Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MANAGEMENT
Authors
Dr. Satendra
Dr. Ashutosh Dev Kaushik
Citation
Satendra and Kaushik, A.D. (2014): Forest Fire Diaster Management. National
Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi
Published by
NIDM, New Delhi
ISBN-978-93-82571-09-4
Copyright
NIDM, New Delhi
www.nidm.gov.in
Authors
NIDM, Satendra
New Delhi Ashutosh D. Kaushik
CONTENTS
Message
Message
Preface
List of Table iv
List of Figures vi
List of Boxes viii
List of Abbreviations ix
i
Forest Fire Disaster Management
4.1 Introduction 86
4.2 Fire statistics and causes 97
4.3 Worldwide causes of forest fire 102
4.4 International Cooperation in Forest Fire Management 103
4.5 Incident Command System & International cooperation 113
ii
Contents
iii
Forest Fire Disaster Management
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Geological Time Scale 4
Table 1.2: Forest Area by Region 2011 6
Table 1.3: Distribution of Forests by Ecological Zone 7
Table 1.4: Forest Types - Distribution & Extent 11
Table 1.5: State and UTs wise forest cover in India 22
Table 1.6: Forest cover in States and UTs in India 24
Table 1.7: Forest cover in tribal districts 29
Table 2.1: Net Change in Areas of Forest and
Woodland 1975-85 33
Table 2.2: Annual change in forest area by region 34
Table 2.3: Diversion of forest land for non- farming purposes
between 1951 and 1980 36
Table 2.4: Forest cover as estimated by the FSI from
1987 to 2009 37
Table 2.5: Diversion of forest land for non forest use
(since the Enforcement of Forest Conservation
Act, 1980) 48
Table 3.1: Number of incidents of forest fire reported in
15 States of India 73
Table 4.1: Susceptibility to fire, fire situation, fire season,
fire incidences and management strategies
at Global level 88
Table 4.2: Average area of forest annually affected by fire
by region and sub-region, 2005 98
Table 4.3: Trends in forest annually affected by fire
by region and sub-region, 1990-2005 99
Table 5.1: Data on Forest fire prone forest area in India 121
iv
Table 5.2: Incidents of forest fire occurred in selected
States of India 123
Table 5.3: Districts with high incidence of forest fires 124
Table 5.4: Estimates of forest area affected by fire in
U.P./Uttarakhand 126
Table 5.5: Percentage of the forest types affected by fires
annually 127
Table 5.6: Major forest fire in Indian States during 1990-2011 128
Table 5.7: Forest fire season in India (Annual) 129
Table 5.8: Crucial forest fire periods in the States
and Union Territories 130
Table 5.9: State wise types of vegetation, causes of
forest fire and management practices 132
Table 6.1: Forest Fire Incidences in Indian States &UTs
during 2008- 2011 159
v
Forest Fire Disaster Management
LIST OF FIGURES
vi
Figure 6.2: Number of fire incidences occurred in
Indian States & UTs during 2008-11 160
Figure 6.3: Incident Response System (IRS) Organisation
in India 162
Figure 7.1: Proposed Institutional Framework for
Forest Fire Management 171
vii
Forest Fire Disaster Management
List of Boxes
Box 1.1: Key Findings of the Global Forest Resource
Assessment- 2010 8
Box 2.1: Demographic Status of the Country 44
Box 3.1: Forest Fire and Global Warming 78
Box 4.1: Wild Fire Disasters from 1980 - 2008 101
Box 7.1 Central Fire Management Research
and Training Institute 177
viii
ABBREVIATIONS
AD Anno Domini
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
BALTEX Baltic Exercise for Fire Information and Resources
Exchange
BC Before Christ
BLM Bureau of Land Management
CBOs Community Based Organisations
CC Command Centre
CSS Centrally Sponsored Schemes
CU Cubic
DIG Deputy Inspector General
DMF Disaster Management Facility
DM Disaster Management
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
ENSO El Nino Southern Oscillation
ESF Emergency Support Function
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FCA Forest Conservation Act
FFM Forest Financing Mechanism
FFM Forest Fire Management
FFP Fire Fighter Property
FFPC Forestry and Forest Products Committee
FEBBRG Fire Ecology and Biomass Burning Research Group
FIG. Figure
FRI Forest Research Institute
ix
Forest Fire Disaster Management
x
Abbreviations
xi
Forest Fire Disaster Management
xii
Chapter 1
FOREST : AN OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
Since time immemorial, forests have been an integral part of
human ecosystem. They are nature's greatest bounty to mankind and
play a very significant role in its life. Besides providing shelter and
protection to a large number of living beings, including pre-historic
man, they have been a major source of food, wood and a great variety of
other products. Since ancient times forests have played important role
in social, economic and religious activities and have enriched human
life in variety of ways both material and psychological.
of the forest does not cover its legal aspect. As far as the legal aspect
is concerned, it has nothing to do with tree canopy or the tree cover
and is simply defined as an area of land accorded as Forest in the
revenue records or proclaimed to be forest under Forest Law or Act.
In India, while describing forest area, only this legal status of the forest
is taken into consideration and according to this forest area is an area
recorded as forest in the government records and is commonly known as
the recoded forest area. The recorded forest area can be classified as
reserved, protected and unclassified as defined below-
Reserved Forest (RF): An area notified under the provisions of Indian
Forest Acts or the State Forest Acts having full degree of protection. In
Reserved Forests all activities are prohibited unless permitted.
Protected Forest (PF): An area notified under the provisions of Indian
Forest Act or the State Forest Act.
Unclassified Forest (UF): An area recorded as forest but not included in
reserved or protected forest category. Ownership status of such forests
varies from state to state.
In whatever way it is defined; the forests are the major forms of
natural landscape and are the most important natural resources of the
world. Unlike other natural resources, such as minerals, mineral oils
and natural gas, forests have the great advantage of being renewable and
its productivity in use depends considerably upon the way its benefits
are reaped by man.
For million of years most of the parts of the terrestrial habitats
i.e. the natural vegetation were forests. For several thousands of years,
primitive man lived in forests as hunter and food gatherer component of
forest ecosystem. In the later stages, forests were invaded and cleared
for suitable agricultural pursuits, this was at such an early stage that
man yet did not develop the iron implements and he had to girdle the
tree with stone implements. From that stage to the present time, forests
are viewed from two angles:
I. Firstly they give valuable raw material and secondly,
II. They are considered rivals for the space needed for crops and flocks.
2
Forest - An Overview
3
Forest Fire Disaster Management
4
Forest - An Overview
5
Forest Fire Disaster Management
23% Africa
23%
19% Asia
49%
Europe
45%
Caribbean
33% North and Central America
30%
South America
Oceania
6
Forest - An Overview
33%
48% Total tropical forests
7
Forest Fire Disaster ManageMent
FRA 2010 is based on report from 233 countries. Key findings of the report are
summarized in the following text:
Forests cover 31% of total land area: The worlds total forest area is just over
4 billion hectares, which corresponds to average of 0.6 ha per capita.
The rate of deforestation shows sign of decrease, but are still alarmingly
high: Around 1.3 million hectares of forest were converted to other uses or lost
through natural causes each year in the last decade compared with 16 million
hectares per year in 1990s.
South America and Africa continue to have the largest net loss of forest: At
a regional level, South America suffered the largest net loss of forests between
2000 and 2010- about 4.0 million hectares per year- followed by Africa, which
lost 3.4 million hectares annually.
Forest stores a vast amount of carbon: Worlds forests store 289 gigatonnes
(Gt) of carbon in their biomass alone.
Primary forests account for 36% of forest area- but have decreased by
more than 40 million hectares since 2000: The decrease of primary forest
area, 0.4 percent annually over a ten year period, is largely due to reclassification
of primary forest to other naturally regenerated forest because of selective
logging and other human interventions.
The area of planted forest is increasing and now accounts for 7 percent of
total forest area: Between 2000 and 2010, the area of planted forest increased
by about 5 million hectares per year
Twelve percent of the worlds forests are designated for the conservation of
the biological diversity: Account for 12 % of the total forest area or more than
460 million hectares.
8
Forest - An overview
Insect pests and diseases, natural disasters and invasive species are causing
severe damage in some countries: Outbreaks of forest insect pests damage 35
million hectares of forest annually primarily in the temperate and boreal zone.
Thirty percent of the worlds forests are primarily used for production of
wood and non-wood forest products.
Wood removals increased between 2000 and 2005 following a fall in the
1990s.
Eight percent of the worlds forests have protection of soil and water
resources as their primary objective: Around 330 million hectares of forest
are designated for soil and water conservation avalanche control, sand dune
stabilization, desertification control or costal protection.
The value of wood removals is high, but fluctuating: Wood removals valued
just over US$100 billion annually in the period 2003-2007, mainly accounted
for industrial round wood.
9
Forest Fire Disaster Management
Significant progress has been made in developing forest policies, laws and
national forest programmes: Of the 143 countries that have a forest policy
statement, 76 countries have issued or updated their statements since 2000.
Of the 156 countries that have a specific forest law, 69 countries- primarily in
Europe and Africa- reported that their current forest law has been enacted or
amended by since 2005.
Eighty percent of the worlds forests are publicly owned, but ownership and
management of forests by communities, individuals and private companies
is on rise.
10
Forest - An Overview
12. Himalayan moist 4.12 Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and U.P.
temperate forests
13. Himalayan dry 0.84 Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
temperate forests
14., Sub-alpine forest, 2.55 Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir
15. & Moist alpine- scrub and U.P.; Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
16. & Alpine scrub & Kashmir and U.P.; Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and U.P.
15. Plantation/TOF 5.07
Total 100
Source: India State of Forest Report 2011
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
12
Forest - An Overview
fir, cedrus, chir pine, other conifers and broad-leaved trees. The higher
altitude area of this region named Alpine Zone extends from the upper
limit of the temperate zone to about 4,750 meter elevation or even higher.
The characteristic trees of the zone are the silver fir, birch, juniper and
dwarf willows.
(ii) The Eastern Himalayan region extends from Sikkim eastwards and
embraces Darjeeling, Kurseong and the adjacent tracts. The temperate
zone of the region has forests of oak, laurel, maple, rhododendrons,
alder and birch; different types of conifers, juniper and dwarf willows.
(iii) The Assam and northeastern region comprising of the valleys of
Brahmaputra and Surma and the intervening hill regions is rich and
luxurious with evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboo,
and tall grasses.
(iv) The Gangetic plain region covers the area from the Aravalli ranges
to Bengal and Orissa. A large part of the area is alluvial plain and is
under cultivation for wheat, sugar cane and rice. Only small area of the
region supports forests of different types.
(v) The Indus plain region comprises of the plains of Punjab, western
Rajasthan and northern Gujarat. The region is dry and hot and supports
scanty natural vegetation.
(vi) The Deccan region, characterized by the entire tableland of the
Indian peninsula supports vegetation of various kinds from scrub areas
to mixed deciduous forests.
(vii) The Malabar region covers the excessively humid belt of mountain
running parallel to the southwest coast and contains evergreen and moist
deciduous forests. This region, besides being rich in forest vegetation,
produces important commercial crops like coconut, betel nut, pepper,
coffee and tea. Rubber, cashew nut and eucalyptus trees have also been
successfully introduced in some parts of this region.
(viii) The Andaman region comprises the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
It bounds in evergreen, semi-evergreen and mangrove forests.
13
Forest Fire Disaster Management
14
Forest - An Overview
physical features and may be grouped into three regions: The Himalayas
and their associated group of mountains, the Indo-Gangetic plain and the
Peninsular shield. About 600 million years ago, most of the Himalayan
region was under sea. About 70 million ago, in a series of mountain
building movements through northward movement, the sediment and
the basement rocks rose to great heights and the weathering and erosive
agencies worked on these to produce all that we see today. The Indo-
Gangetic plain as a great alluvial tract separates the Himalayas in north
from the peninsula to the south.
The peninsular region has a relative stability. Highly
metamorphosed rocks of the earliest periods, dating as far back as
4,000 million years are found here; the rest being covered by the coal-
bearing Gondwana formations, lava flows belonging to the Deccan Trap
formation and younger sediments.
Each type being particular to a specific locality, India has a
wide range of soils. The two important soil types from point of view of
agriculture production are Alluvial and Black Cotton Soils. The Alluvial
soil composed of sediments of silt and sand deposited by rivers in the
interior constitutes the great Indo-Gangetic plains. Alluvial soils, also
occurring in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in Madhya Pradesh and
the Cauvery in Tamil Nadu, are considered good for the production of
wheat, rice, other cereals, pulses, oil seeds, potato, and sugarcane etc.
Distributing through Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and
Rajasthan, Black Cotton Soil cover about 51.8 million hectare land
mass. These soils are considered good for cultivation of cotton, cereals,
pulses, oil seeds, citrus fruits, and vegetables etc. Red soils are found
primarily in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Almost all types
of crops are grown in these soils but these soils are most suited for
rice, ragi, tobacco and vegetable cultivation. Laterite and lateritic soils,
covering over 12.6 million hectare area are usually not fertile. The area
of desert soils in the country is around 37 million hectares and is also
15
Forest Fire Disaster Management
16
Forest - An Overview
17
Forest Fire Disaster Management
villages. About half of the country's population and more than two thirds
of all women over 15 years of age are illiterate.
The indices of low socio-economic development in India include
heavy pressure of population; improper land use and inappropriate
systems of farming; deforestation; unplanned development of industries;
infrastructure and urban settlements; uncontrolled use of water
resources; lack of adequate sanitation; unhealthy working conditions;
improper planning of development activities; over-exploitation and
non-replenishment of renewable resources; and poor level of education.
Irrational systems of resource have led to floods, droughts,
erosion and impoverishment of soil, lowering of water level, water
logging, sedimentation, lack of clean drinking water, fall in agricultural
productivity, depletion of fishery and forestry resources, water pollution,
health hazards, extinction and endangerment of plant and animal species,
loss of bio-diversity and poverty.
In India, approximately 37% of the total population is below
the poverty line (Tendulkar Committee, 2011). Despite the significant
progress in areas such as nutrition and health over the last 65 years,
much remains to be done for certain regions and population groups. The
poverty and dearth of livelihood and other income generating resources
have increased the dependency of the man on natural resources, among
which forest is the most vulnerable and easily accessible resource. Along
with supplying fuel wood, fodder and other minor forest produce, poor
people of the country are forced to exploit forests to earn livelihood.
18
Forest - An Overview
a) Ancient period
In two great epics of India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha
there are extensive references to forests and trees, which indicate that
forests were generally worshiped and protected during that period. There
is also an account of the destruction of the Khandawa forest by fire in
the Mahabharatha. In the Vishnu Purana and other Puranas, there is
reference to vanas (forests) existing across the length and breadth of the
country, from Kashmir down to peninsular India.
The earliest historical evidence of forests and their use in human
life in India relates to the Mohenjodaro- Harappa civilization (about
5000-4000 B.C.). The seals and painted pottery recovered from the
Indus Valley shows the pipal and babul trees. From 2000-1500 B.C., the
migration of Aryans to India carried forward the process of extensive
clearing of forests, especially in areas like Punjab in northwestern India
to meet the needs of their numerous settlements, including need for
vehicles, housing and fuel. Their use of iron for agriculture implements
was a contributory factor in the diffusion of agriculture.
Description about forests in the Mauryan period is also
available in Kautilya's Arthasastra (321 B.C.), Indika of Megasthenes,
Mudrarakshasas of Visakhadatta and inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka.
The study of these books and inscriptions shows that the Mauryan
kings were well aware about the significance of forests and wildlife
and probably had an independent forest department to look after the
conservation of this valuable natural resource. The forest and wildlife
offences and corresponding penalties described in these books also
confirm this.
Despite centuries separating the two periods, the Gupta period
(A.D. 200-600) witnessed a distribution of forests similar to that of
the Mauryan period. During the period, while the forests were dense
in Himalayan foothills and Dandakaranya, the western region had a
desert climate and sparse vegetation and the Indo-Gangetic plains had
flourishing agriculture.
19
Forest Fire Disaster Management
20
Forest - An Overview
c) Post Independence
After independence too, forests of the country remained under
tremendous pressure due to various factors. Industrialization and green
revolution to make the country self sufficient resulted into enormous
loss of forest land. Lack of adequate financial inputs has also adversely
affected sustainable development of forests and conservation of
biodiversity in the country. Inspite of growing demands resulting into
degradation of forests, in recent past number of initiatives by foresters
and local people have created areas of new hope for regeneration and
development of sustainable use of forest areas all over the country.
During the last two three decades, Social, Agro-forestry and
Community Forestry Programmes in India gave emphasis to bring
both forests and foresters closer to the community. The Government of
India's new participatory forest management systems, being developed
by forest departments and forest committees, hold a great promise of a
new direction in forest management.
India has a total landmass of around 3.29 million sq. km, out
of which the total forest area in the country is around 769,512. sq. km.
i.e. 23.41 percentage of the total geographic area. According to State of
Forest Report of FSI (2009), the recorded forest area comprises of three
categories i.e. reserved (51.6%), protected (26.79%) and un-classed
forest (17.24%). The State / UTs wise contribution of the recorded
forest area is given in Table-1.5 and Fig.-1.3.
21
Forest Fire Disaster Management
22
Forest - An Overview
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
Area in sq. km
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
h h r h hi at na sh ir nd ka la sh tra ur ya m d ha ab an im du ra sh nd al ar rh eli iu ep
es es ha ar l
jar rya de shm ha ata era de sh nip ala ora alan dis unj sth ikk Na ripu de ha eng cob iga av & D we
a
m
ry
ad ad Bi tisg De
Go
sa
er
Pr Pr t Gu Ha l Pra Ka ark arn K Pra hara Ma egh Miz ag O P aja S mil T r Pra arak st B Ni and ar H an had
ch
As
ra hal a
hh h K a N R Ta ta tt e n & Ch Nag am aks
du
h ha u & J hy Ma M
Ut U W ma
Pu
d c C ac m D L
An runa m m ad a a&
A Hi Ja M dh dr
An Da
Though as per the India State Forest Report, 2009, the recorded
forest area of the country was more than 23%, major chunk of this area is
without any tree cover. Out of the total recorded forest area i.e. 769,512
sq. km, only 690,899 sq. km was under forest cover (the land mass
having tree canopy of more than ten percent). Further, depending upon
the crown density, the forest cover in the country has been classified into
Very Dense Forest (VDF), Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) and Open
Forest (OF). While the forest land with tree canopy of more than 70%
has been classified as Very dense, between 40% to 70% and between
10% to 40% have been put in categories of Moderately dense and Open
forest, respectively. The state wise details of the forest cover under these
three categories i.e. VDF, MDF & OF are given in Table-1.6 & Fig.-1.4.
23
Forest Fire Disaster Management
24
Forest - An Overview
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A&N 8249 3761 2416 547 6724 6662 0 6662 62
Islands
Chandigarh 114 1 10 6 17 17 0 17 0
Dadra & 491 0 114 97 211 211 0 211 0
Nagar Haveli
Daman & 112 0 0.62 5.53 6 6 0 6 0
Diu
Lakshadweep 32 0 17.18 9.88 27 26 0 26 1
Puducherry 480 0 35.37 14.69 50 44 6 50 0
Grand Total 3287263 83471 320736 287820 692027 690899 1495 692394 -367
* The change in the above table refers to change in the area with respect to 2009
assessment after incorporating interpretational changes.
Source: India State of Forest Report 2011
25
Forest Fire Disaster Management
26
Forest - An Overview
products such as wood, food, medicines, fuel, fodder, fiber and organic
fertilizer) as well as indirect and attributable benefits. As an inseparable
component of the total land use systems, forestry has significant inter-
relationship with agricultural, pastoral and food-producing systems
also. Through soil and water conservation and maintenance of soil
fertility, forestry provides critical support for agricultural development.
In addition, forest-based enterprises help increase rural employment
and raise income and living standards of rural people, including forest
dwellers and indigenous groups. The quality of life in rural areas depends
upon the management of adjacent forests. Some of the following figures,
especially in Indian context clearly show importance of forests.
Over two-thirds of rural and half of the urban population use fuel
wood for cooking purposes.
About a quarter of Indias livestock population, which is the largest
in the world, is almost totally dependent on forestlands.
About 70 per cent of Indias population uses traditional medicine
(mainly forest-based), and many of the rural poor have no access to
other systems of medicine.
Forest-based activities are often an important source of cash income
for the poor, especially during lean seasons.
The wild relatives of avocado, banana, cashew, cacao, cinnamon,
coconut, coffee, grapefruit, lemon, paprika, oil, palm, rubber etc.
worth billion of rupees are found in tropical forests.
27
Forest Fire Disaster Management
28
Forest - An Overview
The change in the above table refers to change in the area with respect to revised
assessment for 2009 after incorporating interpretational changes.
Source: India State of Forest Report- 2011, FSI.
29
Forest Fire Disaster Management
30
Forest - An Overview
31
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
Forests have had historical similarities throughout the world.
When the population was small, forests were plentiful and provided
most of the basic needs. With the shift from a nomadic existence to
a settled livelihood by man, forests were cleared for agriculture and
habitations. In due course of time, society recognized the need to
manage forests as a resource for its benefit and earning revenue,
ultimately resulting into forest depletion. When forests were plentiful,
the impact of deforestation was not much and the eco-balance between
human being and its environment was still maintained. However, with
increasing need and demand for forest produce this impact became
more visible and deteriorating.
Though deforestation / forest degradation has been a worldwide
phenomenon, it has affected developing countries more adversely.
The poor socio-economic condition of the people in these countries
(increasing their dependency on natural forests) has been the major
cause for deterioration.
stable and covered around 34 per cent of the land. But with the onset
of industrialization and demand for land and timber, forest cover began
growing threadbare in scattered parts of Europe, Central America,
China and India. Two centuries ago, the thinning spread, leaving parts
of Europe and China bare, while only a century ago, and in the wake of
the Industrial Revolution, eastern North America was deforested. Still
little had changed and forests covered almost 32 per cent of the land
during the period.
However, in the recent past i.e. 50 years ago this change has
accelerated explosively. Vast tracts of forest have vanished from the Far
East and the mainland of South-East Asia; Central America, western
North America and eastern South America, the Indian subcontinent and
sub-Saharan Africa, the Amazon Basin and Central Europe. As per the
Food and Agriculture Organization-U.N. Production Year Book, 1987,
during the period 1975 to 1985, the average loss of the forest has been
about two percent. During these ten years, about eighty million hectares
of the forest was lost (Table-2.1). According to the GFRA Report, the
situation improved a bit after 1990. The global forest area was reduced
by around 8.3 million hectares (0.2%) per year between 1990 and 2000
and by around 5.2 million hectares (0.1%) per year between 2000 and
2010. The forest area has reduced in most regions since 1990, except
Europe (where the area increased in both the decades) and Asia (where
the area reduced between 1990 and 2000 but has increased between
2000 and 2010) (GFRA, 2010) (Table-2.2 and Fig.-2.1).
Between 2000 and 2010, the largest decrease in forest area was in
Brazil (2.6 million hectares per year on average) and the largest increase
was in China (3.0 million hectares per year on average).
33
Forest Fire Disaster Management
3000
2000
1000
0
Europe Africa Asia America Oceania
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
34
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
35
Forest Fire Disaster Management
36
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
1.008
0.061
Agriculture
0.134 River valley projects
2.623
0.502 Industries and Townships
Transmission on lines and roads
Miscellaneous
37
Forest Fire Disaster Management
700000
690000
680000
670000
Forest Cover
660000
650000
640000
630000
620000
610000
600000
1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
SFR Year
Fig.-2.3: Change in forest cover (Area in sq.km)
Source: Forest Survey of India; State of Forest Report- 2009& ISFR 2011
38
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
concern for the country. Tree planting and social forestry activities
cannot fully compensate for the loss of natural forests, since they have
very different attributes. The remaining natural forests, and as well as
the forest plantations) are becoming progressively degraded due to
overuse and lack of protection. The deterioration of the quality, stocking
condition and productivity of forests is a matter of serious concern, as
is deforestation.
39
Forest Fire Disaster Management
40
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
41
Forest Fire Disaster Management
42
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
43
Forest Fire Disaster Management
India accounts for only 2.4 percent of the world surface area and yet it support
and sustain 16.87 percent of the world population.
It is estimated that by 2050, India will overtake China to become the most
populous country on earth with about 17.2 percent world population living here.
The population of India at the turn of the twentieth century was only around 238
million which increased by over four times to reach 1027 million at the dawn of
the twenty first century. Interestingly, the population grew up one-and-half times
in the first half of the twentieth century.
Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim continuous to be the most populous and smallest state
respectively in the country (excluding the Union Territories).
There has been decline in the population growth rate. According to the Census of
India 2011, it is 17.64 percent as against 21.34 percent in 2001.
Results from the Census of India 2011 shows that the average population density
of the country is 382 persons per sq km as against 324 in 2001. Among the
states, Bihar recorded the highest population density (1102) followed by Kerala
(1084) and West Bengal (1029). The lowest density of population is found in
Arunachal Pradesh with 17 persons per sq km as against 13 in 2001.
The literacy rate for India is 74.04 percent in 2011 improving upon 65.38 per
cent in 2001. Among the states, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (93.9%),
followed by Mizoram (91.6%) and Tripura (87.8%)
44
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
45
Forest Fire Disaster Management
46
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
Nilgiri hills. After China War in 1962, the main emphasis of the Central
Government was to increase connectivity in Himalayan region through
roads. During this period even the interior villages were connected
by roads. But the most unfortunate part of this development had been
that these roads were constructed without giving much consideration
to environmental issues. This activity has generated huge amount of
debris and other waste, which ultimately became major factor for forest
degradation and other environment related problems.
Industrialization and urbanization are two other major causes for
forest degradation. After independence, availability of natural resource
(forest, minerals, raw material etc.), electricity, communication and
cheap labor have encouraged prospective industrialists to establish
industries in various towns and cities of the country, resulting into
environmental problems like pollution, deforestation etc.
Dam construction, obstructing the natural water flow, not only
affects the ecological balance in an area but also causes environmental
loss to natural resources and wildlife. Adversely attacking the forest
regeneration and growth, construction of dams causes massive damage
to forest and wildlife. A large part of the forest gets drowned under the
reservoir. The labour force also causes destruction to forest for its fuel
need. There is change in water table in the rocks/soil along the reservoir
leading to increased soil erosion. The other reason for increased rate of
erosion is clearance of vegetation in the upstream side.
Thus all unscientific development practices result into
enormous loss to vegetation and environment. Keeping in view the
severity of the problem the Government of India in 1980 enacted the
Forest Conservation Act (FCA) with an objective to check diversion
of forestland for non-forestry purposes. Forest Conservation Act
stipulates that State governments or any other authority is prevented
from diverting forest lands for non-forestry purposes and that prior
approval of the central government is required for any such diversion.
Wherever, diversion of forest land is unavoidable for developmental
purposes, approvals granted to concern State governments are subject
47
Forest Fire Disaster Management
Table-2.5: Diversion of Forest land for non forest use (Since the
Enforcement of Forest Conservation Act, 1980)
Year Forest Land Diverted (area in sq.km)
1980 Nil
1981 2672.04
1982 3246.54
1983 5702.01
1984 7837.59
1985 10608.07
1986 11963.11
1987 72780.05
1988 18765.35
1989 20365.05
1990 138551.38
1991 625.21
1992 5686.94
1993 11785.64
1994 13527.69
1995 46158.52
1996 8764.79
1997 16313.20
1998 12630.00
Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, DIG (FCA)
48
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
49
Forest Fire Disaster Management
more and more people. Many rural people, without secure access to
land are also becoming shifting cultivators. Shifting cultivation is the
major cause of forest fire. According to Forest Survey of India estimate
(1995), 53 to 54 per cent of the forest area in India is annually affected
by the incidence of forest fires (mostly from agricultural practices such
as shifting cultivation).
50
The Diminishing Forest Cover And Forest Fire
per annum. If multiplied to the total forest cover of the country, this
comes to a very substantial amount. The severity of the problem may
be judged from the forest fire data of the year 1995 and 1999 in the two
States- Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh where forest worth crores
of rupees was turned to ashes during the period.
51
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
The word fire evolved from the Greek word pyra meaning
growing embers. Fire is actually the heat and the light that results when
three elements i.e. fuel, oxygen and the source are combined. The
other elements, which determine the behavior of the fire, are weather,
the landscape and the presence of the fuel. As far as the birth of fire
is concerned, fire emerged on the earth with its origin only. From the
time our planet came into existence, lightening has sparked landscape.
Artificial or the human induced fire began when the earlier human being
first rubbed two stones. Discovery of fire has been a revolutionary
invention of human civilization. The nomadic life saw a sudden change
in its life style after this invention. It is interesting to know that the first
experience of fire, which ancient human being felt was of forest fire.
Thus forest fire has been an integral part of human civilization. The
discovery of fire has perhaps been one of the greatest innovations of
all time. It had so much significance in the earlier history of mankind
that they started worshipping it as God. In Indian mythology there are
many evidences, where fire or Agni was worshiped and respected as
Agni Devta. In Hindu mythology a full volume on Agni Purana already
exists, which is solely about the praise of this mighty source of energy.
Not only in Hindu Mythology, other ancient mythologies also have more
or less description of fire in its religious books. In Greek mythology,
fire has been considered one of the four essential elements, along with
water, earth and air.
Forest fire may be defined as an unclosed and freely spreading
combustion that consumes the natural fuels. Combustion is another
word for fire. When a fire burns out of control it is known as Wild Fire.
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
Almost everyone basically knows what a fire looks and feels like, but in
reality fire consists of four parts i.e. gas, flame, heat and smoke.
Fire Gas: These are the gases created by the combustion process. They
are invisible to the naked eye, but they exist and include such poisonous
substances as Carbon monoxide.
Flame: This is the light given off by the burning gas. As long as the
three essential ingredients, fuel, oxygen, and heat are there, it can be
seen.
Heat: This is the part of the fire that one feels as warmth. A normal fire
usually burns at around 1,100 C.
Smoke: Smoke is a harmful vapor cloud mixed with a fine powder
of solid particles and some gases. The solid particles in smoke create
breathing and viewing problem during fire.
53
Forest Fire Disaster Management
54
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
55
Forest Fire Disaster Management
In the burned area, nitrogen and other nutrient remains are leached back
into the soil as rain soaks the ground. This is nature's way of rapidly
feeding nutrients to the soil. Unfortunately, when there is too much fuel
on the ground and it is burned, an intense severe fire occurs, where
these benefits are often missing. Intense fire tends to scorch the ground
and kill the trees. In brief, the forest needs both slow recycling from
decomposition and fast recycling from fires.
Thus forest fires are not always harmful. Small and controlled
fires in the form of prescribed burning are very essential and useful.
In the absence of fire, vegetative changes may result in fuel loads far
exceeding safety levels, which would pose a serious threat to forest if
ignited. The small scale controlled fires provide social and ecological
benefits too, like reducing risk of catastrophic forest fire, improving
silvicultural opportunities, increasing forage and habitat opportunities
for wildlife, enhancing biodiversity and so on.
56
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
57
Forest Fire Disaster Management
58
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
fires were very severe and attracted the attention of whole nation. Fires
that affected an area of 6, 77,700 hectares resulted into quantifiable
timber loss worth around crores of rupees. The fires also created heavy
smoke in the region, which covered the surrounding area for quite a few
days. These fires caused changes in the microclimate of the area in the
form of soil- moisture balance and increased evaporation.
Not only the large fires, but in certain cases the small fires may
also cause immense loss. In the month of February, 2001, one small fire
in the Gwar Forest area of Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand claimed
four lives and injured many more. The fire broke out in a grass field,
when some women were busy in harvesting the fodder grass.
59
Forest Fire Disaster Management
a) Ground fuels
Ground fuel involves all the combustible material below the
loose litter of the surface. The materials which constitutes the ground
fuels can be summarized as follows-
various decayed stages of the humus,
trees, shrubs and roots,
muck and peat.
Ground fuel always supports the glowing combustion and not
the flame. They don't ignite till the moisture content drops very low
(less than 20 percent). The combustion becomes very persistent once
the ground fuels ignite.
b) Surface fuels
All the combustible material on the forest floor is included in
60
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
surface fuels. This type of fuel is the most common type of fire fuels.
This may include-
tree leaves and the fine litter,
grasses, weeds, ferns and the other herbaceous plants,
roots of trees.
These fuels ignite very readily and provide the basic combustible
material for the forest fires.
c) Aerial fuels
All the combustible dead or live material located in the under
storey and above the forest canopy is included in this type of fuels.
These fuels are separated from the ground by more than a meter. The
main aerial fuels include:
branches and foliage of trees,
trees and shrubs of the under storey,
standing dead trees, and
mosses, lichens and epiphytic plants on trees.
The aerial fuels provide much needed combustible material for
the spread of forest fire. The inferno in case of crown fires spreads by
consuming aerial fuels.
The primary factor that helps in the spread of forest fire is the
continuity of fuels. Fuel continuity is also one of the most important
factors in controlling forest fire. This is due to the fact that they transfer
heat by radiation, conduction and convection. Continuity, a relative
term denotes both the forms of continuity i.e. vertical and horizontal.
These are very essential for the fire spread and are taken into account
while planning forest fire control.
61
Forest Fire Disaster Management
62
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
This fire spreads very slowly and in most of the cases it becomes
very hard to detect and control such type of fires. It may continue to
burn for months and destroy vegetative cover of the soil. The other
terminology for this type of fire is Muck fires.
63
Forest Fire Disaster Management
64
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
65
Forest Fire Disaster Management
d. North America 80 %
e. Balkan countries 59 %
The natural causes of forest fires are common in remote areas
only.
Out of three essential components of fire triangle, two
components i.e. fuel and oxygen are naturally available in forest. It is
the third component i.e. heat that really initiates fire in the forest. Heat
may be supplied by either natural or artificial reasons. Depending upon
the source of the heat, the causes for forest fire may be classified as
natural or artificial. While lightening, volcanic explosion, friction of
rolling stone etc. are the natural causes for forest fire; the anthropogenic
causes may be subdivided into two categories i.e. deliberate causes and
unintentional or accidental causes.
Natural Anthropogenic
Deliberate causes Accidental causes
1. Lightning 1 Shifting Cultivation 1 Collection of Non
Timber Forest
Produce
2. Friction of 2 To flush growth of tendu 2 Burning farm residues
rolling stone leaves
3. Rubbing of dry 3 To have good growth of 3 Driving away wild
bamboo clumps grass and fodder animals
4. Volcanic 4 To settle score with 4 Throwing burning
explosion forest department or bidi/ cigarettes
personal rivalry
. 5 To clear path by villagers 5. Camp fires by
picnickers
. 6 To encroach upon the 6. Sparks from vehicle
forest land exhaust
. 7. For concealing illicit 7. Sparks from
felling transformers
. 8. Tribal traditions/ 8. Uncontrolled
customs prescribed burning
. 9. Resin tapping
66
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
67
Forest Fire Disaster Management
68
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
iii) To get better flush for tendu leaves- In central India, fires are
ignited in forest to increase the production of tendu leaves. Tendu leaves
collectors set fires in the summer months to promote a better flush of
leaves. The problem is compounded by the fact that tendu areas are
leased for the collection of leaves on an annual basis; the purchasers are
therefore reluctant to make long-term investments in crop improvement.
The most economical and quick alternative for this is to set tendu areas
on fire; which often extends to other forest areas owing to negligence
and carelessness.
iv) For concealing the illicit felling - Smugglers and poachers many
times start forest fires to hide the stumps of illicit felling. The poachers
use forest fires for terrorizing wild animals and hunting too.
v) For cleaning forest paths by the villagers- Many times villagers
set small fires to clear off path from dry litter i.e. tree twigs, branches,
leaves etc. This fire, when becomes uncontrollable, turns disastrous.
vi) To settle scores - In some cases forests may also be set on fire by
some miscreants in order to settle scores with the forest department or
its staff.
69
Forest Fire Disaster Management
only to clear a small patch beneath a single tree, these fires often spread
out of control. Since the collection of mahua flowers is done during the
summer months, the hot dry weather aggravates the situation.
ii) Burning farm residue- After a harvest, farmers set fire to their
agricultural fields. Many times, when these fires are not put out
completely, may spread to the adjoining forest areas.
iii) Protecting crops from the wild animals- Villagers residing in or
near the forest many times light up fire in the forest to keep the wild
animals away from their crop and cattle. Sometimes when this fire is not
put out completely, it may result in a disastrous forest fire.
iv) Careless throwing of cigarettes, bidi stubs, match sticks by
grazers/ travelers- Travelers, picnickers, nomadic grazers, villagers or
even forest labourers some time throw un-extinguished cigarettes, bidis,
and match sticks in the forest areas. When accompanied by little/ strong
winds, this may result in fires capable of destroying valuable timber
worth millions of rupees.
v) Negligence in camp fires and working operations near camping
ground and fairs - Un-extinguished camp fires of trekkers, labour
camps, nomads moving through the forest with their animals or the
fires of road side charcoal panniers, when not put out properly lead to
devastating forest fires.
vi) Sparks from transformers or vehicles passing through the
forest- The sparks from transformers installed in the forest or near it
may sometimes results into fires in forest. Similarly the sparkles from
the vehicles passing through the area may also ignite fires in the forest
areas.
vii) Uncontrolled prescribed burning- Just before the onset of the fire
prone season, forest department do controlled burning in forest areas.
Controlled burning is done to burn all the combustible material in the
forest before the dry season to prevent major forest fires. Sometimes
due to carelessness this fire may spread and result into large inferno.
70
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
71
Forest Fire Disaster Management
percent of the forest areas as fire prone. This does not mean that fires
affect country's 50 percent area annually. Very Heavy fire, Heavy fire,
Frequent forest fire and Occasional fire damage is noticed only over
0.84 percent, 0.14 percent, 5.16 percent and 43.06 percent of the forest
areas, respectively (Fig.-3.6). Only 6.17 percent of the Indian forests
are subjected to severe fire damage annually. In absolute terms, out of
around 63 million hectares of forests, an area of around 3.73 million
hectares can be presumed to be affected by fires annually.
43.06%
Heavy Fire
Very Heavy Fire
5.16%
Frequent Fire
Occasional Fire
0.84%
0.14%
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Forest Fire And Its Impacts
73
Forest Fire Disaster Management
74
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
75
Forest Fire Disaster Management
ii) Impact of forest fire on eco- system- The most damaging impact of
forest fire on ecosystem is very evident in the Himalayas, where hills
existing between the heights of 1000 to 1800 meters are dominated by
pine forests and seem to be more fire prone. Most of these forests have
preceding fire history; repeated fires have converted mixed forests of
oak and chir to pure chir forest. Of course, chir pine was also planted in
these areas but one of the principal reasons for the conversion of mixed
forests of oak and chir is the occurrence of repeated and uncontrolled
fires. Uncontrolled fires have made the situation less favourable for
oaks to grow and more favourable for chir to grow. The uncontrolled
fires in such areas help in spreading pine forest at the cost of indigenous
oak forest, which is very serious threat to the ecological balance in the
Himalayan region.
iii) Degradation of water catchments areas resulting into loss of water-
After forest fire, soil moisture is decreased and litter decomposition
becomes almost negligible, which creates a possibility of forest fire
in future. Just after fire, the chemical and physical changes in upper
layer of soil make it impervious and thus reduce water infiltration. The
removal of litter also decreases water holding capacity of soil and most
of the rainwater is washed away removing top fertile soil of the forest
resulting into loss of soil fertility.
iv) Loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife- Forests are the
habitat of many wild animals. Sometimes the local people put the fire
and drum beats to keep the wild animals away, but when fire becomes
uncontrolled, the problem of survival of animals and their habitat arises.
Wildfire along with killing wild animals also destroys their habitat and
thus makes their survival at stake. The forest fires in Sankhuwasabha
and Ilam in Nepal claimed red pandas, leopards as well as monkeys,
deer, bear and other species.
Forest fire dramatically impacts the animal life. Animals are first
to lose their lives due to heat generated. Eggs of birds and insects are
destroyed due to fire impact. Some animals have a natural threat warning
system and usually migrate from the danger areas. The birds also save
themselves by migration, but their eggs are usually destroyed. Such
76
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
77
Forest Fire Disaster Management
global scale over the last 100 years and calculations indicate that hotter
earth resulted from global warming will lead to more frequent water
related calamities and larger fires.
As per FAO report Fire Management- Global Assessment
2006, the quantity of biomass burned each year from all resources is
about 9200 million tones. Overall global fires in vegetation consume
5130 million tones, 42 percent of which is in Africa. This burning
releases about 3431 million tones of CO2 and other emissions. However
due to cyclic nature of disturbances in fire dependant and fire dependant
eco systems involves sequestration of atmospheric carbon for regrowth
of the plant biomass and thus fire generated CO2 is not contributing to a
net release of carbon in atmosphere.
Box-3.1: Forest Fire and Global Warming
Climate plays a vital role in determining fire patterns and intensity and, in turn,
fire influences the climate system via the release of carbon. Forest fires and global
warming have created dangerous relationship. The close linkage between high fire
activity and inter annual and decadal-scale climate oscillations indicates that fire
occurrence increases during the La Nina phase of the ENSO southern United States
and Patagonia, Argentina. Whereas a marked increase in fire activity occurs in
tropical rainforests during EI Nino phases. Sedimentary charcoal records also show
a strong link between climate and fire activity, with reduced fire in cold intervals
and increased fire in warm intervals, regardless of whether humans were present.
The changing weather pattern in one of the major factor is contributing to current
increase in instances of forest fires. The main reason for this is change in overall
increase in the temperature; change in precipitation pattern and moisture content in
the atmosphere. Drier soil leads less evaporation and so the heat goes into higher
temperatures, less recycled moisture in the atmosphere, and hence less rain during
summer. This results into increased heat waves and thus increased risk of wildfires.
The Climate change is affecting various climate related variables like soil
moisture content, vegetation density, affecting the fire season severity. Extended
periods of above normal temperatures and below normal rainfall are key factors
that contribute to an active wildfire season. It is not only the global warming that is
affecting the forest fire, but is true in the reverse way also i.e. the forest fires are also
contributing to global warming. As per an assessment based on scientific research,
the combination of intentional and unintentional fires by burning carbon-storing
vegetation has contributing a whopping 20% of all human caused green house gas
emission since the Industrial Revolution.
78
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
79
Forest Fire Disaster Management
80
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
serious health hazard by creating polluting smoke and noxious gases. The
burning of vegetation gives off not only carbon dioxide but also many
other noxious gases (Green House gases) such as carbon monoxide,
methane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide that lead to global
warming and ozone layer depletion. Thousands of people suffer from
serious respiratory problems due to these toxic gases.
Burning forests and grasslands also add to already serious threat
of global warming. Forests play a vital role in keeping the level of
carbon di oxide in the atmosphere in check. Forests, grasslands and
agricultural lands make up bulk of the global biomass burning in a
global phenomenon. Recent research suggests that biomass burning
may be a significant global source of methyl bromide, which is an active
ozone depleting substance.
Researchers have also come out with very significant information
about the impact of forest fire on environment as a result of green
house gas- nitrous oxide through bacteria. Nitrification is a biological
process where bacteria convert ammonia (found naturally in soil and
fire ash) to nitric oxide and nitrous oxides. The increased concentration
of ammonia in the ash leads to more nitrification after a fire, thereby
releasing additional nitric and nitrous oxide.
xii) Adverse impact on Health system- The fires in the forest are
source of smoke that cause air pollution and rise in the temperature. The
forest fires in 1995 and 1999 in Himalayan states gutted the mountains
with the smoke, resulting into loss of visibility to about 200 meters. The
temperature in the region also rose by 2 to 3 degree Celsius. This resulted
into uneasiness among the local population of the region. Scientific
studies of major forest fire of South East Asia of 1997 came out with
many new findings. These fires were unique, since they involved both
the burning of above ground vegetation, as well as the below ground
i.e. peat (a form of coal). Smoldering peat vegetation produces much
more smoke than the burning of normal vegetation. This fire generated
smoke covered almost all of South East Asia resulting into more than 20
million cases of smoke related health problems.
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
82
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
various types of constraints such as poor knowledge & data base, lack
of cooperation among sectors, resources, training of staff and paucity
of funds etc.
In the western countries, especially in the United States, forest
fires cause enormous loss to house buildings. As per an estimate, forest
fires burned around 10,000 houses in the United States between 1985
and 2000. In 2000 alone, at least 800 family houses were destroyed by
wild fires in that country.
xvi) Reducing Tourism Values - Smoke and haze generated by fires
are inimical to a good tourist experience, especially when a significant
part of the tourist experience depends on views of the mountains. Fire
in forest gives a negative impression to the tourists. Smoke due to fires
affects the visibility and air quality which adversely affect tourism
industry. From the overall tourism industry perspective, the generation
of smoke needs to be minimized, especially during the peak tourist
season of April-June.
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
84
Forest Fire And Its Impacts
Bowman et.al. (2009), said, "We're most concerned that fire has
not been rigorously and adequately incorporated in the climate models.
It's remarkable that such an integral part of the landscape has been so
sidelined." Because fire on Earth predates humans, its ubiquitous activity
is simultaneously accepted and overlooked. "Fire is extraordinarily
obvious, but deeply subtle." A more complete understanding of how the
Earth works requires recognizing how fire is interwined with and also a
driver of human history and the Earth's history, the authors write. Balch
(2009) observed that "The synthesis is a prerequisite for adaptation to
the apparent recent intensification of fire feedbacks, which have been
exacerbated by climate change, rapid land-cover transformation, and
exotic species introductions" and further commented about "fires where
we don't normally see fires," and pointed to the occurrence of bigger
and more frequent fires from the western U.S. to the tropics. Swetnam
(2009) said that, in addition to the burning in the tropics, huge tracts
of the boreal forests of Siberia, Canada and northern Europe burn each
year. "The role of fire in forests in the boreal zone is unappreciated," he
said. "Russian forests alone contain more than 50 percent of the carbon
stored on land in the Northern Hemisphere," and warming is happening
fastest at high latitudes. In some recent years, the acreage burned in
the forests of Siberia exceeded the size of the U.S. state of Virginia,
he said. As the world warms, more of those regions are likely to burn,
accelerating the warming.
85
Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
The problem of wild fire is a universal phenomenon which is
a dominant disturbing factor in all types of vegetation throughout the
world. Though in world-ecosystem fire is a natural phenomenon and
helps the vegetation by organizing physical and biological attributes,
influencing energy flows and biological cycles, yet its adverse impact
in ecosystem is quite well known. Due to various natural and mostly
the human induced factors, the severity of forest fires in general is
increasing day by day. The adverse impacts of this increased forest
fire and its severity have brought this menace in the category of other
natural disasters like floods, droughts, earthquakes etc.
Forest fires are common in almost all types of vegetation. In
the temperate and northern boreal forests, it occurs regularly during
the dry summers. On an average 5 to 20 million hectares of forest are
burned annually in North America and Eurasia due to fire hazard. In the
Mediterranean forests also the situation is similar and around 0.6 million
hectare forest is burned here annually. Though equatorial rain forests
are bit moist, however extreme droughts associated with other human
induced activities make it too vulnerable to fire. In South Africa, cyclic
climate variability caused by El-Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
phenomenon is responsible for extreme fire events in the forests.
In tropical forests, fire is a regular phenomenon at the short
interval of one to five years. The Tropical Sub-montane Conifers
Forests due its specific vegetation (pine), rich in resin and susceptible to
fire, are subjected to forest fire regularly. In addition to standing forest
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
crop, fire is very common in tropical grass- land and Savannas. Tropical
Savannas spread over an area of about 2.6 billion hectare (consisting
of more or less continuous spread of grass with interrupted trees and
shrubs) are prone to fire and are burnt regularly. On an average hundred
millions hectares land in these grasslands are burnt annually, mostly in
dry season. As per an estimate about 3 million tones of vegetation are
burned here every year, resulting into three times more gas and particles
emission than that by other burning. The intensity of fire in Savannas
has increased in the recent past due to population pressure also. Though
all forests bearing countries are hit by fire menace, one or other time,
some are more prone.
A brief about the susceptibility of ten countries to fire, their
fire situation, fire season (phenology), major fire incidences, fire
management strategies/ plans etc. are briefed in Table-4.1.
87
Table-4.1: Susceptibility to fire, fire situation, fire season, fire incidences and management strategies at
Global level.
SN COUNTRY VEGETATION FOREST FIRE MAJOR FIRES GENREAL CAUSES MEASURES
PROFILE SITUATION AND IMPACTS IMPACTS TAKEN
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
1 AUSTRALIA-Total Diverse forest Wide range of fire Major forest fire Extinction of Lightning is Fire suppression by
Area-7.9 mln.km2 species- - regime. incidences during local fauna and the natural volunteers, recruited
Relatively flat Savannah Between 1956 1980 and 1990. flora. cause. by may agencies,
with mountains of Eucalyptus &1971 on an During 1980 in Change Burning of which provide them
moderate height. Acacia average1945 fires South Australia in pasture farm residue training and equip.
Large Arid and Hummock were noticed and Victoria- palatability. and camp fire. These agencies have
semiarid zones also. grassland burning an area resulting into loss Change in soil Prescription good mechanism and
Climate varies- with Acacia dominated of around 362000 of 70 human life erosion rate. fire by equipment to detect
northern part- wet shrub land hectares.. During and burning of > Change in the forest and suppress fire.
Forest Fire Disaster Management
dry, south west- the period from 2000 houses. water quality department Preventive measure
88
Mediterranean, 1978 to 1996 ---- Major fire and yield. and other like prescribed
south-east-quasi- ---- of forest land erupted in1990 Life loss agencies burning, disposal
Mediterranean. was burned in the in Sydney and (majority of of debris after
Large portion is continent. New south Wales fire fighters). silviculture operation
arid and semiarid, causing 4 deaths Since 1980 52 etc. also commonly
both tropical and and loss of 206 fire fighters are used.
temperate. houses. killed while Public awareness and
fighting forest training programmes
fire. also conducted.
2 MALAYSIA- Dipiterocarp forests Most of the fires The worst fire in Extensive damage Main causes Fire suppression
Location: i.e. Tropical lowland occur in plantation, 1982-83, burned to flora, and human induced mainly by Fire and
Southeastern Asia, moist forest, which degraded peat almost one wildlife. Fires including- Rescue Department
partly on Malay comprises of swamps and logged million hectare of caused smoke Land assisted by Forest,
Peninsula, south of following plant trees- over forest The natural forest in result into health preparation by Public defense etc.
Aralia dasyphylla frequency increases Sabah region. related problems farmers and Preventive measures
Thailand and on the
Areca triandra in ENSO year due Other major fires in the people. other like awareness and
northern one-third
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
of the island of Bamboo orchid to dry spells. in degraded or Economic plantation. training programmes
Borneo, bordering Dacrydium secondary forest losses in term Control run by the
Indonesia, Brunei, gibbsiae viz. plantation of production, burning fires administration.
and the South Durian etc. during 1970 tourism, airtime, get out and The fire fighting
China Sea, south of Nepenthes rajah in pine plantation etc. due to haze spread. agencies are being
Vietnam. Total Area: Rafflesia arnoldii and acacia caused by the fire. Shifting equipped by modern
330 000 sq. km. Rafflesia kerrii plantation in cultivation by and easy to handle
(127 316 sq. mi.) Vietnamese White 1980. the indigenous equipments and
Terrain: Coastal Pine Electric spark training.
plains and interior, in the forest
jungle-covered area.
mountains. The
South China Sea
separates peninsular
Malaysia from East
89
Malaysia on Borneo.
Climate: Tropical,
annual southwest
(Apr to Oct) and
northeast (Oct to
Feb) monsoons.
People:
Nationality:
Malaysian(s).
Population: 25.5
million.
3. NEPAL - Vegetation vary with Each year fire Fires are common Destroy both Most of the fires No systematic
Hill state with altitude. destroys timber phenomena in timber and non are man made. management for
Subtropical pine and non-timber Nepal. timber produce. By burning forest fire control
elevation varying
between 300 to Dry scrubby produces between Major fire in Reduce farm residue However some
Schima Jan to June. 1995 when as per biological Shifting emphasis is given on
3500 mts. The
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
climatic castanopsis forest In Tarai region fire an estimate 90% diversity. cultivation sustainable land use.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
conditions vary with Lr. Temperate more common on of the forest got Make country Drive away Forest departments
the altitudes million forest dry southern slopes. burnt in Tarai side very wild animals use the services of
Geographic from Upper temperate In the Middle region. dirty looking Lightning temporary forest fire
subtropical in south Alpine mountain region the As per estimate during summer in higher watcher during the
to Alpine snow Shrub land pine forest being by Goldammer reducing altitudes summers.
covered in the north. Grassland very susceptible are (1993), annually tourism values Collection of Litter burning and
burned annually 400,000 hectre of Degrade soil NTFC collection of pine
during summer. forest are burnt in quality Growth of needle for some
In the high hilly Nepal. Also result into good grass purposes also help in
regions the increase in soil cover fire control.
coniferous forest erosion, flood, Some awareness and
also got burnt land slide training programmes
during the dry and also conducted
windy days. occasionally.
Recently measures are
Forest Fire Disaster Management
90
community in fire
control.
4. MANGOLIA - Forest Cover 8.1% of Around 20% of the Major fires On an average Majority of fires International
Located in central the total area. total forest area is during 1996 to 1.74 m.h. forest is are man- made, Support in the
Asia. Population-2.3 Grassland.- 70% affected by forest 1998, between burned annually unintentionally. form of expert,
million Main Species are :- fire. Central and February to June by fire causing Most common staff, training and
Geographic area= Pine, birch, larch, Eastern part more During the period immense loss to in pine and larch equipment.
1565000 km2. cedar and spruce. fire prone. Pine and 26.3 million life and property. forest major Preparation of fire
Climate and A large portion of Birch are vulnerable hectare of forest During 1996- causes are :- management plan
natural conditions forest is degraded spices to fire. March destroyed. 97, about 22% of Hunting
for fire prone areas.
very harsh, water due to felling of to June peak fire Heavy loss to the total land area practice
Community
resources very poor trees. season. Few fires life was affected by Sparks from s
involvement
and soil fertility also during autumn also (29 people and fire exhaust pipe
through training,
not good. Climate 50-60 forest fires . > 10000 cattle Life and of motor
awareness
condition very occur annually killed). property vehicles
generation, school
Besides these adversely Camp fire
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
extreme. Floods, . fires also caused affected by fire. in the forest education etc.
heavy snowfall, hot damage to The socio during winter Establishment of
summer; tornadoes ecology and economic Throwing
fire management
etc. are natural environment of condition of cigarette butts Agency to look
disasters; the the area. people and in forest area after the forest fire.
country is prone to their livelihood Susceptibilities
Early warning and
them. resources of vegetation
communication
deteriorated. of fire (pine
Fire consumed
system is being
and larch
strengthened.
about 14% prone to fire)
Cooperation of
of forest Collapse of
91
water resources resources.
badly.
5. SRILANKA- More than 30% of Due to favorable No major fire Major impact Burning debris All prevention
A neighboring the countrys total climatic condition, reported, small of forest fire on while making and suppression
country to India. land is covered with forest fire situation size fires in plantation and roads. etc activities by State
Tropical Island in forest. A large area not much serious. plantation and environment. Shifting Forest Department
Indian Ocean with is under coconut and Scrub and grass grass land. Most Hardly any Cultivation only
total geographical rubber plantation land (1.2 m.h.) is of the fires are threat to life and To get good Community also
area = 65000 km2. Dense forest = 1.58 the only forest area surface fire. properly, as all crop of grass involve in
Total Population m.h. affected by fire. 50 fires are small and fodder preventing and
is around 18 Open forest = 0.464 to 200 forest fires fires lasting for Drive away suppression
million. Economy m.h. Plantation = reported, every few hours only wild animals. activity.
is agriculture based. 0.72 m.h. Coconut year and about 10 Throwing Training and
January) Montana
Evergreen
Tropical Semi
deciduous
6. THAILAND Forest is spread over Fire is very Major fire during Impacts of forest Most of the fires Thailand has well
Location: 25% and area i.e. common annually. 1998, mainly due fire are very are initiated organized fire fighting
Southeastern Asia 12.00 m.h Fire season spread to El-Nino effect. diversified and by man due setup divided into
mainland, bordering Major forests are - from December to 4 areas most deep in eco- to negligence many wings, which
Forest Fire Disaster Management
the Andaman Sea Deciduous forest May; peak season affected system. Natural or careless look after planning
92
(West) and the Gulf Tropical Rain during two month In Doi-Intron regeneration ness, during and supervision,
of Thailand (East), Forest i.e. February and National of crop is most dry season the research and
southeast of Burma Dry Ever green March. Not only Park-damaged affected. The vegetation and development, training,
(Myanmar). Area: forest surface, some around 500 h. fires also change debris catch fire campaign and public
513 115 sq. km. Hill ever green time crown fire, Forest forest structure. immediately. EI- awareness etc.
(198 114 sq. mi.). forest underground fires Pan-To- Evergreen forest Nino effect was Forest fire control
Terrain: Densely Peat swamp are also very Dang-12, 80 h. most affected by major reason for stations are the main
populated central forest. common. forest mainly fires. it kills tree 1997-98 major executing agency.
plain; northeastern Peat-Swamp and wild life both fire, Shifting Volunteers are trained
plateau; mountain burnt. in large number. cultivation and equipped here.
range in the west; Kao-Yai about Environment practices, camp International
southern isthmus 1400 h. forest is also worst fire, burning cooperation is
joins the land mass burn. affected by farm residues, also sought for
with Malaysia. large fires. Fire drive away wild modernizing the
Climate: generated smoke animal, throwing existing system. A
Thailand is a warm cause many health burning cigarette National Forest Fire
and rather humid problems. Research Center
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
tropical country Soil erosion and butts are major opened during 1999.
with monsoonal land cutting also sources of heat Attempt being made
climate. Seasons- increase due to for fire initiation. to aware and train
-Dry: March fire. Tourist spots local population also.
to May, Rainy: also damaged.
June to October,
Cool: November
to February.
Population (1999):
62 million
7. KOREA - Forest vegetation is Forest fires common During 1996 Fire Impacts Majority of the Korean forest
A peninsular quite variable with between February to large fire broke in on vegetation fires are man service is the social
country on the 16 eco region May and November Kosung Kangwon are devastating, caused, due agency for forest fire
western coast of based on climatic to December. Less region which especially in to burning of management. Separate
Pacific ocean, conditions - fire during summer burned 3700 pine forest, farms- residue, department i.e.
93
Warm-Temperate due to sufficient hectare of forest occasionally drive away wild forest fire prevention
with 33o06 to 43
o01 Vegetation rainfall. Out of 16 approximately. burning complete animals, killing Department and
N latitude and
Temperate Eco-regions, fire vegetation harmful insects Arrival forest
124 o 11 to 131 o
53 E longitude. Vegetation frequent in three and some time and up to some Counter officer to
Cold-Temperate regions due to affect human extent agriculture look after the issue.
Continental climate
with summer Vegetation scarcity of rain and settlements also practices. Main emp hasis is
Flowering Periods comparatively dry and crops. In 1996 Throwing on fire suppression.
monsoons. Hot
and humid during weather fire usually forest fire caused burning cigarettes Education and
summer. The rains starts from the major loss to also cause fire. training also provided
are very frequent. bottom of mountain pine mushroom, through these
Autumn and spring and spread upward. residential houses departments. Country
season are very During 1990-99 and other property has a planning to
short. around 360 fires amounting to 66 draw effective and
occurred, damaging million. regulation to tackle
The terrain is very
about 1400 hectares problem effectively.
irregular with
of forest per year.
scattered hills.
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
8. FIJI - No systematic Fire common Large forest tracts All forest fires The most used
The vegetation is
Cluster of islands variegated in nature record of forest fires during dry are burnt during are man made practice is
in the S.W. Pacific :- in the country. Fire season, about fire every year. main causes prescribed burning,
ocean, mostly hilly. Coastal mangrove is a regular seasonal 70% of the land This affects the include:- which is carried
The islands are Pines spp. phenomenon in the fired every five economy of the For good grass out is a controlled
volcanic in origin. plantation pine and grassland years. Between country. Timber fodder crop manner
Secondary forest. Majority of 1987-97, about fetches good Drive away
Though there
The lee-ward side
swidden forest fires are escape fires 20% of the total price, the fire wild animals. are rules and
of the islands
Grasslands from farm residue managed area affect its cost Cleaning
regulations
experience dry
burning, mostly by (43200 hector) very drastically. of land for regarding forest
climate. The dry
the cane growers. were written Though plantation fire protection and
weather expands
The incidence of off due to fire habitations are Killing insects
control, they are
between May and
fire increased after problems. Major rarely affected, and pests, hardly followed.
October.
1970, as a result of fires reported in yet major fires to control There is a need for
law-less ness. 1987, 1988, 1992 results into some diseases both
Forest Fire Disaster Management
strict enforcement
94
and 1994 years health problems. in plant and of laws and also
Soil erosion and man aware and educate
decrease in its Other reasons
people about the
fertility values has include- care- adverse impact of
adversely affected less ness forest fire
many back word during driving,
communities. The throwing
pine and sugar burning
cane crop mostly cigarette,
affected. burning farm
residues (cane
farming) etc.
9. CHINA - The 16.55% of the Forest fire is a The major fires Forest fire not More than 95% Special forest fire
The country with total land mass very common hit during 1951, only cause forest fires are offices established in
highest population is (960.12 m.h.) is phenomenon every 55, 56, 61, 62, mortality of forest man made, 30 provinces by Govt.
large in geographic covered with year. The major 72, 76, 77, 79 and vegetation but however in north- of China to look after
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
area also. The variegated forest factors deciding the 1987. also affect the eastern parts, over all Forest Fire
terrain is variegated species. However, nature of fire are :- 1987 fire was forest structure; some fires are by Management. Special
from plains to due to population the weather very devastating, bio diversity, natural causes rules and regulation
high snow covered pressure the forest conditions, the which resulted water regime, soil predominantly by also formulated after
peaks. The country cover per capita is availability of fuel into death of permeability and lightning. Other 1987 fire incidence.
is basically an very low i.e. 0.128 material in forest more than 200 fertility etc. common causes Constitution of
agriculture country, hectares. etc. The North people and The climate are- special fire fighting
however in the East part of country burned around pattern i.e. Escaped fire Team and Aerial
recent past, the is worst affected 1.3 m.h. of micro and macro from burning Forest Fire Protection
country excelled (area wise), where forest area. both showed farm residue teams are other steps.
in small scale as the number of Around 15000 a remarkable Drive away Campaign / awareness
industrial field also. fires are more in fires occurred change due to wild animals, and education
The country prone southern portion. during last 50 extreme forest camp fires programme also made
to normal disasters There is a contrast years, resulting fires during the and throwing by govt. for more
earthquake, flood, in the nature also into enormous last fifty years. away burning people participation.
95
landslide and of of north and south loss. During last cigarettes in
course forest fire forest fires. decade around forest.
etc. 5000 fires occur
annually.
10. INDONESIA - The most important Extreme forest fire Most severe fire In addition to Escape fires In response to severe
Location: determinant is conditions prevalent during 1982-83 economic loss, from land economics loss due
Southeastern Asia, rainfall, followed in the country. On and 1997-98: adversely affected clearing to 1997-98 fires, the
archipelago between by temperature an average forest 1982-83: fire bio-diversity, exercise Indonesia govt. took
the Indian Ocean which affects water fire affect 15 to damaged around soil erosion and Slash and burn many initiatives:
and the Pacific availability. The 20000 hectares 5m.h. area, reduced soil practice Ban on splash and
Ocean. 5 00 S, 120 distribution of of forest per year. including peat productivity in Drive away burn practices,
00 E. total areas: Indonesian flora is Fire damage forest near by area. wild animals including clearing
1,904,569 sq km. dominated by the both primary and (1991: 1,99000 Loss to NTFS Lack of an of land using fire
land: broadleaf evergreen secondary forests. hectare and 1994: and livelihood for establishment With the help of
1,811,569 sq km, forests. This is Most of the fires 406,000 hectare many people. many international
water: I93,000 sq mostly seen in initiate during forest affected) The smoke due NGOs, many new
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
km. Terrain- mostly the regions where rought season, 1997-98: The to fire caused functioning projects started in
coastal lowlands; population density is trigged by EI- most disastrous serious problem, system is also fire prone area.
larger islands have still relatively low, Nino Southern fire in the history especially during major cause. Separate
interior mountains. such as Sumatra, Oscillation (ENSO). caused burning of (1997-98), Burning
Directorate to look
Climate- tropical; Borneo, Sulawesi Peat fire is also around 5.2 m.h. which remained cigarettes after the problem at
hot, humid; and West Papua. very frequent and of forest. Loss for many days. thrown by national level.
more moderate On Java and Bali continues for long approximately Number of people careless
in highlands. the vegetation period. 2 billion dollar suffered from treespassers
Population- is dominated by timber. various diseases
approximately 237 cultivated plants. Major fire during and treated for.
million. Swamp forests, 1999 also, but not
mangrove, and so severe.
Nypa fruticans
forests are found
along the coast. On
Forest Fire Disaster Management
the mountainous
96
regions subalpine
and alpine vegetation
is dominant. In the
lesser Sunda islands,
where rainfall is
not as plentiful as
in other parts of
Indonesia, grasslands
are regularly seen.
Source: Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2010
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
97
Forest Fire Disaster Management
98
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
333
3903
8318
3558
1262
2457
99
Forest Fire Disaster Management
100
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
Disaster Nepal
Disaster
Date
Myanmar 1992
Killed1981
Killed people (no. 50,000
Date of Killed (no. of people)
people)
48,588 Number of people killed
Indonesia 1997 240
Indonesia 1997
Myanmar
Killed people
Disaster 1981Date
240
48,588 Number of people killed
China P Rep 1987 191Killed (no. of people)
China P Rep 1987
Indonesia 1997 191240
Australia
Disaster 1983 Killed
Date 75 (no. of people)
Australia 1983
Killed peopleP Rep 1997
China 1987 6775191 Number of people killed
Greece
Indonesia 2007 240
Greece 2007
Australia
Indonesia
1983 6775
1991 191 57
China P Rep 1987
Indonesia 1991
Greece 2007 5767
Disaster
Nepal
Australia Date
1992 75
1983 Killed
56 (no. of people)
Nepal 1992
Indonesia
Mexico
Greece
1991 5657
1998 6750
2007
Mexico Indonesia
Nepal
1998
Mozambique 19971992 240
2008 57495056
Indonesia 1991
Mexico 1998 50
Mozambique 2008
China
Sudan P Rep
Nepal Mozambique 1987
1998 49
191
47
1992 2008 56 49
Sudan 1998
Poland
MexicoSudan 1992 47
35
1998 1998 50 47
Poland Australia
1992
1983 75
Mozambique
Poland 2008 1992 493535
Greece
Economic
Sudan damages 2007 4767
1998 Reported economic damages (US$ in billion)
Economic damages
PolandEconomic damages
Indonesia
Disaster
1992
1991
Date
35
57Cost (US$ X 1,000) Reported economic damages
Reported economic damages(US$
(US$ in in billion
billion)
Indonesia 1997 8,000,000
Disaster NepalDisaster
Datedamages
Economic
Canada
1992
Cost (US$ Date 564,200,000
1989X 1,000)
Cost (US$ X 1,000)
Reported economic damages (US$ in billion)
Indonesia 1997 8,000,000
Indonesia Mexico
1997
United
Disaster
States
Canada 1998
2003
Date 503,500,000
8,000,000
1989 Cost 4,200,000
(US$ X 1,000)
Canada 1989
United States 4,200,000
2007 2,500,000
Mozambique
United
Indonesia
United
States
States
2008
1997 2003
1991
492,500,000
3,500,000
8,000,000
United States 2003
CanadaUnited States 3,500,000
1989 2007 2,500,000
4,200,000
Sudan
Spain
UnitedUnited
StatesStates 1998
2005
2003 472,050,000
1991 3,500,000
2,500,000
United States 2007
Greece
2,500,000
2007 1,750,000
Spain 2005 2,500,000
2,050,000
United States Poland
United States
1991
Portugal
1992
2007 35
2,500,000
2003 1,730,000
UnitedGreece
States 1991 2007 2,500,000
1,750,000
Spain Spain
2005
Mongolia
Portugal
2005
2,050,000
1996
2003 1,712,800
1,730,000
2,050,000
Greece Portugal
Mongolia
2007 2005
1996 1,650,000
1,712,800
Economic
Greece damages 2007 1,750,000
1,750,000
Portugal 2005 1,650,000 Reported economic damages (US$ in billion)
Portugal 2003of data: "EM-DAT:
Portugal
Source 2003 1,730,000
The1,730,000
OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, University catholique de Louvain,
Brussels,
SourceBel."
Mongolia Data version: v11.08
1996 1,712,800
1,712,800
Mongolia 1996
Disaster
of data: "EM-DAT:
Date
The
Cost
OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, University catholique de Louvain,
Brussels, Bel." Data
Portugal 2005 v11.08(US$ X 1,000)
version:1,650,000 84
Portugal 2005 1,650,000
Indonesia 1997 8,000,000 84
Source of data: "EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, University catholique de Louvain,
Source: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, University
Canada Bel." Data version:
Brussels, 1989 v11.084,200,000
catholique de Louvain,
United States 2003 Brussels,
3,500,000 Bel.
84
Data version: v11.08
United States 2007 2,500,000
United States 1991 2,500,000
Spain 2005 2,050,000 101
Greece 2007 1,750,000
Portugal 2003 1,730,000
Mongolia 1996 1,712,800
Forest Fire Disaster Management
102
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
103
Forest Fire Disaster Management
104
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
105
Forest Fire Disaster Management
106
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
107
Forest Fire Disaster Management
a) General issues
Developing countries are especially challenged by fires because
of their important links with land use practices, socio-economic
and other social issues and food production; management
practices here must take all these aspects into consideration.
The result and outcome of forest fire management projects in
different countries must be published and made available for
experience sharing and lesson learning.
108
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
109
Forest Fire Disaster Management
110
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
111
Forest Fire Disaster Management
112
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
The objectives of the global fire early warning systems are to:
develop a global early warning system for vegetation fire.
develop an information network to quickly disseminate early
warning of fire danger globally to local communities;
develop a historical record of global fire danger information for
early warning product enhancement, validation and strategic
planning purposes;
design and implement a technology transfer programme to
provide the following training for global, regional, national and
local community applications;
Early warning system operation,
Methods for local to global calibration of the system,
Use of the system for prevention, preparedness, detection
and where appropriate, fire response decision- making.
113
Forest Fire Disaster Management
114
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
115
Forest Fire Disaster Management
116
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
117
Forest Fire Disaster Management
- Procurement time
- Recording cost analysis
118
Forest Fire: The Global Scenario
119
Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
India constitutes one of the mega bio-diversity zones of the
world, abundant with unique and diversified floral and faunal wealth.
With 6, 92,027 square kilometers of forest cover, India is one of the
richest areas of bio-diversity in the world. Including environmental
benefits, the forests of the country are economically also very rich. If we
take the example of conifers only, India has about 1.7 mh of productive
conifer forest, with various valuable timber species i.e. fir, spruce,
deodar, kail, teak, sal and chir pine. Estimated growing stock of these
forests is over 200 million cubic meters, the monitory value of which
comes to be more than Rs. 40,000 to 60,000 millions (Bahuguna, 1999).
In the country, with about 17 percent of the world human and 18 percent
of cattle population, forests meet nearly 40 percent of the energy and 30
percent of the fodder needs. It is estimated that about 270 million tons
of fuel wood, 280 million tons of fodder, over 12 million cubic meters
of timber and a large quantity of Non-Timber Forest Produces (NTFPs)
are removed from the forests annually. Due to increasing population
pressure need, this exemplary land ecosystem of the world is struggling
for its survival. Increasing human interference in the natural forest
ecosystem has also tremendously increased the forest fire incidences.
Forest fire is one of the causative factors, which periodically covers
large forest areas destroying timber, other properties and wild life etc.
The ecosystems are under severe threat due to recurrent fires, which is
attributed to the forest degradation, soil erosion, reduced productivity
etc. Every year one or other part of the forests in India is facing the
agony in the cruel hands of mankind by putting fire intentionally or
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
50.80
43.06
5.16
0.14 0.84
121
Forest Fire Disaster Management
Out of total forest area, very high, high and frequent forest fires
damage are noticed over 0.84 percent, 0.14 percent and 5.16 percent of
the forest areas respectively. Thus, about 6.14 percent of the forests are
prone to severe fire damage.
This forest fires spread over large forest area in the country cause
immense loss to the environment and the property. As far as the annual
loss in economic term is concerned, it is estimated that loss from the
forest fire comes to be Rs. 4,400 million approximately. However, this
estimate only counts the replacement cost of the seedlings and does
not include the losses to bio- diversity, timber, increment, carbon
sequestration capacity, soil moisture and nutrient loss etc. (Bahuguna,
1999). Ecological, economic and social impacts of the forest fire in India
in brief may be enlisted as: loss of timber, loss of bio-diversity, loss of
the wild life habitat, global warming, soil erosion and depletion of soil
quality, loss of fuel wood and fodder, damage to water and the other
natural resources, loss of natural regeneration, loss of NTFPs, Ozone
layer depletion, change in micro-climate leading to health problems,
other health problems due to smoke, soil erosion and floods, loss of
livelihood for the people living in or near the forest etc.
122
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
Source: India Disaster Report, Lok Sabha, Un-starred Question No. 1314, 7
December 1998.
123
Forest Fire Disaster Management
eastern states. The numbers of forest fire spots detected were highest in
the state of Mizoram in both the seasons. Table-5.3 enlists 29 most fire
prone districts in the country.
124
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
125
Forest Fire Disaster Management
126
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
127
Forest Fire Disaster Management
128
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
129
Forest Fire Disaster Management
130
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
131
Table-5.9: State wise types of vegetation, causes of forest fire and management practices. (P= Population in
lakhs, PD= Population Density persons per sq.km, C= Cattle Population in thousands and ST= Schedule Tribals in percentage
State profile Vegetation/ forest Fire situation and fire Causes of forest fire Prevention, Preparedness
type season & Response; Including
Community participation
A B C D E
ARUNACHAL Second among states in Fire prone forest species The main cause of forest fire Forest Department used
PRADESH- terms of forest cover. include- tropical evergreen, is shifting cultivation. People techniques i. e
Hilly, elevation gradient Tropical ever green subtropical pine, temperate cut/girdle the trees and set Creation of fire lines, back
varying from 100 to 7000 subtropical pine, sub forest. fire for cultivation. Forest counter fire, control burning
mts., Climate-humid, alpine, moist alpine, Large area is affected by department also set degraded Occasionally fire
tropical to alpine. alpine scrubs are shifting cultivation and thus forest on fire. Brigade also used for fire control
P-13,82,611 common forest species. prone to fire. The area affected Also burn forest - Community participation and
C-1413 by shifting cultivation during For good grass growth, in some areas committees also
PD-17 1987-1997= 0.23 m.h. Resin taping formed in the areas,
Forest Fire Disaster Management
ST- 64.63 Fire season- February to May To control weed & pest Committees empowered to fine
132
attack the offenders.
Vigorous environmental education,
awareness programmes and
providing alternative livelihood
resources may help in fire
prevention.
ANDHRA PRADESH- Sixth in terms of area February to June, -NWFP collection Traditional methods used by
Situated in peninsula India, under forest cover. The Extreme fire conditions are -Timber mafia forest department, like fire line
partly hilly, highest park main types include during March, April and May. -Practices used to drive away clearance.
is Mahendra giri-1500 mts -Tropical moist animals by farmers. Some modern technique adopted
height, climate is hot & deciduous -Burning farm residues. under central assistance.
humid rainfall-125 mm/year. -Littoral & swamp -Throwing burning biri, FFP Committees also organised
P-8,46,65,533 -Littoral & swamp cigarettes in forest. in some divisions.
C-60175 -Tropical dry deciduous Awareness programmes also run
PD-308 -Tropical thorn by forest department
ST-6.63 -Tropical dry ever green.
A B C D E
ASSAM- Ranks 8th in terms of January to May. However, Shifting cultivation is the Preventive measures taken by
Situated in Brahmaputra area under forest cover. major fires are in two months major cause for fires in the forest department include
valley surrounded by hills on Main species include of February and March. forest. Other reasons include- silvicultural practices like fire line
both side. Rainfall 70 to 120 -Tropical wet green Occasional fires noticed during -For good grass growth by clearance, litter burning etc.
inch/year. August hottest -Tropical moist December also. people. Some time village councils and
temp.-28oC January-10oC deciduous -Control burning by forest other local NGOs also involved
P-3,11,69,272 -Subtropical broad leaf department. in the fire suppression activities.
C-17227 forests. -Unintentional escape of fire Measures are being taken to
PD-397 during road construction, involve local communities also in
ST-12.42 - From exhaust of vehicles such activities.
etc. The State Govt is planning to
modernize its existing fire fighting
system with the cooperation of
Central government.
BIHAR- Only 7.23 percent of February to May, However, -NWFP collection, -Forest department takes measures
Alluvial plain, in north Geographical Area peak season March to May -Burning farm residues like fire line clearance, litter burning
133
bordering Nepal. Climate is (GA) under forest -Unintentional by people etc.
hot in summer and winter cover. Tropical moist while throwing biri and -Education and awareness programs
very cold. deciduous forest in more cigarettes butts also run.
P-10,38,04,637 common type. -Attempts are being made to involve
C- 30342 JFM in forest fire protection.
PD-1102
ST 0.92
CHHATTISHGARH- Rank 3rd in terms - January to May; however -NTFP Collection -In addition to technical
P=2,55,40,196 of area under forest crucial period February to April. -Drive away wild animals measurement by forest department,
C - 14418 cover Tropical moist -Slash and burn also common attempts are being made to involve
PD- 189 deciduous. in some parts. people in fire protection. FFPC
ST-31.82 -Traditional customs in some formed in some divisions.
tribes to burn forest at few -Awareness and campaign progress
ceremonial occasions. also run.
-Timber mafia and hunting
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
A B C D E
GUJARAT- Only 7.46 percent of GA Main fire season February to All forest fire are man made -State Forest Department is being
Alluvial plain, partially hilly under tree cover. Main May -For collection of mahua, equipped with various modern
and marshy. Three seasons- forest types are Mixed deciduous forest is more honey & NTFP techniques for early detection of fire.
summer, winter & rainy, -Tropical moist fire prone. -Traditionally some tribes -Awareness programmes run by the
rainfall very low. deciduous. Teak, bamboo forests are also burn forest at the birth of a forest department to seek people
P-6,03,83,628 -Littoral & swamp fire prone male child (Raab cultivation) cooperation.
C-23515 -Tropical dry deciduous. -for good growth of grass -Strict vigilance in the National
PD-308 -Tropical thorn - Also due to unintentional Parks and other strategic area.
ST-14.79 -Tropical dry evergreen causes like throwing biri -Constitution of JFM and seeking
cigarette butts their cooperation in fire prevention
- Sparks from transport and suppression activities.
exhaust etc.
HIMACHAL PRADESH- Around 26.35 percent of Main fire season is between Majority are man made. Forest department has taken many
Hilly terrain, including snow GA under forest cover. March to June. Crucial period is Collection of fuel wood, initiatives under Forest Fire Control
covered high peaks and Subtropical to temperate from March to Mid June. NTFP collection, shifting Scheme of Central govt.
Forest Fire Disaster Management
glaciers. Climate varies from flora. However, some fires take cultivation, for good pasture Traditional Methods viz. forest
134
Temperate to Alpine Cold. Major species are Chir, place in the month of February growth, ignition by graziers, line clearance, burning debris etc.
Annual rainfall- 900 mm Deodar, Kail, Oaks, also. Forest fires are annual throwing burning biri and frequently used.
P- 68,56,509 Alder, etc. phenomena in the State; cigarettes, burning Farm Community participation has proved
C- 5217 Forest types- however, major fires took place residues are some of the very useful. In many divisions FFPC
PD- 123 Tropical deciduous, during 1995 and 1999. common causes. also constituted.
ST 4.02 Tropical thorn, During 1995 forest worth Rs. Resin tapping is another
Him. Moist temperate, 1750 million was lost due to major cause for forest fire in
Him. Dry temperate, fire. H.P.
Sub Alpine to Alpine.
JAMMU & KASHMIR- Ranks 12th in respect of The general fire season Anthropogenic Causes The Terrorist activities worst
Hilly terrain, comprising of area under forest cover. varies from March to June. including- affected the silvicultural practices
valleys and snow covered Main forest types are- However, the numbers of fires -By graziers for pasture in the forest. This has increased the
high peaks. Snow desert in -Himalayan moist are maximum in the months development vulnerability of the forest to fire. The
Laddakh region, foot hills temperate of April and May. Fires are - Clearing land for Department takes some measures in
of Jammu and plain area in -Himalayan dry common during crop harvesting horticulture purposes. protecting and preventing fire in
South temperate season also. - Picnickers and tourists etc.- some restricted areas only. Recently
P - 1,25,48,926 -Sub Alpine to Alpine. Being border area forest fire the State is being provided some
A B C D E
C - 10987 occasionally caused by the assistance under the centrally
PD- 124 bombing and explosions too. sponsored scheme to take preventive
ST 10.98 steps. Some training and awareness
programmes also initiated by the
State Forest Department.
JHARKHAND- Plateaus Ranks-11th in terms of February to May, however main -Shifting cultivation and -Forest divisions are being
and plain land, rich in the forest cover area. season in three months between burn and slash agriculture equipped with mobile vans, modern
mineral resources and forest March to May practices used by tribals. equipments etc.
both -NTFP collection -Traditional methods like burning
P - 3,29,66,238 - Rivalry with forest debris, clearing forest fire lines etc.
C - 18100 department. also used
PD - 414 - Hunting and poaching - Fire watchers also appointed.
ST - 26.34 - Timber mafia - JFM help is also being sought.
- Throwing burning biri-
cigarette butts and burning
camp fire.
135
- Traditional customs in
some tribes to burn forest
to celebrate some good
occasions.
- Trespassers and picnickers.
KARNATAKA- Situated Ranks seventh in terms January to June and November NTFP collection - Karnataka Forest department has
on western edge of Deccan of area under forest to December. - Rivalry with forest slightly better facilities to tackle
Plateau. cover Peak fire season in between department. forest fire.
P - 6,11,30,704 Main species are- February to April. - Hunting and poaching - Modern methods and equipment
C - 30859 - Tropical wet evergreen - timber mafia used under Central Govt. Scheme.
PD - 319 - Tropical semi - Throwing burning biri- - Community is also being
ST 6.55 evergreen cigarette butts and burning involved in forest fire protection
- Tropical moist camp fire. through the FFPC.
deciduous - Traditional customs in
- Tropical dry deciduous some tribes
- Tropical thorn - Driving away wild
- Tropical dry ever animals viz. elephants
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
green
A B C D E
th
KERALA- The state ranks 14 in Fire season from December to Main causes for fire are man - Traditional methods by the forest
Located in Western Ghats. respect of area under June. Peak season in summer induced- deptt. like fire line clearance,
Topography varies from forest cover. between March and May. Major - Collection of NTFP back fire, burning debris etc. --
coastal belt at sea level to The main forest types fires: - Promotion of fodder - Local communities also
mountainous region up are- growth participate in fire suppression
Year Area affected
to height of 2600 meters. Tropical evergreen, - Charcoal making in the activities.
(ha)
Climatically very rich Tropical semi evergreen forest - Forest protection committees
in rain. Dry season from Tropical moist 1988-89 9049.12 - Forest deptt. Control also constituted by the Forest
December to April. deciduous 1989-90 1950.00 burning Deptt, which along with forest
P - 3,33,87,677 Montana shoals - Unintentional fires by protection also save forest from
1990-91 2080.00
C - 3587 Grass lands picnickers, tourists, by fire
PD - 859 1991-92 3388.00 pilgrims etc.
ST - 1.14 1993-94 3337.00
1995-96 1804.58
Forest Fire Disaster Management
1997-98 2062026
136
MADHYA PRADESH- The state ranks first in October to May. -Collection of NTFP -Forest Deptt. uses method like fire
Second largest state. terms of recorded forest Peak season between March and -Religious activity- Dammar line clearance, appointment of fire
Topography- plain with area and in forest cover. May. by tribal. watchers, burning of litter etc.
plateaus. The main species are- Forest fire common every -Burning of agriculture -In case of fire it is beaten by the
P - 7,25,97,565 -Tropical dry deciduous. where, however, Panchmarhi residues green branches.
C - 40696 -Tropical evergreen Area is very prone. As per Forest -Unintentional by throwing -Some time people also help in fire
PD - 236 - tropical thorn Deptt. about 50,000 hectare of burning cigarettes suppression.
ST 20.26 forest area is affected by fire -Torch light by night - Department using satellite data to
between 1999 and 2001. During travellers. locate fires and immediate response.
the same time 70 incidence of
fire were noticed.
MAHARASHTRA- Lies Fourth in terms of forest October to November in winter - NTFP (mahua) collection Along with traditional methods ,
between 16 04 & 22 01 cover area. Main species and between May and June in - Raab- a traditional shifting modern techniques and methods also
North latitudes and 72 06 & are- the summer. cultivation system used by the Forest Deptt. to detect
80 09 E longitudes -Tropical moist Peak season is three months and suppress the fire.
deciduous
A B C D E
P - 11,23,72,972 -Tropical dry deciduous period between March and May. - popular among the tribal Structural measures as watch tower,
C - 35954 - Tropical thorn Since 1996 up to 2001 total community wireless, quick transport etc. also
PD - 365 9290 incidences of forest fire - Poachers for hunting very frequently used.
ST - 8.87 took place in the state, which - Rituals by the tribes
burnt almost 2300 hectares of - Controlled burning by the
forest area. forest deptt.
The total estimated loss of Rs.
Eighty crores
MANIPUR- Ranks third in terms of January to May is the fire Main causes- Shifting Forest department uses traditional
Hilly state. % age of recorded forest season, however, peak fires cultivation, other causes methods like fire line clearance,
P - 27,21,756 area. Main species are- season in March and April. include- appointment of fire watchers, litter
C - 789 -Tropical wet evergreen -Management of grass land burning.
PD - 122 -Tropical moist -Hunting and Timber mafia Forest Department is modernizing
ST 38.96 deciduous -Occasional fires by lightning its fire fighting system with the
-Subtropical pine also. help of Central government under
-Montana wet temperate -Trespassers to forest the scheme of Modern Forest Fire
137
Control Methods.
MEGHALAYA- Ranks 7th in terms of % February to April. Like in other NE state main Traditional methods commonly used
Hill state with narrow river age of geographic area Maximum fires in the month of cause of forest fire is Shifting to detect and suppress fire. During
valleys. Climatically very under forest cover. March. Cultivation. fire green twigs are used by the
rich in rain. Cherapunzi and Main species are- In addition, hunting, forest people to suppress the fire.
Mawsynrdin are the town -Tropical moist driving away wild animals, Some time local people also help
with highest rain fall in the deciduous collection of NTFP, throwing in locating and suppressing fire in
world. -Subtropical pine. burning cigarette butts etc. forest area.
P - 29,64,007 also causes fire in the forest.
C - 1823
PD - 132
ST 86.43
MIZORAM- Ranks 1st in terms of February to May, however -Shifting Cultivation People participation is being
Situated in the southern part forest cover % age of maximum fire incidences in the -Collection of NTFP given more emphasis in forest fire
of NE India. Hilly terrain. geographic area. months of April and May. -Throwing burning biri prevention and control.
Main Species- cigarette butts Forest department is taking some
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
A B C D E
P - 10,91,014 - Tropical wet -Burning farm residues initiatives and getting fund from
C - 328 evergreen -For good grass growth. the MOEF for making appropriate
PD - 52 - Tropical moist -Clearance of land for arrangements.
ST - 94.19 deciduous various purposes. Public awareness and training
programmes also conducted by the
Forest Department.
NAGALAND- Ranks 3rd in terms of % Fire season from February to Jhoom or shifting cultivation Forest department seeks people help
Hilly state in the NE India. age of geographic area May. However, the peak season is the most common cause in suppressing and detecting forest
P - 19,80,602 under forest cover. in the month of March. for forest fire. The other fire.
C - 1419 Main species- minor causes are- Village Councils- the local self
PD - 119 - Tropical wet - NTFP Collection government bodies also cooperate
ST - 88.98 evergreen - Drive away wild animals with the forest department.
- Tropical Semi to save crops.
evergreen - Throwing smouldering
- Sub Tropical Pine biri cigarettes butts by
Forest Fire Disaster Management
138
temperate. - Escape fires from the
burning of farm residues
or cooking near the forest
area.
ORISSA- Ranks 5th in terms of Fire season February to June; - Shifting Cultivation. Forest department takes preventive
Situated on the East coast of area under forest cover. Crucial period in March and - Collection of NTFP, steps by appointing fire watchers,
Bay of Bengal. Main species- April - Burning of farm residues clearing fire lines, burning litter etc.
P - 4,19,47,358 -Tropical moist to clear the land. In some forest divisions modern
C - 23057 deciduous - Escape fires from the equipment also acquired with the
PD - 269 -Tropical semi cooking fires assistance of MOEF, GOI.
ST 22.19 evergreen. - Throwing burning biri and FFPC and JFM also being engaged
cigarettes. in checking fire incidences in the
forest.
RAJASTHAN- Largest Only 4.69 percent of GA Fire season is from January to Being hot and dry climate Forest department appoints fire
state characterized by scanty under forest cover. June. Peak fire season in the the vegetation catches fire watchers during the summer.
rain. Partly hilly- Aravalli Main species- month of May. immediately. The source of In National Parks and Wild Life
A B C D E
range. Some part is desert. -Tropical dry deciduous ignition are- Sanctuaries various silvicultural
Climate dry hot -Tropical thorn - Escape fire from the practices i.e. clearance of fire
P - 6,86,21,012 -Tropical dry ever green burning of farm residues line, burning of litter, back fire are
C - 56663 to clear the land. adopted to prevent fire.
PD 201 - Tribal fire forest for good
ST 12.57 grass growth
- Graziers and cooking
food in the forest area also
ignite fires
- To scare wild animals
SIKKIM- Mountainous Ranks second in terms of January to May is the main fire Most of the fires are Forest department uses some
state having some highest % age of geographic area season, however maximum fire intentional/ unintentional by traditional methods to control and
peaks of the world. Elevation under recorded forest incidence take place during two people- prevent fire. However, there is lack
varies from 250 to 8595 mts. area. months i.e. March and April. - To grow good grass crop. of institutional mechanism.
Climate sub tropical to cold Main Species Occasional fires in the months - Bonfire during winter Unawareness among community is
temperate and Alpine. -Tropical evergreen of November and December - Hunting and illegal felling. the main cause of forest fire. State
139
P - 6,07,688 -Sub tropical pine also. - To keep away wild life forest Department is planning to
C - 270 -Montana wet temperate Lower elevation face fire every away from the agriculture involve community in forest fire
PD - 86 year, which in most of the farms. management.
ST 20.61 cases is surface fire. During - Using torch by trespassers Constitution of Forest Fire Protection
1999 fierce fire hit the forest of during night. Committees is under consideration.
Chingrhong area worst. - By natural lightening on
high hills.
TAMILNADU- Ranks tenth in terms of Fire season between March and - Collection of NTFP - Traditional methods not working
80 05 & 13 35 North area under forest cover. May, however the peak season (tamarind, Mahua, wild well due to population pressure.
latitude and 76o 15 & 80 The main species are- in the month of March and April jacks etc.). - Forest Fire Protection
20 East longitude. Facing -Dry deciduous only. - Farm residue burning Committees constituted in many
Indian Ocean with coast line -Savannahs During 1996-97 a major fire - Drive away wild animals divisions by Forest -Department.
of 1000 kms. -Semi ever green took place in the Sandal wood ( especially wild animals) - Awareness and campaign
P - 7,21,38,958 -Southern thorn forest of the State resulting into - Timber mafia programmes also conducted.
C - 30759 - FFP Committees members given
PD - 555 proper training.
ST 1.05
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
A B C D E
economic loss of approximately - Stimulating flush of leaf - Strict action is taken against
US $ 43 millions. crop i.e. tendu. offenders.
- Recently the Department
has established Fire Disaster
management Centre to ensure
quick detection and suppression
of forest fire.
TRIPURA- Ranks 8th in terms of % January to May is the fire The shifting cultivation is the Forest department uses traditional
Located in the N-E part of age of recorded forest season, however, peak fires main cause. methods like fire line clearance,
the country. The state is with area. between February and April. The other causes are- appointment of fire watchers, litter
hilly terrain. - NTFP Collection burning.
P - 36,71,032 - Drive away wild animals Forest Department is modernizing
C - 1869 to save crops. its fire fighting system with the
PD 350 - Throwing smouldering help of central government under
ST 31.13 biri cigarettes butts by the scheme of Modern Forest Fire
Forest Fire Disaster Management
140
- Escape fires from the
burning of farm residues
or cooking near the forest
area.
UTTAR PRADESH- Rank 1st & after Fire season from Dec to May. Fires in the forest are ninety Measures taken by the forest
After bifurcation, the state is separation of Uttarakhand, Maximum fire during the month nine percent man caused. The department does not seem to be
left with mostly plain area- the State has only 5.95 of March, April, and May. main reasons include- sufficient.
Ganga Yamuna alluvium percent of GA under Occasional fires during winter - NTFP collection, mainly Silvicultural practices like fire line
plain. In the North East forest cover. also, especially in the dry years. honey is one of the main clearance, burring of litter etc. are
there is Tarai belt. Most The main species are- The Tarai forest in the state is reasons. carried out for very limited area
populous state in the country. -Tropical moist very vulnerable to fire. Number - Fire also caused only.
P - 19,95,81,477 deciduous of fires in some fire prone unintentionally by Recently efforts are being made
C - 60272 -Tropical dry deciduous divisions between 1981 and throwing burning biri and to involve local people through
PD - 828 -Tropical ever green 2001 are- cigarettes in the forest. JFM in forest fire prevention and
ST 0.07 Baharaich- 115 - Burning farm residue near suppression practices.
the forest.
A B C D E
Kheri- 468 - The other causes include Some divisions recently equipped
Dudhwa- 95 personal enmity with with the modern equipments and
forest department, fire proof clothing to suppress fire
- Making wine in the forest in more effective manner. State
area. department provides training and
- To scare away wild create awareness among the people.
animals.
UTTARAKHAND- Ranks 6th in terms of Fire season from December All fires are man made, Forest department uses traditional
It is mostly a hilly state recorded forest area with to June. Peak fire season from except very few due to methods to prevent and suppress
with southern portion plain. 45.60 percent of GA March to June. Major fires lightening. forest fire. Though some divisions
Landslides, earthquakes under forest. occurred during 1995 and 1999. Escape fire from the burning are having modern equipment also
and forest fire are common Main species are- During 1999, 22.64 % forest farm residues and from the but they are rarely used by the forest
disasters in the state. - Tropical moist area got affected by the fire. fires lit to drive away wild official as they are very heavy and
P - 1,01,16,752 deciduous. During 1995, 19.32 % of the animals cause damaging fire. not convenient to use in the hilly
C - 5141 - Tropical dry total forest area was affected by Rivalry with forest terrain.
141
PD - 189 deciduous severe fires. department. Forest department also seeks help
ST 3.02 - S u b a l p i n e Both the fires along with NTFP collection. from local people in suppression of
Moist Alpine damaging forest vegetation Throwing away smouldering forest fire. In some villages attempts
- Alpine also caused immense loss to biri- cigarettes etc. are being made to involve local
environment and people health. Camp fires by the picnickers people through JFM in controlling
During these two major fires etc. the menace of forest fire.
many people suffered from
breathing related diseases in the
near by areas.
Forest fires during 2001 killed
four persons in the Garhwal
region- Rudraprayg district.
Forest Fire: The Indian Scenario
A B C D E
WEST BENGAL- Total 14.64 percent of February to May, however peak -Shifting Cultivation. Forest department takes preventive
The State has variegated GA under forest cover. season in three months between -Collection of NTFP, steps by appointing fire watchers,
topography, starting from Main species are- March to May -Burning of farm residues to clearing fire lines, burning litter
the hilly terrain in the north -Tropical moist clear the land. etc. In some divisions modern
to plain and the coastal delta deciduous -Escape fires from the equipment also acquired with the
belt in the extreme south. -Tropical dry deciduous cooking fires assistance of MOEF, GOI. FFPC
P - 9,13,47,736 -Tropical pine -Throwing burning biri and and JFM also being engaged in
C - 37419 and cigarettes checking fire incidences in the
PD - 1029 forest.
ST 5.49
142
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
Exact information about deforestation and forest degradation in
the country, though very limited, yet whatever data available, predicts
a very sad situation about forest health. Taking into consideration the
seriousness of the problem, just after independence the Government
of India started giving the issue of forest conservation and protection
(including protection against forest fire) a serious thought. The first
progressive step taken in this regard was the formulation of National
Forest Policy in 1952, when the erstwhile Ministry of Food and
Agriculture, Government of India enunciated a Forest Policy for the
management of State Forests in the country. Indian Constitution
provided guidelines under the Forest Policy for protection of forests
and wildlife. According to this policy the State shall endeavoring to
protect and to improve the environment and to safeguard the forests
and wildlife of the country and the citizens are to protect and improve
the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and
to have compassion for living creatures. The first main issue laid down
in the Indian Forest Policy, 1952 is that one-third of the land area of
the country should be under forest cover for ensuring a balanced and
complementary land use system. It provided scope for the management
and control of private forests, containment of shifting cultivation,
creation of village forests etc. In addition to formulation of the Forest
Policy, the Government of India took numbers of the progressive steps
for protection, preservation and management of forests, including:
I. The Indian Forest Service was revived in 1966 to ensure co-
ordinated professional management of Forests. The purpose of
establishing this cadre of officers has been safety and protection
of environment and taking care of national interest.
Forest Fire Disaster Management
II. The subject 'Forest' was transferred from the State List to the
Concurrent List of the Constitution of India in 1976 to ensure
uniform policy and management throughout the nation.
III. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted which was later
amended in 1988. It provides that areas recorded as Forests in
Government records cannot be transferred for non-forestry use
without the prior approval of the Government of India.
IV. A separate Ministry i.e. Ministry of Environment and Forest
was created in the Union Government in 1985 and the Forest
wing from the Ministry of Agriculture was transferred to the new
ministry.
144
Managing Forest Fire
145
Forest Fire Disaster Management
146
Managing Forest Fire
147
Forest Fire Disaster Management
148
Managing Forest Fire
149
Forest Fire Disaster Management
150
Managing Forest Fire
response in dealing with forest fires and also with the problems
of illicit felling.
vii. The communication network has to be supported with improved
mobility to enable quick transport of human and materials from
one area to another. For this at least one additional jeep may be
provided at divisional level, especially in the hill areas.
viii. Where villagers do not come to assist the forest department in
extinguishing forest fires, their timber rights should be curtailed
if not forfeited.
In its report, the committee emphasized that the State
Governments must ensure that adequate funds are provided to the forest
department for proper care, maintenance and protection of the forests.
The steady reduction in such funds has seriously affected the activities
of the forest department. These funds should be provided through a
centrally sponsored scheme for this purpose.
151
Forest Fire Disaster Management
and come out with an appropriate plan of action. The project was highly
successful from the standpoints of technical soundness and economic
efficiencies. Motivated by the success of this project the Ministry of
Environment and Forests has introduced a centrally sponsored scheme
namely Modern Forest Fire Control Methods since 1992-93 in the
eleven selected States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar , Gujarat, Himachal
Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra , Orissa,
Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The project continued during the first
three years of the Ninth Plan period i.e. from 1997 to 2000. In 2000
the scheme was extended to all the States and Union Territories of the
country.
The objectives of this scheme are:
(i) To control forest fires with a view to protect and conserve forests.
(ii) To devise, test and demonstrate the principles and techniques of
forest fire management.
(iii) To improve the productivity of forests by reducing incidence and
extent of fire.
(iv) To create awareness among the masses about the effects of forest
fires on the forests and environment.
(v) To conduct training programmes for the forest officials and local
people to prevent, detect and control forest fires.
To meet the aforementioned objectives financial support is
provided under following subheads:
Prevention: Creation of fire lines, training and demonstration publicity.
Detection: Construction of watch towers, network of wireless sets, fire
finders.
Suppression: Hand tools, fire resistant clothing and fire tenders.
During the Tenth Plan period, the States and UTs were financially
supported for forest fire management under the new Scheme Integrated
Forest Protection Scheme.
152
Managing Forest Fire
153
Forest Fire Disaster Management
network.
n Effective transportation
n Improved fire resistant clothing
n Fire fighting equipment
n Fire finder
n Fire tenders
n Watch towers and other fire detecting systems etc.
To coordinate the States/UT's plans for systematic forest fire
management.
To provide input regarding training, research, extension, and
publicity.
To coordinate international transfer of technology and training in
the field of forest fire management.
Creation of a strong database for:
n Numbers of fires.
n Area burnt.
n Damage caused to flora and fauna.
n Effect of fire on land and soil.
n Causes of Forest fire.
n Measures taken.
n Extent and effect of prescribed fires.
Assessment of ecological, social, and economic impact of fires.
Strong national extension strategy for people's awareness and
their participation in forest fire management through JFM, VFC,
and NGOs.
Develop necessary human resources by imparting training and
encouraging research in forest fire management.
Develop organisational structures at National and State levels.
To assess technical and financial assistance required by various
States/UTs for forest fire management.
154
Managing Forest Fire
6.6.2 Strategies- To make the plan successful and meet the objectives,
there is need to have a systematic strategic planning including following
components-
Publicity and extension- Covering preparation of publication/
extension material e.g. pamphlets, handouts, circulars, posters
and media programs through TV, radio, video tapes, etc.
Training and education- Designing syllabus for planning,
management and ground level firefighting courses in Forestry
Institutions.
Strengthening of organizational framework- Though appropriate
modification and alteration in State Forest Departments
structural framework and providing sufficient human power.
Research and development, by strengthening the existing
and introducing new R&D institutions dealing with forest fire
management.
National Forest Fire Danger Rating System- Designing uniform
155
Forest Fire Disaster Management
156
Managing Forest Fire
6.6.4 Methodology
The near real time monitoring of forest fires involves dissemination
of forest fire alerts through mobile SMS system. FSI has initiated Real
time monitoring of forest fires in collaboration with National Remote
Sensing Centre (NRSC) wherein the forest fire alerts for the active fire
locations would be generated as KML (Keyhole Markup Language) file
157
Forest Fire Disaster Management
Signals Received by
Satellite
Signals Transmitted to
Base Station
Suppression of Fire
Data Transfer
to Earth Station
Data Dissemination
(to PCCF/CF/DFOs)
Data Processing
Mapping Spatial Extent of Forest fire Processing Centre
Forest Department and Preparation of Graphs
158
Managing Forest Fire
159
Forest Fire Disaster Management
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
WEST BENGAL
GUJARAT
LAKSHADWEEP
PUDUCHERRY
SIKKIM
A & N Islands
ANDHRA PRADESH
ARUNACHAL PRADESH
ASSAM
BIHAR
CHANDIGARH
CHHATTISHARH
DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
DELHI
TAMIL NADU
GOA
HARYANA
HIMACHAL PRADESH
JAMMU & KASHMIR
JHARKHAND
MIZORAM
KARNATAKA
KERALA
MADHYA PRADESH
MAHARASHTRA
MANIPUR
MEGHALAYA
NAGALAND
ORISSA
PUNJAB
RAJASTHAN
TRIPURA
UTTAR PRADESH
UTTARAKHAND
States/UTs
160
Managing Forest Fire
161
Forest Fire Disaster Management
RESPONSIBLE OFFICER
Deputy
Nodal Officer INCIDENT COMMANDER
(Air Operation) COMMAND
STAFF
GENERAL
Planning Section Operations Section Logistics Section
STAFF
162
Chapter 7
7.1 Introduction
The disaster brought by fire is though usually very small in
geographical scales, yet its effects can spell devastation. The High
Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management, constituted on
behalf of Prime minister in 1999, in its report submitted in October' 2002
identified forest fire as one of the 33 major types of disasters prevalent in
the country enlisted under the category of "Accident Related Disasters".
In general there is a lack of concern about the detrimental
impact of forest fire on society, mainly because the direct loss in terms
of human lives and property damage (houses buildings, infrastructure
etc.) is not much in comparison to other natural disasters like flood,
cyclones, tsunami etc. However, if viewed in terms of intangible impact
of forest fire, it is much more than that of other common disasters.
The intangible loss due to forest fire includes impact on biodiversity,
damage to watershed services, loss of soil fertility, increase in soil
erosion and landslides etc. In the present day context forest fire is said
to have developed a dangerous relationship with the global warming by
adding Green House Gases. Albeit, the direct loss due to forest fire may
not be much evident in economic terms, its long term impacts mainly on
environment are more devastating and need serious efforts to manage
forest fires in more effective manner.
164
Forest Fire Management: Action Plan
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
166
Forest Fire Management: Action Plan
167
Forest Fire Disaster Management
168
Forest Fire Management: Action Plan
169
Forest Fire Disaster Management
forest fire management. In the lean period, the wing may work on
data compilation, preparedness and mitigation measures. Training
programmes for forest officials in fire fighting may also be organized
at forest training schools. Sufficient fund provision is to be made for
research and development and suitable projects may be sanctioned to
state level research institutions to establish a strong data- base. The
wing in collaboration with publicity division of the forest department
may carry out effective awareness generation programmes among
community through various IEC materials. In sensitive areas, Forest
Fire Protection Committees may be established ensuring community
participation.
During forest fire situation, this wing may work as Emergency
Operation Centre (EOC) equipped with all communication and other
facilities and may supervise and guide suppression work. In case of
severe fire conditions, necessary assistance may be sought from State
Disaster Management Authority (SDMA), Disaster Management
Department at State level and at central level too, if required.
Depending upon the severity of the situation, similar arrangements
may be made at Divisional level too. In fire prone divisions, a range
office or Assistant Conservator of Forest (ACF) level officer may be
deputed to look after all forest fire related activities of the division under
the overall supervision of Divisional Forest Officer who can be assisted
by District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) and Range Officer
(Fig.-7.1).
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
B. Policy framework
Gaps to be addressed: The present policy/ planning documents do not
give due consideration to Forest Fire Management. Revised key policy
documents need to incorporate clear guidance about Forest Department
and other stakeholders role and contributions to FFM.
Goal: Revised policy and planning framework which includes FFM in
more comprehensive and systematic manner
Proposed strategies
Incorporate FFM issues in existing policy and planning
documents in more systematic way: There is a need to incorporate
clear cut guidelines and responsibilities of different role players
to capacitate forest department and other stakeholders to manage
forest fire in more systematic manner.
Develop/ update forest fire manuals for field staff guiding them
in simple way to detect/ report about and suppress forest fire.
Incorporate FFM issues into other national / regional/ local level
Disaster Risk Management programmes.
Though legal and policy framework exists in favour of fire
protection, there is a need to strengthen and make it more practical
and implementable. Existing acts though quite effective in forest and
wild life conservation, do not give specific attention to forest fire
management. As in more than 90 % cases forest fire is a human induced
phenomenon, there is urgent need that some special Act be enacted
to provide appropriate legal frame-work at national and state level
both. Such Forest Fire Prevention Act will also strengthen the forest
department in controlling and checking the illegal activities within or
near the forest, leading to severe forest fires.
Subject to the enactment of suitable legislation, it is also
necessary to evolve detail regulations to help in enforcement of the law.
The existing codes/regulations/laws related to forest / wildlife protection
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Forest Fire Management: Action Plan
Proposed strategies
Capacity building for the better use of early warning (technical
efficiency & HRD): The forest officials need to be trained in
using various indicators to get prior information about forest
fire at the earliest time possible to take timely action. The forest
department may be provided with necessary equipment in
detecting forest fire at the earliest possible. Forest officials are
to be trained in using various valuable information, available at
national and international levels and translate it for local use.
Strengthen collaboration with partner organizations involved
in generating warning: Necessary collaboration is required
with organisations involved in generating early warning about
forest fire. Meteorological Departments and other national and
international sources providing weather related information may
be collaborated to get prior information about the temperature
and rainfall situation- two main deciding factors for forest fires.
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
Proposed strategies
Enhance and maintain forest fire specific data base and enlist
good practices: Forest fire specific data is very limited and if
available is not very reliable. For most of the States, forest fire
database is either not available and if available is very sketchy.
This prevents in developing appropriate forest fire management
planning and avails necessary resources to deal with the problem
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Forest Fire Management: Action Plan
The Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nation (FAO) has run a special
TCP programme in India during 1995, under which main emphasis was given to
training in forest fire management. In its report, the FAO has strongly emphasized
the need of Central Fire Management Research and Training Institute for foresters
and public agencies to provide knowledge and skill for forest fire managers. The
report had suggested establishing Fire Experiment Stations in representative regions
to study various effects of fires in different eco-systems and provide extension
services to the concerned states.
The establishment of such research centres and training institutes is very much
needed to manage increasing forest fire incidences in the country in more systematic
manner. Such national level" Central Fire Management Research and Training
Institute" should be established as a centre of excellence in the area of creation
of knowledge and its dissemination, including training and capacity building. The
institute will suppose to conduct fundamental research in the field of forest fire
management and creating data-base at national levels. It will also coordinate and
cooperate with other institutions at national and international level. In the field of
capacity building, the institute will help state government in preparing a team of
trainees, who will further disseminate knowledge at state level institutes to other
stakeholders viz. foresters, NGOs, JFM committee members etc. in the field of
forest fire management.
(3) To coordinate various role players within the field of forest fire
management, including government and non-government bodies, JFM
committees, international organisations etc.
(4) To forge, promote and sustain international and regional partnership for
launching joint projects and programmes in partnership.
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
(6) To help state forest department in preparing forest fire management plan
and formulate policy in this regard.
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Forest Fire Management: Action Plan
Proposed strategies:
Stock taking: Assess indigenous knowledge and techniques
to detect and suppress forest fire, and upgrade it with scientific
inputs and research: At local and regional levels there are many
indigenous techniques and knowledge available, there is a need
to compile and collect such information and upgrade it with
scientific inputs and field tests to find its suitability in making
forest fire system more effective, useful and less expensive.
Promote FFM related research and technology innovations:
The research institutes, involved in forestry and related research,
may be pursued to do research in developing appropriate
techniques in getting prior information about forest fire, detecting
it, and suitable mechanism to suppress it.
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180
GLOSSARY
aerial fuel
The standing and supported live and dead fuels not in direct
contact with the ground and consisting mainly of foliage, twigs,
branches, stems, bark, lianas and other vines, moss and high brush. In
general they easily dry out and may carry surface fires into the canopy.
agrosilvopastoral system
Land-use system in which woody perennials are used on the
same land as agricultural crops and animals, in some form of spatial
arrangement or temporal sequence. In fire management agrosilvopastoral
systems are planned as fuelbreaks (particularly shaded fuelbreaks) to
reduce fire risk by modifying understory vegetation and soil cover (cf.
fuelbreak).
backfire
A fire spreading, or set to spread, into or against the wind: (1)
As used in fire suppression: A fire set along the inner edge of a control
line to consume the fuel in the path of a forest fire and/or change the
direction of force of the fire's convection column (Note: doing this on
a small scale and with closer control, in order to consume patches of
unburned fuel and aid control-line construction (as in mopping-up) is
distinguished as "burning out, firing out, clean burning"); (2) As used in
prescribed burning: designation of fire movement in relation to wind.
backfiring
A form of indirect attack where extensive fire is set along the
inner edge of a control line or natural barrier, usually some distance
from the wildfire and taking advantage of indrafts, to consume fuels
in the path of the fire, and thereby halt or retard the progress of the fire
front.
Forest Fire Disaster Management
biomass
(1) The amount of living matter in a given habitat, expressed
either as the weight of organisms per unit area or as the volume of
organisms per unit volume of habitat. (2) Organic matter that can be
converted to fuel and is therefore regarded as a potential energy source.
Note: Organisms include plant biomass (phytomass) and animal
biomass (zoomass). (3) In fire science the term biomass is often used
synonymously with the term "fuel" and includes both living and dead
phytomass (necromass); the zoomass is usually excluded.
buffer strip / buffer zone
A fuel break on the form of a strip of land along or adjacent to
roads, trails, watercourses and recreation sites, or between (separating)
fuel complexes (cf. fuelbreak).
candle bark
Long streamers of bark decorticated from some gum-barked
Eucalyptus species forming a firebrand responsible for long-distance
spotting.
combustion
Consumption of fuels by oxidation, evolving heat and generally
flame (neither necessarily sensible) and/or incandescence. Combustion
can be divided into four phases: pre-ignition (or preheating), flaming,
smouldering, and glowing.
control line
Comprehensive term for all constructed or natural barriers and
treated fire edges used to control a fire.
dead fuel
Fuels with no living tissue in which moisture content is governed
almost entirely by atmospheric moisture (relative humidity and
precipitation), dry-bulb temperature, and solar radiation (cf. Live Fuel).
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Glossary
dispatcher
A person employed to receive reports of discovery and status
of fires, confirm their locations, take action promptly to provide the
firefighters and equipment likely to be needed for control in first attack,
send them to the proper place and provide support as needed.
draped fuels
Needles, leaves, and twigs that have fallen from tree branches
and have lodged on lower branches or brush. Comprises a part of aerial
fuels.
drip torch
A hand-held apparatus for igniting prescribed fires and backfires
by dripping flaming fuel on the materials to be burned. The device
consists of a fuel fount, burner arm, and ignition source. Fuel used is
generally a mixture of 65-80% diesel and 20-35% gasoline.
early burning
Prescribed burning early in the dry season, before the leaves and
undergrowth are completely dry or before the leaves are shed; carried
out as a precaution against more severe fire damage later in the fire
season.
escaped fire
Fire which has exceeded or is expected to exceed initial attack
capabilities or planned prescription.
fine fuel
Fast-drying dead fuels, generally characterized by a
comparatively high surface area-to-volume ratio, which are less than
0.5 cm in diameter and have a timelag of one hour or less. These fuels
(grass, leaves, needles, etc.) ignite readily and are consumed rapidly by
fire when dry. (cf. flash fuel, medium fuel, heavy fuel).
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fire behaviour
The manner in which fuel ignites, flame develops, and fire
spreads and exhibits other related phenomena as determined by the
interaction of fuels, weather, and topography. Some common terms
used to describe fire behaviour include the following:
smouldering - A fire burning without flame and barely spreading.
creeping - A fire spreading slowly over the ground, generally with a low
flame.
running - A fire rapidly spreading and with a well-defined head.
torching - Ignition and flare up of foliage of a single tree or a small
clump of trees, usually from bottom to top (syn. candling).
spotting - A fire producing firebrands carried by the surface wind, a fire
whirl, and/or convection column that fall beyond the main fire perimeter
and result in spot fires. Note: Solid Mass or Ember Transport under Heat
Transfer.
crowning - A fire ascending into the crowns of trees and spreading from
crown to crown.
Note: Three classes of Crown Fire under Forest Fire (I).
fire belt
A strip, cleared or planted with trees, maintained as a firebreak
or fuelbreak.
firebreak
Any natural or constructed discontinuity in a fuelbed utilized to
segregate, stop, and control the spread of fire or to provide a control
line from which to suppress a fire; characterized by complete lack of
combustibles down to mineral soil (as distinguished from fuelbreak).
fire climax
A plant community at a stage of succession maintained by
periodic fires.
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Glossary
fire control
All activities concerned with protection of vegetation from fire.
fire cycle
The number of years required to burn over an area equal to the
entire area of interest.
fire danger
A general term used to express an assessment of both fixed
and variable factors of the fire environment that determine the ease
of ignition, rate of spread, difficulty of control, and fire impact; often
expressed as an index.
fire danger rating
A component of a fire management system that integrates the
effects of selected fire danger factors into one or more qualitative or
numerical indices of current protection needs.
fire-dependent species
Plant and animal species which require regular fire influence
which triggers or facilitates regeneration mechanisms, or regulates
competition. Without the influence of fire these species would become
extinct.
fire ecology
The study of the relationships and interactions between fire,
living organisms, and the environment.
fire exclusion
Planned (systematic) protection of an ecosystem from any
wildfire, including any prescribed fire, by all means of fire prevention
and suppression in order to obtain management objectives (cf. fire
control).
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fire frequency
The average number of fires or regularly occurring fire events
per unit time in a designated area.
fire hazard
(1) A fuel complex, defined by volume, type, condition,
arrangement, and location, that determines the degree both of ease of
ignition and of fire suppression difficulty; (2) a measure of that part of
the fire danger contributed by the fuels available for burning. Note: Is
worked out from their relative amount, type, and condition, particularly
their moisture contents.
fire history
The reconstruction and interpretation of the chronological record,
causes and impacts of fire occurrence in an ecosystem in relation to
changes of past environmental, cultural and socio-economic conditions.
Fire history evidence is based on analysis of charcoal deposits in soils,
sediments, and ice, dendrochronology (fire scar analysis), historical
documents, and fire reports.
fire information system
An information system designed to support fire management
decisions. Advanced fire information systems integrate different
sources of information required (e.g., vegetation conditions including
fire history, topography, fire weather, fire behaviour models, real-or
near-real time fire detection and monitoring data, fire management
resources, infrastructures and pre-suppression information) on the
base of a Geographic Information System (GIS) and allows real-time
distribution or access via telecommunication.
fire interval or fire-return interval
The number of years between two successive fires documented
in a designated area (i.e., the interval between two successive fire
occurrences); the size of the area must be clearly specified.
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Glossary
fire management
All activities required for the protection of burnable forest
and other vegetation values from fire and the use of fire to meet land
management goals and objectives. It involves the strategic integration
of such factors as a knowledge of fire regimes, probable fire effects,
values-at-risk, level of forest protection required, cost of fire-related
activities, and prescribed fire technology into multiple-use planning,
decision making, and day-to-day activities to accomplish stated
resource management objectives. Successful fire management depends
on effective fire prevention, detection, and pre-suppression, having an
adequate fire suppression capability, and consideration of fire ecology
relationships.
fire management plan
(1) A statement, for a specific area, of fire policy and prescribed
action; (2) The systematic, technological, and administrative
management process of determining the organization, facilities,
resources, and procedures required to protect people, property, and
forest areas from fire and to use fire to accomplish forest management
and other land use objectives (cf. fire prevention plan or fire Campaign,
pre-suppression planning, pre-attack plan, fire suppression plan, end-of-
season appraisal).
fire pre-suppression
Activities undertaken in advance of fire occurrence to help
ensure more effective fire suppression; includes overall planning,
recruitment and training of fire personnel, procurement and maintenance
of firefighting equipment and supplies, fuel treatment, and creating,
maintaining, and improving a system of fuel breaks, roads, water
sources, and control lines.
fire prevention
All measures in fire management, fuel management, forest
management, forest utilization and concerning the land users and
the general public, including law enforcement, that may result in the
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forest: Land with tree crown cover of more than 10 percent and area of
more than 0.5 hectares. The trees should be able to reach a minimum
height of 5 meters at maturity.
other wooded land: Land either with a crown cover of 5-10 percent of
trees able to reach a height of 5 meters at maturity; or a crown cover of
more than 10 percent of trees not able to reach a height of 5 meters at
maturity; or with shrub or bush cover of more than 10 percent.
other land: Land with less crown cover, tree height, or shrub cover as
defined under "Other wooded land". Indication is desired if recurring
wildfires affect "Other land" by inhibiting regeneration to the "Forest"
and "Other wooded land" categories.
I. Typology
ground fire: A fire that burns in the ground fuel layer (syn. Subsurface
fire, below surface fire).
surface fire: A fire that burns in the surface fuel layer, excluding the
crowns of the trees, as either a head fire, flank fire, or backfire.
crown fire: A fire that advances through the crown fuel layer, usually in
conjunction with the surface fire. Crown fires can be classified according
to the degree of dependence on the surface fire phase:
intermittent crown fire: A fire in which trees discontinuously torch,
but rate of spread is controlled by the surface fire phase (syn. Passive
Crown Fire).
active crown fire: A fire that advances with a well-defined wall of
flame extending from the ground surface to above the crown fuel layer.
Probably most crown fires are of this class. Development of an active
crown fire requires a substantial surface fire, and thereafter the surface
and crown phases spread as a linked unit (syn. Dependent Crown Fire).
independent crown fire: A fire that advances in the crown fuel layer
only (syn. Running Crown Fire).
forest protection
That section of forestry concerned with the management of biotic
190
Glossary
191
Forest Fire Disaster Management
192
Glossary
193
Forest Fire Disaster Management
late burning
Prescribed burning activities towards the end of the dry season.
low intensity fire
Fire which burns with a relatively low intensity, e.g. a prescribed
surface fire as opposed to a high-intensity crown fire.
pre-attack plan
A plan detailing predetermined fire suppression strategy
and tactics to be deployed following fire occurrence in a given land
management unit. A pre-attack plan contains data on fuel types and
topographic conditions including fuelbreaks, access routes and travel
times, water supply sources, lakes suitable for skimmer aircraft, and
existing heliports. It also includes information on existing and/or
proposed locations for control lines (including the types and number
of fire suppression resources that may be required and probable rates of
fireguard construction, and possible constraints), base and line camps,
helispots, and the priorities for construction and/or improvement of
pre-suppression facilities (syn. pre-attack planning, pre-attack, cf. fire
management plan, fire suppression plan, pre-suppression planning).
prescribed burning
Controlled application of fire to vegetation in either their natural
or modified state, under specified environmental conditions which
allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area and at the same
time to produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to attain
planned resource management objectives (cf. Prescribed Fire). Note:
This term has replaced the earlier term "Controlled Burning".
prescribed fire
A management-ignited wildland fire or a wildfire that burns
within prescription, i.e. the fire is confined to a predetermined area and
produces the fire behavior and fire characteristics required to attain
planned fire treatment and/or resource management objectives. The act
or procedure of setting a prescribed fire is called prescribed burning (cf.
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Glossary
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
chemical configuration.
residential / wildland interface
The transition zone between residential areas and wildlands
or vegetated fuels (cf. Urban, Urban/Wildland Interface, Wildland,
Wildland Fire, Rural Urban Interface).
restoration
Restoration of biophysical capacity of ecosystems to previous
(desired) conditions. Restoration includes rehabilitation measures after
fire, or prescribed burning where certain fire effects are desired (cf.
rehabilitation, reclamation burning).
ring fire
A fire started by igniting the full perimeter of the intended burn
area so that the ensuing fire fronts converge toward the centre of the
burn.
risk
(1) The probability of fire initiation due to the presence and
activity of a causative agent. (2) A causative agent.
rural fire protection
Fire protection and firefighting problems that are outside of areas
covered by municipal Fire & Rescue Services and its Fire Ordinance;
these areas are usually remote from public water supplies and require all
terrain vehicles to reach.
serotiny
Storage of seeds in closed seed containers in the canopy of shrubs
and trees. For instance, serotinous cones of Lodgepole Pine do not open
until subjected to temperatures of 45 to 50C, causing the melting of the
resin bond that seals the cone scales.
slash
Debris (fuels) resulting from natural events (wind/ fire) or human
196
Glossary
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
values-at-risk
Natural resources, developments, or other values that may be
jeopardized if a fire occurs.
wilderness
(1) A wild, uncultivated, uninhabited region, vegetated and non-
vegetated. (2) Area of remarkable natural beauty and ecological diversity.
(3) Area established to conserve its primeval character and influence for
public enjoyment, under uncultivated conditions, in perpetuity.
wildfire
(1) Any unplanned and uncontrolled wildland fire which
regardless of ignition source may require suppression response, or other
action according to agency policy. (2) Any free burning wildland fire
unaffected by fire suppression measures which meets management
objectives (cf. wildland, wildland fire, prescribed natural fire, prescribed
fire).
wildland
Vegetated and non-vegetated land in which development is
essentially non-existent, except for roads, railroads, powerlines, and
similar transportation facilities; structures, if any, are widely scattered.
In fire management terminology this general term includes all burnable
vegetation resources including managed forests and forest plantations
(cf. residential/wildland interface, wildfire).
wildland fire
Any fire occurring on wildland regardless of ignition sources,
damages or benefits (cf. wildland, wildfire, residential/wildland
interface).
Source: FAO terminology (FAO 2003).
For additional fire terms please refer to the revised FAO Wildland Fire
Management Terminology. FAO Forestry Paper 70. FAO, Rome 2003.
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FOREST FIRE: SAFETY TIPS
Evacuation Tips
If advised to evacuate, do so immediately.
Know your evacuation route ahead of time and prepare an
evacuation checklist and emergency supplies.
Wear protective clothing and footwear to protect yourself from
flying sparks and ashes.
If Caught in a Wildfire
Don't try to outrun the blaze. Instead, look for a body of water such
as a pond or river to crouch in.
If there is no water nearby, find a depressed, cleared area with
little vegetation, lie low to the ground, and cover your body with
wet clothing, a blanket, or soil. Stay low and covered until the fire
passes.
Protect your lungs by breathing air closest to the ground, through a
moist cloth, if possible, to avoid inhaling smoke.
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Forest Fire: Safety Tips
Here is the correct way to put out a campfire (have an adult do this)
1. Pour lots of water on the campfire
2. Stir the ashes with a stick
3. Pour more water over top of it
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After a Wildfire
The following are guidelines for different circumstances in the
period following a fire:
Go to a designated public shelter if you have been told to evacuate
or you feel it is unsafe to remain in your home.
If you are with burn victims, or are a burn victim yourself, seek
help immediately; cool and cover burns to reduce chance of further
injury or infection.
If you remained at home, check the roof immediately after the fire
danger has passed. Put out any roof fires, sparks or embers. Check
the attic for hidden burning sparks.
For several hours after the fire, maintain a "fire watch." Re-check
for smoke and sparks throughout the house.
If you have evacuated, do not enter your home until fire officials
say it is safe.
If a building inspector has placed a color-coded sign on the
home, do not enter it until you get more information, advice and
instructions about what the sign means and whether it is safe to
enter your home.
If you must leave your home because a building inspector says the
building is unsafe, ask someone you trust to watch the property
during your absence.
Use caution when entering burned areas as hazards may still exist,
including hot spots, which can flare up without warning.
If you detect heat or smoke when entering a damaged building,
evacuate immediately.
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Forest Fire: Safety Tips
If you have a safe or strong box, do not try to open it. It can hold
intense heat for several hours. If the door is opened before the box
has cooled, the contents could burst into flames.
Avoid damaged or fallen power lines, poles and downed wires.
Watch for ash pits and mark them for safety and warn family and
neighbors to keep clear of the pits also.
Watch animals closely and keep them under your direct control.
Hidden embers and hot spots could burn your pets paws or hooves.
Follow public health guidance on safe cleanup of fire ash and safe
use of masks.
Wet debris down to minimize breathing dust particles.
Wear leather gloves and heavy soled shoes to protect hands and
feet.
Cleaning products, paint, batteries and damaged fuel containers
need to be disposed of properly to avoid risk.
Discard any food that has been exposed to heat, smoke or soot.
Do NOT use water that you think may be contaminated to wash
dishes, brush teeth, prepare food, wash hands, make ice or make
baby formula.
Remain calm. Pace yourself. You may find yourself in the position
of taking charge of other people. Listen carefully to what people
are telling you, and deal patiently with urgent situations first.
During a Wildfire
If advised to evacuate, do so immediately. Take your disaster
supply kit, lock your home and choose a route away from the fire hazard.
Watch for changes in the speed and direction of the fire and smoke. Tell
someone when you left and where you are going.
If you see a wildfire and haven't received evacuation orders yet,
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
call 101. Don't assume that someone else has already called. Describe the
location of the fire, speak slowly and clearly, and answer any questions
asked by the dispatcher.
If you are not ordered to evacuate, and have time to prepare
your home, Forest Department recommends you to take the following
actions:
Arrange temporary housing
at a friend or relatives home
outside the threatened area in
case you need to evacuate.
Wear protective clothing
when outside sturdy shoes,
cotton or woolen clothes, long
pants, a long-sleeved shirt,
gloves and a handkerchief to protect your face.
Gather fire tools such as a rake, axe, handsaw or chainsaw, bucket
and shovel.
Close outside attic, eaves and basement vents, windows, doors,
pet doors, etc. Remove flammable drapes and curtains. Close all
shutters, blinds or heavy non-combustible window coverings to
reduce radiant heat.
Close all doors inside the house to prevent draft. Open the damper
on your fireplace, but close the fireplace screen.
Shut off any natural gas, propane or fuel oil supplies at the source.
Connect garden hoses to outdoor water faucet and fill any pools,
hot tubs, garbage cans, tubs or other large containers with water.
Place lawn sprinklers on the roof and near above-ground fuel
tanks. Leave sprinklers on and dowsing these structures as long as
possible.
If you have gas-powered pumps for water, make sure they are
fueled and ready.
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
scrape vegetation off the ground and throw dirt onto the flames.
208
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
210
Annotated Bibliographys
211
Forest Fire Disaster Management
212
Annotated Bibliographys
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Forest Fire Disaster Management
were more knowledgeable about fire effects and were more supportive
of fire management, rather than fire suppression, than were respondents
to a similar study in 1971. The results also demonstrate that about 50%
of the visitors felt that manager-ignited fires would be beneficial to
wilderness, about 16% felt these fires would be detrimental, and about
33% were unsure.
McDowell, H. 1985. Fire management policies and programs:
an industry view, pp. 53 54 in Proceedings, Symposium
and Workshop on Wilderness Fire, Missoula, MT, November
15-18, 1983, JM Lotam, BM Kilgore, WC Fischer, and RW
Mutch, ed. General Technical Report INT-182, USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experi-ment
Station, Ogden, UT.
The author points out that the recreation industry may be most
influenced by wilderness fire activities. This industry includes guides,
packers, and outfitters. Current wilderness fire management programs
and policies do not seriously affect forest industries, miners, and
grazers. However, according to the author, many of these industries are
also involved as wilderness users and will maintain their interest in their
management on a personal basis.
Gardner, P.D., H.J. Cortner, and J.A. Bridges. 1985. Wildfire:
managing the hazard in urbanizing areas. Journal of Soil and
Water Conservation 40(4): 318321.
The authors argue that although a number of policy responses
have been suggested to reduce the impacts of wild land fires on the
physical environment and human activities, how acceptable they are
to the general public is another question. This is because the wild
land fire hazard depends not only on the physical environment, but
on human interactions with the physical environment as well. The
authors present five classes of mitigation: (1) reducing the intensity,
frequency, or magnitude of the hazardous event by physically changing
the environment; (2) limiting exposure to the hazard through local and
state land-use regulations; (3) reducing the vulnerability of structures
214
Annotated Bibliographys
and people; (4) increasing homeowners' awareness of the wild land fire
through education; and (5) taking care of individuals who are negatively
impacted by wild land fire. The authors suggest that the implementation
of any policy option depends not only on the expertise of the natural
resource manager or local planner, but also on the public's receptivity.
Gardner, P.D., HJ Cortner, K.F. Widaman, and K.J.
Stenberg, 1985. Forest-user attitudes toward alternative
fire management policies. Environmental Management 9 (4):
303311.
The authors point out that the formulation and implementation of
new fire policies in the national forests depend upon public acceptance.
A national survey of organized groups of forest users indicates that,
contrary to the concern of many forest managers, considerable support
exists for flexible fire suppression policies. Forest users are also willing
to accept the risk associated with the manager's use of prescribed fire.
However, survey results demonstrate intergroup differences on the
acceptability of prescribed fire management. The authors discuss this
variation in relation to a number of socioeconomic variables, general
fire knowledge, specific knowledge about the effects of low-intensity
fires, and risk preference levels.
Saveland, J.M. 1985. Risk in fire management, pp. 8597
in Fire Management: The Challenge of Protection and Use,
Proceedings of a Symposium, Logan, UT, April 17-19, 1985,
JN Long, ed. Department of Forest Resources, Utah State
University, Logan.
The author points out that the amount of wildfire protection
and prescribed fire use is determined by an individual decision
maker's propensity for accepting risk. Risk assessment consists of risk
identification, risk estimation, and risk evaluation. The major risk that
concerns fire management is identified as the threat of catastrophic fire.
The author indicates that estimation of risk consists of determining
the probability of occurrence and the magnitude of various events.
According to the author, decision theory and utility theory are useful
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tools for risk estimation. Risk averse, risk neutral, and risk taker profiles
are shown by using a utility function. Cost effectiveness and cost-benefit
models are presented as means to evaluate how much risk reduction, if
any, is necessary. The author presents the cost effectiveness model to
show the tradeoff between the costs of risk reduction and the amount
of risk reduced. A decrease in funding implies an increase in risk. The
author concludes that a combination of prescribed fire use and wildfire
protection will achieve a cost-effective level of risk and associated
benefits that are optimum.
Taylor, J.G., and T.C. Daniel. 1985. Perceived scenic and
recreational quality of forest burn areas, pp. 398^06 in
Proceedings, Symposium and Workshop on Wilderness Fire,
Missoula, M..T, November 15-18, 1883, J.M. Lotan, B.M.
Kilgore, W.C. Fischer, and R.W. Mutch, ed. Research Paper
INT-182, US DA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT.
The authors conducted a study to compare (1) public perception
of scenic quality after both severe and light fires and (2) effects of both
types of fires on perceptions of recreational acceptability. The study also
aimed to construct and test documents for educating and informing the
public about effects of fire, and to test the effects of fire information
levels on attitudes toward fire. The results showed that the public's
perception of recreational acceptability was more adversely affected by
severe fire than by light fire. However, the study also demonstrates that
perceptions of the effect of fire vary, depending upon types of recreation
activities. Overall, the public supports prescribed burning. The authors
point out that prescribed fires (light) should enhance perceived scenic
quality for three or more years, but they may have some adverse effects
on camping. Severe forest fires should be expected to cause significant
deterioration in scenic quality and recreational acceptability for a
prolonged time; camping and picnicking are essentially precluded in
burned areas.
Carpenter, E.H., J.G. Taylor, H.J. Cortner, P.D. Gardner,
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most fires in forest ecosystems are small and that most animals are able
to escape from wildfires is important to the public's acceptance of fires
that are not specifically designated, set, and controlled by managers.
The author points out that four factors are essential for successful
information and education programs about fire management for the
public: (1) a long-term effort to inform the public about the natural
role of fire in undisturbed ecosystems; (2) a strong consensus among
managers and concerned people about the correct use and beneficial
effects of prescribed fire; (3) public perception that the information is
scientifically sound and does not stem from an interest group with a
biased position; and (4) adequate treatment of specific public concerns
related to the use of fire, including the risks of prescribed burning getting
out of control, smoke, intrusion into populated areas and related effects
on public health, potential health hazards of burning chemically treated
sites, and aesthetic impacts.
McConnell, DWII, and S.B. Baldwin. 1991. Private, non-
industrial forest owner's perceptions of controlled burning
influencing forest management, in Fire and the Environment,
Ecological and Cultural Perspectives: Proceedings of an
International Symposium, Knoxville, TN, March 20-24,
1990, SC Nodvin, and TA Waldrop, ed. General Technical
Report SE-69, USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest
Experiment Station, Ashville, NC.
The authors point out that perceptions of controlled burning by
private and non-industrial forest (PNIF) owners provide insight into
forest management behavior of these owners. The authors conducted
personal interview of randomly selected forest owners in the Wiregrass
Region of Alabama in order to determine relationships between their
perceptions, ownership objectives, and forest management activities.
The interviews reveal that more than 66% of owners felt that controlled
burning was a useful forest management practice on their land, although
only 25% were currently using controlled burning. Both positive and
negative perceptions of controlled burning are presented. The authors
emphasize the relationship of these perceptions to owners' forest
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throughout history. The author points out that the prevalence of humans
is largely attributable to their control over fire, and that the distribution
and characteristics of fire have become deeply dependent on humans.
The author argues that humans and fire are inseparable, and that they
have repeatedly played a critical role in shaping the landscape. The
author also contends that there is less fire on earth today than in the
time of Columbus, contrary to popular belief. The author argues that
eliminating fire will not save the planet from destruction, but will only
eradicate the regenerative powers it once implemented.
Schmoyer-Weber, J. 1995. Public information on actively
burning prescribed natural fires, in Proceedings, Symposium
on Fire in Wilderness and Park Management, Missoula,
Montana, March 30-April 1, 1993, JK Brown, RW Mutch,
CW Spoon, and RH Wakimoto, ed. General Technical Report
INT-320, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research
Station, Ogden, UT.
The author presents three phases of public information on
prescribed burning. Conflicting emotions are stirred in wilderness users
and neighbors when an agency monitors fire rather than suppressing it.
The author emphasizes that members of the public who will be affected
by a fire should be informed so they will know what is going on and
what action they should take.
Smith, C. 1995. Fire issues and communication by the media,
in Proceedings, Symposium on Fire in Wilderness and Park
Management, Missoula, Montana, March 30April 1, 1993,
JK Brown, RW Mutch, CW Spoon, and RH Wakimoto, ed.
General Technical Report INT-320, USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT.
The author examines 320 stories about wildfire published since
1988. The author points out that journalists did not learn from the
mistakes they made in reporting the Yellowstone fires. The conventions
of journalism, which value drama over explanation, suggest that wildfire
and other natural catastrophes will often be reported in apocalyptic
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This article argues that fuel and climate have historically been
the primary driving and regulating forces in fire regimes. While Native
Americans may have set some fires now documented in fire-scar records,
the fires would not have burned over large areas had not the requisite
fuels been present along with necessary climatological conditions. The
authors argue that ignition sources were usually not limiting, but that,
rather, it was the fuels and related climatic conditions that were. Thus,
it is usually unnecessary to invoke human-set fires as an explanation of
the cause of fire regime patterns in the Southwest. Even if humans had
never crossed from Asia to North America, historical fire regimes in
most southwestern forests would nonetheless have been similar in most
respects to the fire regimes that have been documented.
Cook, S. 1997. Wildfire adapted ecosystems meet man's
development. Australian Journal of Emergency Management
12(2): 24-31.
The author points out that population pressure of the twentieth
century have pushed humans into fire-prone areas. This trend necessitates
the identification of potential wildfire hazards by trained observers,
followed by communication to homeowners in the affected areas.
Although efforts to reduce the wildfire hazard have increased, threats
to wildland/urban communities have not been addressed because of the
inability of agencies to cooperate, poor decision-making processes, low
priority accorded to such threats, and the unavailability of sufficient
funds to deal with these threats.
Daniel, T.C., M. Meitner, and E. Weidemann. 1997.
Human desires and fears in ecologically rational wildland
fire management, in Fire effects in Southwestern Forests:
Proceedings of the Second LaMesa Fire Symposium, Los
Alamos, N.M., March 29-31, 1994, C.D. Allen, ed. General
Technical Report RM-286, USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort
Collins, CO.
The authors point out that while natural areas are generally
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discussion, and (4) they should acknowledge that the agency may have
lost trustworthiness in the eyes of the public.
Martin, R.E. 1997. Prescribed fire as social issue, in
Conference Proceedings: Environmental Regulation and
Prescribed Fire: Legal and Social Challenges, Tampa Airport
Hilton, Tampa, FL, March 14-17, 1995, DC Bryan, ed. Center
for Professional Development, Florida State University,
Tallahassee.
The author points out that prescribed fire is a social issue, and
it automatically becomes an ecological, political, and economic issue.
The author argues that a century-long fire exclusion program has
worsened the health of wild lands. Therefore fire must be used as the
most economically and ecologically sound tool to improve natural
ecosystems. However, the public views prescribed fire suspiciously
because the public often pays attention to problematic fires. Thus,
although prescribed fire in wild lands faces strong opposition, it must
be used in conjunction with other tools to properly manage those lands.
The author stresses that the issues of prescribed fire must be addressed
through education and public involvement, and studied in context with
the total "ecologic-socio-politico-economic" picture.
Lavin, M.J. 1997. Managing fire risk to people, structures,
and the environment. Fire Management Notes 57(4): 46.
The author points out that the wildland-urban interface fire
problem has recently received increased national attention. The author
insists that the risk of fire can be managed. However, it can be reduced
only when landowners and residents cooperate with state and/or local
agencies. The author suggests that managing fire risk in the wildland-
urban interface is a shared responsibility. Federal, state, and local fire
agencies are realizing that without homeowners' involvement little
can be done to reverse the trend of fire losses from the wildland-urban
interface. Thus, the wildland-urban interface is a political minefield.
Pyne, S.J. 1997. Fire in America: A Cultural History of
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politicians perceive fire. The author suggests that it is not sufficient for
managers to just consider the technological and ecological dimensions
of fire in natural resource management. The author emphasizes that
interaction between the public and elected officials is indispensable for
gaining support for natural fire.
Policies Affecting Forest Fires (FAO 1999) and the FAO/
ITTO International Expert Meeting on Forest Fire
Management (FAO 2001a) and Legal Frameworks for Forest
Fire Management:International Agreements and National
Legislation (FAO 2002a).
The guidelines also address the objectives of the United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) that has been
established by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and
the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN 1999), particularly the
ISDR Interagency Task Force on Natural Disaster Reduction, Working
Group on Wildland Fire. The Working Group on Wildland Fire supports
the UN and other international stakeholders by providing an inter-
sectoral and interdisciplinary global platform for policy support. The
guidelines recognize that many forest fires originate in agricultural and
pastoral systems; and in degraded vegetation, outside of forest areas.
Therefore, fire management on former and degraded forest lands may
help to re-establish productive forests and to safeguard the success of
reforestation programs.
Carroll, M.S., A.J. Findley, K.A. Blatner, S.R. Mendez,
S.E. Daniels, and G.B. Walker. 2000. Social Assesment for
the Wenatchee National Forest Wildfires of 1994: Targeted
Analysis for the Leavenworth, Entiat, and Chelan Ranger
District. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report,
PNW-479.
The authors conducted a social assessment to explore local
residents' reaction to the Wenatchee Complex Fires in 1994. A primary
purpose of the study was to identify local residents' various beliefs and
values about wildfire and forest management. The study results were
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This tip sheet discusses what parents and teachers can do to help
children cope after a wildfire.
National Association of School Psychologists. (2003).
Responding to wildfires: Helping children and families;
Information for school crisis teams. Retrieved from http://
www.caspsurveys.org/NEW/pdfs/fires.pdf [PDF 167 Kb]
This article provides possible stress reactions experienced by
children after a wildfire and how crisis response teams can help them
and their families.
P.S. Roy, 2003. Forest Fire and Degradation Assessment
Using Satellite Remote Sensing and Geographic Information
System- Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (NRSA) Dehra
Dun, Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in
Agricultural Meteorology pp. 361-400
The paper focused that according to a Forest Survey of India
report, about 50 per cent of forest areas in the country are prone to fire.
It is estimated that the proportion of forest areas prone to forest fires
annually ranges from 33% in some states to over 90% in others. While
statistical data and geospatial information on forest fire are very weak
or even not available. About 90% of the forest fires in India are started
by humans. The degree of forest fire risk analysis and frequency of fire
incidents are very important factors for taking preventive measures and
post fire degradation assessment. Geospatial techniques are proving
to be powerful tools to assess the forest fire risk and degradation
assessment. The present paper also describes the present state of forests,
methodology, models and case studies of forest fire risk and degradation
assessment in context to Indian forests.
Woolf, N.B. 2003. Raging fires devastate forests, destroy
homes, and wipe out wildlife. National Animal Interest
Alliance. http://www.naiaonline.org/body/articles/archives/
fires.htm.
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expect more severe fire weather, more area burned, more ignitions and
a longer fire season. Although there will be large spatial and temporal
variation in the fire activity response to climate change. This field of
research allows us to better understand the interactions and feedbacks
between fire, climate, vegetation and humans and to identify vulnerable
regions. Lastly, projections of fire activity for this century can be used
to explore options for mitigation and adaptation.
Meahl, J. 2005. More wildfires likely as restrictions in effect.
Eloy News. 19 May.
http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=14555409&BR
D=1817&PAG=461&dept id=2220 71&rfi=8
Identifies bans on open fires enacted by the BLM and other land
trust agencies to prevent the occurrence of large wildfires this year
(2005). The bans include such activities as campfires and smoking
outdoors.
National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). 2005. Wildland
Fire Statistics. Boise, ID: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, U.S.
Dept. of the Interior. National Fire and Aviation Executive
Board. Federal Fire Policy Directives Task Group. http://
www.nifc.gov/stats/wildlandfirestats.html
Provides data for the years 1960-2004 identifying number of
fires, acres affected, and the cost of suppression.
FAO Forestry Paper 151: Fire management global assessment
2006
Fire management is an essential part of sustainable forest
management. This publication complements the Global Forest
Resources Assessment 2005 (FRA 2005) as an in-depth thematic study
on the incidence, impact and management of forest fires in different
regions of the world.
Reinhardt, B. (2007). For anyone affected by the California
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ranged greatly (-0.01 to -0.11 cm) between sites and years likely due to
differences in site-specific peat properties, catchment water supply, and
presence of seasonal ice. A DC of 400, which has been associated with
wildfire vulnerability in uplands, corresponded to a seasonal drop in WT
in the range of 4-36 cm. The slopes of the relationships between DMC
and DC with 5 and 15 cm VMC also varied greatly between sites. Our
findings suggest that these FWI components are suitable for predicting
the general moisture status and fire danger in boreal peatlands. However,
there is a need for a modified DC for specific peat types to indicate when
the WT has reached a critical depth upon which fire danger increases.
We also present a suggested framework for the development of a new
peat moisture code within the FWI.
Werth, P. A., B. E. Potter, et al. (2011). Synthesis of knowledge
of extreme fire behavior: volume I for fire managers. Portland,
OR: 144. http://www.nwccweb.us/content/products/fwx/pnw
gtr854.pdf
The National Wildfire Coordinating Group definition of extreme
fire behavior (EFB) indicates a level of fire behavior characteristics that
ordinarily precludes methods of direct control action. One or more of
the following is usually involved: high rate of spread, prolific crowning/
spotting, presence of fire whirls, and strong convection column.
Predictability is difficult because such fires often exercise some degree
of influence on their environment and behave erratically, sometimes
dangerously. Alternate terms include "blow up" and "fire storm."
Fire managers examining fires over the last 100 years have come
to understand many of the factors necessary for EFB development. This
work produced guidelines included in current firefighter training, which
presents the current methods of predicting EFB by using the crown
fire model, which is based on the environmental influences of weather,
fuels, and topography.
Current training does not include the full extent of scientific
understanding. Material in current training programs is also not the most
recent scientific knowledge. National Fire Plan funds have sponsored
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Canada. Using year 2000 Canadian land cover data, we identify locations
that burned before and after 2000. Pre- and post-fire landscape patterns
were assessed and regression tree analyses were used to identify factors
influencing national-scale fire susceptibility. Land cover composition,
forest pattern, elevation, and anthropogenic influences were quantified
for both pre- and post-fire environments. We examined recovery of
forest pattern following wildfire events and derived a large-area fire
susceptibility model using decision tree classification. Our results
indicate that 11.88% of forested ecozones were impacted by large fires.
The majority of large wildfires occur in coniferous forests characterized
by high forest cover (greater than 45%), few forest patches, large mean
forest patch area, and fragmentation-limited forest. Forests occurring at
low to intermediate distances from populated places (50-150 km) and
roads (12-72 km) experienced unexpectedly high amounts of fire, as
did lower elevation forests. After fire, percentage forest cover, number
of forest patches, forest patch size, and proportion forest patches
regenerated to pre-fire forest pattern conditions within approximately
20 years. Anthropogenic influences on wildfire susceptibility indicate
that human activity still dictates national fire regimes. Additionally,
knowledge of space-time patterns of fire-landscape interaction and
landscape pattern regeneration provides useful baselines for future
comparisons with responses to climate change.
Kalamees, R., K. Pussa, et al. (2012). "Adaptation to boreal
forest wildfire in herbs: Responses to post-fire environmental
cues in two Pulsatilla species." Acta Oecologica 38(0):
1-7. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1146609X11001147
Although boreal forests are biomes which are characterized by
periodical forest wildfires, very little is known about adaptations to fire
in forest herbs. We investigated whether a putatively fire-dependent
herbaceous species - Pulsatilla patens - demonstrated adaptive
responses to environmental cues that reflect differences in pre-fire and
post-fire environments (the presence of ericoid litter and charcoal, and
light levels). For comparison, we included in the experiment a close
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Books
S B Shows, B Clarke. 1994. Forest Fire Control. International
Book Distributors. Book Condition: New. pp. vi + 109 , Illus.
Bookseller Inventory # 7457217. ISBN 10: 8170891906 /
ISBN 13: 9788170891901.
This book discussed about the policy at national level, effect
of fire on forest values, planning of protection, prevention strategies
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Source:
http://akfireconsortium.uaf.edu (Alaska Fire Science, November 2011 -
Fire Publications)
http:// www.questia.com
http://www.fao.org/forestry/firemanagement/en/
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1239e/i1239e00.htm
http://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/dbhis/dbhis_specific_bib.asp
http://www.planning.org/research/postdisaster/bibliography.htm
http://www.mendeley.com/research/forest-fires-climate-change-21st-
century/
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969700005246
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http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Principles_Practices_Of_
Forest_Fire_Cont.html?id=mhBbPgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y
http://www.amazon.com/Natural-Anthropogenic-Disasters-
Vulnerability-Preparedness/dp/9048124972
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Ariyadasa, K.P. 2002. The Fire Situation in Sri Lanka;
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Web links
http://www.fao.org/forestry/firemanagement/en/
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1239e/i1239e00.htm
http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/fra2010/en/ (GFRA 2010)
http://akfireconsortium.uaf.edu (Alaska Fire Science, November
2011 - Fire Publications)
http://www.fireplan.gov/overview.cfm
http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/country/in/in_5.htm
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/04/090423142332.
htm
http://www.sciencedaily.com
http://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/dbhis/dbhis_specific_bib.asp
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http://www.planning.org/research/postdisaster/bibliography.htm
http://www.mendeley.com/research/forest-fires-climate-change-
21st-century/
h t t p : / / w w w. s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e / a r t i c l e / p i i /
S0048969700005246
http://ibnlive.in.com/news/its-official-37-live-below-poverty-
line/113522-3.html
http://www.ready.gov/wildfires.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8056212_forestry-firefighting-
tools.html
h t t p : / / w w w. m n r. g o v. o n . c a / e n / B u s i n e s s /
AFFM/2ColumnSubPage/STEL02_16567html
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About the Authors
Dr. Satendra, IFS
Executive Director
National Institute of Disaster Management,
New Delhi
ed.nidm@nic.in
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