement, 149
ple.te.nd' r.me, 231 porous media, 210
bibliO&J'llphy, 218
""""" 231
........ 240 m
iJ!uatrative u&mple, 2U;,
wuhing, ~2, 233 tW'~pbue, bibliography, 228
ptulUl1!, 235 shell and tube excha.ngen!, 420
rotary leaf, 234 turbulent, 138
rotary vacuum, 237 vertical, in pol'OUJ beds, 217
aerapen., 241 Flow of IOlida tbrough ftuidB, 72
aelectioo, 242 bibliogrt.phy, 83
S",eetle.od, 233 Flow diagr&m, eountereummt mult.ipllH)(lntaet, :NO, 3O'J
thickener, 113 flOt.atioD, 100, 100
~feed, 239 silfl f1Iduetion. 44
vane., 233 1lOyt.e.n ex trael.ion, 282
",athiolof r.U.t'JI!" 248, 249, 251 s pray drying, 560
Filt.taUon, m - tVloporator, tri ple t iled, 48 1, 489
bibliOi/"aphy, 265 Flow equ.&tion, 183
conataot--Pf'U"U"', 245 F1owmetel"l, 149
conltant.-rate, 245 .&nemomet.er, 153
illustrative eXllmple, 243, 253 area type, 16 1
Finned tubes, 417 bibliogrDphy, 163
condensing Freon 12, 422 compound, 152
heat tlaooer, 444
ooefficientll, 4.18
cup, 152
current, 1~
,
Fittings, 122 diaphragm, 151
pipe, 124 di.epI.&oerneDt., 149
tubine. eotDpreI!IIion, 130 flOW' noule, 167
..,,]din. 128 pa flow, 149
Fixed-be<. adlMHbers, methods of calculation, 407 bead type, 16 1
Fixed beds, IIUIIIII kaDllfer, 538 liquid BoWl, 149
Flanaes, 129 multiple-put.on, 150
Fl.alIh vapori .... t i"'n or distillation, 888 nutatinl~i!k, 150
Flight eonveyore, 53 oscillDtin,pl~ton, 149
cDpaciti.. of, 53 pliot tube, 154
power requirements, 54 piston-a.nd-eleeve, 162
Floating he&<!, exchangers, m propeller, 153
Flooeulation, 78, 79 rotameten., 168, 161
Flooding:, of va.por-l.iquid ooIullUl@, 349 venturi, 156
bubble-a.p plate, 349 ... et.-tett., 151
puked,362 F low noule, 157
FIoodiog poiot, of ooI~ in ext n.ction, 301 Flowing temperature, 205
Aolation, 99 F luid, idea1, U!J
~Ilt&, 72, 104 Fluids, 65
bibliography, 108 comprgsible, flo" d, 10M, 198
Ih ... dilll'"am, 100, 106 tralllportation of, 122
illustrative example, 107 Fluidization of IIOIida, 269
equipment, 100 aggreptive, 270, 272
ai r eonsumption, 101 hibliography, 274
ai r lift, 101 bubblin& 539
CDUIlW'-MeIntosh, 101 illuatr&tive example, 271
Denver, 103 m&88 transfer, 538
F&&ergren, 102 partlcu\t.te, 269, Z72
mechanica~ 100 point of, 269
pneumatic, 100 Vn:sure drop, 270
power requi f1ld, 104 strelUllil'l&, 540
Flo... of fluitk, 13 1 m
tnlhsporl.
compressible, 143, 198 Force, 70, 131
oonieotm,rrnal, 203 rentrifupl, 258
hit;b-velodty, illustrative example, 208 centripetal, 258
 INDEX 601
F(I~reu\a.ti(ln evaporator, 47e GM, vi&rolsitiea, 586
J!'(ln:ed-draft cooling to"'l'!'S, S56 Guketll, 129, 130
F milin, facton, loeat exdange, 436 GMOlillP.. fla.sh vaporil&ticm, S89
FOIlrler's hm', 426 GmiDe-poll'em) ,ndualril\l truekl, 49
FtactionatilltC colum n, 334 G&SIIioe stabi liacr, eaIOO\&l ioIl8. 37~, 3M
COIIta, 361, 307 Gale VII I"". 124
desipl,346 Gayro pril!\lIna t.ic clulilkr, 81, 88
ent bll lpy-concentnlotM>Il diagllm. 336 Gees, 132
Fractio:... lion,m. 366 Geometric factors, n.d iat ioo, .w I
batch, 390 adjacent reckl.ngIes, W2
bibliop;mpby, 39b n'!frao:lOI'yIl~fls, 463
calculations, 328, 367, 31~ pIUllUel pl:lnc8, 463
dilute IIIOlutimlil. 370 GllUl8 healrt'xo::han~r tubee, 419
ternary Byslem! , 370 Globe v:..Iv... 125
lIquipm"nt, m Gr&<licnt, liquid 00 oobbJe plates. 351
bubhle-cap pi .. \.(! QQlumn, 3Z3 Gneh number, 440
oonlroland illltrun)(!fltutiQn, 362 G raphiclil integratiOH, 80, 81 , 400
p80ckco.l 00 Iu11\u9, 323 Graphic!!.l iIOIution, ~b!;Ctrption faclor, 374
pack inK for 1.o",,,rB, 324 furnaL'ilII, 466
perforAted tmys or plates, 323 Gravity tilleI'!!, 229
muitioomlloncnt, ili ustrBtive e)(.(l.mple, 3711 Gravity ~idee, 51
Framell, fill.cr, 231 Gray body; 400
Ftanci~, ",,,i. formula, 8.5 1 ,Green hrightneilll!, luminous fl l!.~, 471
... Free cl'Ul!lhinlt, 26 Grid tile, column packini\, 324
Free_ttliJlIt c!W!oI!ifier" 86 Grizzlies, 9
Freeze drier1l, 560 eapBcity, 10
\ Friction flUll.Or, 76, 79, 140 Gyratory ct\ll!helll, 28
-fador, porous beds, 211, 213
hlp-velooity flo.\" 205 Hairpin beater8, 424
plot, pipes, 140. 143 H amJIWlr mill, 32
K:I.rm6.n numbe, : I43 H:mdling of 8Olidl, 49
Reynoldl number, 140 pel'mlUleDt i1llltal i:l tioml, 61
JIOI'OUII bed&, 2 12, 216 portable po,,'f!,-driv.m mnc.h ines, 49
Friction b!e, 134 HlU'dinp! countercurrent classifier. 89
bubble cape, 350 lbnJinge mill, 38
Duid-llo..-. 13b H" " ' - 7
orifices, 161 M<;Ib'uca.lIl,7
Frothiog qmt., l OS Head , 135
Froude number, m developed by eent.ri fugal pump', 187
aci~totll, 606 liquid on bubble plate, 3.ltI, 3."1
I'uidiutio n, m pumpll and oompre880fI. 100
Fupcity, &10, 6 11 virtual, oentrifupl pumpa, 186, 187, 188
Furfural.docoaaue-diphenylbenne 'ystem, 303. 300 Head meteI'll. 161
Fui naoe ealeu1atJon, 4~ 'Heat, 133,415

Galena, 21, 42
adsorption, 400
reboil,325 , .,
Rittinger's number, 42 vapori~tion of meth..nol, M8
specific surfaoe of, 21 vaporization 'of water from eo lut,ioJls, 485, <l87
specific surf&CII 'ratio, 22 Het\t capa.eitiCOl of variou! ~& and Uquidil, 587
Gantry crane, 1\0 Heat excha.ny,er tubing, charucteti~t.ic~, 420
Gape, 28 Heat exchanger1l, 417
G ... 200 double-pipe, 419
deviation (rom Ideality, 1\91 flllld warer heater, 423
dUluaion, 515 flOI'Iting head, 422
flow It high veb:ity, 198 fouling fscton, 436
flow, Weymouth equltlOn, t43 ~419
Wothermal decreaee in enthtJpy. 590 bsirpin, 424
nonlwninous, 468 kettle reboiJc" 424:
... t.urated denaiticl, 585 ~U-and.tQbc, 419
~fic heats of Vll riOWl, 587 si ogie-pNII, 421
t.hermal coodac:tivit.iee 01, 684: multipMI. 421
 INDEX
Heat e~rban&ertl, sb('1\an,I \uix>, tube ('~]lllnrl",rs, 412 Renry's h.... , 512
H{'lll. lihero l ion In futUllt\"I, 16,; .Henry 's law oolll<tant, 528
H!':I.t tmJlJ!fer, 415 H eptane, 583, 584.
an&I.Ol[Y to n>omentUlll IlUd n\:UIEI LI"~Jl.I!fer, 519 H "'pl&ne-mel hylcyclobemne SYSlllm, 582
OIlInuli,4U H ... pt.a ........ met.byJcydohexan~n i linll a)"$I.tm, SSI
banka of tubes, 444 vapor Pres>lU"" 583
t.."bliogt"Bpby,472 HeterocenoouslLSt(lU"Opc8, m
boHling, 453 Heu.ne-&ni linlH'Delohyleyelopeotllne system. 30-1, 3 17
etrecL of presllUl"e, 4~
maximum heal flu~, 4M
Horisont.al tubes, eoodellMotion of
H igh-velocity flo .., 198
va""...,
4i9

~lioo, -I48 bibliop-apby,209

hnriwnt.Al tulx-, 441)
preslUIll of nnn~>nll'ms"hleB,
IlUperheate..l \':l.p<>r, 4M
vertical wrlaee!l, 448
<XIndu~tion, 426
k>p.rithmic mean, 427
mean valut'll, 428
llerie ... 421
thick ..all<!d bodil~, 420, 429
droplI'ise CQndtn~tion, 451
eddy eondlletivity, 622
evnporato .... 483, 484
finned tubell, 418, 444
fluids inside t-ubell, 438, H3
fluids outside tubeR, 443
iUusll9.tive eumples, 4Z5, 431, 449, 461 .
oondeMlug, 449
oon<.iuction, 425
~iati<ln, 4{1]
u""lcadY-lilate,43 1
iMtherm.'"'- eondit.i;.os, 443
j ractor, 442, 519
~Mnism8, -14 1
mullen mcbli, 442
1I;11ura l ooovt!<:tion, 444
cylinders, 444
vertics.l plata, <lf4
nverall ooefficien~ 4Z5
pBl1Illd mcehanisrns, 417
ndiation, 457
l!eries, 417
stl'auy.... l.fI,l.(l, 424
turbulent fin .... in conoonaotl', 451
Ulll!tea.dY-lltate, 4Z5, 428
heat balanooe, 430
queri~hing 1\ billet, 431
solid cylinders, 430
Heat I.ra.rn;fer coofticientll, bo:"Iiling, 454
calculation, 43Z
droplI'i!IC condenSILUon, 453
dimcnsiODAI analysis, 438
fluids inaide lubell, 438
l>w-rall, 412, " 25
radiation, 46'1
H C:fI.til1l coils, in coIumne, 325
Hei&ht equiVlllcnl to tnllll!fer unit, 631
Height of transfer unit, 5:'11
a ll moni ...... losorp~ion, M I, 532, 533
packinp, 533
8Il!fur dioxide abeorpllon, ~
pipes, 203
45t Hindered aetUilll:, 78, 116, 269
HoWup in bJ.\.c:b fractionatkm, 391
H0II>llieneous ueotropes, 3!)3
H OI"I5epOwer, 189
brake, centrifug.. l pump!!, 189
fluid, ecntrifupl pump!!, 189
HWlIid h~"L, 348
Humid volume, M3
Humidification, 548
adiabatic, S12, 548
Humidifiar, adiabutic, M8
Humidity, 542
Humidity chart, M3
adiabatie eooling curves, M 7
air-cthanoJ. syIltem., 544
air-w&ter .ygtem, 546.
Humidity ratio, 54{)
Hut<":h jig;"&. Il3
H ydraulic radiue. 520
H ydroaubollll, 584, 588, 589
liquid enllwlpi<:ll, 588
vapor entha lpies, 58t1
vapor..J.iquid equilibria., 584
VlIpor p~re, 583
Hypel8lrber, 400, <lOl
carbon flow ..... Le ec;>ntroUer, 402
o~t.i11l variabk:s, 4O'l
vapor w-~r: tny, 403
Hypcl"llOrptiQn proceea" 401
H ytor pump, 1112
Ideal OOIltaCt, 8
Iden.l ftuid, 68
ld(!li.l CM, 200
deviation from, HI
Ideal st.agc!!, 8
absorption factor method, 872
adsorption, 408
calculation of, vaporliquid tran!ICer, 325
anaJytice.~ 370
enthalpy-concent.... tion dillil"affi, 330, 366
graphical, 338, 368, 371 .
McCabe--Thiele, 368
multioomponent systerns, :U5
opcrI ataun, 34.1
equivalent hei(tbt for f*(lkinp. 361
runetion of reflux ratio, 386
multieomponent rractionation, 375
empiricaJ met.hod, 384
 INDEX 600
Ideal stages, multi component f""~tiona'ion, \':o;ample, 375 j fa ctor, Ill&!III transfer, 519, 530
total reflux, 372 psychrometry,547
vapor-liquid trun3fer at constant temIWrnture, 372 Juw crushers, 'II
Illustrntive eu.mpJe~, ab>!orpt.ion, 533 Jct rondcnser, 480
adsorption, 407, 408, 409 Jet pumps, 1!l3
agitation, li08 Jets, mixing, 604
blower requirements, 253 Jiggilll, 91
bubble plate des.ign, 357 cOll8Olidation trickling, 93
compressible fluid flow, 144 hutch,93
crystallization, -l98 ~tratification, 93
dehumidification, 550 Jigs, 92
drying, 569, 571, 573 fixed ~n, 94
evaporation, 485, 489 plunger, 93
extraction, liquid-liquid, 306, 311, 313, 318 movable !!Creen, 94
8Olitl-liquid, 284, 292 Joints, 122
filtration, 243, 253 hell~nd-$pigot, 127
flotation, 107 compression, 130
flow of fluids, 142, 144 flanged, 129
high-Vtllocity,208 threaded, 122
porous medii:., 216, 227 welded, 127
Iluidization, 271
graphical integTation, 498 Karbate for heat exchanger tubes, 424,
heat transfer, condensing, 9 IUrmiin number, 142
oondimtkm, 425 Kettle reooiler, 424
radiation, 461 Kick's 111.,,', 42
uns~ndY-lltate, 431 Kinematic visooeity,.68
muItioomponent fractionation, 375 Kinetic theory, 514
packed columns, 533 diffusion of KflSCI'I, 514
Ii.ze reduction, 44 diffusion in liquids, 516
vapor-liquid, eonslantmolal overflow, 368 Kircbhofh Isw, 4li8
entbalpy~ncenb'at.ion diagram, 331, 334, 340 Kopp's Law, in atomic VOiUIllCll, 515
Impeller, 177, 178 Kozeny equation, 218
agitation, 505
axinl flow, 179 Laminar How, 74, 50, 138
effect of diameter on pump characterntics, IflO heat transfer, 442
enciolJed, 179 ' momentum tran.sfer, 519
Oow throW!:h, 188 porous beds, 217
open, 177, 178 wetti;'g fluid, 224
mixed-Oow, 179 Lantern ring, $eul in pumps, 182
Induced draft cooling towers, 556 Laws, Beer, 469
Inert vapor, stripping, 392 cosine, 461
Infiuite stageIJ in vapor-1iquid transfer, 339 Fick,516
graphical detenruIltltion, 338, 368 Fourier, 426
multicornponent fractionation, 379, 385 Henry, 512
IlL!!tallation of orifices, 159 Kick, 42
llll!tcumentation of fractionating columns, 362 Kirchhoff, 458
Insulating materials, thermal conductivity, 584 Ohm, 04
Integration, ~ry$tallilation, 499 Raoult, 390, 512
graphical, 80 Rittinger, 42
IntclllSity of radiati<m, 469 Stdlm-l3oItzma,Dn.4Mt
Interfacial tensiQn, 221 Le:tching, 278
Intermediate feed, in Iiquid-liquid extraction, 308 LenJ, properties, 444
Internal energy, U, 133 Light hydrocarbons (liquid-vapor equilibrill),584
JlIOpropyJ ether-I\'ater-&OOtic acid system, 581 Liquid-liquid equilibria, 303
JlIOthermaJ>adoorption, 408 acetic acid_\\'ate~illOpropyl etru;r, 581
llIOthermal doorease in enthalpics of gases, 590 oonzcno-ethllnol-water. 581
llIOthenna.\ flow of fluids, frictionle!rs, 2O'J butanol-water, 394
heptane-methylcyclohCX8.ue-aniline, 581
j fa.ck>r, 519 Liquid-liquid extraction, 297
fluidized 80lid systems; 538 equipment, 208
heat tnwsier, 442, 519 packed columns, 636
 INDEX
Liquid-liquid extraction, methods of ,cai<,u\s.tion,:106, 311, 313, Meehani~m of turbulent shear, 521
318 :\I=h, 11 , 17
Liquid metatlS, heat transfer, 442 :\Ietnl~, hl!llt tmnsfer, 442
WtId-phlUll! traMfer coefficient.... 528 thermal conductivities, 584
\.~.:relation, 529 :\f,,!erin!!:, 149
sulfur dioxide ab!orption, 528 :\felhalwl, vapor pressUrf', 558
Liquitl-pha!le dilfusivitie!, 516 :\Ie! hunol-water, distillation, 536
Liquid-vapor eqilllibria, light hydrocarbons, 584 :'>Iethylcyetnhexane-heptane (vapor-li'luid equilinri!!.) , 582
l.iquid!!, properties, satumt.ed d"nsities, 585 ~1<'thylcyclohe.xane--heptRne-aniline ")'lItem, 581
.pecific heAta of variOU6, 587 ;\lethylcyciopentane-hexane-ll.IJ.iline $yst~m .. 304, 317
thertrull conductivities, 584 :\Iill&, hall, 38
vapor preS8Ures, 583 bowl,37
viscrnsities, 586 Chilean, :fl
Logarithmic mean, area, 428 hammer, 32
rmliUl<, 427 Hardinge,38
temperature difference, 435 Raymood,37
rA'nJl:-tUbe vertit-,a.l evapomtor, 477 rod, 4{)
iA",1 "ork, !34 tube,4O
huhble-capf!, 350 ;\linc....llI, 21, 42
orifices, 161 Rittinger number, 42
l.uminOWl ftamil'!, 471 specific surface, 21
Luminous gallell, 471 ratio, 22
Minimum plates, multicomponent l!)'Stems, 376, 377
:'>Ict:a.be-Thiele, graphical methQtl calculation of ideal states, Minimum reflux, 339
36!l, 370 extraction, 318
:'>Iarh number, 200 multioomponent frnetionation, 382
:'>Inn(lmeter, 154 compoeition of vapor, 382
two-Huid. 155 short method, 384
:'>1:1>18, 131 stages, vapor-liquid, 338
energy equivalent of, 3 vapor-liquid tra.nsfer, 339
MI\8S traru;fer, 510 graphical detenuination, 338, 368
agitAtor>J, SOl :'>Iinimum solvent, extraction, 308
lLllIl.logy to heat and momentum tra'1I!fer, 59 :'>1i~lIa, 280
bibliogmphy, 574 :\Iixing, liuids, 503
coefficients, 527 bibliography, 509
experimel\tnl, 527 jet8, S04
gas phllSt!, 530 Mixing length, I'randU, 5Z2
liquid-liquid extraction, 537 :l.lixing mtio, S42
liquid-phMe, 528 :'>Iodifyill! agents, lOS
overall, 511 MOB's 6CLIa of hardness, 7
units, 528, 531 Moisture content, 567
vapor phase, 528 equilibrium, 566
<:ontroltin,.; rem..tan.,."., 527 free, 567
dimensio",'\1 an&lysis, 618 :\fole ratio diagram extraction, 316
molecular diffusion, 514, 516 Moleeular diffusion, 514
nomenclature, 283 gtLk'l!, 516
lurnulent flow, 617 Morten metals, heat transfer, 442
"bterial balance, 3 Momentum, 131
graphical, 287 ""ll$Prvation of, 522
vapor-li(\uid transfer, 328 transfer, 519
:\[",ximum ii'luid How, nn buhble plates, 355 :\lonochlorbenzene-aeetone-w4ter ~YRtem, 3O!},315
MC&Il temperature differences, 434 :\Iolion, fluids and oo!ids, 68
:\fean values of dependcnt variables, 428 one-dimelll!ional, 80
in gravitational field, 82
:\fen.surement of flow of fluids, 149
f<>tuti<>nal, 82
hibliography, 163
two.. limension&l, 79
:\{,,,,hllnical eonVCYOfB, 52
:'>Iulticomponent frnctionation, 375
:'>Iechllniclll draft oooliIll!: to ..... ers, 556
computation, 375
:\Iechanical feedcr, 51
empirical method for idcal ~tatc., 386
Mechanical Hotation cella, 100 plate to ,.Iate, 381
Mech&ni!'&lly vibrated screen, 10 f~-plate location, 380, 385
Mul li(.'Ofllponent fmetk>nation, ideal. "&1ft' AI
INQEX.
function of Packed oolumne., 300, 323
...
~flux ratio, 386 eap&cit y and diameter, 361
illuetraU", na.mpjo, 375 coefficien\.l, maa lrMIfer, 525
infi nite stale. at minimum. re1I.ux, 379 1M phue, 630
re1I.ux, 375, 386 liquid phue, 529
minllTl~lTl, 379, 382 dilltiUation, 63$
thort method, 384 humid ification, M8
k.otal, 376 iIlustmtive example, !i33
roM of eotUIta.nl com position, 379 methanol-\\"I!.~r distillation, 536
Mu ltiple contact, 282 Packing, ~ho.rae~rn.tiet, 362
Multiple-piston fIov.-meter, 150 height of transfer unill!, M3
Murphree "apor plate d5ciency, 343 "'pport, 362
Pan ronvl'}'Ol"S, eapacitiea, 61
Natural convection, 41 7 Pa nning, %
heat tnnIfer, 444 Paper, pulp ex traete,.., 27'9
NaturaJ draft coolin, to'A'en., M3 Partial oon<ieJllleta, fraetionatton, 339
Na.tural &MOline, 375, 5&4 Partial preesure. 511
Keedle valve, 125 relative, 64 1
Net poeiUve ",ction hca.d., NPSH, 19 1 Pa rticlel, 1:1
Newton'alAw, 74 diamete r, 19, 20, 21, 77, 210
N OlTlencll!.tu re,577 eqwt.l fl!.lIing, 84
heat tllcliangen, 422 shape, effect on velocit y , 77
liquid_liquid tlIO t raclion, 305, 316 roughneee, 2 15
ItWIII trana.fer, 284 silfl, ..unrption, 407
Noncireular ooml uit.s, 142 detenninatiC':t, centrifuging, 17
N OIlI)o:mdenable pa evaporatora, 483 elu bU.tion, 16
NOI'Ilsotherma.1 flow of Buids, 203 magnetic, 17
NOt::del, 108 mic.ro.oopic, 16
oonve!'ling-diverpng, 199 -ICreeninL 16, 17
flow, 157 *'II.imenlation, 16
maximum flow flte, 201 I'&rticulate fluidization, 269, 272
pre.ul":!, 562 Il\M!I tnln.ter, 538
lingie-lluid, ~ l Partition riop, 324
*II'-y, 001 . Peck carrier, S9
two-fluid, 661 P ec1et nu mber, 440
Nuclear chAnges, 3 Percolation, 399
N ucleate boiling, 453 Perimeter, wetted, 520
N Ullllelt number, 440, 441, 522 Pecmeabilit y, ~I"OWI bed&, 2 17, 218
Nul4ting-diek lIowmeter, 150 rel&tiVe,22i:l
specilMl, 220
Ohm', law, <I "'- 2
()pc!:n-.tctun fraCl_iooation, 340 Pbue ooefticient, rna. t ranel"er, 5 11
Open-tcLDk u t racton., 112, 278 ~Ia~ k) overall eoellicitnt, 5 11
Operati", linea, 369 Phue equilibria, 303
ad80rption, <110 enraetioft, 289
fractionatioa., 369 _ ratio d iagrams, 287, 303
vtporJiquid t raflllfer, 371 mole ratio diacrama, 316
OrientaUon, part icles in beds, 215 IIOIid..Jiquid, 287
Orifioe, 157 Jiquid-liquid, 303, 580
dieehArit ooefIicient.t, 158 vapot-liq uid, 327, 835, 366, 368, 582, 58i
friction 10IIIeII in, 161 J>boscen.e, a.d8O.-ption, 407
~t.a.l\a.lion, 159 Pi theorem, dimensional anaIy!Iis, 131
roun<Hd&ed, 157 Pipe, l22
etw-p....edpd. 157, 158 bell..w..p!cot. 127
Orifice balBe, 422 " - 123
(MciIlatilll pilton 6owmetet, 149 eaA-iroIl, l 23
OeciU"li", eereena, 13 eoncrete and clay _er, 171
0vera1l eodicient.t, 4 16 copper , 123
h~t tr&nafer, 416, 42fi dimenaionJl, 123, 171
m . . tn.naier, fi l I hlghpreesure, 123
Overall trAnSfer unit, 631 hiah. velGcitv PI llow. 203
606 Ii<mEX
Pipe, nominal else, 123 Pl'Ilndti numbo:'r, heat tnosier, 440
filM!;", 129 ma98 t l'll.llfIfer, 518, 524
J...in(ol'!'ed concret~, prntlUre, 127 Precipit:l.tof'S, !leetrie&l, 126
I'I'lative m~n"" 141 Pret'!OIl t fiIt<mJ" 240
1'1U(th_ .I39 Pressure dmll, Ilb
w-loetlu1e number, 122 adsorhent 00dI!, 403
. .. 'wr. l27 nu.i<lized beds, 210
~1<~I. 122 tr:l11!lpon of flu.idi ztd &nINill, 274
1I"']"l1(rotmd _-ni.er, 123 transportation of Ouids, Ilb
'~'~ ,.-i . y di~lribut.ion, 620 tube oonkA, 144
"-. l>I.~ I .
127 Prcs<.urn, p:uti:ll, M 1
" " ~ llIht iron, 123 v:>pnr, va riollll ma terinl, 583
ri]l'''' ,m,1 litt;np, hih li0(J'3flhy, 130 Pressure 'Iho.:k, ) 00
Pi l.~ri l'" "f!icieney, problem 12, U7 PriminJ:, vllpor-liquid ooIumrwo, 3~9
l'i ,,,1 l ul~, 155 Promoters, fiot:ltion, J(J.5
I'klit 1,,,int, 304 Propllne, propllrlies, 447
i'la l" ~"Iumn, 298, 323, 346 Propeller, flowmeter, 153
d'''';lI:n :l.nol cont...,l, 346 Psyrhrometry, 542
liquid-liquid I)xtm.etion, 2U8 bibliography, 5N
mpor_liquid opcraUollJl, 322 dry volume, 543
1'1"t, "flkinncy. vapor-liquid, 848 enthalpy of humid gas mixture, 513
IllUximum, 348 humid hent, 543
:\lurphr,34,3 humid volume, 543
","tun, 346 humidity, 542
I'I"t ...... "'dfmme filten, 231 humidity ratio, 542
I'ht!<--t<>-l'late computlltion.a, mu ltl con:ponent frwtiOOlltion, mixing ratio, 542
380,381 relative humidity, 643
"la~tk ,j"{O<"mation, 2.5 relative partial pres5Ure, 543
l'h~t.i~ piVe , 129 roeiative eat.u.ratioo, 642
I'n'~IIH... t ir. cells, flotAtion, 100 saturated humidity , M3
1'",~ml\lie e~6er. Gayro, 87, 88 saturated volume, 643
I'lIl'UIIL.. tiC conveyinl , 21 3 Puking, VlI.por-liquid oolum na. 349
I'oinl$, addition, 288 Pulsation&, fIownleten, 160
crilic;,1 or plait. liquid-liquid a)'!ltem., JO.I Pumping and mmJll"l'll'6ing, 166
di/fl'J'efletl, 288 Pumps, 166
"'" j,.." fn acid I!gg or blo .... cue, 194
I iIoo..'UiLle'.11 equaUon., 139, 217 agitation, 504
Ponds, cooli",. SpI1I.,., 567 s ir-li ft, 100
Porosi ty. 211 bibliowaphy, 197
e(luivalent, beds, m centrifucal. 177
~~ted, be<b, 224. CBvitation, l90
POI'OIlS mediI!., 210 Bpecifie Breed, 1go
flow ()f 8uids, 210 wminolo(y, 177
lNI8!I trarusfcr, 638 dimensiolUl, rooiproea.ting, 169
permeability, 217, 218 duplex, 168 '
random-paeked, 214 efticiency, 173
sa.tura.tion, 222, m oontrifuga.~ 189
6pooifie resistance, 218 racipl'OCll.ting, 173
IIpht'ricity, 214 gear, 174
UD<'.OIlIIOlida~, 221 lobe, 175
Pound, 131 high_pI'f)SS\lI"!!,l71
focoe, 131 hydraulic I'Il.ID. 19S
maIlS, 131 Hytor, 1112
Pounda.Is, 132 jet, 191
Po .... er requirement, aa:itatol1l, 606, 607 operatin& etltUI"l'.A, 173
crumen, 2'"1, 30 oentrifl1la~ 187
fI.ota.tion eells, 10.& reciproestinK, 173
pumpII tmd eompl"eMOn, I G6 rotary, 177
Power .tlovels, $0 pistol\., 1M
Prandtl m..iJ:ill& lencth. ~22 pluncer. 169
Pnpdtt Dwnber, 440, .... 1 mciproesLioL 166

Pumpll, rerommertded oon' l i' ion~ of tL'!l', 186
.ere"', 175
lliding-fK'll I, 175
special types, HII
8pced of reciprocating, 173 .. '
turhi nP., l!)1 , 192
vane, 175
P y rite, 21 , ~ 2
Rittin~s num ber, 42
epecitk surface, 2 1
sped tk surf,...., ~t i o, Z2
Pyroele<:tric effects in e!n sl ficn tion, 97
q liM, vapor-liquid frllocti " n nlio n, 369
Quam , 21, 42
Rittin~'! number , 42
speei6e SUrfll"" 21
SJII!d 6e M1rfnl't" ml i{', 22
TUd ialow pln tt", buhhh, "lilt!!
Tl:L< lift nt hea t fu rnn N,,", 4M
n "diMio n, 415, 457
nh~ rt)tivi t.y , ~59
bank! of lui,."., 464
bo.'1Im lengths, 470
biWiogrn flhy. 472
blnek bodie<, 457
cv<:f'll cients of 1K'tl1 tr:m.der.
etni';v" 1>0\\"("1', 458
cmi "'; vity, 459
!IOlid ~, 459
furnaCe!!, 4U-t, 465, 466
dl)()l", 4oo
soometrica.l factor, 461
*<ljaeent pbMs, 462
furnaces, 400
parallel phones, 463
gl'll,y body, 400
surfaro!l, 46-t
hellot trllonsfllr, 457
!Ilustt,.tive example, 461
Int(ln!!ity, 41i8
,.,i.&tive, 458
\emr-ature effect on, 458
...aY!Olength effect on, 4:18
lumiTlClUll II.lilTlftl, 471
nonluminous ~, 468
Ra.tiiUl, hyd raulic, MIO
RaffiIlAW, 297
Ha ke cla9;Si fier, 88, 89
Rnkes, in !Ifldimentation, 114
fum, hydraulic, 1% .
JWntJorn..p.1oCked betl.. 214
Raoo lt'. law, 390, 5 12
~hic rin&B. 324
Rate equation, 510
Ratel, of drying, 573
o( operation, 3
Rayleigh equation, dilferential distillatlOn , 389
Raymond mill, 37
ReboUen, 325
Il\'DEX
ReOOik'ra, ke lt'" type, 424
Rei:ip l'OClll iug l'lImps Ilond eotl']ltI'\II!Ors, 166
H,<.~illr<'ll:nling II('rl!Cns, 13, 14
H('oovcry faetor, in high-velocity flow, '204
Hec.>v"ry of II<lreena, 15
I~tify i na: oolumn, 332
,'nth:t lpy-e<IIln.'IIl.m t ion d illf!:rllm, 332
Ikd 1, rig ht l'W'M ..i I" n,inous flalTM'll, ~ 7 1
Redler C<J1I~y""', 5-1
Redlll'l;nn rutin in crushini, 26
Hoc!. , 16
Reflux, 302, 332
, fract io natil)n , 333
liquid-liq uid ex trllction, 302
minimum, 339
...'tlttle!;nn, 3 18
mull ioom ponent frnl'l iflfla1ion, 37''), 385
""lI mum, In fmetiooat iuo, 33'J
lol :ol, 331
>Iu"'n~, 3;;S itll~ll ~t Ulj;l'" D.t, 372
vapor-liquid t ra nsfer, 3.U
va por-liq uid transf"r, 33.3
Hefl.ux 1'111;0, (unc tion of itl"al ~t i\I(' ''', 386
vlI [K,r4Iiq uid tran~f.. 337 r:
Tld'l'lldoriee., th.tmal cuu([ ud h"i t i.,. "r. AA-l
U.';''''' i~n Of 81:"-.. ... .... IS
1tt.lIlli ve partill l fl" '$'IUI'I', 5-1 3
~G7 nl'la l ive 11CT1I"K~i li t y of l>"t"UII I K~J", 220
R .. lati ve roul(hUNlS of pipes, 141
Rclnt ive ,,"l,tur:ltio n, ,,}42
Ht'btlve l oJnli lity , 370
He"iltanee, 4
.tiffu,~ion iu pMCII, 614 "
hI!!!t t nlDider , 115
Illminllf" 110., 620
m llllll tmll.~fer, 5Z1
IICm,4 111
~J,..ci6 e, of porous hed~ , 218
H... lent ion tillie, thic kllC8S, 117
H,)ver~i hJc ndiahati c ex pans ion, 108
Rey no/ds number, 6..'), 74, 1311, 210, ';';0
at:ti t.'\tora, 507
j Ia('tor, 678
Ol""IIl.ransler, :'IZ1, 638
mooified, 225
porouI beUa, 212
t,,o-dim cnsionlll motion, 81
R ight-triungubr diagrams, 287
lllM8 ratiQ, 303
r60'e r a t io, 3 16
Rinp, colum n pIlcking, 324
n~r, in bubb1c-et11) plates, 359
nillT~r's /tt.w, 42
Ritlj~1 00*, 42
Rod mill, 4b
Roller d ri e,., 564
!WJIII, crushing, 34
"
Rot:une\4:lr" 168, 161
R o-T ap, (screen) analysis, 18
Rotary driers, 559
RotAry pumpi, 174
 INDEX
Roo&heT, flotation, Qg Sere.. oonveyo1'1, 52
P.oua;hDe8l, 139 capacities of, 53
pUtieles, 216 power requirementa, 62
pipe, 139, 141 aize of lump!! for, 62
l\uf.h equaiion, 218 Serubbe1'1, 120
Seals, in centrihtga.! pumpe, 182
Baddlee, I.!I column packing, 324 Sedimentation, 110
Saltill& in evapora to!1l , 474 ba tch, 110
Sand, dryilli 1'I.i:e8, 669 bibliography, 120
Saturated humidity, 642 continuous, 113, 114
&mrated volume, 6'3 a ree. required, 116
e a Wr:atio" of poroU8l'Mdia, 221 Cftpollcity, 116
effl!CliVl', 223 oon Cilot rations, 11 8
...... m eritica.l concentration, 117
~dual, 222 height, 117
fblt ,61 .slurry concentrations, 114, 116
automa.tic recordlnc, 63 Seed cr)'8tll.la, 494
counting, 64 Segmental baffle, 422
dia. for, 63 Selective flot.o.tion, 106
electronic, 64 Separat ion of lIOI.ids from ,~, lt9, 120
hydraulic, 64 Sepllratora, conduct.lmce, 97
paekagilli and baning, 64 contact potential, 97
ScaHn,; of evaporato.., 474 gaHlOlid, 119
"Sealilll up" of equipment, agitato.., 508 be.fRe plate, 120
Schedule number of pipe, 122 cyelcme, 119
Sehmidt nl1Jl'ffl!r, $27 duaL collect.or, lHI, 121.-
nua tralUlfet', 618 electric precipit&tol"l, 120
ScrapeD,52 rotuy !!prayer II(lrubber, 120
!Jcreen analYIIeII, 17 .... et lI(lpa.rato1'1, 120
t:valuation ot, 20 Series beat transfClr, 417
reporti.nJr; of, 18, 19 Settling, 73
cumulative plou, HI hindered, '18, 269
fractional plot., 19 malrimum velocity of, 73
~iap, 18 Scttlin; f"ctor, F., 78
typica.l, 18 Setlling periods, 91
Screen aperture, 17 Settling ratio, 85
Screen intel'Yal, 17 spherical, 84
8treen.ing, 9 Settlint; velocitiea, 91
bibliography,22 relali ~, 92
dry, 9, 18 Shaking table, 95
equipment, industria.l, 9 Shave-olf, in cyclones, 119
wet, 9, 18 Shear . tl'CSllli in flo.... illl fluid!!, 619
"'-.'
British elandard, 18
laminar, 520
meebnimna, 620
eape.citiee 01, 16 molecular, 520
.'!Idi~ 1& turbuleat., 321
eIertronJa!lCtically vibrated, 11 Shelf drie1'1, 569
&ri::liietl, 9 Shel! and tube heat exchanJera, 419
Industrial, 11 effective temperature difference, 435
injip,94 feed water heater, 423
rneehanica.lly vibrated, 10 fIoeting-bead, 422
rmproo:ating, 13. 14 multipua. 421
recanT)', 16 nomendature, 422
Mil, 15 Ilin&le-PQt. 421
rejection, 16 Shock wave, 199
nmIlvinc. 16 Silica pi, w.orbent., 404, 406
et&tionary, 10 Sin&Ie-oontaet extn.ction, 282
trommels, 13, 14 Sincle-Paae shell and"tUbe uchan&er, 421
Ty_ atandanI, 17, 18 Siae fra.cttoo, indication of, "
Vnited Stal8 mndard, 18 Size r.tio, 85
Y:ibtatinl, 10, 11 Size reduction, 25

SUe reduet.ion, bibliogaphy, 46
I NDEx.
Spray towers, 41S
...
eboke feeding, 26 Squirrel...,agc disint.wator. 32
~,26,27 St.bility of bubble platee., 3M
fine.26,37 Eitabilized paoIine, 376
free eru8hillll:, 26 Stages, 276, 288
i1IUJtBt.ive example, .ctual, equi librium ideal, 3, 27.5, 283
int.ennedilr.... 26, 32 caleulatiOD oJ ideal, ab8orptio ... 330. 372, oliO
r.tio, 26 adsorption, 408
wet grinding, 26 distillation, 338, 36S. 370, 379, 3M
Slat or drag oonveymt, 54 liquid-liquid el<tractioll, 302
"Slop" eut, in fraetioo&t.ion, 391 IIOlid-llquid e;d..a<:t.ion, 283
81ug,I32 vapoNiqllid \rarrier, 330, 338,!G8, 1J7D, 3'10, 385
Sodium' hydmxide-water .,..tem, 48.5 ",.phiesl, 338, 368
Dahring plot, 486 multiple oomponente, 379. M!
entbaJpy-eonoentl'&t.ion diagram, -l87 Stagnatjnn temperature, 204 .-.
npor.Jiquid equilibria, 485 Stamp. jp'&vity. 36
&lid., 6 Stan ton number,....o, 441
dilJUllion in, 616- Stationary 5ereeca, 10
emilJl5iviti ..., 469 Steady-fJt.ate conduction, 426
equilibnum moImlre oont.ent of, 567 Stcady-8t&te beat Uarulfl:r. 424;
free moist.ur. oontenl, 567 S Iun distilla tion, 391
properties, 7, 8 SIMm stripping, 392
demity, !pecifir. gravity. bulk derW ty, appa..... t demity. Stef.n-Boltzmll.ll.n oonlltant, 459
b.rdneea, 7 I....., 459
britt.leoM!. ~ cleavage planes. frktion 8 Sl.okes eqU.lWD, 113
thermal eDnduet ivitiee, 584 I.w, 74
,i.e reduction of, 25 St.rellminl ftuidization, 2"10, .539
'-ransport of 8W!pended, 273 Strippinl, m
Solul)lJity. III1lIlU crptal&, 49-i coefficient&, Ol<Ygev. fI'Onl1l'ate<" .529
Solubility dllta , NaNOrNaQ-RtO.294. eoI~331
N.G-NaOM, ~119, 295 OIl ent.hA.Ipy-JnCflllwtion diagra.m, 332
SoIV{!nt recovery, 6,. adaorption, 399 inert v.por, 342
Sort;,l& 72 I team, 392
8C>Iids, 92 Stuftin 110, 'UD
Soybean&, u.u.etion, 279, 282 Suc:roee, propeniee of, 147
Specific """vity, 7 Sulfur ~ abeorpUon, 632
Speeifie heat ratioa, in high. velocity flo.... 203 abIorpUon ooeIfieienta, 528
Specific beate, of p.- &nd liquids, 687 radiation frout, 469
8peeifle perme.J:,itity. 220
Speciflc~. cenl.rifupJ. pump&, 190
.' duperbea'l npoI:, fl:"'i IKe, 461
Bwfaee, aver.p, 20
Specifie IlUrfaee, 21 ftotation. {19
ratios, n, 22 r;round mar.erial, 21
8pec:ilie 'riIooIity. 68 part.ide, IneUUl'IIIDfIIIt 01, 17
Speed, recipmeaUIII pum~ 173 epecifie, ZI
Sptw.aite. 21 Burfa.oe ten.ioa, 221
Rittiqer's number, 42 eolumn deeilll, 348
fII)eCiDc IIUIiace. 21 Surf~ velocity e1aMifiet, 85
rat.1.., 22 Symbok uwd in ten. 577
Bpheree, mamnum velocity of falling, 7( SYlteIDII of fu.nd~~ dimeMione, 132
Spherical puticle, speci(ie.IlUrfue. 21
Sphericity.~, 77, 211
porwII beda, 214
Tllhlinc. 9&
..".. go

relatXm ~ -.ue, 7'7 6bilinl, 0&
wetted porowl 'media, 226 wuhina. fil6
Spiral vane ciMliJ}er. 90, fill Taggart'. formul&, capacity of crusbera. 30
Spitll!aatw, 86 Temperature, adiabatic tIIlturation, &13, 547
Spray drK,'8, 600 higb-~Iority pa IIow. 2Ot.
Spray bea<b, 554
Spray nlnz""", 661 , . lldiAbatie wall. :JM
&1I'i n l.206

Spray panda, 557
Spray..:rubbel', UO ...... .,.
~agnation, 20"-
610 INDEX

T emperature dirrerences, boiling, 4M Tube wall temp" .... ~ure, I:st exeha.nce, 433
beat exehanler, 433 Tubs , Iinnec.l, 41 7, 418
logarithmic mean, 4M Tuh:n", ehN':t.c~ri.lit:8 of h.eat exchaoaer, 00
mean,434 Turbulent 6011', 74
Ibell and tube exchange.... 435 fluid&, 138
Temperature profile$, hoo.t tnt.nafer, 441 heat trcruder, 441
Tenlll.ry liquid-liquid equilibria, 303, 304, 300, 316, 317 01 ... tlnnsft.r, 5 17
Thermal conductivi ty, 420, 622 lIOlide ~hrough lIuide, 74
v;u"oua rnate:ri&Ja, M4 Turbine pumpll, 191
'll'ater.42& Ty~r St.aDd&ro ecreeoa, 17, 18
Tberm-.iphon, 417
Thickener., 113 Ull.taocnlriluge, ~
design,119 UnoJcrftow oompullitioll8, ailid-liquid exvaetioo, 289
extraction, 280 UnitcoJ 8ble:!l standard ecreens, 18
-wnentation, 110, 113 Unila, 131
Tie tiDe, equilibrium, 3tK dimt.'fWons of eystetna, 132
liquid-liquid, 304 encineP7'inll. 13 1
npor-liquid, 327 maa tralL~rcr oodficienl.3, 528
Tootbed IOU ImUlbeT, 31, 32 ' Univ..'I'8fJ Pe8Wtanee Jaw, 7Q
Total reflux, a:!: UNitelldy .tate, 425
kleal st.aca. 372 dillu..i:Ml, 615
liquid oompoei.tj(,ft, 378 flow in porous rnedio., 222
multicomponent rra<:tionatit'n, 376 heat tnDlifer, 425, 42\1
Tot&! temperature, 204.
Towen, 2U8
liquid-liquid exlnelion, 296 Vaallim dwtillation, 391
npor-liquitl tranlfer, 322 Vacuum driers, I!oOO
Traetora, 60 V~uurn tray drier, .566
Trailers, 00 Valves, i25
Ttantt"et operation, reIat.iOD bet...eeu dimcnaion&es,s IJ'OIIPIt 624 butloCrtiy, 125
T!uud'er unit., 531 p1.e. l 24
p.~ phue. 6.11 &lobo!, 125
heiptl in val"ioua ~kinp, 632, 633 n.dIe, l 26
liquid phaee, 531 plllI ooeb, 126
overall, 531 plugtyp", 126
"I'rwIIformed coordinate., vapor.jjquld t.raMfer, 371 quh:k~penifll, 12&
Transition, l:I.mina:r \0 u'lI'bukmt flow, 75, 211 Vanee, impeller-, 177

_...
Transportation, ftuidi~ llIIitl8., 273 Vap<>MiqWd eqlli l:bria dr.'.., ~e acid, .582
T:ansportation of ftuid!, bib!iopy.phy, 146 amlT\QJUa..wDter, 502
eDel'lY relatioll8, 131 benaene-et.ha:lol IYIt..~ aga
"'- .,. fto-butanoi--water,394
blast., 460 et.b&Dol--water, 327, 582
~yk:yelohexr.ne, 582
invert-ed-bueket, 479, 480 hydroeubooe, 684
preemre return, 478 .odi um hydrorlde--walA:r,f86
t-bem;KlBtatic, 478 l,jeli~322
Tray.. nua .ranaI'er opentkms,. 298, S23 Vapor-liquid equilibrium COOSWlt, K, 375, Mot
T ray drie .... 6W Vr.poro!iquid kanlfer, 322
Tray thickener, 113 hibliography, 395
Trip~treet evaporator, 481 equipment, bubQ~p plate columns, 323
boiliIli-poillt ekwation, 482 control, 362 -
calculations, 489 pr..eked to ...era, 323
flow d~, <lS I, 489 Pfoekinc fOl'" towers, 324
Trippe.... power requiremel. j rO!', 58
TrommeJ., 13, 14
compound, 14
critica11p1. of, 14
t.aDdem, 13
_530
periora\ed \.rays or ~ 323
iUust.nt.tiVl! exam ple, 331, 334, 340, 368
Vapor phue traMfer ooelIi.cient, 528

<:OITCJation, 6:J)
T rueb, 49 uxy~ Itrippiog, m
~~421 Vapor phNe Ioransfer unit, 531
TlIbe mill, 40 Vapor PreIINl"e, M3
 INDEX 611

, Vapor preMI.1l'e, wa.ter 011 silica gt'1, f06
Vapor rIIOOmpreaion, 482
Water, on bubble pilllOl untkr oil, 392
removal from bubble ;Iawa, 3U3
Vapor reoovery, adeorption, BOO specific heat, II'Ilpor, 587
V&pOri.ZD.~ion, _tufal p.6oJine, 359 tbemm! oondueUvi~y, 6&l
Velocity dilltribulion, 139 vi8eo8ity. 6!1, ii&.l
eylindrical duet., ~20 Water-ai r humidity eiW't. 54&
Bowing fluid., 139 WllteMunmoni&, 502
Velocity. aeouatie or 10000. 199 Water-butanol ( v:.p"r..Jiquid ~ Iuilibria). 31)4
VeDa COPtracte. 167, 100 Wal.Cr-etJwwl...bJelle ~I.em, Ml
Var.Uui,l 99 Wal.......nonoc!,lorbenzen_tooe ty8leru, 30&, 3 15
V... turi meter, 156 Waler vapor, emifllliv;ly. ol(l8, 4G9
VenieaJ Bow of fluitb in porous bed&, 2 17 ~'Veins, in bubble pl:l.t.e5, M I
VatictJ tube .evt.po>r.\or76 equu.~l
Vibrating ~ 10, I I, 12 ehord wrirs. 352
Vibrator, 1:l,61 Franci<l,351
V"' ty,67 round weirs, 361
ab.oiute, 67 ~ight, 351
Dritiab. ~ty unit, Bvu, 6:" Weill:ht, 131
bulk, '1$ determination, 61
ea.rbon dioxide, 147 Wet-bulb temperature, Me
centipdoo, 67 adiabatic 88turation tempcn.ture relation to, 646
eddy. 622 oooling towet'll, 556
oentrlfupl pump ehan.eterllltlC8, UN) dt-terminatioJl.l, M1 '
_ 68,"l6 Wet IICJ"Ilening, 9, 18
kinem&tJ.e, 6s Wet acparatol'll, 120
liquids, 68, 5116 Wetted perimeter, 520
poiIe,67 Wetted sphericity Qf poI'OI.I.S media., 226
IlUl'Ty, 68 Wett.ed-~..u M1~ 512
IpeC:ific, 68 Wetlint: . .nt, 72
~ .alutiooe, 147 JedimentatioD, 111
Vmoou. Bow, 7. Wet.-~t ftowmeter for ~ 1&1.
Volume, .. torok, ill diltuaon, &16 Weymouth', flqUl..t.ion for P' 6ow, 1013
dry, humid, ...wn.t.ed, 54,3 Windage 1.-, ill. <'JOOlir>& towen.. 6S6
Won., "', ISS
Wall. etr&ct, 79
WMbinr; I.:ICU""adiOIl, 278
.... '34
Worll nle 01 man,
W~I61t~n, 2/1 1
WubinI table, Q5 Xur.t.hates, 106
Water, &eetie ~yl eUler.-yflem. 681
tdItorbed 01\ eiliea ael, ..u, 405 Zipper CO!1veyw, 58
aiNif~ pumpia&. HI6 Zone, COIIGNi.t eompolition, fno.. 'JonaUoo, 369, 385
deDli.ty, _turat.ed, lIM muItieom.ponent, 379
e9IIpOn.Uon.rw:l <:OIIdeu-.Uo!:l mair, 547 m
Zo!lell aedimentatloD, 111, 118

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