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Samkhya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Samkhya or Sankhya (Sanskrit: , IAST: skhya) is one of the six stika

schools of Hindu philosophy.[1][2][3] It is most related to the Yoga school of
Hinduism, and it was inuential on other schools of Indian philosophy.[4]
Smkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three of
six pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These
include pratyaka (perception), anuma (inference) and abda (ptavacana,
word/testimony of reliable sources).[5][6][7] Sometimes described as one of the
rationalist schools of Indian philosophy, this ancient school's reliance on reason
was exclusive but strong.[8][9]
Samkhya is strongly dualist.[10][11][12] Smkhya philosophy regards the

universe as consisting of two realities, purua (consciousness) and prakti
(matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which purua is bonded to prakti
in some form.[13] This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence
of buddhi ("intellect") and ahakra (ego consciousness). The universe is
described by this school as one created by purusa-prakti entities infused with
various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements,
senses, feelings, activity and mind.[13] During the state of imbalance, one of
more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage,
particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called
liberation, or kaivalya, by the Samkhya school.[14]
The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered
relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. Skhya denies the nal cause of
Ishvara (God).[15] While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable
source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen
and other scholars.[16][17] A key dierence between Samkhya and Yoga
schools, state scholars,[17][18] is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet
essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god".[19]
Samkhya is known for its theory of guas (qualities, innate tendencies).[20]

Gua, it states, are of three types: sattva being good, compassionate,
illuminating, positive, and constructive; rajas is one of activity, chaotic, passion,
impulsive, potentially good or bad; and tamas being the quality of darkness,
ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and
human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three guas, but in dierent
proportions. The interplay of these guas denes the character of someone or
something, of nature and determines the progress of life.[21][22] The Samkhya
theory of guas was widely discussed, developed and rened by various
schools of Indian philosophies, including Buddhism.[23] Samkhya's
philosophical treatises also inuenced the development of various theories of
Hindu ethics.[4]
Contents
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Samkhya - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya
1 Etymology
2 Historical development
2.1 Origins
2.2 Founders
2.3 Emergence as a distinct philosophy
2.4 Vedic inuences
2.5 Upanishadic inuences
2.6 Buddhist and Jainist inuences
3 Source material
3.1 Texts
3.2 Other sources
3.3 Lost textual references
4 Philosophy
4.1 Epistemology
4.2 Dualism
4.2.1 Purua
4.2.2 Prakti
4.3 Evolution
4.4 Liberation or moka
4.5 Causality
5 Atheism
5.1 Arguments against Ishvara's existence
5.2 Textual references
6 Reception
7 Inuence on other schools
7.1 On Indian philosophies
7.2 On Yoga
7.3 On Tantra
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Sources
12 Further reading
13 External links
Etymology
Samkhya ( ), also referred to as Sankhya, Skhya, or Skhya, is a
Sanskrit word that, depending on the context, means "to reckon, count,
enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration,
relating to number, rational."[24] In the context of ancient Indian philosophies,
Samkhya refers to the philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic
enumeration and rational examination.[25]
Historical development
The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers.[26] Although the
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term had been used in the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before,[27]
in technical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that evolved into
a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE.[28] The Samkhya system
is called so because "it 'enumerates' twenty ve Tattvas or true principles; and
its chief object is to eect the nal emancipation of the twenty-fth Tattva, i.e.
the purua or soul."[26]
Origins
Some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested

that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins.
Richard Garbe stated in 1898, "The origin of the
Sankhya system appears in the proper light only
when we understand that in those regions of
India which were little inuenced by
Brahmanism the rst attempt had been made to
solve the riddles of the world and of our
existence merely by means of reason. For the
Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only
atheistic but also inimical to the Veda."[29]
Dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, "The origin
of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic
non-Aryan thought complex".[30]
Some scholars disagreed with this view. Arthur

Keith, for example in 1925, stated, "Samkhya
owes its origin to the Vedic-Upanisadic-epic King Amsuman and the
heritage is quite evident,"[31] and "Samkhya is yogic sage Kapila.
most naturally derived out of the speculations in
the Vedas, Brahmanas and the Upanishads."[32]
Johnston in 1937, analyzed then available Hindu and Buddhist texts for the
origins of Samkhya, then wrote "the origin lay in the analysis of the individual
undertaken in the Brahmanas and earliest Upanishads, at rst with a view to
assuring the eicacy of the sacricial rites and later in order to discover the
meaning of salvation in the religious sense and the methods of attaining it.
Here in Kaushitaki Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad the germ are to
be found (of) two of the main ideas of classical Samkhya."[33]
More recent scholarship oers another perspective. Ruzsa in 2006,[34] for

example, states, "Skhya has a very long history. Its roots go deeper than
textual traditions allow us to see. The ancient Buddhist Avaghoa (in his
Buddha-Carita) describes Ara Klma, the teacher of the young Buddha (ca.
420 B.C.E.) as following an archaic form of Skhya."[34]
Anthony Warder in 2009, summarizes that Samkhya and Mms schools

appear to have been established before Sramana traditions in India (~500
BCE), and he traces Samkhya origins to be Vedic. Samkhya, writes Warder,
"has indeed been suggested to be non-Brahmanical and even anti-Vedic in
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origin, but there is no tangible evidence for that except that it is very dierent
than most Vedic speculation but that is (itself) quite inconclusive.
Speculations in the direction of the Samkhya can be found in the early
Upanishads."[35]
Mikel Burley in 2012, writes Richard Garbe's 19th century view on Samkhya's
origin are weak and implausible.[36] Burley states that India's religio-cultural
heritage is complicated, and likely experienced a non-linear development. [37]
Samkhya is not necessarily non-Vedic nor pre-Vedic, nor a "reaction to
Brahmanic hegemony", states Burley.[37] It is most plausibly, in its origins a
lineage that grew and evolved from a combination of ascetic traditions and
Vedic "guru (teacher) and disciples". Burley suggests the link between
Samkhya and Yoga as likely root of this evolutionary origin during the Vedic era
of India.[37]
Between 1938 and 1969, two previously unknown manuscript editions of

Yuktidipika were discovered and published.[38] Yuktidipika is an ancient review
and has emerged as the most important commentary on Samkhyakarika itself
an ancient key text of the Samkhya school.[39] This discovery and recent
scholarship[38] by Paul Hacker and others suggests Samkhya with well
established epistemology, ontology and cosmology existed earlier than
previously thought, sometime in the 1st millennium BCE and that many more
ancient scholars contributed to the origins of Samkhya in ancient India, than
were previously known. However, almost nothing is preserved about the
centuries when these ancient Samkhya scholars lived.[38] Larson, Bhattacharya
and Potter state that the newly discovered literature hints, but does not
conclusively prove, that Samkhya may be the oldest school of Indian
philosophy, one that evolved over time and inuenced major schools, as well as
Buddhism and Jainism.[38] These scholars place the earliest references to
Samkhya ideas in the Vedic period literature of India (~1500 BCE to ~400
BCE).[39]
Founders
Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. [40]

However, it is unclear in which century of 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived. [41]
Kapila appears in Rigveda, but context suggests that the word means "reddish-
brown color". Both Kapila as a "seer" and the term Samkhya appear in hymns
of section 5.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's
and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it. Numerous other ancient
Indian texts mention Kapila; for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter
IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila, called
Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.[41] A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other
texts consistently state Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school,
mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching, and a much later scholar named
Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely
disseminate its ideas. Isvarakrsna is identied in these texts as the one who
summarized and simplied Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries
later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into
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Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.[41]
Emergence as a distinct philosophy
The early texts of the Vedic period,[44]

contain references to elements of In the beginning this was Self alone,
Samkhya philosophy. However, the in the shape of a person (purua). He
Samkhya ideas had not distilled and looking around saw nothing but his
Self (Atman). He rst said, "This is I",
congealed into a distinct, complete
therefore he became I by name.
philosophy.[39] The early, proto- Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Samkhya phase was followed by early 1.4.1[42][43]
Upanishads, about 800 to 700 BCE,
wherein ascetic spirituality and
monastic (sramana and yati) traditions came in vogue in India. It is in this
period, state Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter, that ancient scholars combined
proto-Samkhya ideas with a systematic methodology of reasoning
(epistemology) and began distilling concepts of spiritual knowledge (vidya,
jnana, viveka), making Samkhya a more emerging, comprehensive
philosophy.[45] These developing ideas are found in texts such as the
Chandogya Upanishad.[45]
Sometime about the 5th century BCE, Samkhya thought from various sources
started coalescing into a distinct, complete philosophy.[46] Philosophical texts
such as the Katha Upanishad in verses 3.10-13 and 6.7-11 describe a well
dened concept of purua and other concepts of Samkhya,[47] The
Shvetashvatara Upanishad in chapter 6.13 describes Samkhya with Yoga
philosophy, and Bhagavad Gita in book 2 provides axiological implications of
Samkhya, therewith providing textual evidence of Samkhyan terminology and
concepts.[48] Katha Upanishad conceives the Purusha (cosmic spirit,
consciousness) as same as the individual soul (tman, Self).[47][49] The
Mokshadharma chapter of Shanti Parva (Book of Peace) in the Mahabharata
epic, composed between 400 BCE to 400 CE, explains Samkhya ideas along
with other extant philosophies, and then lists numerous scholars in recognition
of their philosophical contributions to various Indian traditions, and therein at
least three Samkhya scholars can be recognized Kapila, Asuri and
Pancasikha.[38][50] The 12th chapter of the Buddhist text Buddhacarita
suggests Samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed
by about 5th century BCE.[38]
Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for rst time in chapter 6.13 of the
Shvetashvatra Upanishad,[48] as samkhya-yoga-adhigamya (literally, "to be
understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline").[51] Bhagavad Gita
identies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge.[52] The three gunas are
also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in
classical Samkhya.[53] The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion
(bhakti) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.[54]
According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago "Skhya became the

representative philosophy of Hindu thought in Hindu circles",[34] inuencing
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all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.[34]
Vedic inuences
The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text,
the Skhyakrik, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas,
the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.[46][55] The earliest mention of dualism
is in the Rigveda, a text that was compiled in the second millennium BCE., [56]
in various chapters.
At a mythical level, dualism

is found in the IndraVritra Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of
myth of chapter 1.32 of the universe):
Rigveda.[59] Enumeration, There was neither non-existence nor existence
the etymological root of the then;
word Samkhya, is found in Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is
numerous chapters of the beyond;
Rigveda, such as 1.164, What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
10.90 and 10.129.[58] Larson,
There was neither death nor immortality then;
Bhattacharya and Potter No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;
state that the likely roots of That One breathed, windless, by its own
philosophical premises, impulse;
spirit-matter dualism, Other than that there was nothing beyond.
meditative themes and
religious cosmology in Darkness there was at rst, by darkness hidden;
Without distinctive marks, this all was water;
Samkhya philosophy are in
That which, becoming, by the void was covered;
the hymns of 1.164 (Riddle That One by force of heat came into being;
Hymns) and 10.129
(Nasadiya Hymns).[58] Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?
However these hymns Whence was it produced? Whence is this
present only the outline of creation?
Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this
ideas, not specic Samkhya
universe.
theories and these theories Who then knows whence it has arisen?
developed in a much later
period.[58] Whether God's will created it, or whether He
was mute;
The Riddle hymns of the Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;
Rigveda, famous for their Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven
knows,
numerous enumerations,
structural language Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know.
symmetry within the verses Rigveda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer /
and the chapter, enigmatic Christian)[57] This hymn is one of the roots of
word play with anagrams the Samkhya.[58]
that symbolically portray
parallelism in rituals and the
cosmos, nature and the inner life of man.[60] This hymn includes enumeration
(counting) as well as a series of dual concepts cited by early Upanishads . For
example, the hymns 1.164.2 - 1.164-3 mention "seven" multiple times, which in
the context of other chapters of Rigveda have been interpreted as referring to
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both seven priests at a ritual and seven constellations in the sky, the entire
hymn is a riddle that paints a ritual as well as the sun, moon, earth, three
seasons, the transitory nature of living beings, the passage of time and spirit.
[60][61]
Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven

names the single Courser draws it.
Three-naved the wheel is, sound and undecaying, whereon are
resting all these worlds of being.
The seven [priests] who on the seven-wheeled car are mounted have
horses, seven in tale, who draw them onward.
Seven Sisters utter songs of praise together, in whom the names of
the seven Cows are treasured.
Who hath beheld him as he [Sun/Agni] sprang to being, seen how the
boneless One [spirit] supports the bony [body]?
Where is the blood of earth, the life, the spirit? Who will approach
the one who knows, to ask this?
Rigveda 1.164.2 - 1.164.4, [62]
The chapter 1.164 asks a number of metaphysical questions, such as "what is

the One in the form of the Unborn that created the six realms of the world?".
[63][64] Dualistic philosophical speculations then follow in chapter 1.164 of the
Rigveda, particularly in the well studied "allegory of two birds" hymn (1.164.20
- 1.164.22), a hymn that is referred to in the Mundaka Upanishad and other
texts .[60][65][66] The two birds in this hymn have been interpreted to mean
various forms of dualism: "the sun and the moon", the "two seekers of dierent
kinds of knowledge", and "the body and the atman".[67][68]
Two Birds with fair wings, knit with bonds of friendship, embrace the
same tree.
One of the twain eats the sweet g; the other not eating keeps watch.
Where those ne Birds hymn ceaselessly their portion of life eternal,
and the sacred synods,
There is the Universe's mighty Keeper, who, wise, hath entered into
me the simple.
The tree on which the ne Birds eat the sweetness, where they all
rest and procreate their ospring,
Upon its top they say the g is sweetest, he who does not know the
Father will not reach it.
Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22, [69]
The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and non-existence (asat) in the
Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda is similar to the vyaktaavyakta (manifest
unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Purua may also have
inuenced Samkhya.[70] The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to
the notion of hiranyagarbha, which appears in both the Rigveda and the
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Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[71]
Upanishadic inuences
The oldest of the major Upanishads (c.

900600 BCE) contain speculations Higher than the senses, stand the
along the lines of classical Samkhya objects of senses. Higher than
philosophy. [46] The concept of objects of senses, stands mind.
Higher than mind, stands intellect.
ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced
Higher than intellect, stands the
back to the notion of ahamkara in great self. Higher than the great self,
chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the stands Avyaktam. Higher than
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter Avyaktam, stands Purusha. Higher
7.25 of the Chndogya Upaniad.[46] than this, there is nothing. He is the
Satkaryavada, the theory of causation nal goal and the highest point. In all
in Samkhya, can be traced to the beings, dwells this Purusha, as
verses in sixth chapter which Atman (soul), invisible, concealed. He
emphasize the primacy of sat (being) is only seen by the keenest thought,
by the sublest of those thinkers who
and describe creation from it. The idea
see into the subtle.
that the three gunas or attributes Katha Upanishad 3.10-13 [72][73]
inuence creation is found in both
Chandogya and Shvetashvatara
Upanishads.[74] Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed
the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being.
The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from this idea. The enumeration
of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad
and YajnavalkyaMaitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[75]
Buddhist and Jainist inuences
Buddhism and Jainism had developed in eastern India by the 5th century BCE.
It is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya
inuenced each other. A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya
is the greater emphasis on suering (dukkha) as the foundation for their
respective soteriological theories, than other Indian philosophies.[76] However,
suering appears central to Samkhya in its later literature, which suggests a
likely Buddhism inuence. Elaide, however, presents the alternate theory that
Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time,
benetting from their mutual inuence.[76]
Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls (jiva) could have
inuenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann
Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya
notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. It is
more likely, that Samkhya was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in
various Vedic and non-Vedic schools.[76]
Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state

it to be likely that early Samkhya This declared to you is the Yoga of
doctrines found in oldest Upanishads the wisdom of Samkhya. Hear, now,
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(~700-800 BCE) provided the of the integrated wisdom with which,

contextual foundations and inuenced Partha, you will cast o the bonds of
Buddhist and Jaina doctrines, and these karma.
Bhagavad Gita 2.39 [77]
became contemporaneous, sibling
intellectual movements with Samkhya
and other schools of Hindu philosophy.[78] This is evidenced, for example, by
the references to Samkhya in ancient and medieval era Jaina literature. [79]
Source material
Texts
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the

Samkhya Karika (c. 200 CE[80] or 350450 CE[54]) of Ivaraka.[54] There
were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are
available today.[81] Ivaraka in his Krik describes a succession of the
disciples from Kapila, through suri and Pacaikha to himself. The text also
refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called aitantra (science of
sixty topics) which is now lost.[54] The text was imported and translated into
Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE.[82] The records of Al Biruni,
the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika
was an established and denitive text in India in his times. [83]
Samkhyakarika includes distilled statements on epistemology, metaphysics and

soteriology of the Samkhya school. For example, the fourth to sixth verses of
the text states it epistemic premises,[84]
Perception, inference and right airmation are admitted to be

threefold proof; for they (are by all acknowledged, and) comprise
every mode of demonstration. It is from proof that belief of that
which is to be proven results.
Perception is ascertainment of particular objects. Inference, which is

of three sorts, premises an argument, and deduces that which is
argued by it. Right airmation is true revelation (Apta vacana and
Sruti, testimony of reliable source and the Vedas).
Sensible objects become known by perception; but it is by inference

or reasoning that acquaintance with things transcending the senses
is obtained. A truth which is neither to be directly perceived, nor to
be inferred from reasoning, is deduced from Apta vacana and Sruti.
Samkhya Karika Verse 46, [84]
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarika was the Gauapda

Bhya attributed to Gauapda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of
philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks it is unlikely
that Gauapda could have authored both texts, given the dierences between
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the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were

Yuktidpka (c. 6th century CE) and Vcaspatis Skhyatattvakaumud (c. 10th
century CE).[85]
The Skhyapravacana Stra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in

Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work
of Samkhya after the karika.[86] Commentaries on this text were written by
Anirruddha (Skhyastravtti, c. 15th century CE), Vijnabhiku
(Skhyapravacanabhya, c. 16th century CE), Mahdeva (vttisra, c. 17th
century CE) and Ngea (Laghuskhyastravtti).[87] According to
Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an
ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya
school.[88]
Other sources
The 13th century text Sarvadarsanasangraha contains 16 chapters, each

devoted to a separate school of Indian philosophy. The 13th chapter in this
book contains a description of the Samkhya philosophy.[89]
Lost textual references
In his Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, K.C. Bhattacharya writes:
Much of Samkhya literature appears to have been lost, and there

seems to be no continuity of tradition from ancient times to the age
of the commentators...The interpretation of all ancient systems
requires a constructive eort; but, while in the case of some systems
where we have a large volume of literature and a continuity of
tradition, the construction is mainly of the nature of translation of
ideas into modern concepts, here in Samkhya the construction at
many places involves supplying of missing links from one's
imagination. It is risky work, but unless one does it one cannot be
said to understand Samkhya as a philosophy. It is a task that one is
obliged to undertake. It is a fascinating task because Samkhya is a
bold constructive philosophy.[90]
Philosophy
Epistemology
Samkhya considered Pratyaka or Dam (direct sense perception), Anumna

(inference), and abda or ptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or
shstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana.[5] Unlike some
other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas to be
epistemically proper: Upama (comparison and analogy), Arthpatti
(postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception,
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negative/cognitive proof) .[6]
Pratyaka () means perception. It

is of two types in Hindu texts: external and
internal. External perception is described
as that arising from the interaction of ve
senses and worldly objects, while internal
perception is described by this school as
that of inner sense, the mind.[91][92] The
ancient and medieval Indian texts identify
four requirements for correct
perception:[93] Indriyarthasannikarsa
(direct experience by one's sensory
organ(s) with the object, whatever is being
studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct
perception is not through hearsay,
according to ancient Indian scholars,
where one's sensory organ relies on
accepting or rejecting someone else's
perception), Avyabhicara (does not wander;
correct perception does not change, nor is The Samkhya school
it the result of deception because one's considers perception,
sensory organ or means of observation is inference and reliable
drifting, defective, suspect) and testimony as three reliable
Vyavasayatmaka (denite; correct means to knowledge.[5][6]
perception excludes judgments of doubt,
either because of one's failure to observe
all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and
observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not
want to observe).[93] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual
perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal
contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts
included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of
induction from perceived specics to a universal), and
jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and
previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state). [94]
Further, some schools considered and rened rules of accepting uncertain
knowledge from Pratyaka-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (denite
judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indenite judgment).[95]
Anuma ( ) means inference. It is described as reaching a new
conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths
by applying reason.[96] Observing smoke and inferring re is an example
of Anumana.[91] In all except one Hindu philosophies,[97] this is a valid
and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by
Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a
reason), and drshtanta (examples).[98] The hypothesis must further be
broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya
(that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on
which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if
sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha
11 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
(negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian

philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand
Vyapti - the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and
separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and
vipaksha.[98][99] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana
(conclusion).[100]
abda () means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable
experts.[6][101] Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which
means reliable expert testimony. The schools which consider it
epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous
facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a
fraction of those facts and truths directly.[102] He must cooperate with
others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each
other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or
written, but through Sabda (words).[102] The reliability of the source is
important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of
reliable sources.[6][102] The disagreement between the schools has been
on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that
this is never possible, and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other
schools debate means to establish reliability.[103]
Dualism
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplied by Descartes, equate

mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of
mind/body dualism; Samkhya provides an alternate viewpoint, intimately
related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between
consciousness and matter where matter includes both body and
mind.[104][105]
The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by

postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities: purua and
prakti. While the prakti is a single entity, the Samkhya admits a plurality of
the puruas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active,
imperceptible and eternal prakti is alone the nal source of the world of
objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom. The purua is
considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the
prakti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya believes that the purua cannot be
regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle
cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic
spiritualism, atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.[106]
Purua
Purua is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute,

independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above
any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It
remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". purua is neither produced nor
does it produce. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like Purva-Mms,
12 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
Samkhya believes in plurality of the puruas.[107]
Prakti
Prakti is the rst cause of the manifest material

universe of everything except the purua. Prakti
accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and
matter-cum-energy or force. Since it is the rst
principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called the
pradhna, but, as it is the unconscious and
unintelligent principle, it is also called the jaDa. It is
composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas).
These are:
Sattva poise, neness, lightness, illumination,

and joy;
Rajas dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;
Tamas inertia, coarseness, heaviness,
obstruction, and sloth.[106][108][109]
All physical events are considered to be manifestations

of the evolution of prakti, or primal nature (from
which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient
being or Jiva is a fusion of purua and prakti, whose
soul/purua is limitless and unrestricted by its physical Elements in
body. Samsra or bondage arises when the purua does Samkhya philosophy
not have the discriminate knowledge and so is misled
as to its own identity, confusing itself with the
Ego/ahamkra, which is actually an attribute of prakti. The spirit is liberated
when the discriminate knowledge of the dierence between conscious purua
and unconscious prakti is realized by the purua.
The unconscious primordial materiality, prakti, contains 23 components

including intellect (buddhi,mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas); the
intellect, mind and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter. [110]
Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they
receive illumination from Purusha. In Samkhya, consciousness is compared to
light which illuminates the material congurations or 'shapes' assumed by the
mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and
illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear
to be conscious.[111] Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates
all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of
mind and intellect by assuming possession of them.[112] But consciousness is
itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.[111]
By including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya avoids one of the most
serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation
laws. Because mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted causal
eicacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily motions.[113]
13 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
Evolution
The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the interaction of prakti and
Purusha. Prakti remains unmanifested as long as the three gunas are in
equilibrium. This equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when prakti comes into
proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the gunas
triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from an
unmanifested prakti.[114] The metaphor of movement of iron in the proximity
of a magnet is used to describe this process.[115]
Some evolutes of prakti can cause further evolution and are labelled
evolvents. For example, intellect while itself created out of prakti causes the
evolution of ego-sense or ahamkara and is therefore an evolvent. While, other
evolutes like the ve elements do not cause further evolution. [116] It is
important to note that an evolvent is dened as a principle which behaves as
the material cause for the evolution of another principle. So, in denition,
while the ve elements are the material cause of all living beings, they cannot
be called evolvents because living beings are not separate from the ve
elements in essence.[117]
The intellect is the rst evolute of prakti and is called mahat or the great one.
It causes the evolution of ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from self-
consciousness is aected by the dominance of gunas. So dominance of sattva
causes the evolution of the ve organs of perception, ve organs of action and
the mind. Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of ve subtle elements
sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from self-consciousness. These ve subtle
elements are themselves evolvents and cause the creation of the ve gross
elements space, air, re, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in the
evolutes.[118] Purusha is pure consciousness absolute, eternal and subject to
no change. It is neither a product of evolution, nor the cause of any
evolute.[117]
Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of

evolution of prakti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha. [119] The
23 evolutes of prakti are categorized as follows:[120]
Primordial Root
prakti; purua
matter evolvent
Internal Intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), Ego-sense
Evolvent
instruments (Ahamkra), Mind (Manas)
External Five Sense organs (Jnnendriyas), Five Organs
Evolute
instruments of action (Karmendriyas)
Form (Rupa), Sound (Shabda), Smell (Gandha),
Subtle elements Evolvent
Taste (Rasa), Touch (Sparsha).
Earth (Prithivi), Water (Jala), Fire (Agni), Air
Gross elements Evolute
(Vyu), Ether (ksha).
Liberation or moka
14 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
Samkhya school considers moksha as a

natural quest of every soul. The The Supreme Good is moka which
Samkhyakarika states, consists in the permanent
impossibility of the incidence of
pain... in the realisation of the Self as
As the unconscious milk Self pure and simple.
functions for the sake of Samkhyakarika I.3 [121]
nourishment of the calf,
so the Prakriti functions for
the sake of moksha of the
spirit.
Samkhya karika, Verse

57[122][123]
Samkhya regards ignorance (avidy) as the root cause of suering and

bondage (Samsara). Samkhya states that the way out of this suering is
through knowledge (viveka). Moka (liberation), states Samkhya school, results
from knowing the dierence between prakti (avyakta-vyakta) and purua
(ja).[5]
Purua, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identies itself with
products of prakti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results
in endless transmigration and suering. However, once the realization arises
that purua is distinct from prakti, is more than empirical ego, and that
purua is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains isolation (kaivalya) and
freedom (moksha).[124]
Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moka is attained by one's own

development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation
and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state
of liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.[14]
Causality
The Samkhya system is based on Sat-krya-vda or the theory of causation.

According to Satkryavda, the eect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only
an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material
one, when it becomes eect. Since, eects cannot come from nothing, the
original cause or ground of everything is seen as prakti.[125]
More specically, Samkhya system follows the prakti-Parinma Vda.

Parinma denotes that the eect is a real transformation of the cause. The
cause under consideration here is prakti or more precisely Moola-prakti
(Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an
evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution,
prakti is transformed and dierentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution
is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly
objects mingle back into prakti, which now remains as the undierentiated,
15 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow
each other. But this theory is very dierent from the modern theories of
science in the sense that prakti evolves for each Jeeva separately, giving
individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of
prakti merges into the Moola prakti. Another uniqueness of Smkhya is that
not only physical entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as
forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from pure consciousness.
Samkhya theorizes that prakti is the source of the perceived world of

becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty
four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because prakti is
always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas Sattva,
Rajas and Tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three
together are one, "unmanifest" prakti which is unknowable. A guna is an
entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure
consciousness is called nirguna or without any modication.
The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the
material cause of all physical creation. The cause and eect theory of Samkhya
is called Satkrya-vda (theory of existent causes), and holds that nothing can
really be created from or destroyed into nothingness all evolution is simply
the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.
Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the

relationship between Purusha and prakti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system.
The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of
creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.
Atheism
Samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects
the notion of God. Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on
metaphysical grounds. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging God
cannot be the source of an ever-changing world and that God was only a
necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.[126] The
Sutras of Samkhya have no explicit role for a separate God distinct from the
purua. Such a distinct God is inconceivable and self-contradictory and some
commentaries speak plainly on this subject.
Arguments against Ishvara's existence
According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by the Samkhya

philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God: [127]
If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral

governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the
consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he
is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the
giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God.
16 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences.

Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or
altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because
an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suering. If his
motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have
desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of
desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's
eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover,
desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakti and cannot be
thought to grow in God. The testimony of the Vedas, according to
Samkhya, also conrms this notion.
Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain
unfullled desires, this would cause him to suer pain and other similar
human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than
Samkhya's notion of higher self.
Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the
object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove
him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of prakti as the
origin of the world, not God.
Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and

teleological arguments could not prove God.
Textual references
The Sankhya-tattva-kaumudi commenting on Karika 57 argues that a perfect

God can have no need to create a world (for Himself) and if God's motive is
kindness (for others), Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to call into
existence beings who while non-existent had no suering.
The Skhyapravacana Stra in verse no. 1.92 directly states that existence of
"Ishvara (God) is unproved". Hence there is no philosophical place for a
creationist God in this system. It is also argued by commentators of this text
that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted
to exist.[127]
These commentaries of Samkhya postulate that a benevolent deity ought to

create only happy creatures, not a mixed world like the real world. A majority
of modern academic scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara was
incorporated into the nirishvara (atheistic) Samkhya viewpoint only after it
became associated with the Yoga, the Pasupata and the Bhagavata schools of
philosophy. This theistic Samkhya philosophy is described in the Mahabharata,
the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita[128]
Reception
The Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara considered Samkhya
philosophy as propounded in Samkhyakarika to be inconsistent with the
teachings in the Vedas, and considered the dualism in Samkhya to be non-
17 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
Vedic.[129] In contrast, ancient Samkhya philosophers in India claimed Vedic

authority for their views.[130]
Inuence on other schools

On Indian philosophies
With the publication of previously unknown editions of Yuktidipika about mid

20th century, scholars[131] have suggested what they call as "a tempting
hypothesis", but uncertain, that Samkhya tradition may be the oldest school of
Indian philosophy.[131] The Vaisheshika atomism, Nyaya epistemology and
Buddhist ontology may all have roots in the early Samkhya school of thought;
but these schools likely developed in parallel with an evolving Samkhya
tradition, as sibling intellectual movements.[131]
On Yoga
The Yoga school derives its ontology and

epistemology from Samkhya and adds to it the
concept of Isvara.[132] However, scholarly
opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga
and Samkhya is divided. While Jakob Wilhelm
Hauer and Georg Feuerstein believe that Yoga
was a tradition common to many Indian schools
and its association with Samkhya was articially
foisted upon it by commentators such as Vyasa.
Johannes Bronkhorst and Eric Frauwallner think
that Yoga never had a philosophical system
separate from Samkhya. Bronkhorst further
adds that the rst mention of Yoga as a separate
Yoga is closely related to
school of thought is no earlier than ankara's (c.
Samkhya in its philosophical
788820 CE)[133] Brahmastrabhaya.[134]
foundations.
On Tantra
The dualistic metaphysics of various Tantric traditions illustrates the strong

inuence of Samkhya on Tantra. Shaiva Siddhanta was identical to Samkhya in
its philosophical approach, barring the addition of a transcendent theistic
reality.[135] Knut A. Jacobsen, Professor of Religious Studies, notes the
inuence of Samkhya on Srivaishnavism. According to him, this Tantric system
borrows the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modies it into a personied
malefemale dualism of Vishnu and Sri Lakshmi.[136] Dasgupta speculates that
the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was inspired
from the Samkhyan conception of prakti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a
passive witness. However, Samkhya and Tantra diered in their view on
liberation. While Tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological
realities, Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the
ultimate goal.[137]
18 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
According to Bagchi, the Samkhya Karika (in karika 70) identies Smkhya as
a Tantra,[138] and its philosophy was one of the main inuences both on the
rise of the Tantras as a body of literature, as well as Tantra sadhana.[139]
See also
Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara
Darshanas
Dualism
Hinduism
Linga sarira
Ratha Kalpana
Khyativada
Notes
References
1. Knut Jacobsen, Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
978-8120832329, pages 100-101
2. "Samkhya", American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth
Edition (2011), Quote: "Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy
based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of soul and
matter."
3. "Samkhya", Websters College Dictionary (2010), Random House, ISBN
978-0375407413, Quote: "Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy
stressing the reality and duality of spirit and matter."
4. Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary
challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, ISBN
978-0754633013, pages 149-158
5. Larson 1998, p.9
6. Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy
Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages
245-248;
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit
Terms Dened in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0791430675, page 238
7. John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms
Dened in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0791430675, page 238
8. Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics
of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 43-46
9. David Kalupahana (1995), Ethics in Early Buddhism, University of Hawaii
Press, ISBN 978-0824817022, page 8, Quote: The rational argument is
identied with the method of Samkhya, a rationalist school, upholding
the view that "nothing comes out of nothing" or that "being cannot be non-
being".
19 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
10. Michaels 2004, p.264

11. Sen Gupta 1986, p.6
12. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p.89
13. Samkhya - Hinduism (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520526
/Samkhya) Encyclopdia Britannica (2014)
14. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its
History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages
36-47
15. Dasgupta 1922, p.258.
of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39
17. Lloyd Pueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and
Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
978-8120832329, pages 38-39
of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39, 41
19. Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientic Basis, Dover, ISBN
978-0486417929, pages 56-58
History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages
154-206
21. James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism:
A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 9780823931798, page 265
22. T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
978-81-208-1373-1, pages 7476
23. Alex Wayman (1962), Buddhist Dependent Origination and the Samkhya
gunas, Ethnos, Volume 27, Issue 1-4, pages 14-22,
doi:10.1080/00141844.1962.9980914 (https://dx.doi.org
/10.1080%2F00141844.1962.9980914)
24. saMkhya (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil
/index.html) Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital
Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
26. Apte 1957, p.1664
27. Bhattacharyya 1975, pp.41920
28. Larson 1998, pp.4, 38, 288
29. Richard Garbe (1892). Aniruddha's Commentary and the original parts of
Vedantin Mahadeva's commentary on the Sankhya Sutras Translated, with
an introduction to the age and origin of the Sankhya system. pp.xxxxi.
30. R.N. Dandekar (1968). 'God in Indian Philosophy' in Annals of the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. p.444.
31. Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History
and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 31-32
and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 29
33. EH Johnston (1937), Early Samkhya: An Essay on its Historical
Development according to the Texts, The Journal of Royal Asiatic Society,
Volume XV, pages 80-81
34. Ruzsa 2006.
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35. Anthony Kennedy Warder (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal

Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 63-65
38. GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of
Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN
978-0691604411, pages 3-11
978-0691604411, pages 3-4
40. Sharma 1997, p.149
41. Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of
978-0691604411, pages 107-109
42. Max Muller, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (https://ia800307.us.archive.org
/22/items
/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller
/15.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v15.Muller.Hindu.Mull.Upanishads.p2.Kat
hMundTait..Mait.Oxf.1884._text.pdf), Oxford University Press, page 85
43. Radhakrishnan 1953, p.163
44. such as Rg Veda 1.164, 10.90 and 10.129; see GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya
and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4,
Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, page 5
978-0691604411, pages 4-5
46. Burley 2006, pp.1516.
47. Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 273, 288-289, 298-299
48. Burley 2006, pp.1518
49. Larson 1998, p.96
50. Mircea Eliade et al (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton
University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, pages 392-393
978-0691604411, pages 6-7
52. Fowler 2012, p.34
53. Fowler 2012, p.37
54. King 1999, p.63
55. Larson 1998, p.75.
56. Singh 2008, p.185.
21 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
57. Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 (https://sa.wikisource.org

/wiki/ :_ _.) Wikisource;
Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). A History of Ancient Sanskrit
Literature (https://archive.org/stream
/historyofancient00mluoft#page/564/mode/2up). Williams and
Norgate, London. pp.559565.
Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). World Scriptures: An
Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. p.21.
ISBN 0-8091-2781-4.
Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Maps of Time: An
Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. pp.1718.
ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2.
978-0691604411, pages 5-6, 109-110, 180
59. Larson 1998, p.79.
60. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford
61. William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic
Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0791435809, pages 245-250
62. Original Sanskrit:

Wikisource
(https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ :_ _.)
English Translation 1: Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The
Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 349-359
English Translation 2: Rigveda Ralph Griith (Translator), Wikisource
64. Rigveda 1.164.6 Ralph Griith (Translator), Wikisource
978-0691604411, pages 5, 295-296
66. Ram Nidumolu (2013), Two Birds in a Tree, Berrett-Koehler Publishers,
ISBN 978-1609945770, page 189
University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, page 352
68. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (2005), Logos of Phenomenology and
Phenomenology of The Logos, Springer, ISBN 978-1402037061, pages
186-193 with footnote 7
69. Original Sanskrit:

Wikisource (https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ :_ _.)
English Translation 1: Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The
Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, page 356
English Translation 2: Rigveda 1.164 -22 Ralph Griith (Translator),
Wikisource
22 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
70. Larson 1998, pp.59, 7981.

71. Larson 1998, p.82.
72. Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 288-289
73. Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing minds: Mind, Consciousness
and Identity in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
978-8120833364, page 25
74. Larson 1998, pp.8284
75. Larson 1998, pp.8890
76. Larson 1998, pp.9193
77. Fowler 2012, p.39
978-0691604411, pages 2-8, 114-116
978-0691604411, pages 6-7, 74-88, 113-122, 315-318
80. Bagchi 1989.
81. Larson 1998, p.4
82. Larson 1998, pp.147149
83. Larson 1998, pp.150151
84. Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna (http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo
/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf) Henry
Colebrook (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 18-27;
Sanskrit Original Samkhya karika with Gaudapada Bhasya
(https://archive.org/stream/SamkhyaKarikaGaudapada
/sankhya_karika_gaudapada#page/n0/mode/2up), Ashubodh
Vidyabushanam, Kozhikode, Kerala
85. King 1999, p.64
86. Eliade, Trask & White 2009, p.370
87. Radhakrishnan 1923, pp.25356
88. Dasgupta 1922, pp.2137
89. Cowell and Gough, p. 22.
90. K.C. Bhattacharya (1956). Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, Volume 1.
p.127.
91. MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of
Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16
92. B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198239765
93. Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 160-168
96. W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reection, State University of New York
Press, ISBN 0-7914-0362-9, page 26-27
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97. Carvaka school is the exception

98. James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47
99. Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0
100. Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious, Philosophical and
Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61
101. DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony
Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, page 172
102. M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, page 43
103. P. Billimoria (1988), abdaprama: Word and Knowledge, Studies of
Classical India Volume 10, Springer, ISBN 978-94-010-7810-8, pages 1-30
104. Haney 2002, p.17
105. Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p.339
106. Sharma 1997, pp.14968
107. Sharma 1997, pp.1557
108. Hiriyanna 1993, pp.2702
109. Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp.109110
110. Haney 2002, p.42
111. Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p.342
112. Leaman 2000, p.68
113. Leaman 2000, p.248
114. Larson 1998, p.11
115. Cowell & Gough 1882, p.229
116. Cowell & Gough 1882, p.221
117. Cowell & Gough 1882, pp.223
118. Cowell & Gough 1882, pp.222
119. Larson 1998, p.12
120. Larson 1998, p.8
121. Sinha 2012, p.App. VI,1
History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page
273
123. Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika (http://sanskritdocuments.org
/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf) Compiled
and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
Samkhya karika (http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37
/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf) by Iswara Krishna, Henry
Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 169
124. Larson 1998, p.13
125. Larson 1998, p.10
126. Rajadhyaksha 1959, p.95
127. Sinha 2012, pp.xiii-iv
128. Karmarkar 1962, pp.901
and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 67-70
and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 213
24 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM

978-0691604411, pages 10-11
132. Larson 2008, p.33
133. Isayeva 1993, p.84
134. Larson 2008, pp.3032
135. Flood 2006, p.69
136. Jacobsen 2008, pp.129130
137. Kripal 1998, pp.148149
138. Bagchi 1989, p.6
139. Bagchi 1989, p.10
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The philosophies. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
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Experience (https://books.google.com/books?id=EtIm_TgCfdUC), Taylor &
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Immortality and Freedom (https://books.google.com
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ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6
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Religion (https://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC), I.B.Tauris,
ISBN 978-1-84511-011-6
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Thought, New Delhi: South Asia Books, ISBN 81-215-0019-2
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Further reading
Mikel Burley (2007). Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics
of Experience (https://books.google.com/books?id=K3B9AgAAQBAJ).
Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-15978-9.
Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). "Chapter Six: Samkhya". Perspectives of
Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism
(https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C&pg=PA160). Sussex
Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.
Hulin, Michel (1978). Skhya Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
ISBN 978-3447018999.
Gerald James Larson (2001). Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its
History and Meaning (https://books.google.com
/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3.
Meller, Max (1919). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (https://archive.org
/stream/sixsystemsondi005498mbp#page/n7/mode/2up).
External links
"Samkhya" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/sankhya). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
Bibliography of scholarly works: see [S] for Samkhya
(http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xhome.htm) by Karl Potter,
University of Washington
Samkhya and Yoga: An Introduction (https://faculty.franklin.uga.edu
/kirkland/sites/faculty.franklin.uga.edu.kirkland/les/YOGA.pdf), Russell
Kirkland, University of Georgia
Classical Smkhya and the Phenomenological Ontology of Jean-Paul Sartre
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/1398096), Gerald J. Larson, Philosophy East
27 of 28 7/31/17, 6:11 PM
and West
PDF le of Ishwarkrishna's Sankhyakarika (http://ksuweb.kennesaw.edu
/~djones/documents/Samkhya.pdf), in English
Lectures on Samkhya (http://www.ochs.org.uk/lectures/by-topic/251), The
Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, Oxford University
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Samkhya - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

Samkhya or Sankhya (Sanskrit: , IAST: skhya) is one of the six stika

Samkhya is strongly dualist.[10][11][12] Smkhya philosophy regards the

Samkhya is known for its theory of guas (qualities, innate tendencies).[20]

Some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested

Some scholars disagreed with this view. Arthur

More recent scholarship oers another perspective. Ruzsa in 2006,[34] for

Anthony Warder in 2009, summarizes that Samkhya and Mms schools

Between 1938 and 1969, two previously unknown manuscript editions of

Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. [40]

Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.[41]

Emergence as a distinct philosophy

The early texts of the Vedic period,[44]

According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago "Skhya became the

all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.[34]

At a mythical level, dualism

Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven

Rigveda 1.164.2 - 1.164.4, [62]

The chapter 1.164 asks a number of metaphysical questions, such as "what is

Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22, [69]

The oldest of the major Upanishads (c.

Buddhist and Jainist inuences

Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state

(~700-800 BCE) provided the of the integrated wisdom with which,

The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the

Samkhyakarika includes distilled statements on epistemology, metaphysics and

Perception, inference and right airmation are admitted to be

Perception is ascertainment of particular objects. Inference, which is

Sensible objects become known by perception; but it is by inference

Samkhya Karika Verse 46, [84]

The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarika was the Gauapda

the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were

The Skhyapravacana Stra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in

The 13th century text Sarvadarsanasangraha contains 16 chapters, each

Lost textual references

In his Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, K.C. Bhattacharya writes:

Much of Samkhya literature appears to have been lost, and there

Samkhya considered Pratyaka or Dam (direct sense perception), Anumna

negative/cognitive proof) .[6]

Pratyaka () means perception. It

(negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian

While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplied by Descartes, equate

The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by

Purua is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute,

Samkhya believes in plurality of the puruas.[107]

Prakti is the rst cause of the manifest material

Sattva poise, neness, lightness, illumination,

All physical events are considered to be manifestations

The unconscious primordial materiality, prakti, contains 23 components

Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of

Samkhya school considers moksha as a

Samkhya karika, Verse

Samkhya regards ignorance (avidy) as the root cause of suering and

Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moka is attained by one's own

The Samkhya system is based on Sat-krya-vda or the theory of causation.

More specically, Samkhya system follows the prakti-Parinma Vda.

Samkhya theorizes that prakti is the source of the perceived world of

Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the

Arguments against Ishvara's existence

According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by the Samkhya

If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral

Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences.

Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and