A PROPOSED PLEISTOCENE/HOLOCENE LAKE IN T H E AMAZON BASIN A N D ITS SIGNIFICANCE T O AMAZO-

NIAN GEOLOGY A N D BIOGEOGRAPHY.

Carl D. Frailey (*)

E r n e s t o L u i z L a v i n a (**)
A l c e u Rancy (***)
Jonas Pereira de Souza Filho (***)

SUMMARY

Recent tudie have d^cnibed LCideApnead tna-U.gfiaphic uni.t 0 iate. Petocen

and Holoce.no. age in the weotenn pant o$ the Amazon Ba-bin. The. nzcogvUtion otfdeltaic zdi
mentation in the, uppeAi>\06t oi thzz tuU& man Rio Bbanco, Brazil, at a modenn elevation
o{> approximately 500 ,<$ee, lead* to the concision that thii> ffltm 4 situated on the
edge &4 a laige Amazonian lake that ZKtzd in the recent pat when Andean tectontim
caused a c t i v e downuxmping o& the we-tetn zdge $ the Amazon -. The nami^ication^
thi "Lago " hypothei extend into evexy anea 0^ modem Amazcm.tan geology and
biology.

INTRODUCTION

T h e strata that a r e e x p o s e d in the w e s t e r n A m a z o n Basin have p o s e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e

p r o b l e m for g e o l o g i s t s w h o have a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m i n e their temporal a n d g e o g r a p h i c e x
tent. T h e u n i f o r m i t y o f s e d i m e n t s a n d t h e virtual a b s e n c e o f fossils that c a n be re-
lated to p a r t i c u l a r strata h a s led to a g e a s s i g m e n t s o f A m a z o n i a n strata that necessar_i_
ly reflect e x a s p e r a t i o n a n d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . B e c a u s e so little h a s b e e n w r i t t e n o f the
geology o f this a r e a , a n y p u b l i s h e d geological o b s e r v a t i o n o n t h e s t r a t a o r fossils h a s
pivotal s i g n i f i c a n c e o n f u r t h e r geological interpretation. A s o f the p r e s e n t , no fewer
than s e v e n t e e n formational names c o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o strata in the v i c i n i t y of R i o B r a n -
co w i t h a g e a s s i g m e n t s ranging f r o m C r e t a c e o u s t o H o l o c e n e .
If these n a m e s a p p l y to d i s c r e t e s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s , o n e w o u l d have to say that
the depositional h i s t o r y o f w e s t e r n A m a z o n i a is indeed c o m p l e x . It is o u r o p i n i o n that

(*) D e p a r t m e n t o f C e o l o g y , M i d l a n d C o l l e g e , M i d l a n d , Texas 79705 U S A .

(**) Universidade FederaL d o R i o Grande do Sul, Centro d e Investigaes do Gondwana,
Porto A l e g r e , R S , B r a z i l .
(***) U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l d o A c r e , L a b o r a t r i o d e P e s q u i s a s P a l e o n t o l g i c a s , R i o B r a n -
co - A C , B r a z i l .

ACTA A M A Z N I C A , 1 8 ( 3 - 4 ) : 1 1 9 - 1 4 3 . 1988. 119

there is substancial duplication in the fonrational names that nave bet.' applied
to w e s t e r n A m a z o n i a and that the age range s u g g e s t e d by these f o r m a t i o n s is e x t r e m e and
likely incorrect. F o l l o w i n g a nuirfaer of recent papers on the geology of this a r e a , we
suggest tnat there are o n l y two formations that a r e e x p o s e d over m u c h of the upper
A m a z o n Basin. H o w e v e r , rather than m e r e l y sr nullifying the p r e v i o u s interpretations of
depositional h i s t o r y , o u r s t u d i e s r e d i r e c t e d our t h i n k i n g t o w a r d the i mpl i cat iens of
thick, e x t e n s i v e , and a p p a r e n t l y very young s t r a t a . If, as w e s u g g e s t , t h e s * sedimenti
accumulated in a huge lake, t n e n not o n l y is the Late P l e i s t o c e n e antf H o l o c e n e geologic
history of the upper A m a z o n m u c h d i f f e r e n t t h a n w h a t now a c c e p t e d , but the cstri-
Jutinn of m o d e r n plants and a n i m a l s , and p e r h a p s h u m a n s , reflects the p r e s e n c e o f this
recent t o p o g r a p h i c feature.

D i s c u s s i o n of P r e v i o u s Geological Work
The strata that a r e e x p o s e d in the v i c i n i t y o f Rio B r ^ o c o a n d a l o n g the Rio A c r e
in Brazil are referred to as r. heol imoes format ion in the inost recent and e x t e n s i v e r e f e -
rence to the g e o l o g y o f this a r e a RADAMRAS IL, 1 9 7 6 ) . The S o l i d e s has been d e s c r i b e d
as being c o m p o s e d of c l a y , silt a n d fipe s a n d . The clay u n i t s a r e m a s s i v e to t h i n , -with
c a l c i f i c a n d g y p i i f e r o u s c o n c r e t i o n s and v e i n s , a n d l a r g e - s c a l e c r o s s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n or
simply v a r i e g a t e d w i t h fine l a m i n a t i o n s . T h e sands a r e Fine to co a r s e , m a s s i v e , frequently
interfinger w i t h silt or c l a y , poorly to well c o m p a c t e d , have ca 1 c a r e o u s c e m e n t , and may
contain t h i n , o r g a n i c - r i c h lenses. C r o s s - b e d d i n g c a n be of small or large amplitude.
A l s o a s c r i b e d for this f o r m a t i o n n,r*i lin^onitic lenses a/id w e l l - r o u n d e d cong 1 o m e r a t e s .
This d e s c r i p t i o n a c c u r a t e l y p o r t r a y s the s u r f a c e g e o l o g y near Rio B r a n c o . From personal
o b s e r v a t i o n s of the a u t h o r s , it a l s o d e s c r i b e s the s u r f a c e g e o I o g y i s o u t h e a s t e r n P e r u (

northern S o l i v i a , and as far n o r t h as the R i o J u r u . It u n d o u b t e d l y is an a d e q u a t e de-

s c r i p t i o n o f e x p o s e d strata as far n o r t h ae the type section of the Soli/i^es Formation
on the Rio Sol inres (central t r i b u t a r y of the R i o A m a z o n ; R e g o , and p r o b a b J y north
of this river as w e l l . T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n therefore d e p i c t s the surface g e o l o g y of thi
ira j a r p o r t i o n of the w e s t e r n A m a z o n Basin despite the p l e t h o r a o f na^nes a s s i g n e d in the
geological literature.
A t t e m p t s at c o r r e l a t i o n have b e e n b e d e v i l e d by the n a t u r e of Amazonian geology.
S m a l l , usually un foss i I i f e row s e x p o s u r e s t h a t a r e nearly u n i f o r m in lithnlogy a n d w h i c h
way be s e p a r a t e d by h u n d r e d s o f m i l e s h a v been d e s c r i b e d i n d e p e n d e n t i y o v e r the last
century, Ho one r e s e a r c h e r Has s e e n the e x p o s u r e s throughout the A m a z o n Basin a n d the
geological literature i l l u s t r a t e s the limits of individual perspectives in so vast an
enterprise. W i t h the a d v e n t of large s c a l e p r o g r a m s such, as RADAMBfiAS I L, the p r o b l e m s
have been brought into s h a r p e r focus a l t h o u g h the d e f i n i t i v e s y n t h e s i s o f A m a z o n i a n g e -
ology is yet in the future. G e o l o g i c a l e x p i o r j t i o n in the w e s t e r n part of the Amazon
Basin has p r o v i d e d several n a m e d f o r m a t i o n s w h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s to e a c h o t h e r a r e still
in doubt (RADAMBRASIL, 1 3 7 7 ) . The most f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d n a n e s are the s u p p o s e d l y
temporally e q u i v a l e n t Red B e d s of S r n g e w a l d ( 1 9 2 7 ) ; the "Puca F o r m a t i o n " of Steimrar
(1323; B r a n i s a 1968, r e p l a c e d the name P u c a w i t h i 1 cofnayo and c o n s i d e r e d this as a strat_i_

1ZC Frail ey <tt a) .

g r a p h i c g r o u p a l t h o u g h " P u c a " o r " P u c a - t y p e " c o n t i n u e s to b e u s e d for A n d e a n red beds
and their s u p p o s e d A m a z o n i a n e q u i v a l e n t s , e . g . , S i m p s o n & P a u l a C o u t o , 1 9 8 1 ) ; and the
C r u z e i r o F o r m a t i o n o f O p p e n h e i m (1937) T h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y thought to be C r e t a c e o u s o r
Early T e r t i a r y . Y o u n g e r beds h a v e b e e n g i v e n a v a r i e t y of n a m e s such a s Brown Beds
1
( S i n g e w a l d , 1 9 2 8 ) , C o n t a m a n a G r o u p (Kummel , 1 9 ^ 8 ) , a n d C o r r i e n t e s F o r m a t i o n (Parra, 197 *).
An e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n yet o n e that d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e p r o b l e m s o f T e r t iary A m a z o n i a n geology
w a s that p r o p o s e d by C a p u t o , R o d r i g u e s a n d V a s c o n c e l o s (1971). They proposed that all
Tertiary formations were in fact o n l y o n e f o r m a t i o n a n d that o n e should be c a l l e d the
Solimes. In 198*f, Campbell F r a i l e y i d e n t i f i e d two formations in the v i c i n i t y of
Inapari, Peru, and restricted the Inapari F o r m a t i o n of O N E R N ( 1 9 7 7 ) to the uppermost
stratum (Fig. I ) . T h a t f o r m a t i o n a l name h a s n o w b e e n s u p p r e s s e d in favor o f the Madre
de D i o s F o r m a t i o n ( O p p e n h e i m , 19^6; Campbell R o m e r o P i t m a n n , in m a n u s c r i p t ) . On the
basis o f r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s , t h e M a d r e de D i o s F o r m a t i o n (or Inapari F o r m a t i o n , a s re
stricted) w a s thought to Be H o l o c e n e in a g e . S u b s e q u e n t d a t e s from w o o d samples taken
from the lower u n i t s o f this f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e t h a t d e p o s i t i o n of M e m b e r A o f t h e Madre
de D i o s F o r m a t i o n s (=lnapari F o r m a t i o n ) b e g a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 35,000 y e a r s a g o (modified
to 3 6 , 5 0 0 y e a r s B . P . in Campbell R o m e r o P i t t m a n , in m a n u s c r i p t ) . In C a m p b e l 1 Frailey
(198V) a n d e l s e w h e r e (Campbell e t a l . , 1 9 8 5 ; F r a i l e y , 1986) , t h e u n d e r l y i n g s t r a t u m w a s
not r e f e r r e d to a n a m e d f o r m a t i o n a n d i d e n t i f i e d o n l y a s t h e " T e r t i a r y red b e d s " . V e r t e
brate f o s s i l s f o u n d in t h e T e r t i a r y red b e d s d a t e this format ion to t h e H u a y q u e r i a n (Late
M i o c e n e ) S o u t h A m e r i c a n L a n d Mammal A g e ( F r a i l e y , 1986). Clearly, two formations are
e x p o s e d a l o n g the rivers o f the upper A m a z o n B a s i n , but r e f e r e n c e to p r e v i o u s l y named
f o r m a t i o n s is not e a s y . In this c o n t e x t , the S o l i m e s F o r m a t i o n in the v i c i n i t y of the
Rio A c r e is e i t h e r the s a m e a s t h e M a d r e de D i o s F o r m a t i o n (Inapari Formation, as re-
s t r i c t e d ) , t h e same a s t h e " T e r t i a r y red b e d s " , or equivalent to b o t h In our u n d e r -
standing of R A D A M B R A S I L ( 1 9 7 6 ) , a n d in i e w o f the ini t ial d if f icu 1 ty i s e p a r a t i n g these
two u n i t s a l o n g t h e R i o A c r e (a d i f f i c u l t y that w a s o n l y c l e a r l y s u r m o u n t e d when mam
m a l i a n f o s s i l s o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t a g e s w e r e f o u n d in the u n i t s ) , w e s u s p e c t that the S o
limes F o r m a t i o n a s n o w d e f i n e d in the S t a t e o f A c r e e n c o m p a s s e s b o t h u n i t s along the
Alto Rio A c r e .

T h e M a d r e de D i o s F o r m a t i o n s (= Inapari F o r m a t i o n ) is d i v i s i b l e into four m e m b e r s

(Campbell 6 F r a i l e y , 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e lowest m e m b e r is a n a r r o w , d a r k , o f t e n i n d u r a t e d , c l a y -
p e b b l e c o n g l o m e r a t e that w a s d e s i g n a t e d t h e A c r e C o n g l o m e r a t e M e m b e r (Campbell e t a l . ,
1985). T h e upper three m e m b e r s a r e p r i m a r i t y t h i c k u n i t s (5-20 m ) o f v a r i e g a t e d clay o r
sandy c l a y a n d o c c a s i o n a l p a l e o c h a n n e l s . O n l y the lowest o f these three (Member A of
Campbell & F r a i l e y , 1984) d i s p l a y s g r e a t v a r i a t i o n in sediment type a n d is a p p a r e n t l y a
complex s e r i e s o f channel d e p o s i t s w i t h c r o s s - b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e s and lenses of mature
sands, variegated clay, and lignitic clay. This complex lensing sequence occasionally
is r e p l a c e d l a t e r a l l y by a v a r i e g a t e d , b l o c k y clay like that s e e n i t h e upper t w o u n i t s .
The e n v i r o m e n t s of d e p o s i t i o n for t h e three upper u n i t s a p p e a r to be f l o o d p l a i n for t h e
most part w i t h p e r h a p s d e l t a i c d e p o s i t i o n for p a r t of M e m b e r A .

P u b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e R i o J u r u (Paula C o u t o , 1 9 7 8 ; S i m p s o n and Paula

C o u t o , I 9 8 I ) and field i n s p e c t i o n by one us (AR) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e A c r e Conglomerate
Member o f the M a d r e de D i o s F o r m a t i o n (= Inapari F o r m a t i o n ) is p r e s e n t a l o n g the R i o J u
ru a s w e l f . A recent p u b l i c a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d the three c l a y m e m b e r s o f the MadredeDios
F o r m a t i o n s (= Inapari Formation) a l o n g t h e R i o Beni ( C a m p b e l 1 , Fra i ley & A r e l 1 a n o , 1985).
S u b s e q u e n t f i e l d w o r k in 1985 a n d 1986 l o c a t e d all the m e m b e r s o f the M a d r e de D i o s F o r -
T i a t i o n (= Inapari Formation) a n d t h e ' T e r t i a r y red b e d s " a l o n g the Rio Madre de D i o s
f r o m R i b e r a l t a , B o l i v i a , to t h e b o r d e r o f P e r u ( C . D . F . , A . R . , a n d d e s c r i b e d in Campbell
& R o m e r o P i t t m a n n , in m a n u s c r i p t ) . Older publications have described conglomeratic
lenses o v e r l a i n by horizontal c l a y u n i t s t h r o u g h o u t the upper A m a z o n ( B r o w n , 1 8 7 9 a ; 1 8 7 9 b ;
Kurnmel , 1 9 4 8 ; R e g g & R o s e n z w e l g , 1 9 4 9 ; M o u s i n h o de M e i s , 1 9 7 ' ) I o n e publ i cat ion (De
n e v a n , I 9 8 O ) , a p h o t o g r a p h taken in 1 9 1 0 shows w h a t a p p e a r s to be the contact between
M e m b e r s a n d C o f the M a d r e de D i o s (= Inapari Formation) a l o n g the R i o H e a t h . These
publications indicate that t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y o f the R i o A c r e a s d e s c r i b e d by Campbell &
F r a i l e y (1984) e x t e n d s t h r o u g h o u t the r e g i o n .

U p p e r Rio A c r e L o w e r Rio A c r e

F i g . 1. A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n g e n e r a l i z e d g e o l o g i c s e c t i o n s in t h e State of Acre, B r a ? i l .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s for e a c h unit a r e i n d i c a t e d .
A. A l o n g the R i o A c r e , w e s t of A s s i s B r a s i l (redrawn from C a m p b e l l a n d F r a i
l e y , 1 9 8 4 ) . B. N e a r the c i t y of R i o B r a n c o . L i t h o l o g i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of the
u n i t s a r e p r o v i d e d in the t e x t . In F i g u r e A , the l o w e s t m e m b e r of the I n a p a
ri / S o l i m e s F o r m a t i o n is the A c r e C o n g l o m e r a t e .
 Geology o f the R i o B r a n c o A r e a
Along the Rio A c r e at Rio B r a n c o , a p p r o x i m a t e 1 I &Q mi I es f rom the sect ion descr ibed
by Campbell S F r a i l e y ( 1 9 8 ^ ) , the horizontal " T e r t i a r y red b e d s " a n d the four members of
the Madre de Dios F o r m a t i o n (= Inapari F o r m a t i o n ) can be seen a l o n g the Rio Acre in
sediments that are r e f e r r e d to as the S o l i m e s F o r m a t i o n in c u r r e n t g e o l o g i c literature
(RADAMBRAS I L, I97&; Fig. I ) . The q u e s t i o n then bec.orr.es: W h i ch of the two names i s correct ?
The q u e s t i o n is ir.ore d i f f i c u l t than simple g e o g r a p h i c e x t e n s ion of o n e of these formations
in that yet a n o t h e r name that has b e e n app 1 i e d to some parl of th i s i t may b e the proper
reference. Until someone can visit all the a p p l i c a b l e type s e c t i o n s , d e t e r m i n e the ex
tent of the f o r m a t i o n s , and unravel the p l e t h o r a of formational n a m e s , the m a t t e r is not
likely to be r e s o l v e d . For the m o m e n t , the q u e s t i o n is n e c e s s a r i l y left o p e n . In this
paper, the f o r m a t i o n is identified as a c o m b i n a t i o n of the two narr.es, the Madre de D i o s /
Sol inoes F o r m a t i o n . One of these is probably the correct name for the s e d i m e n t s in the
vicinity of Rio D r a n c o . If these two forrrational n a m e s prove to refer to a continuous
stratum, then the name "Sol i m o e s " (Rego, 1930) w o u l d take p r e c e d e n c e . If it can be d e
termined that the S o l i m o e s F o r m a t i o n does not e x t e n d to the Rio A c r e , then the s e d i m e n t s
are r e f e r a b l e to the M a d r e de Dios F o r m a t i o n .

fhe upper part of the M a d r e de D i o s / S o I i m o e s s e q u e n c e , M e m b e r s , , and C , are

visible in r o a d c u t s a n d along small streams south of Rio B r a n c o a n d n o r t h to the Rio
1
Puru's (Figs. 1 - * ) . M e m b e r s A a n d are v a r i e g a t e d clays t h r o u g h o u t the a r e a . M e m b e r A
is light grey to g r e e n in color w i t h nodular iron c o n c r e t i o n s and c a l c a r e o u s s t r i n g e r s .
Member is a red a n d green s i 1 ty c l a y . On an e x p o s e d s u r f a c e , both m e m b e r s w e a t h e r into
a blocky texture that is light red in c o l o r .

M e m b e r C is the u p p e r m o s t s t r a t u m of the M a d r e de Dios/Sol i<n5e-s F o r m a t i o n and can

be seen o n l y on the c r e s t s of the low hills near Rio B r a n c o . M e m b e r C is a c o m p l e x siratum
in w h i c h the lithology c h a n g e s almost w i t h e a c h h i l l t o p (Fig. 3 , w i t h o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
of depositional e n v i r o n m e n t ) . In p l a c e s , this unit is c o m p o s e d of fine sand a n d silt
that is o v e r lain by a thin clay unit w i t h b u r r o w s or m u d c r a c k s in it that is in turn
overlain by a t h i c k , v a r i e g a t e d c l a y . Elsewhere, Member C consists of cross-bedded,
fine, brown sand w i t h ripple m a r k s that is o v e r l a i n by v a r i e g a t e d r e d / g r e e n c Uiy. Membe r
C also has thinnly l a m i n a t i o n s of clay and sand o v e r l a i n by nodular clay conglomerate
that is in turn c o v e r e d by b r o w n , f i n e - g r a i n e d sand c a p p e d wi t h a c 1 ay un i t. R a p i d late_r
al l i t h o l o g i c c h a n g e s of this type are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d e l t a i c s e d i m e n t a t i o n and i rtdj^
cates the many s u b e n v i r o n m e n t s found in a d e l t a . O c c a s i o n a l l y , o n e can see an obvious
deltaic sequence such as that at k/n 15 (Figs. 3 ^) This clear e x a m p l e of p r o g r a d a t i on
strongly s u p p o r t s the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o t h e r s e d i m e n t s as h a v i n g resulted from the
shifting of v a r i o u s localized d e l t a i c s u b e n v i r o n m e n t s . At km 15, the finely laminated
clay is o v e r l a i n by silt that is in turn o v e r l a i n by trough c r o s s - b e d d e d fine sand that
is topped by a thin clay u n i t . At km A 5 , the c r o s s - b e d d e d clay a n d sand overlain by
uniform clay indicates r e p e a t e d (probably seasonal) changes of sediment as w o u l d result
from a d e l t a front that w a s s u p e r c e d e d by q u i e t - w a t e r d e p o s i t i o n , A c r e v a s s e - s p l a y is
indicated at km 1 by t h i c k , c r o s s - b e d d e d sand an<> clay u n i t s . The d i v e r g e n t dips of
these units w o u l d be d u e to the f a n - s h a p e o f the splay. Sand lenses in thick clay units
(km 8 5 , k m 144) could be interpreted a s e v i d e n c e for fluvial d e p o s i t i o n were there not
compelling e v i d e n c e for d e l t a i c d e p o s i t i o n in t h e near v i c i n i t y . A s s u c h , a n d in v i e w o f
the number a n d range of sizes that c a n be seen a t o n e e x p o s u r e , t h e s e sand units a r e in
terpreted a s having been part of the delta p l a i n o r , a s at k m 1 4 4 , part o f the series o f
distributary channels.
A t k m 4 3 , t h e sequence indicates a prograding deltaic e n v i r o n m e n t that w a s a d
v a n c i n g to the nothwest (approximately 315 d e g r e s s , F i g . 2 , 3 ) . T o the south o f t h e R i o
A c r e , a n o t h e r p r o g r a d i n g s e q u e n c e is p r e s e n t b u t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d e p o s i t i o n is to t h e
southeast (between 100 a n d 160 d e g r e s s , F i g . 2 , see a r r o w s ) . If the d i r e c t i o n s o f these
prograding d e l t a s a r e e v e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y a c c u r a t e , then o n e of two e x p l a n a t i o n s ispossj^
ble. Either two d r a i n a g e systems w e r e involved a n d the d e l t a s bear n o relation to e a c h
o t h e r , or they a r e part of o n e very large delta in w h i c h t h e sediments w e r e f a n n i n g - o u t
o v e r a large depositional b a s i n . It has been s u g g e s t e d that rivers in t h e Upper A m a z o n
occupy the d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s of e a r l i e r , larger rivers ( A l m e i d a , 1 9 7 5 , in R A D A M B R A S I L ,
I977). If the p r e s e n t - d a y R i o A c r e follows the c o u r s e o f a n e a r l i e r R i o A c r e , then it
a l s o lies b e t w e e n the directional c h a n g e o f d e l t a i c sediments a s w o u l d have the a n c i e n t
river. B e c a u s e o f this a n d the w i d e s p r e a d u n i f o r m i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o b a b l e lacustrine
o r i g i n of M e m b e r s A a n d B , w e have built o u r model o n t h e interpretation of a single,
large d e l t a . W e p r o p o s e that t h e uppermost s e d i m e n t s o f the w e s t e r n part o f the A m a z o n
Basin a r e d u e to l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , this depositional e n v i r o n m e n t in
cluded all or a major p o r t i o n of t h e A m a z o n B a s i n . This e n o r m o u s l a k e , here d e s i g n a t e d
Lago A m a z o n a s , is c o n s i d e r e d to have been a s i g n i f i c a n t factor in the geomorphologica1
and biological d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e A m a z o n Basin during the Late 1 e i s t o c e n e a n d H o i o c e n e .
The t e r m i n a t i o n o f the o l d e r river w o u l d h a v e been at R i o B r a n c o d u r i n g the t i m e o f depo
sit ion of Member C .

Member C h a s n e i t h e r a b s o l u t e n o r r e l a t i v e a g e dates a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t beyond the

fact that it is y o u n g e r than M e m b e r s A a n d B. W o o d samples taken from M e m b e r A along
the Rio M a d r e d e Dios near C a n d e l r i a , B o l i v i a , a n d o n the R i o A c r e near B l g i c a , P e r u ,
and near R i o B r a n c o , B r a z i l , have y i e l d e d d a t e s between 10,000 a n d 36,500 y e a r s (Camp
bell & F r a i l e y , 1 9 8 4 ; Campbell & R o m e r o P i t m a n n , in m a n u s c r i p t ) . T h e p r o p o s e d c y c l e s of
d e p o s i t i o n a n d erosion that c r e a t e d m e m b e r s o f the Inapari F o r m a t i o n in t h e Alto Acre
(Campbell & F r a i l e y , 1984) a r e refl e c t e d i sed iment c h a n g e s that m a r k the c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n
the units near R i o B r a n c o . N o c h a n n e l s w e r e seen in t h e s e lower units at Rio Branco.
They w e r e p r e s u m a b l y n o t e x p o s e d to e x t e n s i v e e r o s i o n this far into t h e b a s i n .
F o l l o w i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s of K u t z b a c h ( 1 9 8 1 ) , Campbell Frailey (1984) p r o p o s e d
that the upper three m e m b e r s o f the M a d r e de Dios (= Inapari) F o r m a t i o n a r e c o r r e l a t i v e
to w o r l d c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e Late P l e i s t o c e n e a n d H o l o c e n e . If this is t r u e ,
than the d e p o s i t i o n o f M e m b e r C m a y h a v e begun a s recently a s 2800 y e a r s a g o . T h e current
t i p o g r a p h i c e x p r e s s i o n o f this r e g i o n , a n d by e x t e n s i o n nearly all of the upper A m a z o n ,
may t h e r e f o r e be v e r y y o u n g . T h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f this temporal re-order i ng a r e stagger^
ing a n d e x t e n d into every field o f A m a z o n i a n s c i e n c e . H o w e v e r , w h i l e c e r t a i i ews must
either be m o d i f i e d or a b a n d o n e d , o t h e r q u e s t i o n s that have p e r s i s t e n t l y e v a d e d e x p l a n a -
nation now have a theoretical a n s w e r .

Fig. 2. The r i v e r s a n d p r i n c i p l e c i t i e s of the e a s t e r n h a l f of the State of A c r e . T h e

TransAmazon Highway between Rio Branco and Sena Madureira (BR-364) is m a r k e d .
N u m b e r s indicate K i l o m e t e r s n o r t h of the b r i d g e at Igarap So F r a n c i s c o at the
n o r t h e r n edge of R i o B r a n c o and c o r r e s p o n d to s e c t i o n s illustrated in F i g u r e s
3 a n d 4.
K i l o m e t e r 155 is the F a z e n d a L u l a L o c a l i t y . The two h o l l o w arrows near R i o B r a n -
co i n d i c a t e the general d i r e c t i o n of p r o g r a d a t i o n in d e l t a i c s e d i m e n t s of M e m b e r
C, I n a p a r i / S o l i m e s F o r m a t i o n .
F i g . 3. C o m p a r a t i v e litholofiies a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s found
in M e m b e r C of the I n a p a r i / S o l i m e s F o r m a t i o n in the v i c i n i t y o Rio Branco
and Sena M a d u r e i r a . K i l o m e t e r d e s i g n a t i o n s refer to d i s t a n c e s north of I g a r a -
p So F r a n c i s c o (Fig. 2) on the T r a n s A m a z o n H i g h w a y . V e r t i c a l scale of the
drawings is v a r i a b l e and g i v e n in p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r each K i l o m e t e r designation,
. Near B u j a r i , K m 15 (4 m ) ; . k m A3 (2 m ) ; C. K m 45 (1.5 m ) ; D. K m 4 7 (2 m ) ;
E . K m 8 5 0 0 m) ; F. K m 103 (10 m ) ; G. K m 143 (4 ) ; , K m 144 (4 m) , a p p r o x i
m a t e l y 1 k m s o u t h e a s t o f the K i o C a e t e .
 proposed Pleistocene/liolocene
 45 km

47 km

F i g . 4. P h o t o g r a p h s of M e m b e r C, lttap;<ri/Sal ime.s F o r m a t i o n . A. N e a r Bu.inri, K m 15

B, Km 4 3 . C , K m 4 5 . D. K m 4 7 . Th-e strsuif nsphy of ihii-s? o u t c r o p s is de
scribed in F i g u r e 3.
 Implications of Lago A m a z o n a s : Geology
T h e p r e s e n c e of a large T e r t i a r y lake or l a k e s , a n e s t u a r y , or e v e n a m a r i n e em-
bayment in the w e s t e r n part of the A m a z o n B a s i n is n o t a n unusual c o n c e p t a n d has b e e n
frequently m e n t i o n e d in t h e s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e (Reqq & Rosenzweig, 1949; Oliveira,
1956; P a u l a C o u t o , 1 9 5 6 ; S o m b r o e k , 1 9 6 6 ; S i o l i , 1968). T h i s i s , in f a c t , the usual e x p l a n a
tion for the e x p o s e d , horizontal c l a y u n i t s a l t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y b a s e d o n o l d e r , highly
speculative w o r k . Our o b s e r v a t i o n s o v e r the upper A m a z o n B a s i n f r o m the Rio Beni , Bol_i_
v i a , to t h e Rio P u r u s , B r a s i l , have c o n v i n c e d u s that c o r r e l a t i o n of clearly d e f i n e d ,
1 ithological 1y u n i f o r m s t r a t a is p o s s i b l e o v e r c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s . T h a t w o u l d be ex
pected a s a result of l a r g e - s c a l e l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t i o n a n d not f r o m a s e r i e s of cut-off
meanders. F u r t h e r m o r e , this l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t i o n if of L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e / H o l o c e n e a g e .
Irion ( 1 9 7 6 , 1984) s u g g e s t s a d e p o s i t i o n a l p a t t e r n for t h e lower A m a z o n of relatively
large, t e m p o r a r y lakes d u r i n g the P l e i s t o c e n e a n d H o l o c e n e d u e to c h a n g i n g sea l e v e l . W e
are b a s i c a l l y in a g r e e m e n t w i t h h i s e v i d e n c e yet s u g g e s t a m u c h larger body o f w a t e r and,
at least in the upper A m a z o n , t e c t o n i c control o f the d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s i n . Other e v i d e n c e
for late H o l o c e n e f l o o d i n g , a n d p e r h a p s a c o n t i n u o u s l a k e , c a m e s f r o m a series of lakes
in the u p p e r A m a z o n b a s i n of E c u a d o r at e l e v a t i o n s b e t w e e n 3 0 0 - 7 0 0 m ( C o l i n v a u x , e t a l . ,
I985). Certainly, radically different environments of deposition are indicated for a
great p o r t i o n of t h e A m a z o n B a s i n in t h e r e c e n t p a s t .

A c c o r d i n g to c u r r e n t t h i n k i n g , the rising A n d e s b l o c k e d t h e d r a i n a g e s t s y e m s that

extended w e s t w a r d f r o m the G u i a n a a n d B r a z i l i a n h i g h l a n d s ( B e u r l e n , 1 9 7 0 ; P u t z e r , 1 9 8 4 ,
and o t h e r s ) . D u r i n g t h e M i o c e n e a n d P l i o c e n e , s e d i m e n t s from these s y s t e m s a n d f r o m the
Andes a c c u m a l a t e d in t h e r e g i o n o f t h e U p p e r A m a z o n . A t some t i m e , a n o u t let to t h e sea
formed in t h e p r e s e n t location o f t h e lower A m a z o n R i v e r . W i t h d o w n c u t t i n g t h r o u g h the
exposed P r e c a m b r i a n r o c k s , the lakes of the upper A m a z o n w e r e e m p t i e d a n d the present-
day A m a z o n d r a i n a g e w a s f o r m e d . It is o u r f e e l i n g that the structural f r a m e w o r k b e h i n d
the d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e late P l e i s t o c e n e a n d H o l o c e n e s e d i m e n t s o f t h e M a d r e de Dios/SolJ^
mes F o r m a t i o n is s i m i l a r to t h a t p r o p o s e d for t h e same s t r a t a w h e n it w a s thought they
were Late T e r t i a r y in a g e . T h e s t r a t a s i m p l y a r e m u c h y o u n g e r a n d t h e r e f o r e the t e c t o n i c
events a r e m o r e r e c e n t .
Interior b a s i n f o r m a t i o n a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t e c t o n i s m c a u s e d by c o n v e r g i n g p l a t e s
has been s u g g e s t e d for Late C r e t a c e o u s a n d C e n o z o i c b a s i n s of western North America
(Scholz e t a l . , 1 9 7 1 ; D i c k i n s o n , 1 9 7 6 ; C r o s s & P l l g e r J r . , 1 9 7 8 ) . Subsi d e n c e a n d sed irrent
a c c u m u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s , for e x a m p l e , o c c u r r e d in s t a g e s a n d e x c e e d the r e s -
ponse p r e d i c t e d f r o m s e d i m e n t loading a l o n e (Cross P l g e r J r . , 1 9 7 8 ) . C r o s s & Pilger
suggest that s h a l l o w p l a t e s u b d u c t i o n (Fig. 5A) rather t h a n sediment loading was the
cause o f s u b s i d e n c e in the interior o f N o r t h A m e r i c a d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s . Furthermore,
they suggest that the upper A m a z o n B a s i n is a m o d e r n a n a l o g u e of shallow plate sub
duction. T h e recent identification of v o l c a n i c lakes in the A m a z o n B a s i n o f Ecuador
(Colinvaux et a l . , 1 9 8 5 ) , is a n a r g u m e n t for this h y p o t h e s i s . A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e t e c t o n i c
m e c h a n i s m is i s o s t a t i c a d j u s t m e n t to t h e additional load of t e l e s c o p e d thrust sheets in
an " A n d e a n - t y p e " converging boundary (Fig. 5 B ; P r i c e , 1^73; D i c k i n s o n , 1 976) . This meclma
ism is in a c c o r d w i t h basin location, wedge-shape of the s e d i m e n t s , and intermittent
depositional activity in the N i o b r a r a Sea and the A m a z o n B a s i n . However, although this
mechanism is p o s t u l a t e d for d e p r e s s i o n in the upper A m a z o n B a s i n , the extent of basin
depression is not thought to have p r o d u c e d an inland seaway e q u i v a l e n t to the Niobrara
Sea, For c o n c o r d a n c e w i t h the h y p o t h e s i s of Lago A m a z o n a s , the o n ) y n e e d e d m o d i f i c a t i o n
is an increased rate of d e p r e s s i o n that at t im s e x c e e d e d sed i m e n tat i o n , The resu I t v.oul d
be a freshwater body o f w a t e r that o c c u p i e d the central A n d e a n f o r e l a n d basin at various
times during the Late C e n o z o i c . Either h y p o t h e s i s , s h a l l o w plate s u b d u c t i o n or thrust
sheet d o w n w a r p i n g , is a c c e p t a b l e frcm o u r v i e w p o i n t . The critical factor is a reasonable
tectonic m e c h a n i s m that c o u l d have c r e a t e d a d o w n - w a r p e d b a s i n in a n a r e a that w a s an
extremely low gradient and receives large volumes of p r e c i p i t a t i o n a n d r u n - o f f .
A p p l y i n g the c o n c e p t of a foreland b a s i n , d e p o s i t i o n in the An'azon Bas i i s 1 i n k e d
to the uplift of the A n d e s . The p r o c e s s of rr.oun ta i n-bu i 1 d i ng in the Andes has not
p r o c e e d e d steadily but rather o c c u r r e d in stages with long periods of q u i e s e n c e between
1
periods of a c t i v e t e c t o n i s m (Noble e t al ,, 197 !). T h e last of these p o s t u l a t e d episodes
of t e c t o n i s m o c c u r r e d from the M i d d l e M i o c e n e through the P l i o c e n e . It is this e p i s o d e
that we c o r r e l a t e w i t h the d e p o s i t i o n of the T e r t i a r y red b e d s . T h e lack of a c o m p l e t e
temporal sequenci.- is therefore a result of n o n - d e p o s i t i o n d u r i n g a time of relative qui
escence (as for e x a m p l e , tfie a b s e n c e of strata oetvteen the Late M i o c e n e "red b e d s " and
the Late P l e i s t o c e n e M a d r e de D i o s / S o 1 i m e s F o r m a t i o n ) . The o v e r l y i n g M a d r e de D i o s / S o
1imoes F o r m a t i o n w o u l d represent a later p e r i o d of a c t i v i t y (Late P l e i s t o c e n e a n d Holo-
cene). During this last p e r i o d of u p l i f t , we p r o p o s e that sediments fiI 1ed t he fore I and
basin of the upper A m a z o n from large rivers that lay in the upper v a l l e y s o f the pr.snt
day Amazon t r i b u t a r i e s . The current p e r i o d of relative q u i e s c e n c e and erosion rather
than d e p o s i t i o n in the A m a z o n B a s i n , may not be the advent of a p o s t - t e c t o n c p h a s e , but
may instead mark a q u i e t interlude in a larger e p i s o d e .
Sediments a l s o e n t e r e d the basin f r o m the B r a z i l i a n h i g h l a n d s to the e a s t . At
Esperanza F a l l s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 km below R i b e r a l t a , Boi iia, t h e R i Beni passes through
a series of falls c r e a t e d by e x p o s e d P r e c a m b r i a n rocks of the raz i 1 i an Shie1 d . Here too,
and e x t e n d i n g w e s t w a r d toward R i b e r a l t a , js a thick c o n g l o m e r a t e at the base of the Madre
de D i os/Sol linoes F o r m a t i o n . Dy its s t ra t i g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n , th i s cong 1 o m e r a t e w o n 1 d seem
to be the same a s the Acre C o n g l o m e r a t e M e m b e r , but that is not so. U n l i k e the A c r e Con_
g l o m e r a t e , this conn. 1 o p e r a t e cornsists of fragments of the s h i e l d , Clast size reaches 30
cm at Esperan2a Falls and d i m i n i s h e s to the e a s t . A p p r o x i m a te 1y 1 5 km east of the f a l l s ,
the c o n g l o m e r a t e is no longer s e p a r a b l e from finer s e d i m e n t s of the Madre de D i o s / S o l i -
rnes F o r m a t i o n , A p p a r e n t l y , during the Late P l e i s t o c e n e , the f o r e l a n d bas i of the upper
Amazon was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d o w n w a r p e d and s e d i m e n t s e n t e r e d both from the east and Lhe w e s t ,
There p r e s u m a b l y w a s an e a s t e r n m a r g i n to this great inland lake a l t h o u g h w e have
seen no direct e v i d e n c e o t h e r than the cong 1 o p e r a t e that o r g i n a t e d near Eeperanza Fal 1 s .
The e l e v a t i o n o f the e a s t e r n m a r g i n of the upper A m a z o n basin may not have been higher
than it is today, but n e e d only have been higher than the d o w n w a r p e d upper A m a z o n , The
e a s t e r n m a r g i n m a y h a v e b e e n located at t h e Iquitos A r c h , the P u r u s A r c h , o r the G u r u p
Horst. In that same o r d e r , t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s i n d u r i n g the Late C e n o z o i c c o u l d have
included o n l y the A c r e S u b b a s i n , the A c r e S u b b a s i n and the Upper Amazon Subbasin, or
these t w o a n d the M i d d l e A m a z o n S u b b a s i n (Fig. 6, n a m e s of structural a r c h e s and sub-
basins f o l l o w s B i g g a r e l l a , 1 9 7 3 ) . B a s e d o n t h e t h i c k w e d g e of s e d i m e n t s p r o p o s e d by ij
g a r e l l a (1973) a n d t h e r e l a t i v e l y t h i n a n d horizontal u p p e r s t r a t a i t h e mi d d l e a n d lower
A m a z o n i a n s u b b a s i n s , w e s u g g e s t that L a g o A m a z o n a s e x i s t e d p r i m a r i l y in t h e upper two
subbasins. T h e a p p a r e n t c o n t i n u i t y o f C e n o z o i c s t r a t a t h r o u g h o u t these three s u b b a s i n s
(Fig. 7) s u g g e s t s that at times the e a s t e r n m a r g i n o f the A m a z o n i a n f o r e l a n d may have
e x t e n d e d m u c h farther east a n d p e r h a p s a s f a r a s t h e G u r u p H o r s t . If this is t r u e , then
all o f the p r e s e n t - d a y A m a z o n B a s i n w a s a s i n g l e d e p o s i t i o n a l environment (lacustrine)
and the M a d r e d e D i o s / S o l i m o e s F o r m a t i o n m a y e x t e n d f r o m t h e b a s e o f t h e A n d e s to the
m o u t h o f the A m a z o n (Fig. 8 ) . The correlation of oscillatory floodplains in the lower
basin w i t h g l a c i a l - e u s t a t i c f l o o d p l a i n s f o u n d o n p a s s i v e c o a s t s i o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s (Klam
mer, 1984), indicates that t h e lower b a s i n w a s r e s p o n d i n g to w o r l d w i d e sea-level changes.
A l t h o u g h the level o f h y p o t h e s i z e d L a g o A m a z o n a s w o u l d have f l u c t u a t e d w i t h c h a n g e s in
w o r l d g l a c i a t i o n , it c a n n o t b e c l e a r l y s h o w n w h e t h e r trrracing in the lower b a s i n is
r e s p o n d i n g to o s c i 1 I a t i n g sea-level ( u l t i m a t e base Ievel) o r osci11 a t i n g 1 a k e 1evel (tempo
rary b a s e l e v e l ) . In o u r m o d e l , w e p r o p o s e a l a r g e , c o n t i n u o u s d e p o s i t i o n a l basin from
the b a s e o f the A n d e s to the G u r u p H o r s t . A c c o r d i n g l y , m u c h of th i s a r e a (but not n e c e ^
sarily a l l , o r all at o n e time) w a s c o v e r e d by a v a s t l a k e w i t h l a r g e o s c i l l a t i o n s in lake
level i n d i c a t e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g i e s o f M e m b e r s A , B , a n d C i the M a d r e d e D i o s /
S o l i m e s F o r m a t i o n (recent o b s e r v a t i o n s by P r o f 3
R o s a l i e B e n c h i m o 1 o f the U n i v e r s i d a d e

Federal do Amazonas indicate that these m e m b e r s , a n d t h e r e f o r e the lake o s c i l l a t i o n s

that w e s u g g e s t c a u s e d t h e m , d i d not e x t e n d far into t h e upper A m a z o n B a s i n , personal
communication, 11.29.87). T h e m a j o r d o w n w a r p i n g o c c u r r e d at the base o f t h e A n d e s . H e r e ,
t o o , o c c u r r e d t h e g r e a t e s t a c c u m u l a t i o n of s e d i m e n t s a n d p e r h a p s t h e m o s t stable lake
conditions. E a s t e r n basinal d e p o s i t i o n is likely to have b e e n m o r e i n f l u e n c e d by s e d i -
m e n t s that o r i g i n a t e d from t h e e x p o s e d s h i e l d t h a n by e v e n t s a l o n g the w e s t e r n c o a s t of
South America. T h e r e f o r e , s e d i m e n t type a s well a s t h i c k n e s s of the u n i t s c a n be e x -
Dected tft c h a n g e as the s t r a t a a r e traced e a s t w a r d a c r o s s the A m a z o n i a n s u b b a s i n s .
Under the Lago A m a z o n a s model , t h e e n d o f the m o s t recent p h a s e o f a c t i v e t e c t o n i s m
b r o u g h t a n e n d to d o w n w a r p i n g . S e d i m e n t s c e a s e d to pour into t h e f o r e l a n d b a s i n o f the
Upper A m a z o n , a n d i s o s t a t i c a d j u s t m e n t lifted t h e basinal s e d i m e n t s to t h e i r c u r r e n t e l e -
v a t i o n s (between 2 2 0 a n d 2 6 0 m ) . T h e n e w l y d e v e l o p e d d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s c a r v e d the u n d u -
lating t o p o g r a p h y that is seen o v e r t h e u p p e r A m a z o n B a s i n .
O n e f u r t h e r , a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e , d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p r o p o s e d A m a z o n B a s i n of the
recent past a n d that of t o d a y , is the location of the b a s i n ' s outlet to the s e a . The
e x t r a o r d i n a r y size o f t h e lower A m a z o n R i v e r a n d the g r e a t vai I ey t h i s r i v e r h a s s e e m i n g l y
c a r v e d t h r o u g h the s h i e l d rocks c a u s e o n e to think t h a t the p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n o f the lower
A m a z o n River is a s a n c i e n t a s the river itself. H o w e v e r , several other f a c t o r s , both
g e o m o r p h i c a n d b i o l o g i c , indicate a n o r t h e r n o u t l e t t h r o u g h the O r i n o c o V a l l e y that h a s
only recently c e a s e d to be the p r i m a r y o u t l e t . I n d e e d , this c o n n e c t i o n in not yet fully
severed. The O r i n o c o a n d the R i o Negro a r e c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h o u t the year across the
Caslquiare Canal. During e a c h y e a r , seasonal d i f f e r e n c e s in rainfall c a u s e s w a t e r flow
from the O r i n o c o to the R i o N e g r o o r just the reverse ( L o w e - M c C o n n e l , 1975, p . 73) This
u n u s u a l , if n o t u n i q u e , c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n two major w a t e r systems m a y have formed by
the normal p r o c e s s of h e a d w a r d e r o s i o n in both the O r i n o c o and R i o N e g r o . H o w e v e r , it
seems u n l i k e l y that such a c o n n e c t i o n w o u l d long remain as a g e o m o r p h i c feature e v e n c o n
sidering the tremendous rainfall this area r e c e i v e s . The C a s i q u i a re C a n a 1 , in the c o n t e x t
of a d o w n w a r p i n g w e s t e r n e d g e o f the A m a z o n B a s i n , m a y be seen a s a l i n g e r i n q c o n n e c t i o n
b e t w e e n a n o r t h e r n o u t l e t that has c e a s e d to be the p r i m a r y o u t l e t as it too a d j u s t s to
isostatic uplift (a h y p o t h e s i s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by b i o g e o g r a p h y ) , H o w e v e r , the p r e s e n c e
of a large d e e p - s e a fan o f f the m o u t h of the A m a z o n R i v e r , the Amazon Cone, indicates
that an O r i n o c o o u t l e t w a s not the only d r a i n a g e o u t l e t d u r i n g the L a t e C e n o z o i c (Damuth
E. K u m a r , 1975; K r o n b e r g e t al . , 1986). W e suggest that the d r a i n a g e outlet oscillated
between the O r i n o c o a n d lower A m a z o n v a l l e y s in c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h a c t i v e downwarping
of the upper A m a z o n B a s i n , D u r i n g p h a s e s of a c t i v e t e c t o n i s m in the central A n d e s , the
f o r e l a n d basin of the upper A m a z o n w o u l d have been f o r n d a n d Lago A m a z o n a s would have
d r a i n e d t h r o u g h a likewise lowered O r i n o c o v a l l e y . D u r i n g p h a s e s of r e l a t i v e tectonic
q u i e s c e n c e , as at p r e s e n t , isostacy may have tilted the bowl o f the A m a z o n B a s i n to the
east until the e a s t e r n o u t l e t w a s b r e e c h e d and Lago A m a z o n a s c o l l a p s e d .

Pie- 5 C o n t r a s t i n g t h e o r i e s on the f o r m a t i o n of a f o r e l a n d b a s i n . . F o r e l a n d b.isni

c a u s e d by a s h a l l o v l y s u b d u c t e d p l a t e ( r e d r a w n fruto CroEH jnd P i l f e r , l )R2) . c

. F o r e l a n d b a s i n c a u s e d b y i s o s t a t i c a d j u s t m e n t u> a b a c k a r c f o l d - t b r u s t b e l t
(redrawn from D i c k i n s o n , 97-6). A r r o w s inflirate ;;ui^ idenco in the foreland
basin.
F i g . 6. T h e l o c a t i o n s s i g n i f i c a n t a r c h e s a n d s u b - b a s i n s in the A m a z o n B a s i n (modified
f r o m B i g a r e l l a , 1 9 7 3 ) . S u b - b a s i n s (from w e s t to e a s t ) : A , A c r e ; U , U p p e r , M ,
M i d d l e ; M B , M a r a j . S t r u c t u r a l a r c h e s (from w e s t to e a s t ) : I, I q u i t o s , P, P u -
rus; G, Gurupa.

Implications o f L a g o A m a z o n a s : B i o g e o g r a p h y
C e r t a i n b i o g e o g r a p h i c a s p e c t s of the O r i n o c o a n d A m a z o n b a s i n s al so support a prevj_
o u s c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n these two v a l l e y s . For e x a m p l e , the o e t e o o 1 o s s i d f i sh appear unable
to e x t e n d their r a n g e s upriver b e y o n d rapids ( G o u l d i n g , 1 9 8 0 . ) . Yet the o s t e o g l o s s i d s
o c c u r in b o t h the t r i b u t a r i e s of the A m a z o n (below the rapids) and in the O r i n o c o River
(above t h e r a p i d s ) . In the f r a m e w o r k of a n o r t h w a r d d r a i n a g e of the A m a z o n B a s i n , this
w o u l d not v i o l a t e G o u l d i n g ' s h y p o t h e t i c a l b a r r i e r to o s t e o g l o s s i d range e x t e n s i o n . T h o s e
o s t e o g l o s s i d s a b o v e t h e rapids o f the O r i n o c o m a y be part of a once c o n t i n u o u s range
that e x t e n d e d n o r t h w a r d f r o m the A m a z o n B a s i n .
M o r e d i r e c t e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m a recently c o m p l e t e d study of the fossil mollusks
of the A m a z o n B a s i n ( N u t t a l , personal c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) . T h e fossil m o H u s k s o f the A m a z o n
a r e a p p a r e n t l y m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to those of the C a r i b b e a n than to those the P a c i f i c
Ocean. T h i s t o o i n d i c a t e s a n e x t e n s i v e - f o r m e r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the A m a z o n a n d O r i n o c o
drainage systems and a Caribbean drainage outlet.
O t h e r z o o g e o g r a p h i c a s p e c t s of A m a z o n i a n f i s h relate to the h y p o t h e s i s of L a g o A m a
zonas. Several s p e c i e s of small A m a z o n i a n f i s h a r e c o n f i n e d to the upper extents of
t r i b u t a r y s t r e a m s on the p e r i p h e r y of the b a s i n a n d a r e not f o u n d in the A m a z o n River
itself (Gry, 1964, 1984). Under the e x i s t i n g river p a t t e r n , the e x i s t e n c e of the same
species in small rivers o n o p p o s i t e sides of the m a i n channel require either migration
a c r o s s the m o u t h of the A m a z o n R i v e r o r c h a n n e l - h o p p i n g (leaving no intervening p o p u l a
tions) a l o n g the b a s e of the A n d e s (Fig. 9 A ) . B o t h r o u t e s a r e u n l i k e l y for small f i s h ,
as G e r y , r e a l i z e d , but no a l t e r n a t i v e is p o s s i b l e if the m o d e r n d r a i n a g e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d
in the E a r l y C e n o z o i c . A third possibility is that these p o p u l a t i o n s represent a relic
tual d i s t r i b u t i o n s f r o m r e c e n t l y w i d e s p r e a d lake p o p u l a t i o n s of these s p e c i e s (Fig. 9 B ) .
 west east

U MB
ivy ^0^^:;

I G
Fig. 7. G e o l o g i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n of the A m a z o n B a s i n (modified f r o m B i g a r e l l a , 1 9 7 3 ) .
S t i p p l i n g i n d i c a t e s the y o u n g e s t unit that is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d to b e Terti_
a r y . A thin v e n e e r of h o r i z o n t a l , Q u a t e r n a r y s e d i m e n t s o v e r l i e s these T e r t i
ary s e d i m e n t s . S u b - b a s i n s (from w e s t to e a s t ) : A , A c r e ; U , U p p e r ; M . M i d d l e ;
M B , M a r a j . S t r u c t u r a l arches (from west to e a s t ) : I, I q u i t o s ; P, P u r u G,
Gurup.

Fig. 8. A r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of Lago A m a z o n a s w i t h a n o r t h e r n outlet t h r o u g h the Orinoco

V a l l e y . L a k e m a r g i n is d r a w n o n the 500 f t . (152.4 m) c o n t o u r l i n e .

Fig. 9. A. H y p o t h e s i z e d p a t h s of range e x t e n s i o n s in some A m a z o n i an f i s h e s (from Gry,

1 9 6 4 ) . . A r e d u c e d Lago A m a z o n a s , d r a w n on the 100 m contour l i n e , w i t h h y
p o t h e s i z e d r e l i c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of lake f i s h in '.he newly formed river
channels,
Normal vicariance biogeography can then be called upon to explain the disjunct distri
butions of small Amazonian fish.
The diversity of Amazonian fishes provides additional support for the former ex
istence of a vast freshwater lake over the whole of the Amazon Basin. The great numberof
species (over 2400) is far greater than typical for a river system and inv ite comparison
to the diversity of cichlid fishes in the great lakes of East Africa (Lowe-McConnel1,
1975). The opportunity for resource partitioning anenduring, stable environment such
as a lake is a ready explanation for species diversity and has been documented in the
fossil record (Smith, 1975) Also in Smith (1975)> the return to river conditions was
followed by a radical drop in species diversity. Species abundance among Amazonian f i sh
may represent lacustrine resource partitioning that has not adjusted to riverine condi
tions due to the recency of this change. Perhaps this explanation has not been applied
to the question of Amazonian diversity because of the extraordinary dimensions of the
hypothetical lake. It seems as probable an explanation as those that propose speciation
under current conditions of Amazonian drainage (Lowe-McConnel1, 1975; Sal o e t al.,1986).
Species diversity of fishes in the Orinoco and Amazon basins contrasts sharply with
diversity in the nearby Magdalena River of Colombia (Lundberg e t a l . , 1986). Although
previous taxonomic similarity followed by extirpation in the Magdalena River may be a
factor as Lundberg et a l . , 1986, suggested, this lack of diversity may a I so be exp1 ained
if the Magdalena River never developed diversity equal to that of the larger systems due
to different geologic histories. This second explanation seems more in accord with the
information presented by Weitzman & Fink (1985) on endemism of xenurobryconi fish in
the Magdalena and Amazon basins.
The zoogeographic implications of a large lake in the Amazon Basin during the Late
Pleistocene and much of the Holocene are of course profound. The seemi ngl y d i sjunct ranges
of the same or closely allied species that are difficult to explain due to present-day
geomorphic features have been noted and commen ted upon by numerous researchers . For example,
the centripetal migration of primates and flora from the peripheral highlands into the
interior of the Amazon Basin (and the recency of that event) are discussed by Camp (1952)
and Hershkovitz (1972). The extension of ranges and subsequent isolation due to the
development of a large drainage system following the collapse of Lago Amazonas is a new
interpretation for these observations.
In recent years, the Tropical Forest Refugia Model of Haffer (I969> 1974) and Van
zolini Williams (1970) has been a mode! for biological studies in the Amazon (Duell-
man, 1979; and Prance, 1982). Until the discovery of the young age of the Amazonian sedi
ments, it was the only comprehensive and plausible explanation for zoogeographic distri
butions. Under this model, as the forest retreated and fragmented before the expanding
plains (presumably during the dry periods that corresponded to the glacial advances in
the northern hemisphere), the forest taxa were isolated. The resultant a 11opatric speci
ation lingers as contiguous range boundaries among species of a now reunited forest.
 The forest rebuff i o ooel is elegant in i t* logic yet docs leavr soir.c n....-.c ioiv.
unanswered. For e x a m p l e , it seems most a p p l i c a b l e to terrestrial a n i m a l s and plants.
V e l t z m s n W e i t z m a n (19^2) s p e c i F i ca 1 I y a d d r e s s e d the q u e s t i o n of the re fug i urn m o d e 1 U i e
A m a z o n i a n fish d i s t r i b u t i o n . In v:hiL they s t r e s s e d w a s an aa r 1 y t udy of t h i sfci n d , they
could find no c l e a r relationship between h y p o t h e s i zed forest refugia and distributions
of F o r e s t - r e s i r i c t e d f i s h . Nor does the model a l l o w for tht likely occurrence, of c o n i-
dor forests a l o n g the m a r g i n s of the p r e s u m e d stable d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n . In fact, a l t h o u g h
the hypothetical refugia a r e v a r i o u s l y p l a c e d by d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s , t h* n'ajorl ty are.
s i t u a t e d in the upper reaches of the t r i b u t a r y streams at e I vat ions b e t w e e n $ a n d I ODD
feet (Fit], I I ) . That is the the location a n d e l e v a t i o n of rhe hypothesiJed deltaic
sediments of 2one C in the M a d r e de Dins/oI imoes F o r m a t i o n a s seen in the v i c i n i t y of
filo Branco, U s i n g the lower figure (500 f e e t , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 m) to reconstruct the
m a r g i n s of a grual lai;e, most o f the p r o p o s e d r e f u g i a c a n b e a c c o m m o d a t e d a l o n g the lake
b o r d er (Fig. 1 1 ) .

The: forest refugia model is further c h a l l e n g e d I r, that pa lyno logical s a m p l i n g of

o n e p r e s u m e d re fugi urn in Ecuador gavi; e v i d e n c e for a m o n t a n e , A n d e a n forest, between
26,00.(1 y e a r s b , p . (Kam-biu Col i n v a u x , 19^5)- In this c a s e , h y p o t h e s i z e d lago Amazo
nas a n d altitudnal d e p r e s s i o n of the A n d e a n f l o r a , t o g e t h e r , may have di s r u p t e d the rain
forest- in t h e w e s t e r n A m a z o n B a s i n ,
Recent p a p e r s have s u g g e s t e d that habitat d i v e r s i t y a n d d i s t u r b a n c e due to f l o o d -
plain c o n d i t i o n s p r o v i d e a more p a r s i m o n i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n of Amazonian- d i v e r s i t y a n d dis_
tri but ions ( R a ^ s a ^ n e n , S a l a K a l l i o l s , 1907; Col invaux, 1967). A l t h o u g h f l o o d p l a i n d i s
turbance in a m a t u r e landscape cannot be d e n i e d under present c o n d i t i o n s a n d is p l a u s i b l e
for the recent p a s t , these p a p e r s do not a d d r e s s the remarkable p a t t e r n s o f Amazonian d i s
tributions that p r o v o k e d the f o r m u l a t i o n a n d ready a c c e p t a n c e of the rafugihim inodel.
T h e theories of Forest refugia a n d Lago A m a z o n a s a r e not i n c o m p a t i b l e . A n integral
p a r t of the refugis model is the w i d e s p r e a d p r e s e n c e of a p l a i n s b i o t a in the Amazon
Basin (and s u p p o r t e d by pa lynoSogicel studies such a s that of A b s y v a n der Haimnen,
1976). G r a s s l a n d s could have btr.n present d u r i n g lake level o s c i l l a t i o n s , o r , if the
c o l l a p s e of L a g o A m a z o n a s w a * a s rapid as s u g g e s t e d by the recent a g e of the s e d i m e n t s ,
normal ecological s u c c e s s i o n w o u l d havs p r o d u c e d a vast g r a s s l a n d that then quickly sue
cuiraned to the c l i m a x f o r e s t .
An Interesting a d d i t i o n to this d i s c u s s i o n is that A m a z o n i a n 1 i n g u i s 1 i c home 1 ands,
like forest r e f u g i a , a r e p l a c e d o n the p e r i p h e r y of the A m a z o n Basin a n d a p p e a r to s u p
port the refugi uni model (Heggar^., 1979; H i g l i a z z a , 19&2) . M i g r a t i o n of language types
(and peopie) into the interior of the A m a z o n is h y p o t h e s i z e d to be very r e c e n t , b e t w e e n
ZOUO a n d 500 y e a r s a g o (Fig, I D ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , h y p o t h e s i z e d p a t h s of m i g r a t i o n in t h e
central basin a f t e r 2000 y e a r s a g o m o r e closely f o l l o w s the m a i n d r a i n a g e of the A m a z o n
River a s v u l d be e x p e c t e d if the d r a i n a g e became e s t a b l i s h e d only after this t i m e . The
very y o u n g d a t e s for the linguistic m i g r a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d to h y p o i h e s i z e d ages yiven to
Zone C of the Hadre de Dos/Sol imes F o r m a t i o n (Campbell F r a i l e y , l 9 o M . That d a t e w a s
!
;reated to c o n f o r m wi th Ifolocene c l i m a t i c e v e n t s (described by V endland 6 B r y s c n , \3~!b\

; . i I e t al -
Fairbridge, 1976). T h e long a b s e n c e of language in the central p o r t i o n of the Amazon
B a s i n is less e a s i l y e x p l a i n e d by the refugia model than by c u r lake m o d e l . T h e s u g g e s t e d
ages for the e n t r a n c e of c e r t a i n l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s into the A m a z o n B a s i n therefore
serve as an independent test of p r o p o s e d g e o l o g i c a l e v e n t s in the H o l o c e n e a n d for the
e x t r e m e l y y o u n g a g e of Zone C.

F i g . 10. A. A r e a s p o s t u l a t e d by V a n z o l i n i ( s o l i d b l a c k l i n e s ) and H a f f e r (dashed lines)

as h a v i n g b e e n f o r e s t r e f u g e s d u r i n g the P l e i s t o c e n e (from V u i l l e u m i e r , 1 9 7 1 .
B. L o c a t i o n of L a g o A m a z o n a s r e l a t i v e to the f o r e s t r e f u g e s . The h y p o t h e s i
z e d l a k e o r m a r s h in s o u t h e a s t e r n B o l i v i a is d r a w n h e r e f o l l o w i n g W o l f f , et
al. (in m a n u s c r i p t ) .

Fig. 11. L a n g u a g e c e n t e r s a n d h y p o t h e t i c a l d i s p e r s a l routes of A m a z o n i a n languages(fron

M i g l i a z z a , 1 9 8 2 ) . A. D i s p e r s a l r o u t e s p r i o r to 2 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o w i t h L a g o A m a
z o n a s p r e s e n t . . D i s p e r s a l r o u t e s a f t e r 2000 y e a r s a g o .
SYNTHESIS

The recent p r e s e n c e o f a large f r e s h w a t e r lake in the A m a z o n Basin is supported

by g e o l o g i c and b i o g e o g r a p h i c d a t a . In the v i c i n i t y of Rio B r a n c o , B r a z i l , the current
d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s are incised t h r o u g h the softer Late PIeistocene/Holocene sediments to
the level of the Late M i o c e n e c l a y s . The f o r m a t i o n s ! narres a p p l i e d to exposed strata
in w e s t e r n A m a z o n i a are d i f f i c u l t to r e c o n c i l e w i t h our i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the presence
of two f o r m a t i o n s , the upper f o r m a t i o n h a v i n g at least four m e m b e r s . As the u p p e r for
m a t i o n is the more fully e x p o s e d of the tv;o, it surely has been the b a s i s for format ional
descriptions in w e s t e r n A m a z o n i a , The nair:es Inapari F o r m a t i o n ( i Sol i i a) a n d Sol imScs
Formation (in Brazil) can be r e s t r i c t e d to the upper s t r a t u m a n d , in so dorng,jrost a c c u
rately retain the original designations. The lower s t r a t u m pay be refferable to a
previously n a m e d f o r m a t i o n , but that cannot be d e t e r m i n e d unt i 1 the type sect ions of those
formations have been v i s i t e d .

D e l t a i c sediflsnts near the city of Rio B r a n c o indicate that the nodorn c o u r s e of

the Rio A c r e formed as a great inland lake d i m i n i s h e d in s i z e . The h y p o t h e t i c a l lake is
called Lago A m a z o n a s in this p a p e r . T h e channel s y s t e m r o v e d p r o g r e s 5 i vel y into the basin
perhaps as recently a s 2500 y e a r s B.P. This is h y p o t h e s i z e d a s a m o d e ! for al 1 A m a z o n i a n
d r a i n a g e . An a d d i t i o n a l c h a n g e of g r a n d p r o p o r t i o n s is that the e a s t e r n o u t l e t of the
Amazon m a y be a recent d e v e l o p m e n t . An e a r l i e r n o t h e r n o u t l e t through the O r i n o c o V a l
ley, still p a r t i a l l y o p e n , m a y have b e e n lost to s t r e a m c a p t u r e as the d r a i n a g e turned
eastward. T h e o p e n i n g of the p r e s e n t - d a y m o u t h of the A m a z o n River m a y h a v e c a u s e d the
H o l o c e n e c o l l a p s e of L a g o A m a z o n a s . Then t o o , it m a y been only one m o r e c o n s e q u e n c e of
upward isostatic a d j u s t m e n t in the w e s t e r n part of the A m a z o n B a s i n as A n d e a n tectonism
and basin s e d i m e n t a t i o n s u b s i d e d . If s e d i m e n t a t i o n in the A m a z o n D a s i n is linked to
A n d e a n t e c t o n i s m as a f o r e l a n d b a s i n , A m a z o n i a n sed i n-.en ts that can be faun i s C rC'at 1 y d a t e d
are a n o t h e r check of d a t e s g i v e n for t e c t o n i c a c t i v i t y . As s u c h , fossil v e r t e b r a t e s in
Amazonian sediments indicate t e c t o n i c a c t i v i t y in the L a t c M i o c e n e (Huayquer 1 an) and Lale
Pleistocene and Holocene (35,000 to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2500 y e a r s B.P.).
F i n a l l y , the g e o l o g i c e v i d e n c e o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e to the Tropical Forest Refu
gia M o d e l . Disjunct d i s t r i b u t i o n s of terrestrial s p e c i e s m a y have o r I g i n a t e d in p o c k e t s
of tropical forest that w e r e isolated a l o n g the marg i ns of a great lake and not as remnants
of forest a m i d p l a i n s . T h i s model is a d d i t i o n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e in that the d i v e r s i t y find
z o o g e o g r a p h y af A m a z o n i a n f i s h e s , a n d not only the terrestrial biota, are readily e x
plained. U n d e r this m o d e l , the t r e m e n d o u s d i v e r s i t y reflects the s p e c i e s r i c h n e s s of a
lacustrine e n v i r o n m e n t that has not a d j u s t a t e d to r i v e r i n e c o n d i t i o n s . In this c o n t e x t ,
marginal b a s i n fish p o p u l a t i o n s can be v i e w e d as reiicts Of ofice c o n t i n u o u s populations
rather than as m i r a c l e s of m i g r a t i o n .
The recent p r e s e n c e of a large lake in the A m a z o n B a s i n i s c o n c e i va b I I f rem several
lines of reasoning. N o n e t h e l e s s , the unor/uity of h 5 geologic f e a t u r e reou i rus for
its a c c e p t a n c e 3 radical a l t e r a t i o n of current thinking on both e v e n t s and tin*:. This
paper cannot attempt to exhaust the r a m i f i c a t i o n s of this h y p o t h e s i s nor c a n w e answer
all c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v i d e n c e . H o w e v e r , w i d e s p r e a d c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h i c k , v e r y y o u n g sedi
ments in the upper A m a z o n B a s i n g r o w s ever m o r e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e a n d m u s t b e incorporated
into f u t u r e studies of the g e o l o g y , b i o l o g y , a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y o f the A m a z o n B a s i n .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This w o r k w a s s u p p o r t e d by the Nacional S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n (NSF-BSR-8420012) a n d

the U n i v e r s i d a d e Federal d o A c r e ( B r a z i l ) . The manuscript w a s critiqued by Dr. Larry
M a r t i n , Dr. W i l l i a m D u e l l m a n , a n d Dr. P h i l i p H u m p h r e y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y of K a n s a s M u s e u m
of Natural H i s t o r y ; Dr. W a k e f i e l d D o r t , D e p a r t m e n t o f G e o l o g y , University of Kansas;
Dr. R o n a l d W o l f f , D e p a r t m e n t o f Z o o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a ; D r . K e n n e t h E . C a m p b e l l ,
J r . , Los A n g e l e s County M u s e u m of Natural History; Dr. Barbara Kronberg, D e p a r t m e n t of
a
Geology, Lakehead University; and P r o f R o s a l i e B e n c h i m o 1 , U n i v e r s i d a d e Federal d o A m a -
zonas. R e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n c e w a s p r o v i d e d by M s . J o A n n S t e l l a , M r s . J u l i a Olgin, M r s .
Carlota K e l l o g g , a n d M r s . Ellen Fino o f M i d l a n d C o l l e g e .

RESUMO

A grande distribuio geogrfica das unidades estAotigrficas do Pleistoceno supe-

rior e Holoce.no na parte ocidental da Bacia Amaznica foi notada e descrita em vrios es_
tudos. 0 reconhecimento de sedimentao deltaica na pafit.e superior destas unidades, nat>
proximidades de Rio Branco - Acne., Brasil, em altitude moderna de 160 metros, permite a
concluso de que esta rea situou-Se not marge.no de um grande Lago que deve ter existi-
do no passado geolgico recente, quando movimentos tectnlcoS na CordilheAa dos Andes
causaram ativo rebaixamento da borda ocidental da Bacia Amaznica. As ramificaes a
hiptese, deste "Lago Amazonas" tem prolongamentos nos estudos atuais da geologia e bio_
logia da regio Amaznica.

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