Elizabeth Irvin

CISL 550
Assignment 3

Part 1
Four Stages of Oral Language Development
There are four stages of oral language development including silent, early speech, speech emergence

and intermediate fluency. The first stage, the silent or pre-production stage is made up of comprehensible

language that helps an English language learner understand what is being said to them. Even though they

are not speaking English, the do start to become aware of some meaning. A part of the learning that goes

hand and hand with this stage is motherese or parentese which refers to the approach to speaking with

someone during this first stage. Often words are made up of simple language, gestures and facial

expressions help to explain meaning in words and phrases. Repetition, clearly speaking and rephrasing

also extends support during this stage. The use of pictures or other objects are helpful in supporting this

stage of oral development. It allows those learning English in this stage to participate in activities without

speaking.

The second stage, early speech emergence, which is the stage when language actually begins very

slowly. It usually begins with only one word, followed by two word sentences. After that language has

been developed, simple grammatical structures can be taught and used. The third stage, speech

emergence, is when language continues to develop and increase vocabulary knowledge. In this stage,

questions can be used in yes or no formats to assist with communication and understanding. Another

strategy to use during this stage would be to seek answers that only require simple two word answers.

Visuals are still very important during this stage and helping to connect new vocabulary and increase

comprehension skills. The last stage is intermediate fluency. This stage is much more difficult and

complex. During this last stage, the learner is able to use more sentences during oral communication with
an increase in vocabulary. The overall language development begins with listening, then speaking and

eventually evolves to reading and then writing.

Learning, Communication and CALLA Strategies

There are many learning strategies used by educators to help improve learners with knowledge and

understanding. These strategies are techniques to help students comprehend material that is new or recall

information that was obtained in the past. Different strategies help to teach students how to use this

information and apply it to achieve or understand different skills or even problem solve. According to,

"Why Tesol", Howard Garner, developed the ideas of multiple intelligences and learning styles. Each

different style of learning have diverse strategies that are effective in developing knowledge (Ariza,

2010).

Communication strategies are techniques used to help produce both verbal and nonverbal skills in

developing clear messages for English language learners. Studies have produced data that suggest

learning to understand and develop different communication strategies and using them as a review to aid

in discussions through practice in speaking. The most effective strategies for communication are based

upon the individual's needs and level. Not all strategies will work for each learner.

CALLA learning strategies stands for Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach and promote

language learning through social practice. The creator of the strategy is Chamot and O'Malley, which

made the strategy in regards to helping English language learners become independent learners,

academically. Within this strategy there are three divisions, metacognitive, cognitive and social affective

categories. The first, metacognitive, involve five different areas of preparation and organization. The

next, cognitive strategies utilize ideas such as imagery and inferencing to further develop strategies such

as notetaking or summarizing. Social affective, the third of the categories include foundations of

cooperation, questioning and clarification.

Part 2
Useful Factors in Guiding Teachers in Error Correction Strategies
Correction errors are common in English language learners. They are developing a second language

which may be very different from their native tongue. Understanding common errors and identifying how

to approach them can be beneficial in educating them in English language. Most importantly in

identifying these common errors, creating confidence and continued learning such be considered prior and

in each situation of corrections. While learners are developing skills in language, one type of error is

called global. Global errors affect communication because they are using an incorrect word or omitting

specific terms that make understanding difficult (Ariza, 2010). Pronunciation errors are also considered

to be global errors. An example of global errors could include sentences such as Exhaust make me want

to sleep. The word they are meaning would be exhaustion. Exhaust could be easily misinterpreted as

actually exhaust or gas coming from a car or heater. Types of mistakes such as these can make

communication difficult. Another error is referred to as local errors. Local errors occur when a word or

phrase is misused but communication is not hindered. Even though there are errors, the general idea is

understood. Basically with this type of error of someone that knows the English language, the incorrect

referenced word or misplacement of words can be inferred. A common local error is misuse of verb

tenses such as not putting a s or ing on a word.

When correcting errors made by English language learners, teachers should interpret each learners

needs and personality along with their culture. Some learners have expectations of proper corrections

while with others, corrections can affect their confidence and participation in active communication.

Some strategies are helpful for correcting errors and will help the students learn to self-correct their own

mistakes. Strategies such as rephrasing a question or explanation, providing samples made by others as a

group, explaining the key grammatical error and rule, pinpointing the error and modeling correction

through repetition. Another helpful strategy would be to use a common error and let the student solve the

error. This type of strategy is helpful for any language learner. Over correction can be ineffective and
negatively position a student to be discourage in learning (Ariza, 2010).Learning to notice cues from the

student and comprehending their own level of determination or participation is helpful. Lastly, errors are

important for English language learners because it provides an opportunity to learn, remembering that

errors are necessary in properly understanding and learning through proper correction is key in effectively

helping students with English.

Chronological Demographics of Language Methodologies

Foreign language methods has transformed over the centuries and adapted to changes of the world

along with the importance in education and language development studies. Starting up until the nineteenth

century, the method of Grammar Translation was used. This method was based upon the Latin and Greek

language to teach reading and required memorization of rules in grammar. Exercises within this method

utilized direct translation of each word to another with little practice spent in oral language. Common

practice with the use of drills in reading and writing were used. Accuracy of the translation relied on the

correction from peers and the teacher during feedback. During the methods of grammar translation, a

bilingual dictionary was used for referencing. During the late nineteenth through the early portion of the

twentieth century the method was Direct which was meant to teach without translation which was

drastically different from the previous teachings. The method of Direct language learning intended on

learners to learn the language naturally. In large contrast, the native language was not to be used at all

during instruction and learning. Exercises of fill in the blank worksheets was the main technique used

with this method. With this method, pronunciation was very important and heavily focused on. A

difficult aspect of this methodology relied on the fluency of the teacher to know the native language in

order to model correctly the language to provide the proper natural flow that was needed for students to

pick up the language. This particular method required the students to be very active in participating and

communicating because socialization was a huge portion of the learning strategy which utilized interests

and hobbies as topics of learning (Ariza, 2010).

 Between the years 1940 and 1950, a new method was developed called Audio-Lingual by Charles

Fries. This method reflected on the ideas of the theory of psychology providing the idea that language is

habit forming. With this method, they believe that using the first language hindered the learning for the

second language so it should not be referenced within its teachings. Speaking and listening were areas

that were focused on prior to reading and writing and learned with series of drills, memorization and

verbally using the second language. The rules of grammar were taught but not directly. Positive

reinforcement was commonly practice and immediate feedback through correction. They believed this

was necessary in order to break bad habits. The students role in the method of Audio-Lingual, students

were directly instructed and used language labs for practice. They also used skits as a format for learning

language through dialogues.

During the late 1970s through the early 1980s, Natural Approach methodologies were adopted by

Krashen and Terrell. This method formatted with Krashens hypothesis of language acquisition through

observations of the acquiring of the first and second language strategies. The method also worked

towards the development of BICS and CALP. A difference in the methodologies of the past focused and

identified the silent period of language learning. Activities were used to provide meaningful exercises and

games and language proficiency levels were identified. Modeling was used for this method but correction

was not limited to just the teacher in feedback. Students were allowed to make errors and the method

proposed repetition of the correct modeling language was used. Learning with this methodology was

considered comprehensible with a relaxed learning environment where learning was conducive with

activities of interesting subjects (Ariza, 2010).

In 1974, Total Physical Response or TPR was formulated by Asher along with another method known

as Whole Language by Kenneth and Yetta Goodman. Similar as to previous years, the learning

environment was informal and provided an optimal atmosphere where students felt free to learn.

Comprehensible techniques were used and felt should occur prior to speech. Within these ideals, they also

believed language development occurred naturally. The Total Response used sentences to focus on
grammar and vocabulary. Movement and action based activities were used during these teachings.

Exercises involved an exchange or oral and physical demands with listening. In regards to errors, only the

teacher corrected larger ones because they believed that some minor errors were common and expected.

However, the manner in which the errors were corrected were extremely important to ensure a

nonthreatening sense. The role of teacher included modeling behavior while providing different scenarios

that were conducive to learning through comprehensibility. With Total Response, students acted out

words that were more difficult while students in the silent period were observed.

In 1987, CALLA was the method of choice that was created by Chamot and OMalley. This method

utilized content and ideas from core subjects along with language strategies to teach students to speak a

second language. As mentioned previously there were multiple subcategories within this method

including metacognitive, cognitive and social affective learning strategies (Ariza, 2010).
References

Ariza, E. N. (2010). Why TESOL?: theories and issues in teaching English to speakers of other languages

in K-12 classrooms. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Pub Co.