International Conference on Computing, Control, Networking, Electronics and Embedded Systems Engineering, 2015
Review of Spectrum Sensing Techniques in Cognitive
Radio Networks
Ala Eldin Omer
Department of Electrical Engineering
American University of Sharjah, AUS
Sharjah, UAE
b00060370@aus.edu
AbstractMost frequency spectrum bands are licensed to
certain services to avoid the interference between various
networks but measurements of spectrum occupancy show that
only portions of the spectrum band are fully efficiently used.
Cognitive Radio (CR) is a future radio technology that is aware of
its environment, internal state and can change its operating
behaviour (transmitter parameters) accordingly. Through this
technology the unlicensed users can use the underutilized
spectrum without any harmful interference to the licensed users.
Its key domains are sensing, cognition and adaptation. The
spectrum sensing problem is one of the most challenging issues in
cognitive radio systems to detect the available frequency bands. In
this paper we have implemented various transmitter detection
techniques: Energy detection, Matched filter and Cyclostationary
feature detection in MATLAB. Along with other techniques to
enhance the detection performance of the conventional Energy
detector. The Implementation is based on BPSK and QPSK
modulation schemes under various SNR values for AWGN noisy
channel with Rayleigh fading. The techniques are compared in
term of sensing time, detection sensitivity and the ease of
implementation.
KeywordsCognitive Radio; spectrum sensing; Matched filter;
Cyclostationary; Periodogram; cross-correlation.
I. INTRODUCTION
With the development of new expanding wireless
applications and services and the transition from voice-only
communications to multimedia type applications, spectrum
resources are facing huge demands with needs for higher data
rates. Currently, spectrum allocation is done by providing each
new service with its own fixed frequency band. Most of the
primary spectrum is already assigned, so it becomes very
difficult to find spectrum for either new services or expanding
existing services. At Present government policies do not allow
the access of licensed spectrum by unlicensed users, consists
them instead to use several heavily populated, interference-
prone frequency bands. As the result there is huge spectrum
scarcity problem in certain bands. In particular, if the radio
spectrum is scanned, it can be seen that some frequency bands
in the spectrum are unoccupied for some of the time and many
frequency band are only partially occupied, whereas the
remaining frequency bands are heavily used [1].
The researches in spectrum utilization has shown that the
main cause of spectrum scarcity problem is the underutilization
of frequency bands in the fixed spectrum policy, in which the
wireless spectrum (i.e. frequency carriers) are leased to some
operators for a long period of time (several years). As a result,
978-1-4673-7869-7/15/$31.00 2015 IEEE
innovative techniques that can offer new ways of exploiting the
available spectrum are needed. Cognitive Radio arises to be a
tempting solution to the spectral congestion and inefficient
utilization problem by introducing opportunistic usage of the
frequency bands that are not heavily occupied by licensed users
to be exploited by the secondary users [1],[2].
The definition adopted by Federal Communications
Commission (FCC): Cognitive Radio: A radio or system that
senses its operational electromagnetic environment and can
dynamically and autonomously adjust its radio operating
parameters to modify system operation, such as maximize
throughput, mitigate interference, facilitate interoperability,
access secondary markets.[2]. Cognitive radio architecture
consists of: primary user, secondary user, and shared channel.
The licensed spectrum is a shared resource between primary
and secondary users. Primary users have higher priority in using
the channel. Therefore, when a primary user is detected, the
secondary users have to vacate the channel in a timely manner
to avoid interference. In order to reduce secondary users
connection loss and primary users interference, the secondary
users need to avoid the channels with high occupancy
probability within a given time period. Therefore, the
secondary users should be able to evaluate the availability of
the channel through predicting the traffic pattern of primary
user.
The Cognitive Radio technology will enable the unlicensed
user to determine the available portion of the spectrum to be
used by detecting the presence of primary user (Spectrum
Sensing), select the best available channel based on the user
requirements (Spectrum Management), coordinates the access
to the channel with other unlicensed users (Spectrum Sharing)
and change to some other frequency channel whenever the
primary user is detected (Spectrum Mobility) [2],[3].
Being the focus of this paper, the spectrum sensing is the
most important component for the establishment of Cognitive
Radio, it is the task of obtaining awareness about the spectrum
usage and existence of primary users in a geographical area in
specific frequency band(s). This awareness can be obtained by
local spectrum sensing at Cognitive Radios [4],[5]. Although
spectrum sensing is traditionally understood as measuring the
spectral content, or measuring the radio frequency energy over
the spectrum; when Cognitive Radio is considered, it is a more
general term that involves obtaining the spectrum usage
characteristics across multiple dimensions such as time, space,
frequency, and code. It also involves determining what types of
signals are occupying the spectrum including the modulation
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technique, bandwidth and carrier frequency. However, this
requires more powerful signal analysis techniques with
additional computational complexity.
Several methods based on single cognitive radio user have
been introduced to obtain good spectrum sensing performance
[1][6]. Those techniques can be classified into three groups:
primary transmitter detection, primary receiver co-operative
detection and interference-based detection. The goal of this
paper is to implement different transmitter detection techniques
for sensing the frequency spectrum and compare between them
in terms of detection performance under different SNR
conditions, sensing time required, detection sensitivity and the
ease of implementation.
The remaining of this paper is organized as follows: detailed
introduction of the implemented approaches for sensing the
frequency spectrum in Section II. The results and analysis in
Section III. Finally the conclusion is presented in Section IV.
II. PROPOSED APPROACHES
Spectrum sensing enables the Cognitive Radio users to
adapt to the environment by detecting spectrum holes
(opportunities) without causing interference to the primary
licensed users. This can be done through a real-time wideband
spectrum sensing capability to detect weak primary signals in a
wide spectrum range. After the spectrum holes have been
identified then the Cognitive Radio users can utilize them for
their transmission.
We will implement several transmitter detection techniques
such as: Energy detector, Matched filter, Cyclostationary
feature detector along with adaptive double threshold and
improved Energy detection based approaches to improve the
performance accuracy of the conventional Energy detector.
Fig.1. shows different schemes for sensing the frequency
spectrum.
Fig. 1. Classification of spectrum sensing techniques.
The goal of the spectrum sensing is to decide between the two
hypotheses, defined as:
 
 
Where y(n) is the signal received by the cognitive secondary
user, s(n) is the transmitted signal of the primary licensed user
,v(n) is the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) After obtaining the PSD the signal is applied to band pass (BP)
with zero mean and variance , h(n) is the amplitude gain of
the channel. is the null hypothesis, which states that there is
no licensed user signal and the channel is unoccupied, and
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is the other hypothesis, which states that the primary licensed
user is present.
Errors occur in spectrum sensing algorithms due to false
alarms and missed detections. The first occurs when the sensed
spectrum is available but is decided. Therefore, it leads to
low spectrum utilization as the secondary users miss
transmission opportunities. The second error occurs when the
sensed spectrum is allocated by a primary user but is
decided. This one leads to undesirable harmful interference to
the licensed users. Thus the performance evaluation of any
spectrum sensing is conducted through the probability of false
alarm and the probability of detection which are related
over the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves.
A. Primary Signal Transmitter
Firstly, the primary user signal on which the different spectrum
sensing approaches can be applied need to be generated in the
transmitter side with different parameters such as: the operating
frequency, the modulation scheme and, the sampling frequency.
Then, to pass it through channel which also has specific
characteristics such as: fading, noise etc.
Therefore, we have set the parameters for our transmitter
model as follows: the operating frequency on which the primary
signal is transmitted is 200 Hz, the signal was sampled with 4
KHz (i.e. 20 times the operating frequency). We have applied
two modulation schemes BPSK (binary phase shift keying) and
QPSK (quadrature phase shift keying). For the channel
modelling, additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) under
various SNR constraints was assumed with fading impulse
response that follows the Rayleigh distribution.
B. Single-threshold Energy Detection
Energy detector based non-coherent detection approach,
also known as Periodogram. It is the common way for the
detection of unknown primary signals in spectrum sensing for
its low computational and implementation complexities. In
addition, it is more generic (as compared to other methods given
later in this section) as receivers do not need any knowledge on
the primary users signal. It is the optimal detector when the
secondary user cannot gather sufficient information about the
primary user signal [7]. One method of implementing the
Energy detector is by transforming a signal from a time domain
to a frequency domain using the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform),
then to measure the energy in each frequency band of the signal
resulting in the PSD (Power Spectral Density). The block
diagram of one way of implementing the energy detector is
shown in Fig. 2, below
Fig. 2. The Periodogram Energy detector block diagram.
filter in order to limit the noise and to select the bandwidth of
interest. The noise in the output of the filter has a band-limited,
flat spectral density then it is integrated over time interval.
Lastly the output of the integrator is compared with a threshold
to determine whether primary user is present or not in the
frequency spectrum. The threshold value can set to be fixed or
variable based on the channel conditions and the noise floor.
One of the drawbacks of the energy detection is that a
threshold will be easily influenced by unknown or changing
noise levels and channel conditions, so the energy detector will
be confused by the presence of any in-band interference. Also
it suffers from the poor performance under low signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) values.
Another way of implementing the energy detector in a
simple way is to determine the signal energy using equation (4).
Let us assume that the received signal has the following simple
form:
 expressed as [8]:
Where represents the inverse Gaussian tail probability Q-
function, is the targeted probability of false alarm, N is the
number of samples of the received primary signal used by the
detector, is the variance of the Gaussian noise added to the
primary user signal.
C. Matched Filter Detection
The second transmitter detection approach for sensing the
frequency spectrum is the Matched filter which is coherent
detector, and is known as the optimum method for detection of
primary user signals when the transmitted signal is known for
the receivers. Matched filter maximizes the received signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR), so it is an optimal detector in Gaussian noise
environment. The matched filter detection operation is

where s(n) is the primary signal to be detected, v(n) is the

additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) sample, h(n) is the
amplitude gain of the channel and n is the sample index. Note
that s(n) = 0 when there is no transmission by primary licensed
user. The decision metric for the energy detector can be written
as:

where N is the size of the observation vector used by the
detector (number of samples). The decision on the occupancy
of a frequency band can be obtained by comparing the decision
metric T against a threshold . This is equivalent to distinguish
between the two hypotheses given in (1) and (2).
Two probabilities summarize the performance of the energy
detection algorithm: the probability of detection and the
probability of false alarm . The detection probability is the
probability of detecting a signal on the considered frequency
band when it truly is present. Thus, a large detection probability
is desired. It can be formulated as:
 of the Matched filter.

Where x(n) is the unknown received signal given either by (1)
or (2) convolved with the h(n) which is the impulse response of
matched filter that is matched to the reference primary signal to
maximize the SNR as follows:
 
This is useful for detection only when the information about the
primary user (PU) signals is known to cognitive secondary
users. Therefore, we need to generate local carriers on the
receiver side based on that prior knowledge such as: type of
modulation, operation frequency, sampling frequency etc.
The Matched filter block diagram shown in Fig. 3, it
determines the presence of the primary user by convolving the
received unknown signal with time shifted version of the carrier
used for the primary user signal transmission and then
comparing between the predetermined threshold and the output

The probability of false alarm is the probability that the sensing

test incorrectly decides that the considered frequency band is
occupied by the primary user signal when it actually is not,
should be kept as small as possible in order to prevent the
underutilization of the transmission opportunities for the
secondary unlicensed users and it can be written as:

The threshold value is selected for finding an optimum balance
between and . But, this requires the knowledge of noise
and detected signal powers. The noise power can be estimated,
but the signal power is difficult to estimate as it changes
depending on ongoing transmission characteristics and the
distance between the cognitive radio and primary user. In
practice, the threshold is chosen to meet a target probability of
false alarm according to the noise power (variance) which is
AWGN in our assumption. Therefore, the threshold value can
be calculated through the following relation:
  the built in features in the primary user signal such as: sampling,
Fig. 3. The Matched filter detector block diagram
The advantage of the Matched filter is that, less time is
needed to get high detection performance. While it suffers from
some drawbacks such as: A prior knowledge of every primary
user signal is required. Also, a dedicated receiver is needed for
every type of cognitive primary user. Moreover, the
implementation complexity of the sensing unit is large where
local carriers need to be generated [8] with large power
consumption as various receiver algorithms need to be executed
for sensing the spectrum.
D. Cyclostationary Feature Detection
Another transmitter detection technique is known as
Cyclostationary feature detection which is based on the
introduction of periodic redundancy into a signal by exploiting

441
operating frequency and modulation. The Cyclostationary which apply two thresholds, is called the upper bound
feature detector block diagram shown in Fig. 4, exploits the threshold chosen according to the maximum noise variance, and
periodicity in the received primary user signal to identify the is called the lower bound threshold chosen according to the
presence or absence of the primary licensed users in the minimum noise variance [11],[13].
frequency spectrum band [9].
Cyclostationary feature detector implementation can
differentiate the modulated signal from the additive noise,
which in turn distinguish the primary user signal from noise.
Because most of man-made signals used in communication
systems such as BPSK, QPSK, AM and OFDM exhibit
Cyclostationary behaviour, while noise signals (typically white
Gaussian noise) do not experience this behaviour. It is used at
very low SNR values by using the information embedded in the Fig. 5. The primary signal and noise energy distribution
primary user signal which does not exist in the noise such as the
operating frequency and the modulation type. The noise uncertainty in wireless systems can be described as
, where >1 a parameter which determines the
size of noise uncertainty. Now, the two thresholds can be
expressed as follows to obtain a specific false alarm probability
[11],[13]:

Fig. 4. The Cyclostationary feature detector block diagram  

The Cyclostationary feature detector measures property of a  

signal namely Spectral Correlation Function (SCF) given by:
 Where is the targeted false alarm probability (assumed to be

0.1 in our implementation).


where is cyclic autocorrelation function (CAF) of the

transmitted primary signal x(n). The CSD function outputs peak
values when the cyclic frequency is equal to the fundamental
frequencies of transmitted signal x(n) also it determines the type
of modulation used for the primary signal transmission by the
shape of the peaks appear at that frequency. Cyclic frequencies Fig. 6. The confusion region divided into four equal sub-regions.
can be assumed to be known or they can be extracted and used
as features for identifying transmitted primary signals. The confusion region shown in Fig. 5, is divided into four equal
sub-regions in Fig.6. ( A-AB-BC-C ), D is the equal gap
This technique is robust to noise discrimination and it
between the sub-regions, then the new sub-threshold will be:
performs better than energy detector and the matched filter
under low SNR values. But, its disadvantages are: more
computational complexity and longer time for sensing the

spectrum.  

E. Adaptive double-threshold Energy Detection Based
The choice of an optimal single threshold for the Cognitive
Radio in the traditional energy detection sensing technique is The decision metric T in (4) is calculated for the received
difficult because of the noise uncertainty in the transmission primary user signal, if it falls outside the confusion region
systems. Moreover, under low-SNR conditions the (above or below ) then 1 or 0 generated to indicate the
performance may differ from the targeted metrics ultimately presence and absence of the primary user respectively. But, if
[10]. Therefore, an adaptive double threshold method has been the energy value lies inside the confusion region then respective
proposed to improve the detection performance at fixed decimal values (DV) will be generated corresponding to which
probability of false alarm under low SNR conditions and can sub-region that T falls in as follows:
be used as second stage when the first conventional energy
detection stage does not detect the primary user signal.

As shown in Fig. 5, the region bounded between and 
is known the confusion region where it is difficult to  
differentiate the primary user signal from the noise using a  

single threshold. Therefore, the ADT technique is introduced 

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Now, the decision at the Cognitive Radio user using the ADT
scheme regards the detection of the primary user signal can be
expressed as the following logic rule (LR):
 
  
 
A decision regards the detection of primary users is made when
the metric T falls in the confusion region based on the value of
n which is compared with a specific threshold that satisfy the
targeted probability of false alarm:
  and (3) is to compromise between the previous two cases and
F. Imoroved Energy Detection
Due to the low performance under low SNR of the
traditional energy detector discussed previously and its
dependency on SNR and number of samples. An improved
technique [15] has been introduced to improve the detection
probability shown in Fig. 7.
Now the new average metric in (17) is compared with a
threshold estimated using:
 
The threshold above takes three different values according
to the targeted false alarm probability in the following
situations: (1) using threshold corresponding to = to
protect the primary user from interference at expense of losing
opportunities for the secondary users, (2) using threshold with
= to maximize the secondary user spectrum utilization,
= . Using the improved
using a threshold that utilize
technique under any of the above thresholds yield better
performance than the traditional energy detector [15].
III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The previous mentioned techniques of spectrum sensing
have been implemented to a given primary user signal with
operating frequency 200 Hz and sampling frequency 4 KHz
using two types of modulation BPSK and QPSK. The channel
model was assumed to be single path Rayleigh fading with only
change in amplitude and also Additive White Gaussian Noise
(AWGN) with zero mean and varied variance according to a
range of SNR values under test from -20dB up to 20dB. The
constellation diagram of the primary signal under 20 dB for
both BPSK and QPSK are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7. The improved technique for Energy detection

The working principle of the improved technique begins Fig. 8. The BPSK and QPSK constellation of the primary user signal
with the traditional mechanism of comparing the decision
metric T given in (4) of a received signal over an observation In Fig. 9. the Periodogram Energy detector detect a primary
period with a predefined threshold [12] according to the noise signal at 20 KHz under good SNR values (0 up to 20 dB) in
floor as in (7). If the decision is H0 (spectrum unoccupied) then BPSK, while it can not identify the primary signal under low
the improved detection takes place which verify the first SNR values (-20dB), same results obtained in the QPSK case.
decision by comparing the average energy value of the previous
stored M sensing instants with a threshold. If the average is
larger; the decision threshold is compared with the immediate
past sensing instant energy value to avoid if the primary user
has just leave the spectrum. Then, the decision will be either H1
(spectrum occupied) or H0 based on the last comparison.
In this algorithm both s(n) and v(n) are assumed to be real,
Gaussian signals and independent of each other and also the test
statistic values of the past instants [15].
Fig. 9. The Periodogram ED output under good and low SNR (20 and -20 dB)

In the Matched filter technique the received signal was
correlated at good SNR for both BPSK and QPSK with the
  locally generated carriers in the receiver side as shown in Fig.

10. where the red signal give the maximum value at zero lag

443
which indicates that the primary signal was sent on this specific
carrier and it is present using the spectrum. That is will be clear
under good SNR conditions and can be identifiable up to low
SNR (- 5 dB) as we will see later.
Fig. 10. The Matched filter detector output at good SNR
The third technique used was the Cyclostationary detector
which gives peak outputs at the centre and double the frequency
of the primary user signal at 400 KHz under good SNR (20 dB)
for BPSK, while two peaks appear in the QPSK case as shown
in Fig. 11. Below
Fig. 11. Cyclostationary detector outputs for BPSK and QPSK at good SNR.
But for low SNR values the Cyclostationary detector can not
differentiate the primary signal as tested at -20 dB for both
BPSK and QPSK in Fig.12.
Fig. 12. Cyclostationary detector outputs for BPSK and QPSK at low SNR.
The spectrum sensing time is the time taken by the CR user
to detect the primary user signal, this time is proportional to the
number of samples used by the detector, less sensing time is
preferable to increase the transmission time for the CR user.
The computational time for previous sensing algorithms was
obtained using testing machine: Intel(R) - Core(TM) i7-4510U,
2-2.6 GHz processor and 8 GB RAM using MATLAB platform.
Table. 1. shows the sensing time required by each of the
previous sensing techniques under the same conditions of the
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channel (AWGN noise and Rayleigh fading) for both
modulation techniques BPSK and QPSK.
TABLE I. SENSING TIME FOR ED, MATCHED FILTER AND
CYCLOSTATIONARY DETECTORS
Sensing Method
Modulation
Techniques Energy Cyclostationary
Matched filter
detection detection
BPSK (N=1260 ) 0.375 (s) 0.078 (s) 1.25 (s)
QPSK (N=540) 0.188 (s) 0.062 (s) 0.73 (s)
a.
Number of samples (N)
The probability of detection for the traditional ED under
different SNR values shown in Fig.13 for different number of
samples, the same plot obtained for the improved ED. In both
the performance of detection enhances with increasing the
number of samples N and the improved ED can achieve the
same performance of the traditional ED at lower number of
samples thus decreasing the sensing time required for detection,
for example the traditional ED achieves 0.75 detection
probability at -6 dB using N=100 samples while the improved
ED can achieve 0.54 at -6 dB using only N= 10 samples.
Fig. 13. Detection probability versus SNR for the traditional and improved
EDs.
Fig. 14 shows the detection performance against SNR and
the ROC curves at -20 dB for the improved Energy detector
under the three possible thresholds corresponding to the
targeted false alarm probabilities discussed in section F, using
N=1000 samples, and M= 10 previous stored sensing instants.
The best performance is obtained when the threshold
corresponds to 0.1 false alarm probability which protect the
primary user against the interference (i.e. situation (1))
Fig. 14. Detection probability versus SNR and ROC for the improved ED
under different thresholds
The receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves at -10
dB SNR for both traditional and improved ED are plotted in
Fig. 15, we used N=100 samples and M=5 previous stored
sensing instants for the improved ED. Clearly the improved ED
provides better detection performance for a given false alarm
probability.
Fig. 15. ROC curves for the traditional and improved ED at -10 dB SNR
The previous performance observations are confirmed in Fig.
16, in which the detection probability is plotted against SNR
where we used N=100 samples with targeted false alarm
probability 0.1 and M=5 previous stored sensing instants for the
improved ED. In all previous observations the signal and noise
signals are assumed to be real Gaussian. The improved ED
shows better detection performance than the traditional ED
under low SNR conditions.
Fig. 16. Detection performance comparison between the traditional and
improved ED.
Another technique for improving the performance of the
traditional ED is the adaptive double threshold ED based.
Fig.17, shows the detection probability performance under SNR
values from -20dB up to 20dB for different number of samples,
the targeted probability of false alarm was set to be 0.1, the test
was done using QPSK modulation with Rayleigh fading and
AWGN noisy channel. Clearly as the number of samples
increases the overall performance for detecting the primary user
signal increases.
Fig. 17. Detection probability versus SNR for the adaptive double threshold
ED.
All techniques of spectrum sensing discussed in this paper
have been implemented and tested to a generated primary user
signal with operating frequency 200 Hz and sampling
frequency 4 KHz using two types of modulation BPSK and
QPSK which differ in the number of samples. The channel
model was assumed to be single path Rayleigh fading with only
change in amplitude and also Additive White Gaussian Noise
(AWGN) with zero mean and varied variance according to a
range of SNR values under test from -20dB up to 20dB. As
Fig.15 show the detection performance against the SNR for the
Periodogram Energy detector, Matched filter, Cyclostationary
feature detector, adaptive double threshold and the improved
Energy detector. The Periodogram ED provides the lowest
detection performance under low SNR values and its threshold
depends on the number of samples provided. The Matched filter
detector provides better detection performance even under low
SNR values comparing to the traditional ED, also it needs less
sensing time which in turn maximizes the transmission time for
the cognitive radio user but it requires prior knowledge about
the primary user signal which is in most cases difficult to
achieve with some complex implementation since local carriers
need to be generated using local oscillators in the receiver side.
The Cyclostationary feature detector on the other hand achieves
very good detection performance and accuracy compared to the
previous two techniques even under low SNR values for
example 0.7 detection probability at -10 dB and 0.33 at -12 dB
compared to 0.1 dB and 0.13 dB for both Periodogram ED and
Matched filter respectively.
The Cyclosationary detector figures out the built in features
in the primary user signal and use them for detection like, the
operating frequency and the modulation type used in the
transmitter side as discussed earlier at the beginning of this
section. This detector is computationally complex and requires
more time for sensing the spectrum as we previously see in
Table.1.
Fig.18, also shows that the proposed techniques for
improving the conventional Energy detector performance
provide improved detection performance compared to other
techniques, the adaptive double threshold technique achieves
about 0.24 detection probability at -14 dB SNR but the
improved energy detector outperforms by achieving 0.33
detection probability at -16 dB SNR.
Fig. 18. Detection performance comparison between all sensing methods
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 IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper different spectrum sensing techniques have
been implemented and their detection performance was tested
under different SNR values. The well-known sensing technique
Energy detection has low computational and implementation
complexities and does not require any knowledge about the
primary user signal but its accuracy depends on the SNR and
the number of samples which in turn affect the sensing time
required. The performance drawbacks of the traditional Energy
detector under low SNR values have been handled with the
adaptive double threshold ED and the improved ED, those
methods improves the detection accuracy at low SNR values
and can achieve the same performance as the traditional ED
with less number of samples which in turn minimize the sensing
time and maximize the secondary user transmission time, those
optimized techniques can be used as second stage after the
conventional Energy detector if it fails to detect the primary
user signal in the scanned spectrum and verify its decision, the
thresholds in the previous methods was chosen to achieve
specific false alarm probability as previously discussed. The
coherent Matched filter is optimum if the primary user signal is
known to the receiver side, it provides high detection accuracy
with less sensing time but has high implementation complexity
for generating the local carriers in the receiver side. Lastly, the
Cyclostationary feature detection is computationally complex
with more sensing time but it performs well under low SNR
values with probability of failing under strong channel fading
conditions.
446
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