Engineering

CIV4235

Advanced Structural Design

Strut and Tie Model (STM)

Lecture 1

Dr. Ye Lu
Assessment
Students are required to achieve at least 45% in the total continuous assessment
component (assignments, tests, laboratory reports) and at least 45% in the final
examination component and an overall mark of 50% to achieve a pass grade in the unit.
Students failing to achieve this requirement will be given a maximum of 45% in the unit.

Assessment Task Value

%

Class Test 1 (week 4) 8

Class Test 2 (week 8) 8

Class Test 3 (week 12) 8

Worksheets submissions 8
(8 tutorial questions)

Project (Part A) 6

Project (Part B) 6

Project (Part C) 6

Final Examination (2 hours, close book) 50

Total 100
Major Topics on STM Method

Strut and Tie Model (STM) Method: Introduction

Definition of B- and D- Regions

Design Steps of Strut and Tie Model

Dimensioning of Struts, Ties and Nodes

Calculation of Nodal Stresses

Design Applications for Deep Beams, Joints and Dapped beams

Bursting Forces in Bottle Shaped Struts

Design Applications for Anchorage Zones
Timetable
Week 1 Unit overview and Introduction to the strut and tie Work on Project of Part A
model method
Week 2 Design applications using the strut and tie model Problem set 1 of Part A
method I
Week 3 Design applications using the strut and tie model Problem set 2 of Part A
method II
Week 4 Design applications using the strut and tie model Lab session: Thursday 17 Aug
method III (revision)
Test 1: 8%, Friday 18 Aug
- Guest lecture given by Dr Binh Pham from
SMEC Report due date: 5 PM, Mon 28 Aug
References
Standards:
2009 AS 3600: Concrete Structures (Australian Standards available online through
Monash Library System)

Textbooks:
Foster, Kilpatrick and Warner "Reinforced Concrete Basics" Pearson, Australia, 2010.
(Chapter 7)
Todays Lecture

Strut and Tie Model (STM) Method: Introduction

Definition of B- and D- Regions

Definition of Struts, Ties and Nodes

Project Introduction
Strut and Tie Model (STM) Method: Introduction
Inelastic Behaviour of Materials

Steel

fsy

Inelastic
Elastic
fsy : yield strength of steel
sy : yield strain of steel


Concrete

fc

fc: characteristic compressive strength of concrete

fcm : mean compressive strength of concrete

Ec = 5050 fcm

cu : maximum compressive strain of concrete at crushing

Failure Modes of Beams Defined by Strain State
fc cu = 0.003
kud < kubd
dnb = kubd
ductile failure balanced failure
c (under - reinforced)

kud > kubd

s
brittle failure
fsy
(over - reinforced)

st < sy
sy st st = sy
st > sy
 Under-reinforced Beam Ductile Failure
preferred

fc

c
s
fsy

sy st
Compressive Stress with Bending Moment
c c c c fc
c=u =0.003
kd/3
dn

dn C
jd=d-kd/3

st
st st
ct ct
T = Ast st

Before cracking After cracking Crushing of concrete

 Flexural Design of Reinforced Concrete Beam
fc b
fc

Kud/2
ku d
d
C C

A st
N.A. N.A.

Actual stress Equivalent stress

distribution block

2 fc ku d b = Ast fsy

k d
M u =T ju d = Ast f sy d u
2
Bernoulli Hypothesis ,

 Bernoulli hypothesis states that plane sections before

deformation remain plane after deformation and perpendicular to
the neutral axis (shear deformation is not accounted for).
 Bernoulli's hypothesis facilitates the flexural design of reinforced
concrete structures by allowing a linear strain distribution for all
loading stages, including ultimate flexural capacity.

y
N.A.

My
=
Ig
y: Distance to neutral axis


Structures with Non-linear Strain Distribution

Statical discontinuities: the regions near

concentrated loads and reactions
geometric discontinuities: the regions
adjacent to holes, abrupt changes in cross
section or direction


St. Venants Principle
The localized effects caused by any load will dissipate within regions
that are sufficiently away from the location of the load.
For an elastic system, the length over which a point disturbance
remains significant is approximately the height (H) of the section at
which it occurs.

P
 B-region:
Definitions of B- and D-regions

B-region (Bernoulli or Beam): A portion of a member in which the
Bernoulli-Euler assumption can be applied.

D-region (Disturbed or Discontinuity): The portion of a member within a
distance equal to the member depth H from a force or from a geometric
discontinuity. The D-region may be further broken down into the
discontinuity D2 region and nearby transition D1 regions.
stress concentration
D2
D1

Stress trajectories in a B-region and D-regions

B- and D-regions
H D2 D1 B D1 D2 D1 B D1 D2

H1 D
2 D1 B D1 H2
B D1 D2
H1

H2-H1 H2-H1 H2
D

D2
H D1 B D1 D2 D1 B D1 D2

H H H H
B- and D-regions

D2 D1 H2 B D1 D2

H1 H2
D1 H2 D1 H3

D2

B H3
D1

H1 B
H3
H1 D1 D1 H3
B- and D-regions

uae b rather than h in T beam

Design of B- and D-regions
The design of B-regions is well understood and the flexural behaviour
can be predicted by simple calculation. If uncracked, the stresses are
calculated using the linear elastic bending theory. For cracked B-
regions the standard methods of Codes can be applied.

These standard methods are not applicable to the D-regions of a

structure, where the strain distributions are significantly non-linear.
Even for the most regular/common cases, engineers' ability to predict
capacity is poor and generally requires substantial computation effort
to reach an accurate estimation of capacity.
 Load Path in Shallow Beams
B
C shear caused change in direction
C

SFD

BMD

Truss Model
 Load Paths in Deep Beams

Truss Model
Strut and Tie Model (STM) - Truss Analogy
A truss model of a structural member, or of a D-region in
such a member, capable of transferring the factored loads
to the supports or to adjacent B-regions.

A STM consists of three components:

Struts

Ties
Nodes


Strut (concrete): A compressive member in a STM, representing the
resultant of compression field. STM

Tie (steel): A tension member in a STM. STM

Node: A point in a STM where the axes of the struts, ties and
concentrated forces acting on the joint intersection. Strut,,tie

Node zone (concrete): The volume of concrete surrounding a node
that transfers strut-and-tie forces through the node. -

STM Examples

Simply supported beam

Deep beam

Post-tensioned member

Detail at end of beam

Pier cap
STM Examples

Corbel Joint Stepped beam Dapped end

Application of STM
STM represents a complex structural member by an appropriate
simplified truss model, accounting for all types of load effects, e.g.
bending, shear, axial forces and torsion;
STM is most frequently used for the strength design of non-flexural
regions (e.g. deep beams, walls and local discontinuity regions of
beams);
STM has been increasingly accepted for the design and is now a
mature design method allowed by most of codes of practice,
including AS 3600.
 STM Prerequisites

1. Equilibrium must be maintained

2. Strain compatibility is not considered
3. Tension in concrete is neglected
4. Forces in struts and ties are uni-axial Strutsties
5. External forces apply at nodes

6. Prestressing is treated as a load *

7. Crushing of concrete does not occur prior

to yielding of reinforcement

convert udl into concentrated load

Upper and Lower Bound Plastic Theorems
Lower Bound

For a given structure, if there is a certain distribution of
stress/force/bending moment that satisfies equilibrium and does not
violate yield criteria at every cross section, the structure either will not
collapse or will be just at the point of collapse.
Upper Bound
For a given structure, the load computed from an assumed collapse
mechanism will always be greater than or equal to the true collapse
load.

The theoretical basis of the STM is the lower bound

theorem of plasticity (conservative).
Alternative STM
More than one STM may be developed for each load case as long as
the selected STM satisfies equilibrium and yield criteria (no unique
configuration).
Struts

Compression struts fulfil two functions in the STM:

1. Serve as the compression chord of the truss mechanism which
resists moment; resist moment.

2. Serve as the diagonal struts which transfer shear to the supports.

Diagonal struts are generally oriented parallel to the expected axis of
cracking.
Struts

Prism: A concrete member with constant width.
Struts
Fan-shaped: an array of struts with varying inclination meet at or
radiate from a single node.
(No bursting forces existing)
Fan-shaped
Struts
Bottle-shaped: A concrete member which has wider stress field at
the centre than at the ends.
(Bursting forces existing)
Bottle-shaped Struts
steel reinforcement
Potential longitudinal applied
crack

resist the shear

T
Struts
 AS3600 requires the use of either fan or bottle type struts for all
cases if an opportunity occurs for a stress field to diverge.
 A prismatic strut can be used only where the stress field cannot
diverge (e.g. a compression member which is uniformly loaded
across its entire surface).
Ties

Tension ties include stirrups, longitudinal reinforcement (steel,
prestressing tendon), and any special detail reinforcement;

A critical consideration in the detailing of the STM is the provision of
adequate anchorage of reinforcement.
Nodes
Nodes are the connections of the STM, where struts and ties
converge, or where forces are redirected in a STM.
3 ELEMENTS

AT LEAST ON ONE NODE

F = 0
x

F = 0
y

M = 0
Nodes
 AS3600 defines node types according to the number of ties entering the
node.
CCC: The nodal zone is bounded only by struts.

node zone)
 Nodes
CCT: The nodal zone is bounded by two or more struts with a
single tension tie passing through the node.

End plate

Anchored by end plate Anchored by bond within the node

Nodes CT

CCT: The nodal zone is bounded by two or more struts with a

single tension tie passing through the node.

Anchored by bond within and behind the node Anchored by bond and radial pressure
Nodes
CTT: The nodal zone has two or more tension ties passing through
the node.

Anchored by bond Anchored by radial pressure from bend bar

TTT: The nodal zone is bounded only by ties.
Singular and Smeared Nodes
Smeared nodes (e.g. Node A): the nodes may extend/cover a certain area,
e.g. wide concrete stress fields joining together or with closely distributed
reinforcing bars. NOT CRITICAL

Singular nodes (e.g. Node B): the nodes are quite concentrated and cover a
small area where one of the struts or ties represents a concentrated stress
field, e.g. single loads, support reactions, concentrated forces by
reinforcements, or geometrical discontinuities.

B
Singular and Smeared Nodes
Singular nodes are more critical since the force transfer is more abrupt which
creates higher stress concentrations.
A check of concrete stresses in smeared nodes is generally unnecessary as
long as the anchorage of reinforcing bars is ensured.

CHECK CONCENTRATED NODE

Deep beam with UDL and single central support
Singular and Smeared Nodes
If a smeared CCT-node (e.g. Node O) is assumed to remain uncracked, the
tensile stresses of the concrete need to be checked.

Deep beam with opposing concentrated loads

Criteria for Appropriate STM
1.How to construct a STM?
2.If a STM can be formulated, is it adequate or is there a better one?
3.If there are two or more STMs for the same structure, which one is better?

Which model is better?

Criteria for Appropriate STM
 A good model should approaches to the elastic stress trajectories (follow the
elastic flow of forces)
 Ties should involve groups of orthogonal bars which are straight, short and
simple except for hooks needed to anchor the bars;

 Ties can cross struts but struts generally cannot cross or overlap;
 A good STM should minimise both the forces in the various component
elements and the element length to avoid large deformation before the tie
yields
STRUTS CAN ONLY ACROSS ON THE NODES

Fl i i i = minimum

where Fi, li and i are the force, length, and mean strain in strut or tie
element i, respectively.
Good and Pool STM Struts cross

Inclined
and/or long
ties

Large
deformation
of struts

Good Poor
Good and Pool STM

Inclined and long ties

Good Poor
Triangulated STM
Simplified and Refined STM
Transverse Force through Thickness

Side View End View

Transverse Tie Design

Design of STM
 The successful use of the STM requires an understanding of
structural behaviour and informed engineering judgment;
 It is almost an art to the appropriate use of STM in reality;
 The STM is a design tool for thinking engineers, not a cookbook
analysis procedure;
 The process of developing a STM is basically an iterative
procedure.
 *

Assumption in CIV4235

75

75
100

Unless specified otherwise, the top strut and bottom tie models should have a
distance of 75 mm (node position) to the surface of concrete, meanwhile, there is
a horizontal gap of 100 mm (node position) between the STM and concrete
boundary for anchorage.
Project Introduction
Two reinforced concrete deep beams are to be tested experimentally to
failure. You are required to compare and discuss the failure loads
measured experimentally with those calculated on the basis of STM
method.
Part 1:
(a) Determine the distribution of elastic stresses using a commercial
FEA package;
(b) Calculate the theoretical failure load of the deep beam using the
STM method.
Part 2:
(a) Compare the theoretical failure load obtained from Part 1 with the
measured experimental value;
(b) Discuss the reasons which cause the difference between
experimental and theoretical results.
Specimen Dimension

Depth of tie model: centroid of multi-layer steel

Project Introduction
The deep beams will be tested on Thursday 17 Aug, 2017:
Session 1 from 2:00 pm to 3:00 pm (Surnames starting with A-K)
Session 2 from 3:00 pm to 4:00 pm (Surnames starting with L-Z)
It is compulsory to attend one of the sessions.

Note: You are to complete this project in a team of two members. Your
report must cover both Parts 1 and 2.
Due date for report: 5:00 PM 28 August, 2017 (Monday).