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info

Trusses
FromSteelconstruction.info

Atrussisessentiallyatriangulatedsystemofstraightinterconnectedstructuralelements.Themostcommonuseoftrussesisinbuildings,
wheresupporttoroofs,thefloorsandinternalloadingsuchasservicesandsuspendedceilings,arereadilyprovided.Themainreasonsfor
usingtrussesare:

Longspan
Lightweight
Reduceddeflection(comparedtoplainmembers)
Opportunitytosupportconsiderableloads.

Thepenalty,however,isincreasedfabricationcosts.

Thearticledescribesalternativeformsoftruss,whereandwhydifferentforms
mightbeappropriateandintroducesdesignconsiderations.Primarily,pinjointed
trussesarediscussed,withsomediscussionofrigidjointedVierendeeltrusses.

Longspan,curvedrooftrusses
RobinHoodAirport,Doncaster
(ImagecourtesyofTubecon)

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Definitionofatruss
Atrussisessentiallyatriangulatedsystemof(usually)straightinterconnectedstructural
elementsitissometimesalsoreferredtoasanopenwebgirder.Theindividualelementsare
connectedatnodestheconnectionsareoftenassumedtobenominallypinned.Theexternal
forcesappliedtothesystemandthereactionsatthesupportsaregenerallyappliedatthenodes.
Whenallthemembersandappliedforcesareinasameplane,thesystemisaplaneor2Dtruss.

Theprincipalforceineachelementinatrussisaxialtensionorcompression.

Truss

Membersunderaxialforcesinasimpletruss
1Compressionaxialforce
2Tensionaxialforce

Overviewoftrusses

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Useoftrussesinbuildings
Trussesareusedinabroadrangeofbuildings,mainlywherethereisarequirementforverylongspans,suchasinairportterminals,aircraft
hangers,sportsstadiaroofs,auditoriumsandotherleisurebuildings.Trussesarealsousedtocarryheavyloadsandaresometimesusedas
transferstructures.Thisarticlefocusesontypicalsinglestoreyindustrialbuildings,wheretrussesarewidelyusedtoservetwomainfunctions:

Tocarrytheroofload
Toprovidehorizontalstability.

Twotypesofgeneralarrangementofthestructureofatypicalsinglestoreybuildingareshowninthefigurebelow.

Portalframeandbeamandcolumnarrangements

Verticaltrussesaresupportedbycolumns.
Lateralstabilityprovidedbyportaltrusses.

Lateralstabilityprovidedbylongitudinalwind
Longitudinalstabilityprovidedbytransversewind
girderandverticalbracingsinthegables(blue)
girderandverticalcrossbracings(blue)
Longitudinalstabilityprovidedbytransversewind
Nolongitudinalwindgirder.
girderandverticalbracings(green)

Inthefirstcase(left)thelateralstabilityofthestructureisprovidedbyaseriesofportaltrussestheconnectionsbetweenthetrussandthe
columnsprovideresistancetoaglobalbendingmoment.Loadsareappliedtotheportalstructurebypurlinsandsiderails.

Inthesecondcase,(right)eachverticaltrussandthetwocolumnsbetweenwhichitspans,constituteasimplebeamstructuretheconnection
betweenthetrussandacolumndoesnotresisttheglobalbendingmoment,andthetwocolumnbasesarepinned.Transverserestraintis
necessaryatthetoplevelofthesimplestructureitisachievedbymeansofalongitudinalwindgirderwhichcarriesthetransverseforcesdueto
windonthesidewallstotheverticalbracinginthegablewalls.

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Typesoftrusses
Trussescompriseassembliesoftensionandcompressionelements.Undergravityloads,thetopandbottomchordsofthetrussprovidethe
compressionandtensionresistancetooverallbending,andthebracingresiststheshearforces.Awiderangeoftrussformscanbecreated.
Eachcanvaryinoverallgeometryandinthechoiceoftheindividualelements.Someofthecommonlyusedtypesareshownbelow.

Pratttruss('N'truss)

Pratttrussesarecommonlyusedinlongspanbuildingsrangingfrom20to100minspan.InaconventionalPratttruss,diagonalmembersare
intensionforgravityloads.Thistypeoftrussisusedwheregravityloadsarepredominant(seebelowleft).AnalternativePratttrussisshown
(belowright)wherethediagonalmembersareintensionforupliftloads.Thistypeoftrussisusedwhereupliftloadsarepredominant,which
maybethecaseinopenbuildingssuchasaircrafthangers.

Pratttruss(gravityloads) Pratttruss(upliftloads)

Itispossibletoaddsecondarymembers(asillustratedbelowleft)to:

Createintermediatesupportpointsforappliedloads
Limitthebucklinglengthofmembersincompression(althoughina2Dtruss,thebucklinglengthisonlymodifiedinoneaxis).

ForthePratttrussandanyofthetypesoftrussmentionedbelow,itispossibletoprovideeitherasingleoradoubleslopetotheupperchordof
aroofsupportingtruss.Anexampleofadouble(duopitch)Pratttrussisshownbelow.

Pratttrusswithsecondarymembers DuopitchPratttruss

APratttrussUniversityofManchester
(ImagecourtesyofEllandSteelStructuresLtd.)

Warrentruss

Inthistypeoftruss,diagonalmembersarealternativelyintensionandin
compression.TheWarrentrusshasequallengthcompressionandtensionweb
members,andfewermembersthanaPratttruss.AmodifiedWarrentrussmaybe
adoptedwhereadditionalmembersareintroducedtoprovideanodeat(for
example)purlinlocations.

Warrentrussesarecommonlyusedinlongspanbuildingsrangingfrom20to100
minspan.

Thistypeoftrussisalsousedforthehorizontaltrussofgantry/cranegirders.

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ModifiedWarrentrussesNationalCompositesCentre, ModifiedWarrentruss
Bristol
(ImagecourtesyofBillingtonStructuresLtd.)

Northlighttruss

Northlighttrussesaretraditionallyusedforshortspansinindustrialworkshoptypebuildings.
Theyallowmaximumbenefittobegainedfromnaturallightingbytheuseofglazingonthe
steeperpitchwhichgenerallyfacesnorthornortheasttoreducesolargain.Onthesteeper
slopingportionofthetruss,itistypicaltohaveatrussrunningperpendiculartotheplaneofthe
NorthLighttruss,toprovidelargecolumnfreespaces.

Theuseofnorthlightstoincreasenaturaldaylightingcanreducetheoperationalcarbon
emissionsofbuildingsalthoughtheirimpactshouldbeexploredusingdynamicthermalmodelling. NorthLighttruss
Althoughnorthlightsreducetherequirementforartificiallightingandcanreducetheriskof
overheating,byincreasingthevolumeofthebuildingtheycanalsoincreasethedemandfor
spaceheating.FurtherguidanceisgivenintheTargetZeroWarehousebuildingsdesignguide.

Sawtoothtruss

AvariationoftheNorthlighttrussisthesawtoothtrusswhichisusedinmultibaybuildings.
SimilartotheNorthlighttruss,itistypicaltoincludeatrussoftheverticalfacerunning
perpendiculartotheplaneofthesawtoothtruss.

Sawtooth(orButterfly)truss

Finktruss

TheFinktrussofferseconomyintermsofsteelweightforshortspanhighpitchedroofsasthe
membersaresubdividedintoshorterelements.Therearemanywaysofarrangingand
subdividingthechordsandinternalmembers.

Thistypeoftrussiscommonlyusedtoconstructroofsinhouses.

Finktruss

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Aspectsoftrussdesignforroofs
TrussorIbeam

Forthesamesteelweight,itispossibletogetbetterperformanceintermsofresistanceandstiffness,withatrussthananIbeam.This
differenceismoresensitiveforlongspansand/orheavyloads.Thefulluseofthisadvantageisachievableiftheheightofthetrussisnotlimited
bycriteriaotherthanthestructuralefficiency,e.g.alimitontotalheightofthebuilding.However,fabricationofatrussisgenerallymoretime
consumingthanforanIbeam,evenconsideringthatmodernfabricationequipmentishighlyefficient.

Thebalancebetweenminimumweightandminimumcostdependsonmanyconditions:theequipmentofthefabricationfactory,thelocalcost
ofmanufacturingthesteelunitcost,etc.Trussesgenerallygiveaneconomicsolutionforspansover20or25m.

Anadvantageofthetrussdesignforroofsisthatductsandpipesthatarerequiredforoperationofthebuildingsservicescanbeinstalled
throughthetrussweb,i.e.serviceintegration.

Generalgeometry

Forefficientstructuralperformance,theratioofspantotrussdepthshouldbechosenintherange10to15.Thearchitecturaldesignofthe
buildingdeterminesitsexternalgeometryandgovernstheslope(s)giventothetopchordofthetruss.Theintendeduseoftheinternalspace
canleadeithertothechoiceofahorizontalbottomchord,e.g.whereconveyorsmustbehungunderthechord,ortoaninclinedbottomchord,
toallowmaximumspacetobeprovided.

Foranefficientlayoutofthetrussmembersbetweenthechords,thefollowingisadvisable:

Theinclinationofthediagonalmembersinrelationtothechordsshouldbebetween35and55
Pointloadsshouldonlybeappliedatnodes
Theorientationofthediagonalmembersshouldbesuchthatthelongestmembersaresubjecttotension(theshorteronesbeingsubject
tocompression).

Typesoftrussmembersections

Manysolutionsareavailable.Choiceofmembersdependsonthemagnitudeoftheinternal
forces,easeofconnectionsbetweenmembers,aestheticsandanynecessitytoconnect
prefabricatedtrusssectionsonsite.Whenselectingmembers,theoutofplanebuckling
resistancewillbeimportant,togetherwithresistanceunderreversedloading,forexample,
uplift.

Typicalelementcrosssectionsforlightbuildingtrusses
Boltedanglestoformlightweight,longspan
trusses
(ImagecourtesyofMetsecplc)

Forsmallerspans,teesectionsarefrequentlyusedforchords,withanglesusedasinternalmembers.Theinternalmembersmaybeboltedor
weldedtothetees.Backtobackanglesorchannelsmaybeusedforlongerspansorheavierloads,withagussetplateusedatnodesto
connectthemembers.

Forlargetrussesandheavyloads,typicallyfoundintransfertrussesinbuildings,membersmayberolledsectionstypicallyUKCsections.
Nodesareusuallywelded.Anynecessaryconnectionsarecompletedwithboltedspliceswithinthelengthbetweennodes.

Formanyexposedtrusses,hollowsectionsarechosenfortheirstructuralefficiencyandforaestheticreasons.Nodeswillgenerallybeweldedin
theworkshop.Aspartofthetrussdesign,itisessentialtoverifytheresistanceofthejoints(inaccordancewithBSEN199318[1])asthejoint
designmaydominatememberselectionandfinaltrussgeometry.Membersshouldbeselectedcarefullytoavoidexpensivestrengtheningof
trussesfabricatedfromhollowsections.

Differenttypesofsteelsectionusedintrusses

Typesofconnections

Forallthetypesofmembersections,itispossibletodesigneitherboltedor Typicaljointsinweldedbuildingrooftrusses

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weldedconnections.Generallyinsteelworkconstruction,boltedsitesplices
arepreferredtoweldedsplicesforeconomyandspeedoferection.Where
boltedconnectionsareused,itisnecessarytoevaluatetheconsequencesof
'slack'inconnections.Inordertoreducetheseconsequences(typically,the
increaseofthedeflections),solutionsareavailablesuchasuseofpreloaded
bolts.

Hollowsectionsaretypicallyconnectedbyweldingwhilstopensectionsare
connectedbyboltingorwelding,whichwillusuallyinvolvetheuseofgusset
plates.GuidanceonthedesignofweldedjointsforCelsius355and
Hybox355hollowsectionsisavailablefromTataSteel.

Smalltrusseswhichcanbetransportedwholefromthefabricationfactoryto
thesite,canbeentirelywelded.Inthecaseoflargerooftrusseswhich
cannotbetransportedwhole,weldedsubassembliesaredeliveredtosite
andareeitherboltedorweldedtogetheronsite.

Inlightrooftrussesentirelyboltedconnectionsarelessfavouredthanwelded
connectionsduetotherequirementforgussetplatesandtheirincreased
fabricationcosts.

Profiling_tubular.mp4

Profileshapingoftubularsectionsforjointfabrication

Lateralstability

Itisnecessarytodesignthechordsincompressionagainstoutofplanebuckling.Forsimplysupportedtrusses,theupperchordisin
compressionforgravityloading,andthebottomchordisincompressionforupliftloading.Forportaltrusses,eachchordispartlyin
compressionandpartlyintension.

Lateralrestraintoftheupperchordisgenerallygivenbythepurlinsandthetransverseroofwindgirder.

Fortherestraintofthebottomchord,additionalbracingmaybenecessary,asshownbelow.Suchbracingallowsthebucklinglengthofthe
bottomchordtobelimitedoutoftheplaneofthetrusstothedistancebetweenpointslaterallyrestrainedthediagonalmembersserveto
transfertherestraintforcestothelevelofthetopchord,thelevelatwhichthegeneralroofbracingisprovided.

Lateralbracing

Key
Thickblackdashestwoconsecutivetrusses

BlueThepurlinwhichcompletesthebracingintheupperregion
GreenThelongitudinalelementwhichclosesthebracinginthe
lowerregion
RedVerticalroofbracing

Itispossibletocreateahorizontalwindgirderatthelevelofthebottomchords,withlongitudinalelementstostabilizeallthetrusses.

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Designofwindgirders
Transversewindgirder

Ingeneral,theformofatransversewindgirderisasfollows:

ThewindgirderisarrangedasaWarrenorPratttruss,paralleltotheroofplane
Thechordsofthewindgirderaretheupperchordsoftwoadjacentverticaltrusses.Thismeansthattheaxialforcesinthesemembers
duetoloadingontheverticaltrussandthoseduetoloadsonthewindgirderloadingmustbeaddedtogether(foranappropriate
combinationofactions)

Itisconvenienttoarrangeatransversewindgirderateachendofthebuildingsothatthelongitudinalmembersneedactonlyintension.

Longitudinalwindgirder

Itisnecessarytoprovidealongitudinalwindgirder(betweenbracedgableends)inbuildingswheretherooftrussesarenot'portalized'.

Thegeneralarrangementissimilartothatdescribedforatransversewindgirder:

WarrenorPratttruss
Generally,chordmemberswillbeprovidedfromhollowsections
Theposts(ifrequired)aretheupperchordsoftheconsecutivestabilizedrooftrusses.

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Guidanceonglobalanalysis
Althoughjointsintrussesareoftenhardlypinnedinreality,itisgenerallysatisfactory(andencouragedbydesignstandards)toassumethe
jointsarepinnedandtoverifythemembersforaxialloadonly.

Ifloadsareappliedbetweennodes,trussesareoftenanalyseswithcontinuouschords,butwithallinternalmemberspinned.These
assumptionsaboutpinnedjointbehaviourapplytobothboltedandweldedconnections.

Wheremembercentrelinesdonotintersectatanode(thejointgeometrymayhavebeenadjustedtoincreasethestrengthofthejoint),the
additionalmomentsproducedbytheeccentricityareusuallyallowedforinthedesignofthechordmembers.

Modelling

Severalquestionsariseinrespectofthemodellingofatruss.

Itisalwaysconvenienttoworkonrestrictedmodels.Forexample,forastandard
building,itiscommonandusuallyjustifiedtoworkwith2Dmodels(portal,wind
girder,verticalbracing)ratherthanauniqueandglobal3Dmodel.Atrusscaneven
bemodelledwithoutitssupportingcolumnswhenitisarticulatedtothecolumns.

Nonetheless,itisimportanttonotethat:

Ifseparatemodelsareused,itmaybenecessary,inordertoverifythe
resistanceofcertainelements,tocombinetheresultsofseveralanalyses
example:theupperchordofatrussalsoservesaschordofthewindgirder.
Ifaglobal3Dmodelisused,'parasitic'bendingcanbeobserved,whichoften
onlycreatesanillusoryprecisionofthestructuralbehaviourprocess.Thatis
why2Dmodelsaregenerallypreferable.

Oncethescopeofthemodelhasbeendecidedandadaptedaccordingtotheuse
tobemadeoftheresults,itisimportanttoconsiderthenatureoftheinternal
connections.Incurrentmodellingofmemberstructures,theselectionismade Fastraktrussstructuremodel
between'apinjointedmemberatanode'and'amemberrigidlyconnectedtoa (FastrakmodelcourtesyofTrimble)
node'thepossibilityofferedbyBSEN1993[2]tomodelconnectionsassemirigid
israrelyusedfortrussstructures.

Fortrusses,themodeliscommonlyrepresentedaseither:

Continuouschords(andthereforechordmembersrigidlyconnectedatbothends)
Trussmembers(diagonalsandverticals)pinjointedtothechords.

Theeffectofnonpreloadedassembliesontrussdeflection

Whentheconnectionsbetweenelementswhichmakeupatrussarebolted,withboltsinshearandbearing(categoryAinBSEN199318[1]),
theclearanceintroducedintotheseconnections(whichallowsslip)canhaveasignificanteffectondisplacementofthenodes.

Inordertofacilitateerection,theboltsarelocatedinholeswhicharelargerthantheboltsthemselves.Forstandardboltsizes,holeswhichare2
mmbiggerthantheboltareusuallymade(usuallyreferredtoasaclearancehole).

Inorderforaconnectionwithclearanceholestotransmittheload,theboltmust
comeintocontactwithoneorotheroftheconnectedparts:thisiscalledoften
referredtoas'takingupslack'.Foraconnectedtensionmember,thisslackcanbe
assimilatedasanadditionalextensionthatisaddedtotheelasticelongationofthe
memberintension.Likewise,foraconnectedcompressionmember,theslackis
assimilatedasareductioninlengththatisaddedtotheelasticshorteningofthe
compressedmember.

Thetotalslackinthemanydifferentconnectionsofatrussstructurecanleadtoa
significantincreaseindisplacements,whichcanhavevariousandmoreorless
seriousconsequences.Amongstthese,note:

Inmostofthecases,thevisualeffectistheworstconsequence
Increaseddeflectioncanleadtoareductionoffreeheightunderthebottom
chord,whichmightpreventorupsettheanticipatedusage.Forexample,the
additionaldeflectionofatrussholdingdoorssuspendedinagableofan
aeroplanehangarcouldpreventthepassageoftheaeroplane
Increaseinthedeflectioncanresultinreductionintheslopeofthesupported Tubulartrussesasanaesteticfeatureinasinglestorey
roofandeven,ifthenominalslopeweresmall,toaslopeinversiontheriskof building
wateringressisincreased.

Itisthereforeessential,wheretrussstructuresareconcerned,tocontroltheeffectofconnectionslackonthedisplacements.Inordertodothis,
itisoftennecessary:

Tousepreloadedbolts(categoryCconnections)or
Touseweldedconnectionsinsteadofboltedconnections.

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Detaileddesignconsiderationsforelements
Trussmembersaresubjectedtoaxialforce,butmayalsobesubjectedtobendingmoments,forexample,ifthechordshavebeenmodelledas
continuous.

Verificationofmembersundercompression

Theresistanceofamembertocompressionisevaluatedbytakingintoaccountthedifferentmodesofinstability:

Localbucklingofthesectioniscontrolledusingsectionclassification
Bucklingofthememberiscontrolledbyapplyingareductionfactortotheresistanceofthecrosssection.

Inmosttrussmembers,onlyflexuralbucklingofthecompressedmembersintheplaneofthetrussstructureandoutoftheplaneofthetruss
structureneedbeevaluated.

ThebucklingresistanceisobtainedfromBSEN199311[3]byapplyingareductiontotheresistanceofthecrosssection.Thisreductionfactor
isobtainedfromtheslendernessofthemember,whichdependsontheelasticcriticalforce.

Forthediagonalsandtheverticalsstressedinuniformcompressiontheelasticcriticalforceisdeterminedfromthebucklinglengthofthe
memberinaccordancewithBSEN199311[3]Section6.3.1.3andaccordingtoAnnexBBofBSEN199311[3]:

Forbucklingintheplaneofthetruss,thebucklinglengthistakenequalto90%ofthesystemlength(distancebetweennodes),whenthe
trussmemberisconnectedateachendwithatleasttwobolts,orbywelding.
Forbucklingoutofplaneofthetrussbeam,thebucklinglengthistakenequaltothesystemlength.

Forbucklingintheplaneofthetrussofthechordmembersinuniformcompression,thebucklinglengthmaybetakenas90%ofitssystem
length(distancebetweennodes).

Forbucklingoutofplaneofthetruss,thebucklinglengthmustbetakenbetweenlateralsupportpoints.

Intheworkedexample,wherethetrusssupportsaroof,withpurlinsattheleveloftheupperchordofthetruss:

Allthepurlinsconnectedtoaroofbracingcanbeconsideredaslateralrigidsupportpoints.
Intermediatepurlinscanalsobeconsideredasarigidpointofsupport,iftheroofbehavesasadiaphragm(class2constructionaccording
toBSEN199313[4]).
Lateralsupportpointsareprovidedtothelowerchordbyadditionalverticalbracingelementsbetweentrusses.

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Vierendeeltrusses
UseofVierendeeltrusses

Vierendeeltrussesarerigidlyjointedtrusseshavingonlyverticalmembersbetweenthetopand
bottomchords.Thechordsarenormallyparallelornearparallel.

ElementsinVierendeeltrussesaresubjectedtobending,axialforceandshear,unlike
conventionaltrusseswithdiagonalwebmemberswherethemembersareprimarilydesignedfor
axialloads.
Vierendeeltruss
Vierendeeltrussesareusuallymoreexpensivethanconventionaltrussesandtheiruselimitedto
instanceswherediagonalwebmembersareeitherobtrusiveorundesirable.

Vierendeeltrussesaremomentresisting.Verticalmembersnearthesupportsaresubjecttothehighestmomentsandthereforerequirelarger
sectionstobeusedthanthoseatmidspan.Considerablebendingmomentsmustthereforebetransferredbetweentheverticalsandthe
chords,whichcanresultinexpensivestiffeneddetails.

Analysis

AsVierendeeltrussesarestaticallyindeterminatestructures,computeranalysissoftwarepackagesaregenerallyusedtoanalysethetruss.

Connections

Vierendeeltrusseshaverigidjointswhichmusttransfersignificantbendingmoments,especiallynearthesupports.Weldedjointsaretherefore
commonandmayinvolvesignificantlocalreinforcementofthemembersatthejoint.Ifjointsarebolted,substantialconnectionswillbe
necessary,generallyusingpreloadedbolts.

TypicaljointsforVierendeeltrusses

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References
1. ^1.01.1BSEN199318:2005.Eurocode3:Designofsteelstructures.Designofjoints,BSI
2. ^BSEN1993Eurocode3:Designofsteelstructures.Variousparts,BSI
3. ^3.03.13.2BSEN199311:2005+A1:2014,Eurocode3:Designofsteelstructures.Generalrulesandrulesforbuildings,BSI
4. ^BSEN199313:2006Eurocode3.Designofsteelstructures.Generalrules.Supplementaryrulesforcoldformedmembersand
sheeting,BSI

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Furtherreading
SteelDesigners'Manual7thEdition.(http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd1405189401.html)EditorsBDavison&GW
Owens.TheSteelConstructionInstitute2012,Chapter20,Trusses
ArchitecturalDesigninSteelTrebilcockPandLawsonRMpublishedbySpon,2004

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Resources
TargetZero:Guidanceonthedesignandconstructionofsustainable,lowcarbonwarehousebuildings
SCIP167ArchitecturalTeachingResource.StudioGuide.SCIandCorus,2003
NCCI:DesignofrooftrussesSN027aENEU
SchemeDevelopment:ConceptualdesignoftrussandcolumnsolutionsSS050aENEU
Example:SinglespantrussandpostframeforalowpitchroofusingbattenedsectionchordsSX017aENEU
SingleStoreySteelBuildingsPart5:Jointdesign,TheSteelAlliance
DesignofweldedjointsCelsius355andHybox355,2013,TataSteel
(https://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/static_files/Tata%20Steel/content/products/Structural%20Hollow%20Sections%20Hot%20Finish/Celsius%C2%
2013.pdf)

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Seealso
Singlestoreyindustrialbuildings
Costofstructuralsteelwork
Operationalcarbon
TargetZero
Fabrication
Welding
Construction
Preloadedbolting
Steelconstructionproducts
Simpleconnections
Momentresistingconnections
Modellingandanalysis
Memberdesign

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Externallinks
Trimble(http://www.tekla.com/uk)

Retrievedfrom"http://www.steelconstruction.info/Trusses"
Category:Design

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