CYTOGENETICS
Human body is not a static object with a set number of
cells.
Mitosis, a form of cell division that gives rise to two
somatic cells from one.
Apoptosis-- a form of cell death. It comes from the greek
means leaves falling from a tree, is a precise, genetically
programmed sequence of events that is a normal part of
development. It may ensue if the cells DNA is so
damaged that cancer might result.
Anemia develops as the spleen destroys red blood cells
more rapidly than the bone marrow can replace them.
Cell cycle series of events describing the sequence of
activities as a cell prepares for division and then divides.
Cell duplicates its chromosomes, then apportions one set
into each of two resulting cells, called daughter cells.
Mainly contains 23 chromosome pairs characteristic of a
human somatic cell.
TWO MAJOR STAGES
Interphase (not dividing)
Mitosis (dividing)
INTERPHASE
Interphase is a very active time.
cell continues the basic biochemical functions of life and
also replicates its DNA and other subcellular structures
- INTERPHASE IS DIVIDED INTO TWO GAPS:
o (G1 and G2 ) phases
o synthesis ( S ) phase cell can exit the cell cycle at G 1 to
enter a quiescent phase called G0 . A cell in G0 maintains
its specialized characteristics but does not replicate its
DNA or divide.
G1 (GAP 1 PHASE)
During G 1 , which follows mitosis, the cell resumes
synthesis of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
These molecules will contribute to building extra plasma
membrane to surround the two new cells.
G 1 varies the most in duration among different cell types.
Slowly dividing cells, such in the liver,may exit at G 1 and
enter G 0 , where they remain for years. In contrast,the
rapidly dividing cells in bone marrow speed through G 1 in
16 to 24 hours.
Cells of the early embryo may skip G1 entirely.
S phase
S phase, the cell replicates its entire genome.
As a result, each chromosome then consists of two copies
joined at an area called the centromere. In most human
cells.
It takes 8 to 10 hours. Many proteins are also synthesized
during this phase, including those that form the mitotic
spindle that will pull the chromosomes apart.
Microtubules form structures called centrioles near the
nucleus.
Centriole microtubules join with other proteins and are
oriented at right angles to each other, forming paired,
oblong structures called centrosomes that organize other
microtubules into the spindle.
Mutations in genes that encode proteins of the
centrosome cause Microcephaly, in which the brain is
very small but intelligence may be normal.
G2 phase
G2 occurs after the DNA has been replicated but before
mitosis begins.
More proteins are synthesized during this phase.
Membranes are assembled from molecules made
duringG1 and are stored as small, empty vesicles beneath
the plasmamembrane. These vesicles will merge with the
plasma membrane to enclose the two daughter cells.
MITOSISTHE CELL DIVIDES
As mitosis begins, the replicated chromosomes are
condensed enough to be visible, when stained, under a
microscope.
The two long strands of identical chromosomal material in
a replicated chromosome are called chromatids.
At a certain point during mitosis, a replicated
chromosomes centromere splits, allowing its chromatid
pair to separate into two individualchromosomes.
(Although the centromere of a replicated chromosome
appears as a constriction, its DNA is replicated.)
PROPHASE
First stage of mitosis.
DNA coils tightly This shortens and thickens the
chromosomes, which enables them to more easily
separate Microtubules to form the spindles Toward
the end of prophase, the nuclear membrane breaks
down nucleolus is no longer visible.
METAPHASE
Stage following prophase.
Chromosomes attach to the spindle at their
centromeres align along the center of cell called the
equator. Metaphase chromosomes are under great
tension, but they appear motionless because they are
pulled with equal force on both sides, like a tug-of-war
rope pulled taut.
ANAPHASE
Plasma membrane indents at the center, where the
metaphase chromosomes line up. A band of
microfilaments forms on the inside face of the plasma
membrane, constricting the cell down the middle
centromeres part (relieving the tension) releases one
chromatid from each pair to opposite ends of the
celllike a tug-of-war rope (breaking in the middle and
participants falling into two groups) Microtubule
movements stretch (dividing cell)
During the very brief anaphase stage, a cell temporarily
contains twice the normal number of chromosomes
because each chromatid becomes an independently
moving chromosome, but the cell has not yet
physically divided.

TELOPHASE
Final stage of mitosis.
The cell looks like a dumbbell with a set of
chromosomes at each end.
The spindle falls apart nucleoli and the
membranes around the nuclei re-form at each end of
the elongated cell
Division of the genetic material is now complete.

CYTOKINESIS
organelles and macromolecules are distributed between
the two daughter.
Finally, the microfilament band contracts like a drawstring,
separating the newly formed cells

CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE

o Illness can result from abnormally regulated mitosis
o Groups of interacting proteins function at times in the cell
cycle called checkpoints which ensures that
chromosomes are faithfully replicated and apportioned into
daughter cells.
o DNA damage checkpoint
- temporarily pauses the cell cycle while special proteins
repair damaged DNA.
o Apoptosis checkpoint
- turns on as mitosis begins. During this checkpoint,
proteins called survivins override signals telling the cell to
die, ensuring that mitosis (division) rather than apoptosis
(death) occurs.
o Spindle Assembly Checkpoint
- During mitosis it oversees construction of the spindle and
the binding of chromosomes to it.
o How can a cell know how many divisions remain?
The answer lies in the chromosome tips, called TELOMERES
Telomeres function like cellular fuses that burn down as
pieces are lost from the ends. It consist of hundreds to
thousands of repeats of a specific six DNA-base sequence.