Algebra

Trigonometry

Geometry

? Calculus
 The word calculus came from the
Greek word which means
pebbles.
 The invention of calculus is often
attributed to Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727) and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
 Calculus is called the Mathematics of Change. It
is a mathematical theory which is based
primarily in the concept of a limit.
 The two underlying mathematical operations in
calculus are differentiation and integration.
These operations involve computation of the
derivative and the definite integral, each based
in the notion of limit, probably the single most
important topic in calculus
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to

1. Illustrate the limit of the function using a table of

values and the graph of the function.

2. Distinguish between lim f(x) and f(c)

xc

3. Illustrate the limit theorems; and

4. Apply the limit theorems in evaluating the limit of

algebraic functions (polynomial, rational, and radical)
 A limit can be described as a value
LIMITS approached by a variable quantity that
changes ins some prescribed manner.

Let An be the area of the inscribed polygon with n sides. As n

increases it appears that An become closer and closer to the area
of the circle.
 lim n gon circle
n

The limit of n-gon as n approaches infinity is a circle

 Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a
constant c which the variable x will approach (c may
Limit of a Function or may not be in the domain of f). The limit, to be
denoted by L is the unique real value that f(x) will
approach as x approaches c. In symbols, we write this
process as
lim f(x) L
x c

This is read, The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L

Illustration: lim(1 3x) As x approaches the value As x approaches the value 2
x 2 2 from the left from the right

Graph of f (x) (1 3x) As the values of x gets closer and closer to 2, the
values of f(x) gets closer and closer to 7.

lim(1 3x) 7
x 2
Illustration: lim (x 2 1) As x approaches the value As x approaches the value -1
x -1 -1 from the left from the right

As x approaches -1, f(x) approaches 2.

lim (x 2 1) 2
x -1

Graph of f (x) (x 2 1)
LIMIT THEOREMS
 Limit Theorem 1: Limit of a Linear Function
If a and b are any constants
lim (mx b) ma b
x a

Illustration: lim(3x 5) 3 2 5
x 2
11

lim(2 x 1) 2 2 1
x 2
3
 Limit Theorem 2: Limit of a Constant
If c is constant, then for any number a
lim c c
x a

Illustration: lim 3 3
x 2

lim 5 5
x 1

lim
X 2
 Limit Theorem 3: Limit of the Identity Function

lim x a
x a

Illustration: lim x 6
x 6

lim x 5
x 5
 Limit Theorem 4: Limit of the Sum and Difference
If lim f (x) L and lim g(x) M , then
x a x a

lim [ f (x) g(x)] L M

x a

Illustration: lim (x 2 7 x 5) 32 7 3 5
x 3
9 21 5
25

lim (3x2 x 1) 3(1)2 (1) 1

x 1
3 1 1 1
3
 Limit Theorem 5: Limit of the Product of Two Functions
If lim f (x) L and lim g(x) M , then
x a x a

lim[ f (x) g(x)] L M

x a

Illustration: lim [ x(2 x 1)] lim x lim (2 x 1)

x 4 x 4 x 4

49
36
 Limit Theorem 6: Limit of the Quotient of Two Functions
If lim f (x) L and lim g(x) M , then
x a x a

f (x) L
lim M0
x a g( x ) M

3x 4 3 4 4
Illustration: lim
x 4 2 x 24
12 4

8
16

8
2
 Limit Theorem 7: Limit of the nth Power of a Function
If lim f (x) L and n is any positive integer, then
x a

lim[ f (x)]n Ln
x a

Illustration: lim (5x 7)4 [ lim (5x 7)]4

x 2 x 2

[5(2) 7]4
(3)4
81
 Limit Theorem 8: Limit of the nth root of a Function
If lim f (x) L, and n is any positive integer, then
x a

lim n f (x) n L
x a

Illustration: lim 3 4x 3 lim(4 x )

x 2 x 2

3 42
3 8
2
 Limit Theorem 9

lim f (x) exists and is equal to L if and only if lim- f (x) and lim f (x)
x a x a x a

both exists and both are equal to L

lim (3x 7)
x 5

lim ( z 3 8)
z 2

4x2 9
lim lim ( x 2 2 x 1)
2 2x 3
t3 x 2

5 2x
lim 3
x 3 5 x
 lim ( y 3 2 y 2 3 y 4)
y 1

t2 5
lim 3
t 2 2t 6

8r 1
lim
r 1 r 3

x 2 3x 4
lim
x4 2x2 x 1
 Infinite Limits

One-Sided Limits
One-Sided Limits
 One-Sided Limits

Right-Hand Limit. Let f be a function defined at every number in some open

interval (a, c). Then the limit of f(x), as x approaches a from the right is L, written

lim f (x) L
x a

Left-Hand Limit. Let f be a function defined at every number in some open

interval (d, a). Then the limit of f(x), as x approaches a from the Left is L, written

lim f (x) L
x a
 4 X 2 if x 1
Illustration: Let h be defined by h(x)
2 x 2
if 1 x

lim h(x) lim (4 x 2 ) lim h(x) lim (2 x 2 )

x 1
x 1 x 1 x 1

3 3

Since lim h(x) lim h(x) then lim h(x) 3

x 1 x 1 x 1
 x 5 if x 3

Let f be defined by 9 x if 3 x 3
2
Illustration:
3 x if 3 x

lim f (x) lim (x 5) lim f (x) lim 9 x 2

x 3
x 3 x 3 x 3

2 0

lim f (x) lim 9 x 2 lim f (x) lim (3 x)

x 3
x 3 x 3 x 3

0 0
since lim f (x) lim f (x) since lim f (x) lim f (x)
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

lim f (x) does not exists lim f (x) exists and is 0

x 3 x 3
 s 3 if s -2
g(s) find a. lim g(s) b. lim g(s) c. lim g(s)
3 s if 2 s s2 s2 s2

x 2 if x 2
f (x) find a. lim f (x) b. lim f (x) c.lim f (x)
x 2
8 2 x if 2 x
x 2 x 2

x 1 if x 1 find a. lim f (x) b. lim f (x) c. lim f (x)

2 x 1 x 1 x 1
f (x) x if - 1 x 1
2 x if 1 x d. lim f (x) e. lim f (x) f.lim f (x)
x 1 x 1 x 1
 Infinite Limits

One-Sided Limits
Infinite Limits
 Limit Theorem 10
If r is any positive integer, then

1 1 if r is odd
lim r lim r
x 0 x x 0 x if r is even

3 x 3 x 3
Illustration: f (x) 2 f (x) 2 f (x)
x x x2
1 3 -1 3
0.5 12 -0.5 12
0.25 48 -0.25 48
0.1 300 -0.1 300
0.01 30,000 -0.01 30,000
0.001 3,000,000 -0.001 3,000,000

3 3
lim 2 lim 2
x 0 x x 0 x
 Limit Theorem 10
If r is any positive integer, then

1 1 if r is odd
lim r lim r
x 0 x x 0 x if r is even

1
3
Illustration: lim x 3
x 0 x f (x)
x3
-1 -3 1
1 -0.5 -12 lim 3
lim 4 x 0 x
-0.25 -48
x 0 x
-0.1 -300
-0.01 -30,000
-0.001 -3,000,000
1
lim 4
x 0 x
 Limit Theorem 11
If a is any real number and if lim f (x) 0 and lim g(x) c , where c is a
x a x a
constant not equal to 0, then

g( x )
If c > 0 and if f (x) 0 though positive values of f(x), lim
x a f ( x )

g( x )
If c > 0 and if f (x) 0 though negative values of f(x), lim
x a f ( x )

g( x )
If c < 0 and if f (x) 0 though positive values of f(x), lim
x a f ( x )

g( x )
If c < 0 and if f (x) 0 though negative values of f(x), lim
x a f ( x )
 Limit Theorem 11

2x
Illustration: lim x 1 lim 2 x 2 c 0
x 1 x 1

lim (x 1) 0 f (x) 0 through negative values of f (x)

x 1
2x
lim
x 1 x 1

2x
lim lim 2 x 2 c 0
x 1 x 1 x 1

lim (x 1) 0 f (x) 0 through positive values of f (x)

x 1
2x
lim
x 1 x 1
 t2
t2 b. lim 2
a. lim 2 t 2 t 4
t 2 t 4

Evaluate the following:

x2 9
d. lim
x 3 x 3
3 x2 x2 4
c. lim f . lim
x 0 x x 2 x2

x2 x 2
e. lim 2
x 3 x 2 x 3