1

PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

Plant Load Factor (PLF) = Generation Achieved In Month x 100

Possible Generation in Month

Availability factor (AF) = Actual running hours x 100

Possible running hours

Loading factor = PLF

Availability

Specific Coal
Consumption = Coal consumption (fed to bunkers )
Generation

Specific Oil = Oil Consumption

Consumption Generation

Deemed Generation = Generation + Back down

Deemed PLF = Generation + Back down

Possible Generation

Heat rate = (Weighted average CV of coal*Coal consumption+

Weighted average CV of oil*Oil consumption)
Generation x 1000
 2

COAL CONSUMPTION:

As per rule of thumb or quick calculation, 4 mtpa (million tonnes per annum) coal is
required for 1000 MW coal based thermal power plant that implies a 4 thousand tonnes
per annum for 1 MW coal based thermal power plant.

Actual coal requirement may vary and depends on five factors:

1. Gross Calorific Value of the Primary Fuel i.e. Coal (GCV) in kcal/kg
2. Gross Station Heat Rate (GSHR) in kcal/kWh
3. Gross Calorific Value of the Secondary Fuel i.e. Oil (GCV) in kcal/ml
4. Secondary Fuel Consumption (Oil) in kcal/ml
5. Net Energy Generation in kWh (Gross Generation - Auxiliary Consumption) which in turn
depends on Plant Load Factor, Plant Availability Factor, Installed Capacity of the Plant (1
MW in this case) and No. of Operating Hours
Quick Calculations (Assumptions relevant to Indian context):

Gross Energy Generation in kWh = Installed Capacity in kW (1000 in this case) * PLF in %
(85% assumed) * PAF in % (90% assumed) * 365 * 24 = 7073700 kWh

Assuming 6% Auxiliary Consumption, Net Energy Generation would be 6649278 kWh

Assuming a GSHR of 2350 kcal/kWh, GCV of 10.3 kcal/ml of secondary fuel and 1 kcal/ml
secondary fuel consumption, total heat contribution required from coal would be 2339.7
kcal/kWh, which implies 0.56 kg coal requirement to produce 1 unit.

Since net energy generation is 6649278 kWh, total coal required would be ~ 3750
tonnes per annum for 1 MW coal based thermal power plant.
 3

NATURAL VERSUS FORCED CIRCULATION TYPICAL SCHEMATIC:

In natural or thermal circulation type boilers, the rate of circulation depends

strongly on the density difference between the unheated water and the heated steam-
water mixture. The overall circulation rate (flow) in natural circulation systems mostly
depends on the following factors:

- Height of the boiler - Taller boilers yield a bigger pressure difference between the
heated and unheated sections and consequently produce bigger flow rates.
 4

- Operating pressure of the boiler - Higher operating pressure produces higher

density steam as well as higher density steam-water mixtures. This tends to reduce the
overall density difference between the heated and unheated segments, as the liquid
water density remains same being independent of operating pressure. Hence higher
pressure reduces the produced steam flow rates.

- Heat input rate - Higher heat input rate helps reduce the average density in the
heated section and thereby increase the total flow rate.

DESCRIPTION OF FORCED (OR PUMPED) CIRCULATION SYSTEMS:

A pump is added in the closed flow loop system indicated in the section A-B of figure-1(b).
The pressure difference created by the pump (pump head) helps control the water flow rate. A
pressure reduction device (orifice or similar) is also typically used, as an additional control
mechanism
 5

FLUIDIZED BED BOILER:

Circulating Fluidized Bed combustion has given boiler and power plant operators a
greater flexibility in burning a wide range of coal and other fuels. All this without compromising
efficiency and with reduced pollution. How does the boiler work with this technology?

In the olden days blacksmiths used to heat the iron by placing it on a bed of coal. Bellows
provide air to the coal from the bottom of the bed. Fluidized Bed combustion is something
similar to this.

FLUIDIZED BED

At the bottom of the boiler furnace there is a bed of inert material. Bed is where the coal or
fuel spreads. Air supply is from under the bed at high pressure. This lifts the bed material and
the coal particles and keeps it in suspension. The coal combustion takes place in this
suspended condition. This is the Fluidized bed.
 6

Special design of the air nozzles at the bottom of the bed allows air flow without
clogging. Primary air fans provide the preheated Fluidizing air. Secondary air fans provide pre-
heated Combustion air. Nozzles in the furnace walls at various levels distribute the Combustion
air in the furnace.

CIRCULATION

Fine particles of partly burned coal, ash and bed material are carried along with the flue
gases to the upper areas of the furnace and then into a cyclone. In the cyclone the heavier
particles separate from the gas and falls to the hopper of the cyclone. This returns to the
furnace for recirculation. Hence the name Circulating Fluidized Bed combustion. The hot gases
from the cyclone pass to the heat transfer surfaces and go out of the boiler.

BED MATERIAL

To start with the bed material is sand. Some portion is lost in the ash during the
operation and this has to be made-up. In coal fired boilers the ash from the coal itself will be the
makeup material. When firing bio fuels with very low ash content sand will be the makeup bed
material. For high Sulphur coals Limestone addition to the bed material reduces SO2 emissions.

CFBC uses crushed coal of 3 to 6 mm size. This requires only a crusher not a
pulverizer. From storage hoppers Conveyer and feeders transport the coal to feed chutes in the
furnace. Start up is by oil burners in the furnace. Ash spouts in the furnace remove the ash from
the bottom of the furnace.
 7

DESUPERHEATER:
Most desuperheater applications reduce the temperature of steam generated by high
pressure/high temperature boilers to levels required in process operations. The primary
function of a desuperheater is to lower the temperature of superheated steam or other vapors.

Design Spray Desuperheater of Steam Boiler

In steam boiler, desuperheater can be known as attemperator which has function reduce
and control temperature of superheated steam. Superheated steam is derived from saturated
steam which be heated again through superheater. Temperature of superheated steam must
suitable for turbine generator. If temperature of superheated steam is overheated, desuperheater
with type spray will sprays amount of water from steam boiler feedwater pump into steam flow to
reduce its temperature.

Amount of water will be injected into superheated steam must have high purity, if not it
can leave some troubles like deposit on the superheater tubes and can cause erosion on turbine
blade. Design spray desuperheater type must include thermal sleve in pipe line desuperheater,
to avoid thermal shock by water droplets which are sprayed through the nozzle strike the hot
surface of pipe desuperheater
 8

REHEATERS AND SUPERHEATERS:

Application

Reheaters and superheaters are a set of tubes located in the boiler. Steam from the water
walls passes to the superheaters where it is heated above its saturation temperature until the
maximum required operating temperature is achieved. The superheated steam then flows through
the main steam piping to the high-pressure turbine. Exhaust steam from the high-pressure turbine
is guided to the boiler for reheating and from there to the intermediate and low-pressure turbines.
High reheating temperatures improve the output and efficiency of a power plant.

Challenges

Superheaters and reheaters consist of parallel-mounted steel tubes, butt welded and
bent, with outside diameters of 38 to 76 mm. They are connected to input, output or intermediate
headers. In an ultra-supercritical power plant the final superheater steam temperature and
pressure can go up to about 600 C and 280 bar, respectively. The reheat steam is at a much
lower pressure than the superheated steam, but the final reheater temperature can be above the
superheated steam temperature, i.e. about 620 C.

Superheaters and reheaters are generally made of ferritic steel (up to 12 % Cr) and
austenitic stainless steel (up to 25 % Cr) to allow for a temperature rise up to 50 C above the
steam temperature.

A reheater has derived its name from reheating the steam at a stage after expansion to
a certain pressure (Not till the condenser pressure). The main objective of the reheater is to
increase the dryness fraction (moisture content of the steam at the last blade of turbine).

But due to this an additional work also is extracted from the turbine due to two stage expansion.
So, work output increases. But also the steam uses extra heat to raise its pressure in the
second stage after first expansion.

So, increase or decrease in efficiency is dependent on which of the above is more.

Concluding, it is used to increase the dryness fraction and also to increase work output when
you have high amount of heat input.
 9

SUPERHEATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN BOILERS:

Steam temperature control is carried out in all boilers to get a constant

temperature within a range. Methods like desuperheating by water injection, flue gas flow
diverting, burner tilting are few systems adopted. Main steam and reheat outlet temperature are
controlled by these methods in boiler.
All boilers used for both process and power generation plants have to maintain steam
parameters within a particular range. The pressure and temperature of steam at superheater
and reheater outlets are to be maintained to achieve an optimum plant efficiency. In large
capacity boilers, injection type desuperheating is more popular. Reheaters in power boilers can
also be technically classified as superheaters, however the type of control adopted is mainly
varying the heat available from the flue gas side by bypassing the flue gas to the superheater
side and the burner tilt to vary the radiant heat availability.
Superheating system

Superheaters in large capacity boilers are of both convective and radiant type. The
convective type superheaters are placed in the second pass of the boiler, and these are also
called low temperature super heaters. Generally about a 40 to 60 degree centigrade
temperature pick up takes place on the steam side in this superheater. The steam from this
moves to a radiant type superheater called the panel or platen superheater, and about a 70 to
100 degree centigrade pickup take place there. This is followed by the final superheater, and
the remaining required temperature is picked up here. One has to understand that the designer
can vary the pickup pattern depending upon his way of practice or requirement. But in all the
methods adopted, the final temperature must be within a narrow range generally plus / minus
five degrees centigrade. The superheaters are so surfaced that, for the design fuel of the boiler,
there will not be any desuperheating requirement.
Desuperheating system
Three major systems are adopted the world over: the injection type, the flue gas
flow diverting type, and the burner tilt. The last two are adopted for reheater steam temperature
control. The first one is adopted for superheater temperature control. It also used in reheaters
during emergencies when there is a need to quench the temperature even after reaching the
maximum of control on the normal system adopted. The material selection for the superheater
before the injection will be greatly influenced by the quantity of injection.
Injection type desuperheating

In almost all large capacity boilers there are two injection points provided. The first
desuperheater is placed between the low temperature superheater and the platen/panel
superheater. The second one is placed between the platen/panel and the final superheater. The
control is done mostly by the desuperheater, and the second one is more for fine tuning, as the
response time for the first is long. In both the cases the feed water is tapped at an appropriate
point and injected as fine spray through nozzles in the steam pipe of the desuperheater. The
mechanical design aspect includes liners so that the temperature differential is not directly felt
on the pressure part side of the
 10

REHEATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN BOILERS:

Reheater temperature variation will have an impact on the cycle efficiency of the plant.
Boiler designers adopt methods like divided second pass, burner tilting, water injection, gas
recirculation, etc. to control reheater steam outlet temperature.

Power plant cycles have the steam from the high pressure turbine reheated before it goes to
the medium pressure and then to the low pressure turbine. This increases the cycle efficiency of
the plant. Designers sometimes use double-reheat turbines to increase cycle efficiency. As the
steam from the high pressure turbine has done work, the pressure and temperature are low.
Hence the steam around 40 bar is heated to even above the main steam temperature. The
temperature at the outlet of reheater will have to be maintained within a narrow band. Designers
adopt many methods to achieve this depending upon the type of furnace and burner.

In designs where the reheater surface is kept in a more convective region, it is possible to
control the reheater temperature by simple mechanisms like increasing or reducing the flue
gases flowing over the sections. As the convective heat transfer coefficient depend more on the
mass flow, and in turn the velocity, this method has been adopted by designers successfully.
This method is most often used in wall fired units. Here the second pass of the boiler is divided
in to two parallel paths up to the economizer. The two parallel paths are so designed to have a
normal one third and two third ratio of flow area. The two third ratios of area being adopted for
low temperature superheater surface and the one third flow area for the reheater surface.
Dampers at the bottom of this flue gas passage are used to control the flow. A set of dampers is
kept in the bigger area so that closing of these dampers will divert flue gas to the smaller area
side where the reheater surface is. This increases the pickup in the reheater steam and thus the
outlet temperature of the reheater is increased. Reducing the flow by opening the damper in the
other parallel path will reduce the flue gas flow through the reheater section and thus reduce the
reheater steam outlet temperature. Even though the logic of this design is simple, the
construction and maintenance aspect suffer considerably when coal and low grade fuels are
used.

In models where the designer has opted to keep more of the radiant surface in the reheater
heat transfer area, the method of shifting the flame is used. Such is the case for tangential fired
boilers. Here the burners in the corners are tilted up or down in unison to increase the radiant
heat going to the reheater surface. This also affects the superheater heat absorption. The
burner tilting mechanism is so designed that all the burners in all corners tilt up or down based
on the signal from the reheater outlet steam temperature. It has been the experience when low
grade coal is being used for power generation keeping the burner tilt in one position for a long
duration can lead to seizure of the tilting mechanism. Hence designers generally advise putting
the tilt on manual and move from the maximum to minimum position once a day before bringing
it back to the original required position and putting it back on auto.
 11

SAFETY VALVES Vs RELIEF VALVE:

Safety valves are used in gas systems, and relief valves are used in liquid systems.

Safety valves open fully once activated, while relief valves open gradually.

Safety valve: This device is typically used for steam or vapor service. It operates
automatically with a full-opening pop action and recloses when the pressure
drops to a value consistent with the blowdown requirements prescribed by the
applicable governing code or standard.

Relief valve This device is used for liquid service. It operates automatically by
opening farther as the pressure increases beyond the initial opening pressure
and recloses when the pressure drops below the opening pressure.

Safety-relief valve This device includes the operating characteristics of both a
safety valve and a relief valve and may be used in either application.

WHY MORE DRUM SAFETY VALVES?

There may be 2 reasons;

1. One S.V is operating and other is spare. Just see the P&ID, if manual valve installed at the inlet
line of any one S.V is closed (CSC or LC), then it is spare.

2. If above case is not true, then both the S.V are operating. In this case, safety valves are
staggered (highly recommended). 1st safety valve is set at design pressure (gauge) of
equipment and 2nd is set at more than 5% of set pressure (gauge) of 1st. If both the safety
valves are set at same pressure, during offset condition both the safety valve will pop
simultaneously and relieving rate will increase. It will lead to chattering (opening and closing
repeatedly, which may lead to mechanical damage to safety valve seat and other parts as well)
of safety valves and unstable relief operation. Staggering the safety valve set points will allow to
manage various relief loads without unstable relieving operation.
 12

MARTENSITIC STEELS PREFERABLE TO AUSTENITIC STEEL PIPES:

The higher steam temperatures and pressures required to achieve increase in

thermal efficiency of fossil fuel-fired power-generation plants necessitate the use of steels with
improved creep rupture strength. The 9% chromium steels developed during the last three
decades are of great interest in such applications. In this report, the development of steels
P91, P92 and E911 is described. It is shown that the martensitic transformation in these three
steels produces high dislocation density that confers significant transient hardening. However,
the dislocation density decreases during exposure at service temperatures due to recovery
effects and for long-term creep strength the sub-grain structure produced under different
conditions is most important. The changes in the microstructure mean that great care is
needed in the extrapolation of experimental data to obtain design values. Only data from tests
with rupture times above 3,000 h provide reasonable extrapolated values. It is further shown
that for the 9% chromium steels, oxidation resistance in steam is not sufficiently high for their
use as thin-walled components at temperatures of 600C and above. The potential for the
development of steels of higher chromium contents (above 11%) to give an improvement in
steam oxidation resistance whilst maintaining creep resistance to the 9% chromium steels is
discussed.

BOILER BLOW DOWN:

Boiler blowdown is the removal of water from a boiler. Its purpose is to control boiler
water parameters within prescribed limits to minimize scale, corrosion, carryover, and other
specific problems. Blowdown is also used to remove suspended solids present in the system.
These solids are caused by feedwater contamination, by internal chemical treatment
precipitates, or by exceeding the solubility limits of otherwise soluble salts.
In effect, some of the boiler water is removed (blowndown) and replaced with feedwater.
The percentage of boiler blowdown is as follows:

quantity blowdown water

X 100 = % blowdown
quantity feedwater

The blowdown can range from less than 1% when an extremely high-quality feedwater
is available to greater than 20% in a critical system with poor-quality feedwater. In plants with
sodium zeolite softened makeup water, the percentage is commonly determined by means of a
chloride test. In higher-pressure boilers, a soluble, inert material may be added to the boiler
 13

water as a tracer to determine the percentage of blowdown. The formula for calculating
blowdown percentage using chloride and its derivation are shown in Table 13-1.

LIMITING FACTORS AFFECTING BLOWDOWN

The primary purpose of blowdown is to maintain the solids content of boiler water within
certain limits. This may be required for specific reasons, such as contamination of the boiler
water. In this case, a high blowdown rate is required to eliminate the contaminants as rapidly as
possible.
The blowdown rate required for a particular boiler depends on the boiler design, the operating
conditions, and the feedwater contaminant levels. In many systems, the blowdown rate is
determined according to total dissolved solids. In other systems, alkalinity, silica, or suspended
solids levels determine the required blowdown rate.
For many years, boiler blowdown rates were established to limit boiler water contaminants to
levels set by the American Boiler Manufacturers' Association (ABMA) in its Standard
Guarantee of Steam Purity. These standards were used even though they were of a general
nature and not applicable to each individual case. Today, the ASME "Consensus on Operating
Practices for the Control of Feedwater and Boiler Water Quality in Modern Industrial Boilers,"
shown in Table 13-2, is frequently used for establishing blowdown rates.
This consensus applies to deposition control as well as steam quality. Good engineering
judgment must be used in all cases. Because each specific boiler system is different, control
limits may be different as well. There are many mechanical factors that can affect the
blowdown control limits, including boiler design, rating, water level, load characteristics, and
type of fuel.
In some cases, the blowdown control limits for a particular system may be determined by
operating experience, equipment inspections, or steam purity testing rather than ASME or
ABMA water quality criteria. In certain cases, it is possible to exceed standard total solids (or
conductivity), silica, or alkalinity limits. Antifoam agents have been applied successfully to allow
higher-than-normal solids limits, as shown in Figure 13-1. Chelating and effective dispersant
programs also may allow certain water criteria to be exceeded.
The maximum levels possible for each specific system can be determined only from
experience. The effect of water characteristics on steam quality can be verified with steam
purity testing. However, the effects on internal conditions must be determined from the results
observed during the turnaround for the specific unit.
Certain boilers may require lower than normal blowdown levels due to unusual boiler design or
operating criteria or an exceptionally pure feedwater requirement. In some plants, boiler
blowdown limits are lower than necessary due to a conservative operating philosophy.
 14

MANUAL BLOWDOWN
Intermittent manual blowdown is designed to remove suspended solids, including any
sludge formed in the boiler water. The manual blowdown take-off is usually located in the
bottom of the lowest boiler drum, where any sludge formed would tend to settle.
Properly controlled intermittent manual blowdown removes suspended solids, allowing
satisfactory boiler operation. Most industrial boiler systems contain both a manual intermittent
blowdown and a continuous blowdown system. In practice, the manual blowdown valves are
opened periodically in accordance with an operating schedule. To optimize suspended solids
removal and operating economy, frequent short blows are preferred to infrequent lengthy
blows. Very little sludge is formed in systems using boiler feedwater of exceptionally high
quality. The manual blowdown can be less frequent in these systems than in those using
feedwater that is contaminated with hardness or iron. The water treatment consultant can
recommend an appropriate manual blowdown schedule.
Blowdown valves on the water wall headers of a boiler should be operated in strict accordance
with the manufacturer's recommendations. Usually, due to possible circulation problems, water
wall headers are not blown down while the unit is steaming. Blowdown normally takes place
when the unit is taken out of service or banked. The water level should be watched closely
during periods of manual blowdown.
CONTINUOUS BLOWDOWN
Continuous blowdown, as the term implies, is the continuous removal of water from the boiler.
It offers many advantages not provided by the use of bottom blowdown alone. For instance,
water may be removed from the location of the highest dissolved solids in the boiler water. As a
result, proper boiler water quality can be maintained at all times. Also, a maximum of dissolved
solids may be removed with minimal loss of water and heat from the boiler.
Another major benefit of continuous blowdown is the recovery of a large amount of its heat
content through the use of blowdown flash tanks and heat exchangers. Control valve settings
must be adjusted regularly to increase or decrease the blowdown according to control test
results and to maintain close control of boiler water concentrations at all times.
When continuous blowdown is used, manual blowdown is usually limited to approximately one
short blow per shift to remove suspended solids which may have settled out near the manual
blowdown connection.
ENERGY CONSERVATION
Several factors can contribute to reduced energy consumption on the water side of steam
generation equipment.
Scale Reduction
Heat transfer is inhibited by scale formation on internal surfaces. Scale reduction through
proper pretreatment and internal chemical treatment results in cleaner internal surfaces for
more efficient heat transfer and resultant energy savings.
Boiler Water Blowdown Reduction
A reduction in boiler water blowdown can result in significant fuel and water savings.
 15

In some installations, boiler water solids are lower than the maximum level permissible.
Through improved control methods, including automatic boiler blowdown equipment, boiler
water blowdown can be reduced to maintain the solids close to but not above the maximum
level permissible.
The rate of blowdown required depends on feedwater characteristics, load on the boiler, and
mechanical limitations. Variations in these factors will change the amount of blowdown
required, causing a need for frequent adjustments to the manually operated continuous
blowdown system. Even frequent manual adjustment may be inadequate to meet the changes
in operating conditions. Table 13-3 illustrates the savings possible with automatic boiler
blowdown control.
Blowdown rate is often the most poorly controlled variable of an internal treatment program.
Conductivity limits for manually controlled boiler blowdown are usually quite wide, with the
lower limits below 70% of the maximum safe value. This is often necessary with manual control
because a narrow range cannot be maintained safely.
In plants with sodium zeolite softened makeup water, automatic control systems can maintain
boiler water conductivity within 5% of the set-point. Plant operating records have verified that
with manual adjustment, continuous blowdown is within this 5% range no more than 20% of the
time. In general, the average plant saves approximately 20% of boiler blowdown when
changing from manually adjusted continuous blowdown to automatically controlled continuous
blowdown. This reduction is gained without risk of scale or carryover due to high boiler water
solids.
In some instances, an increase in feedwater quality permits a significant reduction in the
blowdown rate at the existing maximum allowable solids level. This can be accomplished
through reuse of additional condensate as feedwater, or through improvement of external
treatment methods for higher makeup water quality.
Any reduction in blowdown contributes to water and fuel savings, as illustrated in Table 13-4.
When uniform concentrations are maintained at or near maximum permissible levels in the
boiler water, savings result in several areas, including makeup water demand, cost of
processing water, cost of blowdown water waste treatment, fuel consumption, and chemical
treatment requirements. These savings are noticeably greater where makeup water quality is
poor, where heat recovery equipment is nonexistent or inefficient, and where operating
conditions are frequently changed.
Heat Recovery
Heat recovery is used frequently to reduce energy losses that result from boiler water
blowdown. Figure 13-2 illustrates a typical boiler blowdown heat recovery system using a flash
tank and heat exchanger.
Installation of heat recovery equipment is valuable only when energy from the flash tank or the
blowdown water can be recovered and utilized. When an excess supply of exhaust or low-
pressure steam is already available, there is little justification for installing heat recovery
equipment.
If economically justified, boiler water blowdown can be used to heat process streams. In most
cases, boiler water blowdown heat recovery systems use flash steam from the flash tank for
deaeration. The blowdown from the flash tank is passed through an exchanger and used to
 16

preheat boiler makeup water. With the use of an efficient heat exchange unit, the only heat loss
is the terminal temperature difference between the incoming makeup water and the blowdown
water to the sewer. This difference usually amounts to 10-20F (5-10C).
Table 13-5 provides a typical calculation for determining the fuel savings achieved in a heat
recovery system using a low-pressure flash tank and heat exchanger. Figure 13-3 can be used
to determine the quantity of flash steam recoverable from a flash tank.
EQUIPMENT EMPLOYED
Manual Blowdown
Equipment for manual blowdown, considered a part of the boiler and installed with the unit,
usually consists of a take-off line, a quick-opening valve, and a shut-off valve. The take-off line
is always located in the lowest part of the lowest boiler drum, where the greatest concentration
of suspended solids should form.
Several types of water-tube boilers have more than one blowdown connection. They permit
blowdown from both ends of the mud drum. Blowdown connections are installed on headers for
draining and for removal of suspended solids which may accumulate and restrict circulation.
The boiler manufacturer usually specifies certain restrictions on the blowdown of water wall
headers. These restrictions should be followed closely.
Continuous Blowdown
Usually, continuous blowdown equipment is installed by the boiler manufacturer. The exact
location of the continuous blowdown take-off line depends primarily on the water circulation
pattern. Its position must ensure the removal of the most concentrated water. The line must
also be located so that boiler feedwater or chemical feed solution does not flow directly into it.
The size of the lines and control valves depends on the quantity of blowdown required.
Figure 13-4 illustrates a typical location in a steam drum for a continuous blowdown
connection. In most units, the take-off line is several inches below the low water level. In other
designs, the take-off is close to the bottom of the steam drum.
Automatic Blowdown
An automatic blowdown control system continuously monitors the boiler water, adjusts the rate
of blowdown, and maintains the specific conductance of the boiler water at the desired level.
The basic components of an automatic blowdown control system include a measurement
assembly, a control center, and a modulating blowdown control valve. A typical modulating
automatic boiler blowdown control system is shown in Figure 13-5.
BLOWDOWN CONTROL
If an economical blowdown rate is to be maintained, suitable boiler water tests must be run
frequently to check concentrations in the boiler water. When sodium zeolite softened makeup is
used, the need for boiler blowdown is usually determined by measurement of the boiler water
conductivity, which provides an indirect measure of the boiler water dissolved solids.
Other boiler water constituents such as chlorides, sodium, and silica are also used as a means
of controlling blowdown. The alkalinity test has been used as a supplementary blowdown
control for systems in which boiler water alkalinity can be particularly high.
 17

Total Solids
From a technical standpoint, gravimetric measurement provides a satisfactory way to
determine boiler water total solids; however, this method is rarely used because the analysis is
time-consuming and is too difficult for routine control. Also, a comparison of the total solids
content of boiler water with the total solids content of feedwater does not necessarily provide
an accurate measure of the feedwater concentration within the boiler, because of the following:

the boiler water samples may not show a representative suspended solids content due
to settling or deposit formation
internal treatment can add various solids to the boiler water
breakdown of bicarbonates and carbonates can liberate carbon dioxide gas and lower
the total solids in the boiler water

Dissolved Solids
The specific conductance of boiler water pro-vides an indirect measure of dissolved solids and
can usually be used for blowdown control. However, establishing the rate of blowdown on the
basis of the relative specific conductance of feedwater and boiler water does not give a direct
measure of the feedwater concentrations within the boiler. Specific conductance is affected by
the loss of carbon dioxide with steam and by the introduction of solids as internal chemical
treatment. Moreover, the specific conductance of feedwater (a dilute solution) and boiler water
(a concentrated solution) cannot be compared directly.
The specific conductance of a sample is caused by ionization of the various salts present. In
dilute solutions, the dissolved salts are almost completely ionized, so the specific conductance
increases proportionally to the dissolved salt concentration. In concentrated solutions,
ionization is repressed and the ratio of specific conductance to dissolved salts decreases. The
relationship between specific conductance and dissolved solids is determined most accurately
through measurement of both parameters and the establishment of a correlation factor for each
system. However, the factor may be estimated. The solids content of very dilute solutions such
as condensate may be calculated with a factor of 0.5-0.6 ppm of dissolved solids per
microsiemens (micromho) of specific conductance. For a more concentrated solution such as
boiler water, the factor can vary between 0.55 and 0.90 ppm of dissolved solids per
microsiemens of specific conductance. The hydroxide ion present in many boiler waters is
highly conductive compared to the other ions. Therefore, it is common practice to neutralize the
caustic with an organic acid prior to measuring conductivity. Although gallic acid is
conventionally used to neutralize the phenolphthalein alkalinity in samples with high specific
conductance, boric acid may be used in samples of low and high specific conductance with
minimal impact on the correlation factor between dissolved solids and specific conductance.
Silica, Alkalinity, Sodium, Lithium, and Molybdate
Under certain circumstances, measurement of the silica and alkalinity content of boiler water
can be used to control blowdown. Sodium, lithium, and molybdate have been used for accurate
calculation of blowdown rates in high-pressure units where demineralized water is used as
feedwater.
Chloride
 18

If the chloride concentration in the feedwater is high enough to measure accurately, it can be
used to control blowdown and to calculate the rate of blowdown. Because chlorides do not
precipitate in the boiler water, the relative chloride concentrations in feedwater and boiler water
provide an accurate basis for calculating the rate of blowdown.
The chloride test is unsuitable for this calculation when the feedwater chloride is too low for
accurate determination. A slight analytical error in determining feedwater chloride content will
cause an appreciable error in calculating blowdown rate.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a boiler water is proportional to the dissolved solids. However,
determination of dissolved solids by hydrometer measurement of specific gravity is so
inaccurate that it cannot be recommended for proper blowdown control.
 19

FUSIBLE PLUG:
A fusible plug is a threaded metal cylinder usually of bronze, brass or gunmetal, with
a tapered hole drilled completely through its length. This hole is sealed with a metal of low
melting point that flows away if a pre-determined, high temperature is reached.
20
 21

Monitoring the flue gases on a boiler or burner makes sense ecologically as well as
economically.

Reduced fuel cost and higher efficiency makes the return-on-investment on flue gas analysis
very short.

Instruments for monitoring flue gases range from simple handheld devices, to installed Oxygen
sensors to complete racks of equipment!
Why measure flue gas?

Combustion flue gas analysis has been used by Plant Operators for decades as a method
of optimizing fuel/air ratios. By measuring the amount of excess oxygen (O2) and/or carbon
monoxide (CO) in the flue gases resulting from combustion, plant operators can operate at the
best heat rate efficiency, lowest NOX, and also generate the least amount of greenhouse gas.
The theoretical ideal, or the stoichiometric point, is where all fuel is reacted with available
oxygen in the combustion air, and no fuel or O2 is left over.

To ensure complete combustion of the fuel used, combustion chambers are supplied
with excess air. Excess air increases the amount of oxygen and the probability of combustion of
all fuel.

When fuel and oxygen in the air are in perfect balance - the combustion is said to
be stoichiometric

The combustion efficiency will

increase with increased excess air,
until the heat loss in the excess air is
larger than the heat provided by
more efficient combustion.
 22

Typical excess air to achieve highest

efficiency for different fuels are:

5 - 10% for natural gas

5 - 20% for fuel oil
15 - 60% for coal

Carbon dioxide - CO2 - is a product

of the combustion and the content in
the flue gas is an important
indication of the combustion
efficiency.

An optimal content of carbon dioxide

- CO2 - after combustion is
approximately 10% for natural gas
and approximately 13% for lighter
oils.
 23

PROCEDURE FOR REGISTRATION OF BOILERS

1) Submission of registration folder along with application for registration/erection of boiler.

2) Erection Meeting for registration/erection of the boiler.

3) Submission of requisite fees and Travelling Allowances for registration/erection.

4) Approval of drawing of pipe lines.

5) Approval of contractor/erector.

6) Welding Procedure Specification approval.

7) Simulation Test of Welders.

8) Material inspection of boiler and pipe lines.

9) Physical and chemical testing of pipe lines

10) Fit-up inspection of pressure parts of boiler and pipe lines.

11) Inspection after completion of welding and NDT marking for boiler and pipe lines.

12) Submission of satisfactory NDT report.

13) Post weld heat treatment if required.

14) PMI testing for all alloy steel materials of boiler and pipe lines.

15) Approval of pressure parts calculation of boiler.

16) Hydraulic test of boiler and pipe lines.

17) Approval of form-IIIA of pipe lines.

18) Issue of Provisional certificate of boiler.

19) Steam Test of boiler.

20) Allotment of registration number of boiler.

21) Engraving of registration number of boiler.

 24

STANDARD INSPECTION PROCEDURE OF BOILER DIRECTORATE

25
26
27
28
 29

What is procedure of safety valve setting?

There are generally three safety valves provided in boiler two in drum and one in
main steam line . Each safety valve are designed with different setting pressure.
Summation of three has reliving capacity of 100 % of peak load steam generation.
Generally line safety valve is setting with low set pressure because if drum safety valve
will lift first then there may be chances of starvation in boiler and drum level will be
disturbed .Generally safety valve setting pressure is fixed with blow down of the valve
within 3% - 5% of the set value. Safety valve with higher set pressure will be floated
first followed by other valves in descending order of set valves. Boiler will be kept under
steaming or running condition for safety valve floating. The safety valves in a boiler are
so selected that the capacity of safety valves on drum and super heater put together will
be more than the 100% generation of the boiler.

Objective of the safety valve setting:-

The objective of the Testing Schedule is to test the safety valves by actually
floating and ensure that safety valves lift at recommended/designed values.

Precaution during safety valve setting:-

1) During safety valve floating, exhaust pipes, silencer, drip pans, drain lines are kept
available.
2) Gag other safety valve so that only one valve is able to lift.
3) Observed and if any abnormality found, the same attended.
4) Use proper PPE and Ear plug during safety valve setting.
5) Skilled person should be involved with the procedure.
6) Proper approach should be provided in safety valve area.
7) All people near that area should be aware about safety valve setting.
 30

Procedure for safety valve setting:-

1) Take necessary safety precaution and arrange gagging tool and recently
calibrated master gauge and gag other safety valve.

2) The set pressure of the safety valve will be given by class and it will be same
as previous set pressure.

3) Safety valve pressure setting can be done from high to low pressure or vice-
versa.

4) Raise the boiler pressure by modulating the firing. When the pressure
reaches nearer to the set pressure maintain the pressure by operating start up
vent or dumping steam.

5) Slowly raise the boiler pressure and blow off the safety valve manually few
times for thermal expansion and to reduce the thermal stress on the valves.

6) When the boiler pressure reaches to safety valve set pressure observe the
safety valve is lifted or not.

7) When the valve sits back, note down the reset pressure. Control of drum level
is important to avoid possibility of water carry over from drum into the super
heater.

8) The set pressure is adjusted by either tightening or loosening the adjusting

nut. Tightening the nut increases the set pressure and vice versa. Blow down
which is the difference between set & reset pressure should normally be within
5% of the set pressure.

9) Measure distance between compression ring and valve body.

10) Same way set the other valve.

11) Remove the gagging of safety valve.

31
32
 33

REGENERATION:

In a simple Rankine cycle, heat is

added to the cycle during process 2-2'-3
(see the T-s diagram on the left). During this
first stage (process 2-2'), the temperature of
the water is low. That reduces the average
temperature during heat addition (process 2-
2'-3). To remedy this shortcoming, increasing
the temperature of the feedwater (water
leaving the pump and entering the boiler)
can be considered. This is accomplished by
extracting stream from the turbine to heat the
feedwater. This process is called
regeneration and the heat exchanger where
heat is transferred from steam to feedwater
is called a regenerator, or a feedwater
T-s Diagram of Lowering the Condenser Pressure
heater. There are actually two main types of
feedwater heaters. If the steam mixes with
the compressed water from the pump, it is
an open feedwater heater. If the steam does
not mix with the compressed water from the
pump, it is a closed feedwater heater.

OPEN FEEDWATER HEATERS

An Open Feedwater Heater
An open feedwater heater is basically
a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the
water exiting the pump. In an ideal
condition, the water leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the heater pressure. The
schematic of a steam power plant with one
open feedwater heater is shown on the left.
In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with
an open feedwater heater, steam from the
boiler (state 5) expands in the turbine to an
intermediate pressure (state 6). At this state,
some of the steam is extracted and sent to
the feedwater heater, while the remaining
steam in the turbine continues to expand to
the condenser pressure (state 7). Saturated
water from the condenser (state 1) is
pumped to the feedwater pressure and send
to the feedwater heater (state 2). At the
feedwater heater, the compressed water is
mixed with the steam extracted from the
turbine (state 6) and exits the feedwater
heater as saturated water at the heater
pressure (state 3). Then the saturated water
 34

is pumped to the boiler pressure by a

second pump (state 4). The water is heated
to a higher temperature in the boiler (state
5) and the cycle repeats again. The T-s
diagram of this cycle is shown on the left.

Note that the mass flow rate at each

component is different. If 1 kg steam enters
the turbine, y kg is extracted to the
feedwater heater and (1-y) kg continues to
expand to the condenser pressure.

Schematic of a Power Plant Running an Ideal Open feedwater heaters are simple and
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with One Open inexpensive, and can also bring the
Feedwater Heater
feedwater to saturated state. However, each
feedwater needs a separate pump which
adds to the cost.

T-S Diagram of an Ideal Regenerative

Rankine Cycle with One Open Feedwater
Heater

CLOSED FEEDWATER HEATERS :
A Closed Feedwater
Click to View Movie (49 kB)
Schematic of a Power Plant Running an closed feedwater heater is pump the
Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle with One condensate forward to a higher-pressure
Closed Feedwater Heater
T-S Diagram of an Ideal Regenerative the two streams do not mix in the heater,
Rankine Cycle with One Closed Feedwater closed feedwater heaters do not require a
Heater
35
Closed feedwater heaters are shell-
and-tube type recuperators in which
feedwater temperature increases as the
extracted steam condenses on the outside
of the tubes carrying the feedwater. The
two streams can be at different pressures
since the two streams do not mix. The
schematic of a steam power plant with one
closed feedwater heater is shown on the
left. In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
with a closed feedwater, steam from the
boiler (state 4) expands in the turbine to an
intermediate pressure (state 5). Then
some of the steam is extracted at this state
and sent to the feedwater heater, while the
remaining steam in the turbine continues to
expand to the condenser pressure (state
6). The extracted stream (state 5)
condenses in the closed feedwater while
heating the feedwater from the pump. The
heated feedwater (state 3) is send to the
boiler and the condensate from the
feedwater heater (state 7) is allowed to
pass through a trap into a lower pressure
heater or condenser (state 8). Another way
of removing the condensate from the
point in the cycle.The T-s diagram of this
cycle is shown on the left.
Heat and work interactions for
regenerative Rankine cycle with one
closed feedwater heater is expressed per
unit mass of water flowing through the
boiler.
Compared with open feedwater heaters,
closed feedwater heaters are more
complex, and thus more expensive. Since
separate pump for each heater. Most
power plants use a combination of open
and closed feedwater heaters.
 36

BOILER REPAIRERS - ASSAM:

BOILER REPAIRERS ANDHRA PRADESH:

Classification of Boiler Repairer/Erector in Andhra Pradesh State as follows:

1. SPECIAL CLASSES : For any pressure.

2. CLASS I : For pressure up to 125 kg/cm2
3. CLASS II : For pressure up to 40 kg/cm2
 37

Boiler safety valve setting.

Boiler safety valve is set to lift at any pressure, but not more than 3% above
working pressure. Also the safety Valve re-sits at 5% below working pressure.
There are 2 safety valves. Both the safety valves are to be set at a pressure not
exceeding 3% of the normal working pressure (stamped on name plate).Let us say
the working pressure of the boiler is 7 bar.

3% of 7 bar is (7+0.21) = 7.21 bar which means, both the safety valves have to be
set at a pressure not exceeding 7.21bar. Apart from that, let us say one of the
valves have been set at a pressure say 7.15 bar (assuming two digit decimal even
though the practice is not referring to 2 digits), then the other valve must be set at
a pressure range of 10% within this .i.e the other valve setting must be 7.16 bar.
I used two digit decimal only for understanding the precision of calculation.

The second safety valve must be set within 10 % of the setting of the first safety
valve.

PROCEDURE FOR SAFETY VALVE FLOATING:

1.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this procedure is to outline the general procedures involved in setting of the
safety valves to the designed set pressure before allowing the boiler to go for commercial
operation. Follow vendors manual for adjustment of set pressure.

2.0 PRE-REQUISITES

Ensure proper mounting of the safety valve exhaust pipe, such that no load is coming to the
safety valves. Check the drip pan assembly and its drains are as per the requirements. Follow
instructions of vendor for safety valve exhaust piping and its support.

3.0 PROCEDURE

3.1 Normally the highest set pressure valve is the valve floated first. While setting this valve
other safety valve is gagged. Start the boiler as per cold start up procedure by modulating the
firing. When the drum pressure reaches about 75% of operating pressure gently tighten gage on
other safety valve. Raise pressure slowly by throttling start up vent valve. When 80% of popping
up pressure is reached manually operate the safety valve under test. This will blow off any debris
or dust left over in the valve internals.

Raise the boiler pressure by modulating the firing. When the pressure reaches nearer to the set
pressure close the start up vent. While the safety valve pops (lift), open the start up vent valve
and note down the lifting /set pressure value.
When the valve sits back, note down the reset pressure. Control of drum level is important to
avoid possibility of water carry over from drum into the super heater.
 38

The set pressure is adjusted by either tightening or loosening the adjusting nut. Tightening the
nut increases the set pressure and vice versa. Blow down which is the difference between set &
reset pressure should normally be within 5% of the set pressure. For popping pressure and blow
down adjustment proceed as described below:

3.2 POPPING PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT

Before proceeding to check the popping (lift) pressure, the accuracy of the pressure gauges to be
used should be ascertained.
To adjust the popping pressure, remove the lifting gear, exposing the adjusting bolt lock nut.
Loosen the lock nut if the opening pressure is low tighten (turn clockwise) the adjusting bolt, if it
is high loosen (turn counter clockwise) the bolt. When the desired pressure is reached also after
each adjustment the lock nut should be securely tightened to prevent loosening of the bolt.

Caution: The adjusting bolt should never be turned when the boiler pressure is near the set
pressure of the valve. Adjustments should be made when the boiler pressure is at least 10 %
below the actual popping pressure of the valve. Unless this precaution is taken, the valve disc
may rotate while against the nozzle and damage the seats.

3.3 BLOW DOWN ADJUSTMENT

When the popping (lift) pressure is changed a slight adjustment of the blow down may be
required. Raising the popping pressure lengthens the blow down, lowering the popping pressure
shortens.

Caution: Never make any ring adjustment when the boiler is under pressure without gagging the
valve properly.

If the blow down is not as desired when the set pressure has been obtained, it will be necessary to
adjust the rings. The guide (adjusting) ring is the principal blow down control ring. To change its
position, remove the guide set screw on the back of the valve body. Insert a screw driver or
similar tool and engage one of the notches (these can be seen through set screw hole).The ring
can then be turned to the right or left as desired. Turning the guide (upper) ring to the right raises
it and reduces the blow down. Turning the guide (upper) ring to the left lowers it and increases
the blow down.

After each adjustment always replace and tighten the set screw being careful that its point
engages a notch and does not rest on the top of the tooth.

Every safety valve is fitted with a lower or nozzle ring which permits very close adjustment
when operating conditions make this desirable. This ring is carefully set before the valve leaves
the factory and rarely needs adjustment as its main purpose is to do away with simmer or warn
preceding the pop without much effect on the blow down. No attempt should be made to
eliminate a short warn.
 39

The nozzle ring is adjusted by removing the set screw and turning the ring with a screw driver.
Turning it counter clockwise to the right raises it and increases the popping power and there by
eliminates warn. The nozzle should be moved only one notch at a time and the valve action
checked after each adjustment.

On high pressure valve the nozzle ring can be very effective in reducing the blow down. To
reduce blow down turn the nozzle ring clockwise to the left (lower it) one notch at a time until
the valve begins to warn or simmer before popping. When this notch is reached raise the ring one
notch. Any further adjustment should be done with the guide (adjusting) ring.

Super heater safety valve should be set and adjusted on steam which is superheated near to the
operating temperature. This is essential because the ring settings required for good operation
with superheated steam are different from those for saturated steam.
The same procedure shall be followed for floating the other safety valves. While floating a safety
valve other safety valve should be gagged.

Note: Boiler reaches the maximum design pressure during safety valve floating hence thermal
expansion readings to be noted during this activity.

4.0 SAFETY

The area around the safety valves and escape pipe should be barricaded and only essential
personnel should be in the valve vicinity.
Access platform to the safety valves as required should built with access and escape paths for
emergency purposes.
High noise level during safety valve floating, therefore ear defenders must be worn by test team
personnel.

PROTOCOL FOR SAFETY VALVE: Checks prior to safety valve floating

1. Model and style of safety valve :

2. Type of gasket provided at inlet flange :
3. Tightness of flange bolts : Done
4. Exhaust piping & support status : Completed
5. Accessibility & working space near valve :
6. Gags for other safety valves
(Hand tightened only)
7. Hand Popping : Done

SAFETY VALVE FLOATING RESULT.

Valve tag No. SR. No Design Set (Lift) Press Actual Set (Lift) Press Reset Press Blow Down.

Result : Accepted /Not accepted.

40
41
42
43
 44

PRINCIPLE OF RT:

X-rays and gamma radiation have wavelengths shorter than 100 nanometres
(nm). Energy, at these wavelengths, will penetrate solid material. The shorter the
wavelength, the greater the penetration. Like visible light, X-rays and Gamma radiation
also have a photochemical effect on silver halide and can therefore produce an image
on film. Thus, by passing penetrating radiation through an object, and recording the
emerging radiation on a film, a two dimensional picture of the differences in thickness or
density of the object can be obtained. Hence, flaws in the object can be detected.
It is based on the principle that radiation is absorbed and scattered as it passes
through an object. If there are variations in thickness or density (e.g. due to defects) in
an object, more or less radiation passes through and affects the film exposure. Flaws
show up on the film, usually as dark areas.

With training, an inspector can tell, from the shape of the dark areas on the film, what
and where the flaws are. If the flaw in the object makes little difference to the through
thickness of the object, it is unlikely to show on the radiograph. A lamination can,
therefore, be difficult to detect by radiography. Cracks parallel to the beam, porosity,
slag inclusions and root defects show very well.
 45

The biggest disadvantage is that short wavelength radiations are ionising. This means
they can cause chemical changes in the human body. No ionising radiation is safe, as
small amounts can cause genetic damage and increase the likelihood of cancers.
Stringent safety precautions are needed when using radiography and this makes it
rather time consuming, disruptive and expensive.

PRINCILPLE OF UT:

Ultrasound has a frequency above 20 kilohertz (kHz). The human ear can
detect frequencies below this, down to 20 hertz. Ultrasonic inspection involves sending
a high frequency, mechanical vibration into material and registering and evaluating any
echoes that are detected;

An ultrasonic set, or flaw detector, has a pulse generator circuit, which sends
electrical pulses to a probe. The probe holds a piezoelectric crystal, which vibrates
 46

when it receives the electrical pulse. The vibrations from the crystal are ultrasonic, with
a frequency in the range 1MHz to 15MHz. Typical frequencies used in weld examination
are between 2 and 5 Mhz. The ultrasonic vibrations leave the probe and are conducted
into the material to be tested by a couplant, usually grease, oil, water, paste, or gelatin.

In the material, the ultrasonic pulses travel in straight lines, until they hit an
interface between two different materials (steel and air for example), or a flaw, when
some of the energy of the vibration will be reflected, like an echo from a wall or
mountainside. A small amount of the energy is reflected back to the probe, where it
vibrates the piezoelectric crystal, generating a tiny electric current. This current returns
to the flaw detector, where it is amplified, rectified, filtered and displayed on a cathode
ray tube.

PRINCILPLE OF MT:
 47

The principle of the method is that the specimen is magnetised to produce

magnetic lines of force, or flux, in the material. If these lines of force meet a
discontinuity, such as a crack, secondary magnetic poles are created at the faces of the
crack. Where these secondary magnetic fields appear at the surface of the metal, they
can be revealed by applying magnetic particles, as a powder, or in a liquid suspension,
to the surface. The particles are attracted to the flux leakage and clump round the flaw,
making it visible. The particles may be black, or coated with a fluorescent dye to
increase their visibilty.

The magnetic flux lines should be at right angles to a flaw to give the best indication, as
this creates maximum flux leakage. This governs the choice of a suitable magnetising
technique. Often, more than one technique must be used to give a complete inspection.

A flaw attracts more particles if it cuts more magnetic lines of force, so the ability to
show a flaw depends on the depth of the flaw, the angle of the flaw to the lines of force,
and the magnetic field strength induced during magnetisation. The method is limited to
ferromagnetic materials - iron, cobalt and nickel - as other paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials cannot hold a flux which is strong enough to attract particles.
 48

An MPI inspection comprises several steps:

1. Pre-cleaning
2. Demagnetisation, if necessary
3. Application of a background contrast paint if necessary
4. Magnetisation
5. Application of magnetic particle powders or inks
6. Inspection of surfaces for indications of flaws
7. Demagnetisation, and re-magnetisation by another method if necessary
8. Recording flaws, if any
9. Demagnetisation, if necessary
10. Cleaning and protecting

There are several methods of magnetic particle inspection. Site methods, utilising
portable equipment, include:

1. Permanent magnet
2. Electromagnetic Yoke
3. Current flow probes
4. Flexible coil
5. Adjacent cable
 49

PRINCILPLE OF DPT:

The principle of liquid penetrant testing is that the liquid penetrant is drawn into the
surface-breaking crack by capillary action and excess surface penetrant is then
removed; a developer (typically a dry powder) is then applied to the surface, to draw out
the penetrant in the crack and produce a surface indication. Cracks as narrow as 150
nanometres can be detected. The indications produced are much broader than the
actual flaw and are therefore more easily visible.

Liquid penetrant testing can be applied to any non-porous clean material, metallic or
non-metallic, but is unsuitable for dirty or very rough surfaces. Surface cleaning is a vital
part of the penetrant testing technique. The method can be manual, semi-automatic or
fully automated. Penetrant inspection, continuous-operation production lines in which
the specimens are cleaned, dipped, washed, dried, etc on a time cycle are common.
This is a simple low-cost method of detecting surface-breaking flaws such as cracks,
laps, porosity, etc. To be detected, the flaw must reach the surface to be tested.

Penetrant testing is one step up from visual inspection and offers many advantages,
such as speed, large-area coverage and cheapness.
 50

It is usually a six-stage process:

a) surface cleaning (degreasing etc)
b) application of a penetrant liquid (dipping, spray, brush)
c) removal of excess penetrant (solvent, water)
d) application of developer
e) inspection of test surface (visual, television camera)
f) post-inspection cleaning (anti-corrosion solutions).

There are three major groups of penetrant process:

a) water-soluble
b) post-emulsifiable with water rinsing
c) solvent removable, the difference being in the method used to remove the excess
penetrant.

In each of these three groups the penetrant solution can contain a dye to make the
indication visible under white light, or a fluorescent material which fluoresces under
suitable ultraviolet (UV-A) light.

The choice of technique for any specific application is based on:

a) the surface finish of the specimen
b) the compatibility of the materials with the specimen
c) the sensitivity required
d) the size, shape and accessibility of the area to be inspected
e) the ultimate use of the component.

Fluorescent penetrants are usually used when the maximum flaw sensitivity is required.
 51

RANKINE CYCLE
Basic Cycle

The Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all power plants where an operating
fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed. The selection of operating fluid depends
mainly on the available temperature range. Figure 1 shows the idealized Rankine cycle.

The pressure-enthalpy (p-h) and temperature-entropy (T-s) diagrams of this cycle are given
in Figure 2. The Rankine cycle operates in the following steps:

1-2-3 Isobaric Heat Transfer. High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the feed pump
(1) and is heated to the saturation temperature (2). Further addition of energy causes
evaporation of the liquid until it is fully converted to saturated steam (3).
3-4 Isentropic Expansion. The vapor is expanded in the turbine, thus producing work
which may be converted to electricity. In practice, the expansion is limited by the
temperature of the cooling medium and by the erosion of the turbine blades by liquid
entrainment in the vapor stream as the process moves further into the two-phase region.
Exit vapor qualities should be greater than 90%.
4-5 Isobaric Heat Rejection. The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine (4) is condensed
at low pressure, usually in a surface condenser using cooling water. In well designed and
maintained condensers, the pressure of the vapor is well below atmospheric pressure,
approaching the saturation pressure of the operating fluid at the cooling water
temperature.
5-1 Isentropic Compression. The pressure of the condensate is raised in the feed pump.
Because of the low specific volume of liquids, the pump work is relatively small and often
neglected in thermodynamic calculations.
 52

Figure 1. Rankine cycle.

Figure 2. T-s and p-h diagrams.

The efficiency of power cycles is defined as

 53

(1)

Values of heat and work can be determined by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to
each step. The steam quality x at the turbine outlet is determined from the assumption of
isentropic expansion, i.e.,

(2)

where is the entropy of vapor and Si* the entropy of liquid.

Inefficiencies of Real Rankine Cycles

The efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle as described in the previous section is close to the
Carnot efficiency (see Carnot Cycle). In real plants, each stage of the Rankine cycle is
associated with irreversible processes, reducing the overall efficiency. Turbine and pump
irreversibilities can be included in the calculation of the overall cycle efficiency by defining a
turbine efficiency according to Figure 3

(3)

where subscript act indicates actual values and subscript is indicates isentropic values and a
pump efficiency

(4)
 54

Figure 3. Turbine efficiency.

If t and p are known, the actual enthalpy after the compression and expansion steps can be
determined from the values for the isentropic processes. The turbine efficiency directly
reduces the work produced in the turbine and, therefore the overall efficiency. The
inefficiency of the pump increases the enthalpy of the liquid leaving the pump and, therefore,
reduces the amount of energy required to evaporate the liquid. However, the energy to drive
the pump is usually more expensive than the energy to feed the boiler.

Figure 4. Rankine cycle with vapor superheating.

Even the most sophisticated boilers transform only 40% of the fuel energy into useable steam
energy. There are two main reasons for this wastage:
 55

The combustion gas temperatures are between 1000C and 2000C, which is considerably
higher than the highest vapor temperatures. The transfer of heat across a large
temperature difference increases the entropy.
Combustion (oxidation) at technically feasible temperatures is highly irreversible.

Since the heat transfer surface in the condenser has a finite value, the condensation will occur
at a temperature higher than the temperature of the cooling medium. Again, heat transfer
occurs across a temperature difference, causing the generation of entropy. The deposition of
dirt in condensers during operation with cooling water reduces the efficiency.

Increasing the Efficiency of Rankine Cycles

Pressure difference

The net work produced in the Rankine cycle is represented by the area of the cycle process in
Figure 2. Obviously, this area can be increased by increasing the pressure in the boiler and
reducing the pressure in the condenser.

Figure 5. Regenerative feed liquid heating.

 56

Superheating and reheating

The irreversibility of any process is reduced if it is performed as close as possible to the
temperatures of the high temperature and low temperature reservoirs. This is achieved by
operating the condenser at subatmospheric pressure. The temperature in the boiler is limited
by the saturation pressure. Further increase in temperature is possible by superheating the
saturated vapor, see Figure 4.

This has the additional advantage that the vapor quality after the turbine is increased and,
therefore the erosion of the turbine blades is reduced. It is quite common to reheat the vapor
after expansion in the high pressure turbine and expand the reheated vapor in a second, low
pressure turbine.

Feed water preheating

The cold liquid leaving the feed pump is mixed with the saturated liquid in the boiler and/or
re-heated to the boiling temperature. The resulting irreversibility reduces the efficiency of the
boiler. According to the Carnot process, the highest efficiency is reached if heat transfer
occurs isothermally. To preheat the feed liquid to its saturation temperature, bleed vapor
from various positions of the turbine is passed through external heat exchangers
(regenerators), as shown in Figure 5.

Ideally, the temperature of the bleed steam should be as close as possible to the temperature
of the feed liquid.

Combined cycles

The high combustion temperature of the fuel is better utilized if a gas turbine or Brayton
engine is used as "topping cycle" in conjunction with a Rankine cycle. In this case, the hot gas
leaving the turbine is used to provide the energy input to the boiler. In co-generation systems,
the energy rejected by the Rankine cycle is used for space heating, process steam or other low
temperature applications.
 57

BMS:
A burner management system is responsible for the safe start-up, operation and
shutdown of a boiler. It monitors and controls igniters and main burners; utilizes flame
scanners to detect and discriminate between the igniter and main flames; employs safety shut-
off valves, pressure, temperature, flow and valve position limit switches and uses blowers to
cool the scanners and/or provide combustion air for the igniters. Its proper operation is crucial
to the safety of a boiler.