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BSD110:HVACinMultifamilyBuildings
JosephLstiburek
October24,2006

Abstract:
Aremultifamilybuildingsonebuildingorabunchofindividualbuildingssharingthesamestructure?Shouldservicesandsystemsbesharedorindividual?The
passionsregardingthesequestionsareasstrongasthoseseparatingYankeefansandRedSoxfans.

Compartmentalization

TheauthorisaproponentoftheindividualbuildingsandindividualservicesandsystemsschoolinadditiontobeingaRedSoxfan.Intheauthorsworld
compartmentalizationandtheRedSoxrule.ThemostelegantargumentforcompartmentalizationofapartmentbuildingscomesfromHandegord(2001).

Stackeffectdrivenairflowsintallbuildingscompromisesmokecontrolandfiresafety,adverselyaffectindoorairqualityandcomfortaswellasincreaseoperating
costsforspaceconditioningenergy(Figure1).Byisolatingtheunitsfromeachotherandfromcorridors,shafts,elevatorsandstairwellsstackeffectdriveninterior
airflowscanbecontrolled(Figure2andFigure3).

Figure1:StackEffectInteriorairflowsintallbuildingscompromisesmokecontrol,firesafety,indoorairquality,comfortandenergyuse.

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Figure2:CompartmentalizationIsolationofindividualapartmentunitsfromcorridorsandcorridorsfromshafts,elevatorsandstairwellsreducesstackeffect
driveninteriorairflows.

Figure3:UnitAirtightnessEachunitisisolatedfromadjacentunitsandfromtheexteriorbyanairbarriersystemofminimumrecommendedresistanceorair
permeanceof2.00L/(s.m2)@75Pa.Theinterunitseparationmustalsomeetthespecificfireresistanceratingrequirementforthegivenseparation.

Toachievecompartmentalizationunitairtightnessshouldmeetaminimumresistanceorairpermeanceof2.00L/(s.m2)@75Patherecommendedminimum
resistanceofenclosureairbarriersystems(Lstiburek,2005).Thislevelofunitairtightnessisnecessarytocontrolstackeffectairpressuresandtolimitairflowfrom
adjacentunitsandcrosscontamination.Additionally,elevatorsshouldbelocatedinvestibules,lobbiesandotherairlockstherebyisolatingthemfromcorridors.
Unitdoorsshouldbeweatherstripped.

DistributedVentilation
Applyingthecompartmentalizationprinciplefurther,ventilationisprovidedtoeachindividualunitacrossexteriorwalls,notacrossinteriorpressureboundariessuch
asfloors.Underthecompartmentalizationprincipleventilationisprovidedbyventilationsystemsuniquetoeachunitratherthanbycentralsystems(Figure4).

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Figure4:DistributedVentilationIndividualunitventilationprovidedacrossexteriorwallsnotacrossinteriorpressureboundariessuchasfloors.

Inpracticerooftopcentralexhaustsystemsaredifficultandarguablyimpossibletobalanceandtypicallydefeatmeasurestocontrolthestackeffectthrough
compartmentalization.Balanceiscomplicatedduetotheadditiveeffectofthestackpressurestothefanpressuresintheexhaustsystemductrisers.Sincestack
pressuresvarywithtemperature,theflowsintheexhaustsystemsalsovarywithtemperature.Theuseofconstantairflowregulators(devicesthatmaintainconstant
airflowacrossvariationsinairpressure)canmitigatethiseffecttoadegree,butarerarelyemployedandrequireextremelyhighpressureswithinductstoeffectively
operate.Apartmentsonupperlevelstendtobeoverventilatedduringcoldweathersincetheyarebothclosertothefansandaremostsubjecttothestackpressure.

Shaftsactingasexhaustchasesorcontainingexhaustductsaredifficulttosealeffectivelyandsignificantlycomplicatefireandsmokecontrolduetothe
developmentofcomplexthreedimensionalairflowpathwaysandinterstitialpressurefields(Lstiburek,1998).Ventilationshaftconstructionisalsotypicallylinkedto
moldandthesubjectoffrequentlitigationduetotheseairflowpathwaysandthegypsumboardusedtoconstructthefireseparations(Lstiburek,1998).

Centralsystemsarefurtherlimitedasmostinstallationsdonotallowindividualunitcontrolthecentralfansarecontrolledbybuildingmanagementandare
typicallyeitheronallofthetimeoroffallofthetime.Unitsareeitherallventilatedorallnotventilatedresultinginoverventilationinmanyunitsandsignificantly
higherenergyconsumptionorunderventilationinmanyunitsresultingincontaminantbuildupandothercomplaints.

DistributedHeating,CoolingandDomesticHotWater
Thecompartmentalizationprinciplecanalsobeextendedtoheating,coolinganddomestichotwater.Unitspaceheatingisprovidedbysealedcombustiongas
furnacesandwaterheaterslocatedineachindividualunit(Photograph1andPhotograph2)thatareventedeitherupwardordownwardthroughsmalldiameter
plasticducts.Exhaustgasesandcombustionairareprovidedbyseparateductsthatfollowparallelpaths(Figure5andFigure6).Mostsystemscanberouted
upwardsordownwards4to5floors.

Photograph1:SpaceHeatingSealedcombustiongasfurnaceprovidesspaceheating.

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Photograph2:DomesticHotWaterSealedcombustiongaswater
heaterprovidesdomestichotwater.

Figure5:GasFurnaceVentingSealedcombustionfurnaces(twopipesystemsexhaustgasesoutandcombustionairin)areventedtoroofordowntodrywell
(pitwithscreen).Ventrunscanextendupordownupto100feet.

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Figure6:GasWaterHeaterVentingSealedcombustiondomestichotwaterheaters(twopipesystemsexhaustgasesoutandcombustionairin)areventedto
roofordowntodrywell(pitwithscreen).Ventrunscanextendupordownup100feet.

Airconditioningisprovidedinasimilarmannerwithindividualexteriorunitslocatedonroofsoratgroundlevelindrywellsorinparkinggarages(Figure7).
Combinedheatingandcoolingwithheatpumpsisexecutedinthesamemanner.

Figure7:AirConditionersorHeatPumpConfigurationIndividualunitsarelocatedonrooforindrywell(pitwithscreen).

Rooftoppenetrationsarecollectedandlocatedindoghousesminimizingpenetrations.Allcable,ductandpipesarerunthroughwallsofdoghouses
(Photograph3).Thedoghouselidsareremovableallowingforaccess.

Photograph3:ServicesLocatedonRoofRooftoppenetrationsarecollectedandlocatedindoghousesallcable,ductandpipesarerunthroughwallsof
doghouses.

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Thedistributedheating,coolinganddomestichotwatercomponentsarearguablyeasiertoservice,andlowerincosttomaintainbylessskilledpersonnelthan
centralsystems.Problemswithsystemsarelimitedtoindividualunitsratherthanmanyunitsorentirebuildings.Distributedsystemsarealsolessexpensivetoinstall
inmanyregions.Thiscostargumentissupportedonaprojectperprojectbasisonmultifamilydevelopmentsasthefreemarketoperatesanddevelopersadoptthese
approachesduetofirstcostreasons.Developersrarelyselectsystemsbecausetheyperformbetterorbecausetheyaremoreenergyefficientorbecausetheyaresafer
andprovidebetterindoorairqualitydevelopersselectsystemsbecausetheyarecheaper.Moreofthesesystemsarebeingadoptedanddisplacingstandard
approachesprincipallyforcostreasons.

Centralsystemsforheating,coolinganddomestichotwaterarenotconducivetoenergyconservationsincetheydonotencouragerationalindividualbehaviorunless
individualmeteringisprovided.Itistheauthorsexperiencethatindividualsystemsaretheeasiesttoindividuallymeter(Photograph4andPhotograph5).

Photograph4:IndividualMeteringofServicesRationalbehaviorisencouragedwhenallservicesaremeteredandbilledseparately.

Photograph5:IndividualGasMeteringGasforspaceheatinganddomestichotwaterisseparatelymeteredtoeachindividualunit.

Inhothumidclimatespartloadhumiditycontrolisalmostimpossibletocontrolwithcentralsystemsinapartmentorcondominiumconstructionunless
preconditionedmakeupairorventilationairissuppliedtocorridorsthroughrooftopunits.Thisbegsthequestionwhethermakeupairandventilationaircanbe
suppliedtoindividualapartmentsthroughcorridorleakageordoorundercuts.Mostfirecodesdonotallowthisapproach(althoughinthereadingofthecodesisnot
alwaysclear)andrequirefullyductedsupplywithsmokedampers.Inthedistributedconditioningapproachindividualdehumidifiersareprovidedineachunit
typicallyintheairhandlingcloset(Photograph6).

Photograph6:PartLoadHumidityControlIndividualdehumidifiersareprovidedineachunittypicallyintheairhandlingclosettohandlepartload
humidityinhothumidclimates.
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Individualapartmentunitsareinessencetreatedidenticallytosinglefamilydetachedhouseswithrespecttoheating,coolinganddomestichotwaterrightdownto
thetypesofequipmentused.Sincethesesystemsareforallpracticalpurposesresidentialsystemstheycanbeinstalledbylessskilledresidentialcontractors
alsoahugeattractivefeaturetodevelopersasmoresubcontractorsarenowcapableofbothinstallationandservice.

VentilationSystemConfigurations
VentilationofindividualapartmentunitsorcondominiumunitsusingthecompartmentalizationapproachshouldbeprovidedaccordingtoASHRAEStandard62.2,
VentilationandAcceptableIndoorAirQualityinLowRiseResidentialBuildings.Intheauthorsopinionthetitleofthestandardismisleadingandlimitingasthe
authorsbelievesthatthestandardshouldalsoapplytoapartmentsandcondominiumsregardlessofheight(lowriseormidriseorhighrise).

TheauthorspreferredsystemconfigurationispresentedinFigure8.Anoutsideairductisdirectlyconnectedtothereturnsideofanairhandlingunit.Aninline
motorizeddamperandtheairhandlerbloweriscontrolledbyaprogrammablethermostatorotherdevicetoensureminimumventilationandtopreventover
ventilation.Exhaustairisventeddirectlytotheexteriorfromthekitchenandbathviaanintermittentlyoperatedfan(orfans)controlledbytheoccupants.Theauthor
furtherprefersthattheexhaustfan(orfans)arecontrolledbyaswitchwithanintegraltimerthatshutsofftheexhaustfan(orfans)afterapresettime(say10
minutes)apracticecommoninthehotelandhospitalityindustry.

Figure8:OutsideAirToAirHandlerMotorizeddamperinlinewithoutsideairductconnectedtoreturnsideofairhandler.Damperandairhandlercontrolled
byprogrammablethermostatorothercontroller.Kitchenandbathfanscontrolledintermittentlybyoccupant.

Figure9:DehumidifierWithAirHandlerDehumidifieraddedtocontrolpartloadhumidityinhothumidclimates.

Dryersshouldbeventeddirectlytotheexterior(Figure10).Anevenbetterapproach,intheauthorsopinion,istheuseofcondensingdryersthatrequirenoexterior
vent.Thewaterremovedfromtheclothesiscondensedanddrainednoexhausttotheexterioroccurs.Thisapproachhasobviousadvantageswithrespecttomake
upair(noneisneeded),andthusprovideshugebenefitsinhothumidclimatesfromlatentloadperspectivesandnegativepressuresnottomentionthebenefitsincold
climatesarisingfromheatreclaim.Inahothumidclimatea200cfmexhaustflowresultsinapproximatelya1tonload.Duringpartloadperiodsthe200cfmexhaust
isalmostentirelyalatentloaddramaticallyskewingthesensibletolatentratio.Andfinallythereisonelessholeinthebuildingenclosuretoworryabout.

Figure10:DryerDryerventeddirectlytoexterior.Ventlesscondensingdryersarepreferred.

Notallapartmentunitsorcondominiumunitsaredesignedandconstructedwithairhandlingunits.Manyunitshaveelectricheatandnoairconditioning
particularlyinthePacificNorthwestandothershavethroughwallpackagedheatpumpsthatprovidebothheatingandcooling.Figure11andFigure12illustratethe
compartmentalizationapproachforsuchunits.

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Figure11:ExhaustWithOutsideAirDuctNotthebestapproachasitreliesoninducedinfiltrationtheairexhaustedwillbereplacedbyinfiltrationair
throughtheduct.Worksbestwitheffectivecompartmentalization(unitairtightnessshouldmeetaminimumresistanceorairpermeanceof2.00L/(s.m2)@75Pa).

Figure12:ExhaustWithOutsideAirDuctPTHP:SimilartoFigure11,butwithairconditioningaddedviapackagedheatpump.

Exhaustisprovidedbycontinuouslyoperatingexhaustfanwithoutsideair(makeupair)providedbyanoutsideairduct.Intheauthorsopinionthisisnotthebest
approachasitreliesoninducedinfiltrationtheairexhaustedwillbereplacedbyinfiltrationairthroughtheduct.Intheauthorsexperiencethisapproachworks
bestwitheffectivecompartmentalization(unitairtightnessshouldmeetaminimumresistanceorairpermeanceof2.00L/(s.m2)@75Pa)therebylimitingairdrawn
fromneighboringunitsandthecorridorandthuslyfavoringtheoutsideairductasasourceofmakeupair.

AbetterapproachispresentedinFigure13wherebothsupplyandexhaustofairisprovidedbyaheatexchangeventilator.Theinstalledcostofthisapproachis
significantlymorethantheapproachesdescribedinFigure11andFigure12.Buttheapproachhasthebenefitsofloweroperatingcosts(inmanyclimates
particularlyextremeclimatessuchasseverecoldandhothumid)andnotrelyingoninducedinfiltration.

Figure13:HeatExchangeVentilatorExpensivetoinstall,economicaltooperate.

Summary
Compartmentalizationofthebuildingenclosureandapartmentunitsandcondominiumunitstocontrolstackeffectdriveninteriorairflowscanbeextendedto
ventilationsystemsandsystemsforheating,coolinganddomestichotwater.Theapproachresultsindistributedsystemsthatallowforindividualunitcontrol,
service,replacementandmetering.

Theapproacharguablyresultsinbuildingsthataresaferfromasmokeandfireperspective,buildingsthataremoreenergyefficient,morecomfortableandmore
durablewithbetterindoorairquality.

References

ASHRAEStandard62.22004,VentilationandAcceptableIndoorAirQualityinLowRiseResidentialBuildings.

Handegord,G.O.ANewApproachtoVentilationofHighRiseApartments.ProceedingsoftheEighthConferenceonBuildingScienceandTechnology,Ontario
BuildingEnvelopeCouncil,Toronto,Ontario,February,2001.

Lstiburek,J.W.ThePressureResponseofBuildings.ThermalVII,ASHRAE/DOE/BTECC,December1998.

Lstiburek,J.W.UnderstandingAirBarriers.ASHRAEJournal,July2005.

Rights:
BuildingScienceDigestsareinformationarticlesintendedforprofessionals.Theauthorandthepublisherofthisarticlehaveusedtheirbesteffortstoprovide
accurateandauthoritativeinformationinregardtothesubjectmattercovered.Theauthorandpublishermakenowarrantyofanykind,expressedorimplied,with
regardtotheinformationcontainedinthisarticle.

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Theinformationpresentedinthisarticlemustbeusedwithcarebyprofessionalswhounderstandtheimplicationsofwhattheyaredoing.Ifprofessionaladviceor
otherexpertassistanceisrequired,theservicesofacompetentprofessionalshallbesought.Theauthorandpublishershallnotbeliableintheeventofincidentalor
consequentialdamagesinconnectionwith,orarisingfrom,theuseoftheinformationcontainedwithinthisBuildingScienceDigest

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