Philosophy
Taoism emphasis on the unity and harmony among opposing
From two greek words: philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom)
A science or discipline which uses human reason to investigate the
ultimate causes, reasons, and principles which govern all things.
Western Philosophy uncovering the truth through systematic
argumentation and theory.
Sophists teachers, excellent public speakers who trained to their
students to win each and every argument they participated in.
Philosophos arguments and discussions must be based on sound
reasoning.
- One must continue to inquire and seek to understand and learn
about the human condition.
Pythagoras (570 BCE 495 BCE)
one of the leaders (Philosophos)
- Mathematician and scientist
- Formulation of the Pythagorean theorem
Heraclitus (535 BCE 475 BC3)
- Everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan (logos)
- Change is a permanent aspect of the human condition
- no man ever steps on the same river twice
Democritus (460 BCE 370 BCE)
- Studied the causes of natural phenomena.
- Among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny
particles (atoms).
- Atomists
Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE 323 BCE)
- Simple and virtuous life.
- Vocal critic of well know philosophers like plato and Aristotle.
- Influenced the development of schools of philosophy such as
Cynicism and Stoicism.
Epicurus (341 BCE 270 BCE)
- Philosophy can enable man to live life of happiness.
- Epicureanism (wisdom and simple living will result to a life free
from fear and pain school of philosophy)
Socrates (470 BCE 399 BCE)
- Contributed to field of ethics
- Philosophy can enable a man to live a life of virtue
- midwife that helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom.
- Socratic Method (examines a topic by asking questions that lets
the learner examine and analyze his knowledge and view.)
Plato (427 BCE 347 BCE)
- Student of Socrates
- Foundation of western philosophy (teachings)
- Theory of Forms (everything is based on an idea or template)
- Ideal society and Ideal government (wisdom and reason)
- Dialectic (a method of inquiry)
- Academy (institution of higher learning)
Aristotle (382 BCE 322 BCE)
- Student of Plato
- Disagreed with Platos theory of forms. 7.
- His views influenced the study of the physical sciences elements (yin and yang).
- Proposed a system for the classification of animals and plants. 8. Islam religion and society are closely intertwined. Branches: Sunni
- Deductive Reasoning (specific statements are analyzed.) and Shia Islam.
- Believed that reality is based on what we can sense and perceive. 9. Sikhism god is the creator. Devotion to selfless service and action.
Archimedes (287 BCE 212 BCE) Communication to god with meditation.
- Modern calculus
- Pioneered the use of mathematics to analyze natural phenomena. Other things:
- Credited for several inventions (Archimedes screw, method
determining volume, a device for raising water) Philosophy
Development of Western Philosophy a way of analyzing framework.
An examination of a particular area of knowledge.
1. Stoicism emphasized on morality, virtue, calm, and emotional A distinct area of knowledge with its own goals, concerns, and ways of
fortitude doing things.
2. Scholasticism application of philosophy to define and explain Is a reflective and meditative activity
religious doctrines Method of mental exercise
3. Humanism emphasis on the human person.
4. Rationalism reason and logic as basis. Philosophy of the Human Person
5. Empiricism knowledge is gained through the senses and experience.
Inductive reasoning for generalizations. Looks into the nature of man
6. Social and Political Philosophy individual rights and liberties
7. Existentialism human experience is defined by the views, emotions, Aesthetics
and actions of the individual.
8. Pragmatism practical use of knowledge and ideas The philosophy which deals with beauty and what makes thing
9. Phenomenology experience is studied based on the subjective beautiful
viewpoint of the individual
10. Absurdism man will never understand life and husoman condition. Logic
11. Postmodernism, Post-structuralism analysis on how knowledge,
ideas, and power relations are defined. Is the branch of philosophy which deals with correct reasoning.
Eastern Philosophy Epistemology
Consists of schools of thought that are closely related with religion. Discusses the nature of knowledge and knowing.
wisdom literature
Ethical and harmonious way of life. Ethics
Social relations are a central aspect of life.
The branch which deals with moral questions and dilemmas.
Goal is to achieve a balanced life and find ones role in society.
Theistic and nontheistic philosophies.
Political Philosophy
1. Judaism belief in one God (monotheism). The observance of Gods
Studies governments
commandments will result in rewards.
2. Hinduism belief in a pantheon of gods (Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu).
Metaphysics
Belief in a cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). Emphasis on Dharma
(the fulfillment of duties and behavior)
Branch of philosophy which deals with questions regarding reality and
3. Shinto material and spiritual worlds are closely connected.
existence.
4. Jainism considers the universe as eternal and unceasing so they
reject the idea of a creator.
5. Buddhism shares a number of beliefs with hindusim. Theravada and
Major questions that philosophers ponder upon:
Mahayana buddhism is their two parts.
6. Confucianism human relationships are based on mutual obligations.
 1. Question of Reality Determinism shows that each event is determined or influenced by a specific Practical uses of Philosophy in our lives
set of events or factors.
Reality the state of existence of things independent of human consciousness. 1. Philosophy requires a person to engage in analysis and interpretation
Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events leading to a specific of concepts, definitions, arguments, and problems.
Categories: concrete and abstract. outcome or future.
2. Problem-solving and decision making are important aspects in life
Metaphysics the branch of philosophy which addresses the questions Etiology the branch of Philosophy that studies casualty. which can benefit from a knowledge of philosophy.
regarding reality.
Teleology the branch which deals with the question of purpose. 3. A philosopher is also a good communicator who can clearly and
Ontology branch of metaphysics that focuses on the classification of existing adequately present his or her ideas discussion and debate
things. 4. Question of Ethics
4. Wisdom refers to a persons ability to apply knowledge to daily life
2. Question of Certainty Ethics deals with the standards of right and wrong which define human particularly in making sound choices and judgement in the practical
behavior. Define and discusses concepts and principles which are meant to aspects of life
Certainty refers to perfect knowledge that is free from error or doubt. govern reasoning and action.
5. Knowledge of Philosophy can contribute to self-development
Truth central concept Ethics or Moral Philosophy is the branch that seeks to apply and analyze these
concepts in various situations, contexts, and cultures, and recommends
Knowledge man is able to know guidelines that will govern the decisions and actions of people.

Rationalism is a theory on knowledge which believes that knowledge is a priori Methods and tools philosophers use in the conduct of their study:
knowledge or based on pure reasoning without the benefit of any experience.
Steps
Empiricism is a theory which considers knowledge to be a posteriori knowledge
or knowledge gained from experience. 1. Systematic Doubt skeptical attitude and analyze everything to
determine its truthfulness.
Skepticism questions that certainty of established doctrines or truths and
believes that the mind has limits in perceiving and understanding reality thus all 2. Argument discussion and debate on their ideas.
knowledge is uncertain.
3. Dialectic new ideas and views are formulated from varied and
Epistemology the branch of philosophy which deals with the nature and extend differing ideas and perspectives.
of knowledge.
Methods or Problem-Solving Devices
3. Question of Causality
1. Socratic Method analyzation through a series of questions
- The causes of events and phenomena.
2. Axioms assumptions that are taken for granted in a philosophical
- Analyze causality by examining events in the context of a cause and discussion.
effect relationship.
3. Occams razor used in analyzing possible explanations regarding a
- Origin of things phenomenon.

Purpose the explanation of a things function or goal or the reason for a things 4. Formal logic systematic analysis of the validity of arguments and
existence. (final or ultimate cause) statements.

Agency which is the capacity of man to govern or control his actions.
Free Will the ability to choose among possible actions.
Choice important aspect on agency and free will.
- Entails the use of syllogisms or logical arguments presented as a
series of related statements.
5. Thought experiment and allegory are imagined scenarios used to
illustrate a certain problem or describe a theory.
Correspondence Theory states that something is true if it corresponds to reality
or actual state of affairs.
Coherence Theory proposes that something is true if it makes sense when
placed in a certain situation or context.
Relativism is a philosophical concept which contends that there are no absolute
truths.
Constructivist Theory holds that knowledge is shaped by social forces and
influenced by culture and history.
Consensus Theory views knowledge as based on agreement, and that
something is true if almost everyone agrees that it is true.
Pragmatic Theory holds the view that something is true if we can put it into
practice or is useful in real life.
Verificationism considers that ideas must be verified using the senses or
experience.
Other thing we consider in determining truth
Fallacies arguments based on faulty reasoning.
1. Ad Hominem attacking the person making the argument instead of
the argument itself.
2. Appeal to Force using threat of force or an undesirable event to
advance an argument.
3. Appeal to emotion using emotions such as pity or sympathy
Facts are established truths and can be easily verified.
Opinions more subjective and might be biased or unbiased.
Most common biases
1. Correspondence Bias or attribution effect tendency to judge a
persons personality by his or her actions, without regard for external
factors or influences.
2. Confirmation bias tendency to look for and readily accept information
which fits with ones own beliefs or views and to reject ideas or views
against it.
3. Framing focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring
other aspects.
4. Hindsight the tendency to see past events as predictable, or to
ascribe a pattern to historical events.
5. Conflict of interest a person is connected to the issue.
6. Cultural bias analyzing an issue based on ones cultural standards.
How does Philosophy view the nature of man?
Man entire human race
Human man as a species (homo sapiens or modern human beings)
Person a human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection, and
responsibilities.
How does Philosophy define the Human Person?
Human Person refers to the individual, and all the attributes and characteristics
that set him or her apart from other human beings.
Awareness of self unique trait of humans
Sentience the ability to feel and experience.
Certain views as to its nature of oneself:
1. The self as innate self is an essential part of the human being;
religious views; self-awareness
2. The self as emergent self-awareness is gained through interaction
(world & human beings)
3. The self as integrated and developing self is composed of varied
elements that change over time.
Identity the distinct personality of an individual
Personhood the recognition of a human being as distinct entity a person.
Varied notions which justify the recognition of personhood:
1. The person as an autonomous being a person possesses the ability
to determine ones life through reasoned free choice. Being adult.
2. The person as an unified individual- the human being has the
inherent capacity to function as a person. An example would be
disabled people and unborn fetus is considered a person.

4. Appeal to the popular idea is presentable because a lot of people Biological Perspective considers man as a part of the natural world and a 3. The person in relation to others human beings becomes a person
accept it. product of evolution. through interactions with other human beings.

5. Appeal to tradition the idea is acceptable because it has been true Additional traits and capabilities of human such as the capacity for:
for a long time
a. Planning and intentional action
6. Begging the question assuming the idea to be proven true or circular
argument. b. Innovation and creativity

7. Cause and effect assuming this between unrelated events c. Communication through language and writing

8. Fallacy of Composition assuming what is true for a part is true for the d. Technology
whole
e. Symbolic interaction as evidenced by religion and art
9. Fallacy of division assuming what is true for the whole is true for its
parts. Culture mans most significant achievement