International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014)
Compressive Strength of Low Calcium Fly Ash Geopolymer
Concrete- A Review
R. A. Shuaibu1
1
Graduate Student, Pan African University Institute for Basic Sciences, Technology and Innovations, AICAD, JKUAT-Kenya
Abstract In order to address the environmental
issues caused by the production of Portland cement,
several researchers have looked at several alternatives
as binder material in concrete production. This paper
reviews the influence of factors like the constituent
materials, curing condition, concentration of the NaOH,
fibre content etc on the compressive strength of low
calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. It concludes that
standardisation of the mix design procedure for low
calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete is required in
order to get characteristics strength value for various
mix proportions as in the case of ordinary Portland
cement concrete.
KeywordsCompressive strength, geopolymer
concrete, low calcium fly ash, water/binder ratio,
NaOH, Curing Condition, GGBS, Steel Fibres, Sodium
silicate.
I. INTRODUCTION
The rate at which carbon dioxide is released to the
atmosphere is increasing at an alarming rate. This is caused
by so many reasons including the increase in the production
of ordinary Portland cement. This has led to various
environmental issues (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005). It was
discovered that for one ton of ordinary Portland cement
produced, one ton of carbon dioxide is released to the
atmosphere. Due to this environmental concern, various
researchers have sort for a new binder to minimize the
consumption of ordinary Portland cement. In this light,
over the past two decades, geopolymer binder have gained
so many attention and proved to be a substitute for ordinary
Portland cement. The geopolymer synthetizing technology
that is based on the alkali activation of the source material
contains mostly silicon (Si) and Aluminium (Al) in their
amorphous form (Hardjito, et al., 2004). Although, the
mechanism of polymerization of geopolymer is yet to be
understood (Hardjito & Rangan 2005).
463
However, researchers have used low calcium fly ash
(ASTM Class F) as replacement in both normal and high
strength concrete (ACI Committee 226, 1988; ACI
Committee 211, 1993). They found that, the percentage
replacement in normal concrete can go up to 50% (ACI
Committee 211, 1993; Langley, et al., 1989), while for high
strength concrete is between 15-25% (ACI Committee 211,
1993).
II. GEOPOLYMER
Geopolymer is a term used to define a category of
synthetic alumino-silicate materials with potential use,
essentially as replacement of ordinary Portland cement in
concrete, for advanced hi-tech composites, ceramic
application or as a form of cast stone. Geopolymer as a
name was first applied to these materials by Joseph
Davidovits in the year 1970s, although similar materials
have been developed in the former Soviet Union since the
year 1950s, but was called soil cements. This name
however was used to describe soils which are consolidated
with a small amount of Portland cement to enhance its
strength and stability.
III. CONSTITUENTS OF GEOPOLYMER
Geopolymer contains two main constituents called the
source material and the alkali liquid.
A. The source material
These source material could be natural minerals such as
kaolinite, clays, etc. By-products materials such as fly ash,
silica fume, slag, rice-husk ash, red mud and so on could
also be used for the source material depending on its
availability, cost, type of application and demand by the
end user. According to (Hardjito & Rangan 2005), any
material that contains mostly silicon (Si) and aluminium
(Al) in amorphous form is a possible source material for
the production of geopolymer.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014)
Other materials that can be used as source material
include Metakaolinite or calcined kaolin (Davidovits,
19999; Barbosa, et al., 2000; Teixeira-Pinto, et al., 2002),
low calcium fly ash (Palomo, et al., 1999a; Swanepoel &
Strydom, 2002), natural Al-Si materials (Xu & Deventer,
2000) , a combination of calcined minerals and non-
calcined minerals (Xu & Deventer, 2002), a combination
of fly ash and metakaolinite (Swanepoel & Strydom, 2002;
Jaarsveld, et al., 2002; Zuhua, et al., 2009) and also a
combination of granulated blast furnace slag and
metakaolinite (Cheng & Chiu, 2003).
Among these materials, metakaolinite is preferred by the
geopolymer product developers due to its high dissolution
rate, ease of control of Si/Al ratio and its white color
(Gourley, 2003). Davidovits, (1999) calcined kaolinite
clay for six hours at 750oC and termed it as KANDOXI
and used it to make geopolymer. He added that the molar
ratio of Si-Al of the material should be about 2.0. The high
amount of calcium in ASTM class C fly ash interferes with
the polymerization process and alters the microstructure
(Gourley, 2003). This make ASTM Class F fly ash which is
also known as low calcium fly ash much preferable than
the High calcium (ASTM Class C) fly ash.
The major challenge is that the quantitative prediction of
the suitability of a specific mineral as a source is still yet to
be found because of the complex nature of the reaction
involved (Xu & Deventer, 2000). However, natural Al-Si
minerals have shown the potentials to be the source
materials for geo-polymerization. Fly ash is considered to
be more advantageous due to its high reactivity that comes
in respect of its finer particle size than slag. According to
(Fernandes-Jimenez & Palomo, 2003) , low calcium fly ash
should have LOI less than 5%, Fe203 content should not
exceed 10% and 80-90% of the particles should be smaller
than 45micro meter to produce optimum binding
properties.
B. Alkaline Activator Liquid
The geo-polymerization is made possible by the use of
alkaline liquids. However, the most commonly used
alkaline liquids are either the combination of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) or Potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
Sodium Silicate or potassium silicate (Davidovits, 1999;
(Palomo, et al., 1999b; Barbosa, et al., 2000; Xu &
Deventer, 2002). However, some studies have been done
on the use of a single alkaline activator (Palomo, et al.,
1999a; Teixeira-Pinto, et al., 2002).
464
The type of alkaline liquid plays an important role in the
polymerization process (Palomo, et al., 1999a). Other
researchers (Xu & Deventer, 2002) also confirmed that the
addition of sodium silicate solution to the sodium
hydroxide as the alkaline liquid enhanced the reaction
between the source material and the solution. In addition, it
was observed after the study of geo-polymerization of
sixteen natural Al-Si minerals that generally the sodium
hydroxide caused a higher extent of dissolution of minerals
than potassium hydroxide.
IV. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF LOW CALCIUM FLY ASH
BASED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
The studies conducted by (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005)
and (Hardjito, et al., 2004) that the compressive strength
and workability of the geopolymer concrete is influenced
by the proportions and the properties of the constituent
materials that make up the geopolymer. Therefore these
results have shown that
1. Higher concentration of sodium hydroxide
solution results in higher compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete.
2. The increase in the molar ratio of H2O/Na2O
reduces the compressive strength of geopolymer
concrete (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005)
It was also found that a combination of calcined (eg fly
ash) and non-calcined materials (e.g kaolinite and albite)
resulted in significant improvement of compressive
strength (Xu & Deventer, 2002). Jaarsveld, et al., (2003)
also found that the fly ash with higher amount of CaO
produced higher compressive strength especially in the
early ages due to the formation of calcium aluminate
hydrate and other calcium compounds.
A. Effect of Alkaline Liquid to Fly Ash Ratio and Molar
Concentration of Sodium Hydroxide on the Compressive
Strength of Low- Calcium Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete
Water-binder ratio and alkaline-liquid/ fly ash ratio are
the governing factors in the design of geopolymer concrete
for various grades (Ramujee & Potharaju, 2014). Ramujee
& Potharaju, 2014 determined the effects of different
variables on the grade of concrete. Figure 1 below shows
the compressive strength for G40.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014)
C. Effect of Alkaline Solution and the ratio of sodium
silicate/ sodium hydroxide on the Compressive Strength
of Low- Calcium Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete.
Different concentration of sodium hydroxide were used
by (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005) as shown in the table below
with different ratios of sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide.
They found that the mixture with the highest ratio of
sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide yield higher
compressive strength with the alkaline solution kept
constant.
TABLE II
Figure 1 effects of Alkaline liquid/binder ratio and water/geopolymer Effects of NaOH and ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide on
solid for G40 (Ramujee & Potharaju, 2014) compressive strength (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005)

According to the above table, water/binder ratio of 0.21

and alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio of 0.4 are suggested for
G40 indicating that improvement in compressive strength
can be achieved by decreasing the water/binder ratio.
B. Effect of water/binder ratio and fly ash content on the
Compressive Strength of Low- Calcium Fly Ash
Geopolymer Concrete
According to (Poon, et al., 2000) high strength concrete
with 28 days compressive strength of 80MPa could be
obtained with a water/ binder ratio of 0.24 and with a
flyash content of 45%. In their investigation, different It was also observed that the compressive strength
percentage of flyash content was varied with the same increased as the concentration of sodium hydroxide
water/binder ratio as shown in table I below; increases from 8M to 14M. Motorwala, et al., (2013) also
shows the effects of molarity on the compressive strength
Table I
Effect Of Water/Binder Ratio And Fly Ash Content On Compressive of geopolymer concrete. They found that as the molarity of
Stregth Of Low Calcium Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete (Poon, the alkaline solution increases the compressive strength
Et Al., 2000) also increases as shown in figure 2 below;

They also added that in the concrete mixes prepared at

lower water/binder ratios, the contribution to strength by
fly ash was better than in the mixes with higher
water/binder ratio.

Figure 2 Effect of Molarity on Compressive strength of low calcium

fly ash geopolymer concrete (Motorwala, et al., 2013)

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Table III Motorwala, et al., (2013) also investigated the effect of
Effects Of Concentration Of Hydroxide Ratio On Compressive curing temperature on the compressive strength of akaline
Strength Of Geopolymer Concrete With The Same Sodium
Silicate/Sodium Hydroxide Ratio activated fly ash based geopolymer concrete using three
different temperatures 25,80 and 100 degrees centigrade for
24hrs and found also that higher curing temperature
resulted in higher compressive strength, but beyond 80
degrees centrigade, they was no significant increase in
strength. The table below shows the findings of the
research;

Figure 4 Effects of curing temperature on compressive strength of low

calcium flyash geopolymer concrete (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005)

Figure 3 Relationship Beteween The Molarity Of Sodium Hydroxide

And The Compressive Strength Of Low Calcium Fly Ash Geopolymer
CONCRETE (Motorwala, Et Al., 2013)

D. Effect of curing condition on the compressive strenth

of low- calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Figure 5 Effects of curing temperature on compressive strength of low
calcium flyash geopolymer concrete 2 (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005)
Due to the fact that the polymerization process in
geopolymer concrete takes place at higher temperature
unlike the ordinary Portland cement concrete, several
authors have carried out studies on this respect. Keeping all
other variables constant, the curing temperature was varied
and it was observed that as the curing temperature is
increased, the compressive strength also increases,
although when the curing temperature exceeds 60oC they
was no significant increase in the value of the compressive
strength (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005).
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Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014)
TABLE IV This confirmed the earlier statement that says longer
Effect of curing temprature on the compressive strength of low curing period does not decrease the compressive strength of
calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete
geopolymer concrete (Jaarsveld, et al., 2002). The results
of their findings is as shown in the figure 6 below;

The effects of curing temperature on the compressive

strength of geopolymer concrete by some researchers can
be summerised in table V below;
TABLE V
Summary of the effect of curing temperature on the compressive
strength of low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete
Figure 6 Effect of curing time on compressive strength of low calcium
Serial No. Temperatures Recommended Reference fly ash geopolymer concrete (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005)
1. 45,65,850C 85oC Fernandez- F. Effect of Ground Granulated Bottom ash and Steel
Jimenez fibers on the compressive strength of low calcium fly ash
&Palomo geopolymer concrete
2002
In effort to improve the properties of geopolymer
2. 30,75oC 75oC Sindhunata,
concrete, researchers have introduced additive relevant to
et al., 2004
improve some of the specific properties. In this section, we
3. 75,95oC 95oC Bakharez shall be looking at the effects of grand granulated bottom
2005 ash and steel fibers on the compressive strength of
4. 30,60,91oC 60oC Hardjito& geopolymer concrete. Ganapati, et al., (2012) replaced fly
Ranga 2005 ash with grand granulated bottom slag in different
5. 25,60,80oC 80oC Motorwala proportions as shown in the table IVbelow;
et.al 2013
TABLE VI
The negetive effect of continous heating is that the Mix proportion for replacement of fly ash by GGBS (Ganapati, et al.,
prolonged curing at high temperature (70 oC ) could break 2012)
the gel structrure resulting in lower strength. Although,
high temperature curing of geopolymer concrete is most
advantageous in the precast industry. Bakharev, (2005)
found that geopolymer concrete doesnt set at 23 oC
E. Effect of curing Time on the compressive strength of
low- calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete.
The results of the above replacement show that higher
Hardjito & Rangan, (2005) investigated the effect of
concentration of grand granulated bottom slag (G.G.B.S)
curing time on the compressive strength of low calcium fly
resulted in high compressive strength for geopolymer
ash geopolymer concrete using test cylinders which were
concrete as shown below. They also added that it is
cured for a range of periods from 4 hours to 96hours. The
necessary to expose geopolymer concrete to higher
result shows that longer curing period improved the
temperature to attain maximum strength if minimum 9% of
polymerization process, which leads to increase in
fly ash is replaced by GGBS.
compressive strength.

467
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Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 4, Issue 4, April 2014)
TABLE VII TABLE VIII
Effects of GGBS on compressive strength of geopolymer concrete Effect of steel fibres on strength of low calcium fly ash based
(Ganapati, et al., 2012) geopolymer concrete (Sounthararajan & Sivakumar, 2013)

Sayyad & Patankar, (2013) introduced steel fibers into

low calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete and found
that the compressive strength of low calcium fly ash based
geopolymer concrete increased up to the addition of 0.2%
fiber. The results of their findings is shown in the figure
below
In another dimension of the effect of GGBS and steel
fibers on the compressive strength of low calcium fly ash
geopolymer concrete, (Rajesh, et al., 2014) used different
mix as shown with varying replacement of GGBS and kept
the steel fiber at 1%. The various mix proportion is shown
below.
TABLE IX
Mix proportion (Rajesh, et al., 2014)

Ingredients unit Mix 1 Mix 2 ( Mix 3 Mix 4

(30% 40% (50% (60%
GGBS) GGBS) GGBS) GGBS)
Coarse Kg/m 1260 1260 1260 1260
3
aggregate
Fine Kg/m 540 540 540 540
3
Figure 7 Variation of compressive strength of low calcium fly ash aggregate
geopolymer concrete with addition of fiber content (Sayyad &
Patankar, 2013)
Fly ash Kg/m 300.02 257.16 214.3 171.44
3

From the above chart, it can be deduced that beyond GGBS Kg/m 128.58 171.44 214.3 257.16
0.2% steel fiber addition the compressive strength starts 3
50%
decreasing this signifies that the optimum compressive Sodium 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
strength was observed at 0.2% steel fiber. Silicate/
Sounthararajan & Sivakumar, (2013) also found that the Sodium
addition of steel fibers shows improvement on the Hydroxide
compressive strength of low calcium fly ash geopolymer Alkaline 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
concrete. solution/Fl
y ash ratio
Molarity of 12M 12M 12M 12M
NaOH
Sodium Kg/m 122.43 122.43 122.43 122.43
3
silicate
Sodium Kg/m 48.97 48.97 48.97 48.97
3
hydroxide
Steel fibre Kg/m 4.28 4.28 4.28 4.28
3
(adding
1%)

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The results of the above test show that the compressive
strength of the mix 1 (30%GGBS) was found to be
52.5MPa at 28 days after heat curing, the compressive
strength of mix 2 (40% GGBS) was found to be 58.5MPa
at 28 days after heat curing, the compressive strength for
mix 3 (50% GGBS) was found to be 55.5MPa at 28 days
after heat curing and the compressive strength of mix 4
(60% GGBS) was found to be 51.2 MPa at 28days after
heat curing. The shows that the addition of GGBS with the
steel fibre kept constant affects the compressive strength of
low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. This shows that
the optimum compressive strength was gotten at mix 2
which contais 40% GGBS as shown in the figure below;
TABLE X
Effect of steel fibre on the Compressive strength of low calcium fly
ash geopolymer concrete(Rajesh, et al., 2014)
G. Effect of Activator Temperature on the Compressive
Strength of Low Calcium Flyash Geopolymer Concrete
Another study was conducted that shows that
Temperature in which activator was subjected prior mixing
effects compressive strength significantly (Dutta, et al.,
2012).
Figure 8 Effect of activator temperature on the compressive strength
of low calcium flyash geopolymer concrete
469
They found that the compressive strength was highest
for the specimen PS45 when the activator temperature was
at 45 degrees centigrade.
V. CONCLUSION
From the above review, it confirm the study of (Hardjito
& Rangan, 2005) and (Hardjito, et al., 2002) that the
workability and compressive strength of low calcium fly
ash geopolymer concrete is a function of the proportion and
the properties of the constituent materials. It was also
observed that the curing condition of a low calcium fly ash
geopolymer concrete also influences the compressive
strength. However, research should be done in order to
standardize these mix design to provide acceptable mix
design procedure to each material to determine the
characteristic strength of each mix proportion. Although
several researchers recommended different curing
temperature, this was due to the varying mix proportion
used by these researchers. Finally, research should also be
done on to confirm the structural adequacies of the
characteristic strength using structural members such as
beams, slabs and column.
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