GS - Geography

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BIOGEOGRAPHY
SOIL GENESIS
Soil is the upper weathered layer of the earths crust. It is a dynamic entity
which is always undergoing physical, chemical and biological changes. The
vertical section through the upper crust of the earth is called soil profile. Pedology
is the study of soils and pedogenesis refers to the processes involved in the
formation of soils.
Soil is made up of substances existing in three states : solid, liquid and
gaseous. For healthy plant growth, a proper balance of all three states of matter is
necessary. The solid portion of soil is both inorganic and organic. Weathering of
rock produces the inorganic particles that give a soil the main part of its weight and
volume. These fragments range from gravel and sand down to tiny colloidal
particles too small to be seen by an ordinary microscope. The organic solids
consist of both living and decayed plant and animal materials, such as plant roots,
fungi, bacteria, worms, insects and rodents. The colloidal particles an important
function in soil chemistry.
The liquid portion of soil, the soil solution, is a complex chemical solution
necessary for many important activities that go on in the soil. Soil without water
cannot have these chemical reactions, nor can it support life.
Gases in the open pore spaces of the soil form the third essential component.
They are principally the gases of the atmosphere, together with the gases liberated
by biological and chemical activity in the soil.
SOIL FORMING PROCESSES OR PEDOGENIC REGIMES
Based on the specific physical conditions prevailing and the physical,
chemical or biological activities involved, the following processes involved in the
processes of soil genesis, may be identified.
1. TRANSLOCATION
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It involves several kinds of physical movements which are predominantly in

the downward direction. The processes which can be categorised under
translocation include the following.
a. Leaching It is the downward movement of material-clay, bases or organic
stuff, in solution or colloidal form. Leaching is more pronounced in humid areas
than in dry areas.
b. Eluviation It refers to the downwash of clay and other soluble material,
leaving behind a deprived horizon.
c. Illuviation It is the reverse of eluviation; illuviation is said to have
occurred when accumulation or deposition of materials from the upper layers
leaves behind an enriched horizon.
d. Calcification It occurs when the evaporation exceeds precipitation. Under
such conditions, the material has an upward movement within the profile due to
capillary action. This brings the calcium compounds to the upper layers. In
grasslands, there is enhanced calcifications, as grasses use a lot of calcium, leaving
a dark, organic upper surface (Fig.3.1).
e. Salinisation / Alkalisation This happens when a temporary excess of water
and extreme evaporation bring the underground salts to the surface and a whitish
fluorescent crust is left behind. This is a common phenomenon in areas with good
canal irrigation facilities but poor drainage, as in some areas of Punjab in India.
2. ORGANIC CHANGES
These changes occur mainly on the surface and follow a specific sequence.
Degrading or break down of the organic material by algae, fungi, insects and
worms causes humification which leaves behind a dark, amorphous humus.
Extreme wetness may leave behind a peaty layer. On further decay, the humus
releases nitrogenous compounds into the soil. This stage is called mineralization.
The organic changes, thus, refer to the accumulated effect produced by these
processes.
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Degrading Humification Mineralisation

3. PODZOLISATION / CHELUVIATION
This occurs in cool, humid climates where the bacterial activity is low. In
these regions, a thick, dark organic surface (having organic compounds or
chelating agents) is left behind which is translocated downwards by heavy
rainfall. The chelating agents are the organic compounds thriving in acidic soils of
conifers and health plat regions whose leaves release acids on decomposition.
During podzolisation or cheluviation, because of differential solubility of
materials, the upper horizons become rich in silica (tending to pure quartz) and the
lower horizons rich in sesquioxides mainly of iron. At times, even an iron pan is
formed. Horizon-A, just below the humus-rich upper layer, has an ashy-grey
appearance.
4. GLEYING
The process of gleying takes place under water-logged and anaerobic
conditions. Under such conditions, some specialised bacterial flourish which use
up the organic matter. Reduction of iron compounds laves behind a thick, bluish-
grey gley horizon. Sometimes, intermittent oxidation of iron compounds gives red
spots and the surface gets a characteristic blotched lock. Leaching is absent due
to ground water saturation.
5. DESILICATION / LATERISATION
Such processes are common in hot-wet tropical and equatorial climates.
High temperature leaves little or no hummus on the surface. Desilication or
laterisation contrasts with podzolisation when iron and aluminium compounds are
more mobile. In desilication, silica is more mobile and gets washed out with other
bases. Thus, we get horizon-A with red oxides (which are insoluble) of iron and
aluminium also called ferralsols. Such soils, being poor in organic compounds,
are normally infertile. Where there is an abundance of iron and aluminium, these
soils are suitable for mining.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION

There are five elements which control the pace and direction of soil-
formation.
1. Parent Rock
It is in the texture and fertility, which the parent rock contributes, that the
soil formation is controlled by the parent rock. For instance, sandstone and
gritstone give coarse and well drained soils, while shale gives finer and poorly
drained soils. And, in terms of fertility, limestone rocks produce base-rich soils
through the process of calcification. Non-calcareous rocks, on the other hand, are
liable to podzolosation and acidity.
2. Climate
The climate exercises its influence through temperature and rainfall. High
temperature facilities more bacterial activity, more physical and chemical
weathering, but little or no humus. Low temperature, on the other hand, helps form
thicker, organic layers.
In situations, where evapotranspiration is less than precipitation, pedalfers
(rich in aluminum, iron) are formed, while in situations where evapotranspiration
exceeds precipitation, pedocals (ricj in calcium) are formed.
3. Biotic Activity
Plants and animals are the instruments of biotic activity. Plants form a part
of the soil profile in the form of humus, which is basically decayed plant material.
Plants check soil erosion through interception of rainwater and by binding the soil
with their roots. The plants absorb bases from the lower horizons into their stems,
roots and branches and by shedding their mass, the plants again release these bases
to the upper horizons Roots of plants create crevasses and thus enhance leaching.
Through transpiration, the plants inhibit percolation and make the rainfall less
effective. Plants are also critical for the process of podzolisation.
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Some micro-organisms like algae, fungi and bacteria break down humus.
Some others like rhizobium cause fixation of nitrogen in root nodules in
leguminous plants. Some burrowing animals like rodents and ants overturn the
profile by mixing. Earthworms not only mix the soil, but also change the chemical
composition and structure of the soil by passing the soil through their digestive
system.
4. Topography Various :
Aspects of topography have their own influence on the process of soil
formation. On steep slopes, thinner soils are formed because of the inability of soil
constituents to lodge themselves. Location also has its influence-a flat surface on
the hilltop may be a material-exporting site, whereas a flat surface in valley may be
a material-receiving site. From the point of view of drainage, the hilslope soils are
better drained while the valley soils are poorly drained and may experience
gleying. Exposure to the sun may determine the extent of bacterial activity and
evapotranspiration and nature of vegetation. These factors further influence soil
genesis.
5. Time :
A more porous rock like sand stone a less massive rock like glacial till, may
take less time in soil formation than an impervious rock or a more massive rock
like dark basalt.
Classification and Distribution Zonal (Older) system of Classification
This system links the distribution of various soil type to the distribution of
climate and vegetation. It is through the works of Dukuchaiey Masbut (USA) that
the zonal system of classification evolved. According to this system, there are three
major classes of soil types (i) Zonal soils are characterized by the dominant
influence of climate (ii) Intra-Zonal soils, on the other hand, have some local
factor like moisture or parent rock having the dominant influence. The intra-zonal
soils occur within broad zonal types on poorly draining sites. (iii) Azonal soils are
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poorly developed and occur along the recent alluvium, steep slopes or sand
deposits.
Criticisum of zonal system of classification Contrary to the general rule,
the zonal soils may be found in different climatic situations. For instance, Podzols
which are generally associated with cool, temperate conifers and health plants are
also found in marine and tropical climate similarly, the azonal soils may results
from an arrested pedogensis. Morever, the climatic characteristics reflected by a
soil may be inherited for the past.
WORD ZOAL PATTERN OF SOILS ZONAL SOILS
There are seven main types of zonal soils.
1. TUNDRA SOILS
As the name suggests, these soils extend over the tundra region, covering
northern parts of North America, Southern fringes of Greenland and northern
Eurasia. The exact character of these soils depends on the ground ice position,
slope and vegetation. If the slope is stable, peaty soils are fromed due to slow
organic and chemical action. In case of steep slopes, thin soils result.
2. PODZOLS
These soils occur south of the tundra region in North America, northern
Europe and Siberia and are associated with conifers and heath plants. In these soils,
the horizon-A is colloidal and humus rich, horizon-E is bleached and ash-grey,
horizon-B is brown clayey. Depending on the composition of horizon-B, the soils
could be humus-podozol, iron-podzol or gley podzol. These soils are generally
infertitle and require lime and fertilizers if put to agricultural use.
3. BROWN FOREST SOILS
These soils occur south of the podzol region in milder climates of eastern
USA, northern Europe and England. These soils are associated with deciduous
forest and derive their brown appearance from the equitable distribution of hums
and sesquioxides. There is less leaching, because there is no downward movement
of sesquioxides. The brown forest soils are generally less acidic.
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4. LATERTIC SOILS/ LATOSOLS/ FERRALSOLS

These soils cover large areas of Asia, Africa, South and Central America and
Australia. These soils are generally associated with tropical and sub-tropical
climates with a short wet and long dry season and thick vegetation.
During the dry season, in these areas, there is intense physical and chemical
weathering and organic activity. During the wet season, an intense leaching causes
washing down of humus, organic and mineral colloids, clay and other soluble
material. The upper horizons are, as result, acidic with minimum organic content.
The insoluble oxides of iron and aluminum give the upper layers a characteristic
red colour. The lower horizons are clayey. The lateritic soils are generally poorly
differentiated but have deep horizons and are suitable for mining. These soils are
generally infertile due to low base status.
5. CHERNOZEM / PRAIRIE / STEPPE
These soils are associated with grasslands receiving moderate rainfall in
northern USA, the commonwealth of Independent States (former USSR),
Argentina, Manchuria, Australia.
The chernozems are characterised by high mineral content and low organic
content. Calcium carbonate is quite high in the profile. The upper horizons are
dark, mineral-matrix-base rich. The humus content is around 10%. The parent
material of chernozems may be loess (wind eroded sediments). The soft, crumb
structure imparts fertility to these soils.
The chestnut soils occur on the arid side of chernozems, and are associated
with lowgrass steppe. The lime content is still higher in these soils compared to the
chernozems.
The prairies represent the transitional soils between cherzems and the brown
forest soils and reflect the element of increasing wetness. These soils are
charaterised by less leaching, no calcium content and taller, coarser grasses. In the
corn regions of the USA, prairie soils are quite fertile.
6. GRUMUSOLS / REDDISH /BROWN SOILS
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These are dark clays soils of savanna grass lands which occur on the drier
margins of the laterites. These regions experience warm climate with wet-dry
seasons. There are no eluviated and illuvial horizons but the wholesolum is base-
rich which gives these soils a dark appearance. These soils support scattered trees,
low scrubs and grasses. During the dry season, these soils show cracks.
7. DESERT (SEIROZEMS AND RED DESERT)
Seirozems or grey desert solid occur in mid-latitude deserts oc Colorado and
Utah states of USA, in Turkmenistan, Mongoila and Sinkiang. These soils occur on
the extreme sides of chestnut soils and have a low organic content. Lime and
gypsum are closer to the surface. Being rich in bases, the seirozems are good on
irrigation.
The red desert soils occur in the tropical deserts of the Sahara, West Asia,
Pakistan, South Africa and Australia. These soils are characterised by lack of
vegetation and lack of leaching. The insoluble of iron and aluminum give these
soils a red colour. The red desert soils are generally base rich, sandy and gravelly.
INTRAZONAL SOILS
Depending on the role played by water, presence of calcium in the parent
material and the location, intra-zonal soils may be hydromorphic, calcimorphic and
halomorphic.
HYDROMORPHIC
Surface water gley soils and ground water gely soils are formed under
anaerobic conditions. Bog soils formed under cool, temperate, continental climates.
In these soil the upper layer is peaty while the lower layer is gleyey. Meadows are
formed in mountains and in river basins and have a humus-rich upper layer and
gleyey lower layer.
CALCIMORPHIC
Wherever the limestone is exposed, rendzinas are formed. Which are dark,
organic rich and good for cultivation in humid regions. The terrarosa soils are
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formed in the Mediterranean region and are characterised by insoluble traces of

iron and aluminum, low humus besides being clayey.
HALOMORPHIC
These soils occur mostly in deserts. Solonchak are white alkali soils which
are formed in depressions and develop a whitish crust in the dry season. The
solonetz are black alkali soils. Intense alkalinisation is marked by the presence of
sodium carbonate Better drainage results in lighter soils. In solodics intense
leaching in the presence of sodium results in washing down of clay, colloids etc.,
and forms a podzol-like ashy-grey horizon.
AZONAL SOILS
These soils are common where the parent material is being continuously
eroded and deposited. These soils have poorly developed horizons due to three
reasons.
1. LACK OF TIME
For instance, in new flood plains alluvium is being continually eroded and
deposited.
2. PARENT MATERIAL
Azonal soils like regosols result from loose sand and loess.
NEW CLASSIFICATION OF WORLD SOILS
This scheme is in practice since 1960, and is based on factors which can be
inferred and observed from the field, such as morphology and composition. In this
scheme the zonal, intrazonal distinction is not made. Modifications on account of
cultivation, irrigation and fertilisers are also recognised. These are 10 orders, 47
sub-orders 180 great groups, 960 sub-groups, 4,700 families and 10,000 sere in the
new scheme. Thus, it is a very comprehensive system of soil classification. The ten
orders of soils in the new scheme are discussed briefly here.
1.ENTISOLS
The zonal scheme equivalent of these soils are the azonal soils. Entisols are found
in different climates, such as shifting sands of Sahara, mountain soils of Canada,
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Alaska, Siberia and Tibet. Even fresh alluvium comes under this category. Entisols
are basically shallow soils of the parent bedrock and are sometimes referred to as
embryonic mineral soils.
2. INVERTSOILS
The zonal equivalents of invertisols include grumusols, rendzina and the
regur soils of Deccan region in India. These soils are spread over eastern USA,
South America, Sudan, India and Australia. These are disturbed, inverted clay soils
having a high content of shrinking type clay. Because of shrinking, shearing and
cracking, these soils are unstable.
3. ARIDISOLS
The zonal equivalent of aridisols are the seirozems. These soils are spread
over south-western USA, central Mexico, western parts of South America,
Shahara, West Asia, Australia, Taklamkan and Gobi. Aridisols are basically desert
soils with minimum organic content, high base status and lack of leaching.
4. MOLLISOLS
The zonal equivalent of mollisols are the chernozems. Mollisols are spread
over the plains of USA, CIS, China, Mongolia, northern Argentina, Paraguay,
Uruguay and Australia. These soils are associated with prairie vegetation and have
a soft, crumb structure. The lower one is clayey. Mollisols are generally fertile
soils.
5. INCEPTISOLS
Some brown soils can be said to be the zonal equivalents of inceptisols.
These soils are spread over parts of the USA, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Spain,
France, Siberia, eastern China and south-western Gangetic valley in India. These
are young soils characterised by underdeveloped horizons and lack of intense
weathering and leaching. Also absent are the accumulations of iron and aluminium.
6. SPODOSOLS
Podzols are the zonal equivalents of spodosols. These soils are spread over
the cold temperate forests of northern USA, northern Europe, parts of South
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America and Australia. These soils are characterised by intense leaching (except
silicates) and not much organic activity. Spodosols are generally acidic with an
ashy E-horizon and a colloidal rich B-horizon.
7. ALFISOLS
Degraded chernozems can be said to be the zonal equivalents of alfisols,
which are spread over the deciduous forests of the USA, eastern Brazil, lower half
of South Africa, India and south eastern Asia. Alfisols are moist, mineral soils
which have a productive, medium medium to high base status, grey to brown
surface. The illuviated horizon has silicate clay.
8. ULTISOLS
The zonal equivalents of ultisols are red yellow podzols and laterites. The
ultisols extend over warm tropics of south-eastern USA, north-eastern Australia,
south eastern Asia, southern Brazil and Paraguay which are generally south-eastern
margins of the conditions. The sltisols are weathered, acidic soils and have a red,
yellow illuviated horizon because of oxides of iron (expect in wet soils). The
ultisols are sometimes associated with savanna or swamp vegetation.
9. OXISOLS
The zonal equivalents of oxisols are latosols and ferralsols. These soils
extend over the tropics of northern Brazil, southeren half of Africa and south-
eastern Asia. The oxisols are deeply weathered, highly leached as the silicates get
washed down and a large proportion of iron and aluminium oxides reman. The
sub-surface of these soils is deep and clayey. The oxisols are productive on proper
management.
10. HISTOSOLS
The zonal equivalents of histosols are bog soils. If the clay content is less,
the histosols have a minimum of 20% organic matter; they have 30% organic
matter if the clay content is above 50%
SOIL PROFILE AND HORIZONS
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A soil profile displays a vertical section of soil from the ground surface
down to the bed rock or parent material. A soil profile suggests vertical distribution
of soil components, i.e. the flora and fauna, the inorganic, etc. the profile of a soil
can be determined from a specially dug soil pit. It usually Shows different layers
(or horizons) from which the soil is classified. A soil horizon is a well-defined
layer within the soil profile, parallel to the ground surface. The main soil horizons
are visually distinctive, reflecting their different physical and chemical properties,
which result from various soil-forming processes, e.g., weathering, introduction of
humus, movement of minerals, etc.
Although there are several views regarding the classification of major
horizons, most of the scientists agree that there are three major horizons, viz., the
A horizon or topsoil which Fig.3.3a Soil profile showing soil horizons. The
composition, thickness and actual number of horizons vary in different soil types.
(According to more recent views, the O horizon is same as L and F horizons. The
A and E horizons coincide with A and H horizons. The E horizon is taken as a thin
transitional zone.) contains humus the soil minerals are washe downwards from A
horizons by gravitational put and deposited in the B horizon or subsoil. The parent
rock at the bottom has been designate as the C horizon.
The Oxford Dictionary of Geography has classified the major soil horizons
as A, B, C and D, where A and B horizons are the same mentioned earlier. The C
horizon has, however been defined as unconsolidated rock below the soil, and D
horizon as the consolidated parent rock. (Some scientists have used the latter R in
place of D.)
Apart from these major soil horizons, other layers have been recognized.
The soil surface composed of plant material has been classified as the L horizon
(fresh litter), F horizon (decomposing litter), H horizon (well-decomposed litter),
and O horizon (peaty soil). The E horizon (eluviated horizon) signifies a leached A
horizon.
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Additional surffies have been used to signify further types. The A horizon
has been subdivided into Ah horizon found on uncultivated land, Ahp found under
cultivated land, and Apg on gleyed land. The B horizon has been subdivided into B
horizon characterised by a thin iron pan B with gleyed soil, Bh characterised by
humic accumulations, Box having a residual deposition of sesquioxides, Bs with
sesquioxide accumulation, Bt having clay minerals in soil, and Bx or fragipans with
thin and brittle layers caused by compaction. The subdivisions of the C horizon are
Cu which shows little gleying, accumulation of salt, or fragipan, Cr while is so
dense that plants are not able to penetrate it with their roots, and Cg which has
gleyed soil.
Prof.Savindra Singh has given a modified version of the above
classification.
The first two horizons, i.e., L and F, are the uppermost layers which belong
to the organic horizon. The L horizon consists of original vegetative matter, partly
decomposed organic matter, etc. The F horizon is characterised by greatly altered
remains of plants and animals. The organic matter of F horizon is beyond
recognition. It is called humus. (The process of humus formation is known as
humification.)
HORIZONS OF A GENERALISED SOIL PROFILE
Ground Surface General Usage More Recent Usage
O1 (Aoo) L Organic horizon, Litter
layer
O2 (Ao) F Organic horizon
(decomposed
organic matter)
zone of eluviation A1 H Dark colour : rich in
humus.
A2 A Ligh colour : zone of
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maximum
eluviation (leaching or
downward
movement of minerals and
organic matter)
SOLUM A3 E Transition to B
Zone of illuviation B1 Transition to A
(accumulation)
B2 B Zone of maximum
illuviation
(accumulation of
minerals)
B3 Transition to C
Weathered parent C C Unconsolidated weathered
subfurface
Materials horizon, gley layer.
Solid bedrock D R Solid bedrock
The uppermost layer in the mineral horizon is H. it is a mixed horizon made

of minerals and organic matter. This horizon is dark and biologically more active
than any other layer of the mineral horizon.
The A horizon is characterized by maximum downward movement of
silicate clays, oxides of iron, aluminium etc.
The E horizon is a transitional zone, marking transition to B and transition to
A. The former layer has more characteristic affinity to A horizon than to the next B
horizon. The latter is more like the B horizon than the A horizon.
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The B horizon is a zone of maximum accumulation of silicate clay minerals

or sesquidoxides and organic matter.
The C horizon has unconsolidated weathered parent rock materials, also
known as regoliths. This layer is also called subsurface horizon and gley horizon. It
resembles the structure and composition of basal parent rock.
The R horizon is made of unconsolidated hard parent rock.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
The characteristic features of a soil profile may be described as follows
With increasing depth, the organic matter decreases along with a sharp
decrease in the number of living organisms.
With increasing depth, the level of soil aeration decreases.
The number and variety of parent materials increase with descent.
No definite trend has been observed with regard to soil water and depth of
soil because of the fluctuation of soil water. Such fluctuations occur
due to the position and movement of groundwater, the frequency and
volume of rainfall, and the capacity of different horizons of the soil
profile to absorb water.
The soil surface has a thin veneer of leaf litter, crop residues and fresh or
partly decomposed organic matter (O horizon). The A horizon or topsoil lies just
beneath the O horizon and is composed of several minerals and organic material.
The thickness of the A horizon varies from several meters in the prairie-region to
zero in deserts. Most of the plants spread roots and derive their food from this
layer. The surface or the A horizon often blends into the E horizon which is subject
to leaching. The subsurface horizon or subsoil (the B horizon) has little organic
matter but greater concentration of minerals. Soluble compounds and clay particles
are washed downward from the upper layers and deposited in the B horizon.
(Sometimes subsoil particles are cemented together to form an impervious layer
called hardpan. Hardpans prevent the growth of plant roots and water from
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escaping downward.) The subsoil is followed by the C horizon or the parent

material. The layer is made of comparatively undecomposed minerals and
unweathered rock particles with little organic material. In the USA about 70 per
cent of the existing horizon material was transported to its present site by natural
agents like glaciers, wind and water and has no direct relation to the bedrock
placed below it.
FACTORS INFLUMENCING SOIL PROFILE
Water movement in the soil affects the soil profile. When evaporation
cannot equal the rainfalls, excess water moves downwards in the soil, mineral
matter being removed from the top layer in the process. This matter settles in the B
horizon, at times creating a hardpan and, thus, leading to poor drainage. The soil in
such a case is said to be leached. Podozls in cold wet regions and laterites in hot
wet regions are produced by leaching.
There is little organic matter in the soil water of humid tropical regions, and
such water is not able to dissolve iron and aluminium hydroxides. Most of the
other minerals dissolve and are carried in solution to be deposited in the B horizon.
In course of time, a soil composed mainly of iron and aluminium compounds may
be formed; this is laterite soil. (Laterites may form from any kind of rock.)
An upwards movement of water takes place in the soils of hot desert or
semi-arid regions. As a result, mineral matter is deposited in the A horizon.
Significant saltpeter deposits have been formed n this way.
SOIL DEGRADATION AND ITS CONSERVATION
Soil constitutes a complex mixture of weathered minerals derived from
rocks, partly decomposed organic matter and a host of flora and fauna. Soil may be
considered as an ecosystem by itself. The degradation of soil is categorized into
four types.
i. Light Topsoil is removed. Some rills and gullies appear and about 70 per
cent of vegetation survives.
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ii. Moderate Topsoil is completely ren Soil loses its capacity to absorb
and retain Nutrient depletion takes place along with creased toxification. The
percentage of vegetation hovers between 30 to 70 per cent.
iii. Severe Gullies become deeper and frequent. Nutrients deplete
severely, crops fer. Natural vegetation is reduced to less the 30 per cent.
iv. Extreme Land becomes devoid of vegetation. Land restoration is not
possible.
Thus, land degradation may be defined the basis of biological productivity
and the humus expectations about the land. Generally, land considered to be
degraded when the soil impoverished or eroded, water dries up or ge
contaminated, natural vegetation decreases, bio mass production
deteriorates, resulting in loss biodiversity.
Types of soil erosion
Soil erosion may be divided into four major types : (i) wind erosion, (ii)
sheet erosion, (iii) rill erosion, and (iv) gully erosion.
WIND EROSION
Involves the actual removal of dry and unconsolidated material by the
transporting agents of wind. The effect of wind erosion is mostly felt in the desert
regions of the world. Small particles of up to 0.05 mm are transported in
suspension; medium sized particles of 0.05/20 mm are transported by slatation;
and larger materials move by creeping. Wind deflation in arid regions leads to
excavation of wide shallow basis known as deflation hollows or blow outs.
Sometimes, the desert floor is lowered to the level of groundwater. Often, the
water-table is found to be lower than the sea level. Such depressions are called
oases. Examples are the pans of South Africa and the Kalahari and the Tsaidam
Swamp in the Mongolian desert. Desert blown away by wind, and pebbles and
boulders are left behind as lag deposits.
TYPES AND CAUSES
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Soil breaks down into finer particles when raindrops strike against the bare
ground surface. Erosion is accelerated as the kinetic energy is greater in the
absence of any kind of interception barrier like vegetation cover. The process is
known as splash erosion. Splash erosion causes resettling of up thrown soil
particles in the uppermost horizon of the soil profile which causes plugging and
sealing of larger pore spaces. Thus, an impervious thin layer is formed that
prevents water infiltration. During heavy rains, the surface runoff carries away soil
particles: this is known as entrainment sheet erosion or rain wash occurs as the soil
is eroded in thin layers. Heavy precipitation along with rainstorms transformers
sheet flow into linear flow called rills and the resultant erosion produced by rills is
known as rill erosion or rilling. During rill erosion several interconnected rills
merge to form shoestring rills. If rills are not destroyed by farming practices, they
enlarge and deepen to form gullies. Erosion caused by both rills and gullies is
known as rill and ravine erosion which is the most destructive form of soil erosion.
It often leads to the formation of badland topography. Soil erosion caused by
splash erosion and sheet erosion in areas located between two rills is known as
inter-rill erosion. Soil erosion between two gullies is known as inter-gully erosion.
Soil erosion also takes place by the movement of debris when loose
materials as produce of weathering of bedrock slide down the slop. The process is
called mass movement. In the absence of running water, mass wasting occurs,
resulting in slop collapse or slop failure. Mass wasting occurs in various forms,
some of which are slow and continuous over a long duration of time, and others are
sudden and catastrophic. The movement mainly occurs due to gravitation. Repid
downward movements may occur by some natural or artificial factors such as
sudden concentrated snow-melt, an earth quake, unsustainable mining, collapse of
a dam deforestation on hill-slopes, wrong methods cultivation on hill slopes, the
burrowing of animals the vibrations produced by passing trains, helicopters etc.,
the passage of grazing stock or humans and so on. Creep is an indiscernible
18
movement of soil which is reflected by tilted fences, posts or trees. It produces a

stepped slope called teracettes.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOIL EROSION

The major factors responsible for soil erosion are discussed in brief.
(1) CLIMATE
Rainfall, temperature and wind influence precipitation significantly. Rainfall
of high intensity and long duration causes heavy erosion of soil. According to the
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), climate factors like volume, intensity,
energy and distribution of rainfall and changes in temperature are important
determining factors. The momentum of falling raindrops, also called kinetic energy
of rain of rainfall energy, has a very close relation with the nature of soil erosion.
Temperature has an indirect influence on the nature and rate of soil erosion.
Alternate wet and dry conditions of soils result in hydration and dehydration of the
thin veneer of soil. This leads to expansion of soil particles resulting in cracks
which, if filled with water during the nest rains, cause removal of soil. This process
is operative in tropical and subtropical climatic regions. In arid and semi-arid
areas, wind is an important erosive agent, especially during summer in the regions
of monsoon climate and in the dry season of temperate climate regions. Wind can
deflect raindrops and minimise thekinetic energy of raindrops.
2. TOPOGRAPHIC FACTORS
These include relative relief, gradient, slop aspects, etc. The flow velocity
and kinetic energy of surface runoff increases in steep gradients. This accelerates
soil erosion. Studies reveal that a longer length of slop causes greater erosion than
slopes of shorter length.
3. LITHOLOGICAL FACTOR
19
Rock types and their physical and chemical properties also influence
erosion. However, this factor is more closely related to geological erosion of
geomaterials rather than to soil erosion.
4. NATURAL VEGETATION
Vegetation is a dominant controlling factor because (i) vegetation intercepts
rainfall and thus protects the ground surface from the direct impact of raindrops,
(ii) vegetation retards the speed with which rainwater infiltrates and reaches the
ground surface, (iii) the plant stems act as obstructions and decrease the velocity of
surface runoff, (iv) the roots of plants decrease the rate of detachment and
transportation of soil particles, (v) soil strength, porosity and granulation increase
due to the impact of roots, (vi) soil is insulated from high and low temperatures, so
cracks are not developed, and (vii) vegetation slows down wind speed, and this
reduces soil erosion.
5. SOIL
The erodibility of soil is related to its physical and chemical characteristics
like particle size, distribution, humus content, structure, porosity, root content,
strength, aggregate ability, etc., and management practices viz., land and crop
management. The FAO has listed major factors like detachability, transportability
and molecular attraction of soil particles, depth and moisture retaining capacity of
the soil as important factors influencing soil erosion.
6. ANTHROPOGENIC FACTOR
The human factor is the most important one, as the muli-faceted activities of
human beings change and modify the natural factors controlling soil loss and soil
erosion. The human activities controlling soil erosion are categorised into three
groups, viz., (i) land use changes involving destruction of forest and grassland for
expansion of agricultural land, industrialisation and urbanization, mining and
constructional purposes such as rail, road, dams etc., (ii) farm practice changes
involving more intense application of wheeled traffic, i.e., tractors, harvesters etc.,
20
frequent changes in the nature of farming, for example a shift from crop cultivation
to orchard farming; and (iii) management measures encompassing both crop
management and land management.
The modification of natural factors affecting soil erosion takes place in the
following ways; (i) Climate is modified by the removal of forests and grasslands,
thus accelerating soil erosion.
Topograpy is modified by terrace construction on mountain slopes or by
quarrying and mining, construction, of roads, canals, etc. Such
construction activities rivers.
Deforestation, cultivation, increased use of artificial fertilizers, etc. are
responsible for charges in the physical and chemical properties of soils.
Devegetation causes changes in content of humus in the soils accompanied
by changes in the physical and chemical properties of soil. Heavy use of
machineries causes cohesion and compaction of soil surface. It reduces
rainwater infiltration and enhances surface runoff.
(iv) Soil erosion is also caused by over-grazing by cattle, sheep and goats. Even
the properties of soils are greatly modified through the soil being trampled by
animals.
It is, thus, obvious that human activities cause a far greater damage to soil
than do natural factors.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL

DEGRADATION
Some activities aruge that human activities cause more than 50 per cent of
the total erosion. However, man-induced erosion is most dominat in monsoon and
tropical arid and semi-arid regions. Even in the Mediterranean regions and
temperate grasslands, rampant cutting of trees has accelerated the rate of erosion.
The dimensions of soil erosion can be clearly understood from the fact that the
21
rivers all over the world transport about 40,000 cubic km of water as surface
runoff. In the USA, the average rate of soil erosion is about 30 tonnes per hectares
per annum. The UNESCO report, Nature and Resources, 1983 reveals that soil
erosion during the constructional phases in the urban areas is 20,000 to 40,000
times more than those in virgin natural areas. In central china, the rate of soil
erosion in about 34,000 tonnes per square km per annum. The UNESCO studies in
selected Africa countries suggest that the rate of erosion is only 0.9 tonne/hectare
p.a. in dense forest regions, whereas erosion is 320 times greater under crop cover
and it increases to 768 times under bare reported from grassland biomass of
temperature climate regions, viz., the steppe of Central Asia, the prairies of Canada
and the USA, the pampas of South America, veld of Australia and the downs of
Australia. The monsoon climate regions of Asia and, particularly, India experience
serve deforestation and overgrazing which leads to heavy loss of soil cover.
Approximately 37,00,000 hectares of farm lands have been affected by rill and
gully erosion. This type of erosion has assumed alarming dimensions in Uttar
Pradesh (12,30,000 hectares, Madhya Pradesh (6,83,000 hectares), Rajasthan
(4,52,000 hectares), Gujarat (4,00,000 hectares), Bihar (6,00,000 hectares), Wes
Bengal (1,04,000 hectares), Punjab (1,20,00 hectares).
SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES
The conservation and restoration of land is necessary to protect land for
agriculture with a view to augmenting food production for the future. Conservation
measures must therefore fulfil the following objectives:
protection of the surface from the impact of raindrops,
increase in rainwater infiltration,
decrease in the volume and velocity of surface runoff,
enhancement in soil resistance to erosion by judicious modification of the
physical and chemical properties of soil resource.
The soil conservation measures are mainly of two types:
22
(a) crop management, and

(b) providing mechanical protection and soil conservation devices and practices.
Before initiating soil conservation measures, some steps should be followed:
(i) extensive survey of effected areas,
ii) classification of agricultural and forest lands on the basis of land capabilities,
(iii) identification of areas affected by low, moderate and serve soil erosion, and
(iv) enlisting the prime priorities of soil conservation and land reclamation.
The two main measures of soil conservation are discussed
below.
1. CROP MANAGEMENT
Proper crop management decreases both the amount of exposed surface area
and the duration of exposure of surface area to the negative impact of raindrops.
There are several measures of crop management.
Proper selection of crops reduces surface exposure to precipitation, resulting
in reduced loss of soil. For example, the previous practice of maintaining fallow
lands after the harvesting of rabi crops during the rainy season caused an immense
loss of valuable top soils. But after the initiation of Green Revolution in India, such
practices have been, generally, abandoned. The fallow lands have been converted
into lands growing paddy and leguminous crops. Such crop management
techniques have effectively reduced soil erosion.
Such crops should be selected that can cover maximum area and restore the
soil particles. however, a complete changeover to a new crop system may not
demand, commercial value, individual bias, calorific value, irrigation requirements
etc.,
Crops should so sowed as to ensure that the surface areas do not remain bare
for long durations. In Rhodesia, for example, methods like early plantation of
tobacco have reduced soil degradation by almost 50 per cent.
23
Agriculture practices like intercropping and mixed cropping are effective in

soil conversation. Such techniques are followed in India during the Kharif season,
when maize, leguminous crops, arhar and millet are raised together.
Techniques like stubble mulching, in which the roots, stems and leaves are
left over in the agricultural fields after harvesting, help to conserve soil. Trash
farming is a similar technique where chopped crop residue are spread and
ploughed in order to produce a better tilth in the soil.
Application of chemical fertilizers can enhance soil fertility. But this
technique is not free from negative effects like decrease in the content of organic
matters in the soils. As an alternative, practices like organic farming, i.e.,
maintaining fertility of the soil by raising leguminous crops, are gradually
becoming popular.
Lands affected by rill and gully erosion should be brought under mechanical
conservation techniques. During the process, no cultivation and grazing should be
allowed.
Extensive reforestation and reforestation and afforestation have the potential
of preventing erosion, particularly in mountainous areas.
2. MECHANICAL SOIL PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Ploughing, hoeing, cultivation etc., are mechanical soil protection techniques
and are of use especially over slopes. They minimize overland flow, enhance
rainwater infiltration and reduce the velocity of surface flow. The major techniques
are discussed below :
(i) Contour Farming refers to cultivation practices transverse to the slope
gradient. Surface flow is reduced as each furrow acts as a temporary dam, the
system allows infiltration of rainwater, reduces formation of channels, rills and
gullies, and cultivators can hold water.
(ii) Tied ridging is mainly practiced in East Africa. The cultivable land is
ploughed transverse to the slop while ridges are made parallel to the slop. So, the
24
agricultural field is segregated by many smaller basins which check overland flow
and allow rainwater to infiltrate. In the USA, a similar technique is called Basin
listing.
(iii) Criss-cross ploughed is practiced in the valleys of rivers. In India, for
example, slops in valleys are cultivated parallel i.e., transverse to the main channel
during the rabi season. The slopes are never irrigated, rather dried up soils receive
the first summer shower and are slumped into the main river by overland flow.
(iv) Contour bunding or terracing involves the construction of level-floored
benches on general slopes bordered by earthen embankments in order to obstruct
water flow down the slope. This technique is popular in South Asia and South
Africa, where steep slopes are subjected to heavy erosion, particularly, during
heavy rainstorms. In India, terrace cultivation is practiced in the Himalayas, the
Western Ghats and the North-eastern hilly regions.
(v) Prevention of gully erosion may be achieved by building a series of
check dams, and trapping silts behind such dams. These steps would be to reduce
the gradient will be reduced by an increased sedimentation. Other steps would be
to reduce the gradient of walls and heads of gullies, planting grasses, vines, bushes
to stabilise the walls and heads, plugging the gully-heads with stone-filled iron nets
so that head-cut advancement can be checked.
BIOTIC SUCCESSIONS
Biotic communities are not static, they change through time. This change
can be understood on several levels. The simplest is the growth, interaction and
death of individual organisms as they pass through their life-cycles, affected by the
cycles of seasons and other natural phenomena. But there are other levels of
community change that act over longer time spans and that account for much larger
community composition and structure. These include biotic succession and
community evolution.
25
As a lake fills with silt, it changes gradually from a deep to a shallow lake or
pond, then to a marsh, and beyond this in some cases, to a dryland forest (Fig.3.4).
When a cropfield is deserted or a forest is severely burnt over, it is just like a plot
of bare ground and a series of plant communities grow there and replace one
another-first annual weeds, then perennial weeds and grasses, then shrubs, and
trees until a forest ends the development (Fig.3.4)
Such an orderly and progressive replacement of one community called the
climax community, occupies the area, is called ecosystem development or biotic
succession.
PARAMETERS OF A BIOTIC SUCCESSION
It is an orderly process of community development that involves changes in
species structure and community process with time. It is reasonably
directional and, therefore, predicable.
It results from modification of the physical environment by the community; that
is, succession is community-controlled even though the physical
environment determines the patern and the rate of change and often sets
limits as to how far development can go,
It culminates in stabilised eco-system in which maximum biomass and
symbiotic function between organisms are maintained per unit of available
energy flow.
With succession, the following changes occur
diversity of species increases
production per biomass decreases
energy flow decreases
new habitat niches are created
climax or stable community controls or becomes a buffer against the physical
forces, such as, temperature, moisture, light, wind, etc.
26
The first organisms to become established in an eco-system, undergoing

succession, are known as pioneers. The stable community that ends the succession
is termed the climax community. The whole series of communities which are
involved in the ecological succession in a given area, for instance, from grass to
shrub to forest, and which terminates in a final stable climax community, is called
a sere and seral stage. Each seral state is a community, although temporary, with its
own characteristics and it may remain for a very short time or for many years.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUCCESSIONS

The successions may be of two types, in any of the basic environments such
as terrestrical, fresh water or marine.
1. PRIMARY SUCCESSION
It is the process of species colonization and replacement on sites not
occupied previously by any other community, such as sand beach, sand dune, fresh
lava flows, volcanic ash plans, etc. The sere involved in primary succession is
called presere. Initially, only those species which are resistant to extreme
conditions flourish and add to the humus. Thus ground is prepared for higher order
species with broad foliage. Initial species are called the pioneer communities
(lichens on bare rocks, for instance). Colonisation of beaches can be cited as an
example of a primary succession.
S and Beach
Beach Grass
Woody Shrubs
Pine Trees
27
Dry Oak
Moist Forest
Beach Maple Forest ComplEX
The bog successions of Canada are an example of a primary succession.

2. SECONDARY SUCCESSION
It is a process of change that occurs on sites previously occupied by well-
developed communities, for instance, an old field succession where an abandoned
field acts as the site:
Bare Field
Grassland
Pine Shrubs
Pine Forest
Oak Forest Climax

Secondary succession is more repid than primary. The sere involved in secondary
succession is called subsere.
STAGES INVOLVED IN BIOTIC SUCCESSION
The complete process of primary ecological succession involves the
following sequential steps.
28
1. NUDATION
The process of succession beings with the formation of a bare area or
nudation which could be due to volcanic eruption, landslide, flooding, erosion,
deposition, fire, distance or some other catastrophic agency. New lifeless bare
areas are also created by human activity, for instance, walls, quarries, burning,
digging, flooding large land areas under reservoirs.
2. INVASION
The next stage is invasion or the arrival of the reproductive bodies of various
organisms and their settlement in the new or bare area. The plants are the first
invaders (pioneers) in any area because the animals depend on them for food.
3. COMPETITION AND INTERACTION
As the number of individuals of species increases by multiplication, the
competition for space and nutrition beings-within different individuals of the same
species (intra-specific competition) and between two or more species (inter-
specific competition). These species, in turn, interact with the environment, and the
exchange is a two-way process-the environment gets modified and different
species also modify their behaviour. Increased availability of food allows various
kinds of animals to join the community and the resulting interactions further
modify the environment, thus paving the way for fresh invasions by other species
of plants and animals and continuing the process of succession.
4. STABILISATION OR CLIMAX
Eventually a stage is reached when the final terminal community becomes
more or less stabilized for a comparatively long period of time and it can maintain
itself in the equilibrium or steady state with the climate of that area. This terminal
community is characterized by an equilibrium between gross primary production
and total respiration, between the energy captured from sunlight and energy
released by decomposition, between the intake of nutrients and the return of
nutrients by litter fall. It has a wide diversity of species, a well developed spatial
29
structure, and complex food chains; and its living biomass is in a steady state. This
final stable community of the state. This final stable community of the sere is the
climax community, and the vegetation supporting it is the climax vegetation.
CONTINUUM CONCEPT
According to this concept, the vegetation undergoes gradual and continuous
changes, and cannot be differentiated into distinct communities.
MAJOR BIOTIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD (with special reference to
ecological aspects of savanna and monsoon forest biomes)
To analyse the worldwide distribution of vegetation and to explain its
variations with latitude, continental position and altitude, the land areas of earth
can be divided into four major biotic regions of biomes. This regionalisation is
done on the basis of the following parameters.
Description of vegetation in terms of its structure, and the organisation of
vegetation into plant assemblages of various orders of magnitudes
(biome/biochore-formation class association-community).
Climate types.
Pedogenic regimes.
Soil moisture regimes
Major biotic regions
In describing the four great biomes, emphasis is placed on the vast range of
climates spanned by each. Essentially, the biomes are determined by the degree to
which moisture is available to plants in a scale ranging from abundant (forest
biome) to almost none (desert biome). But, within each biome, conditions of
temperature are vastly different from low to high latitudes and from low to high
altitudes. Consequently, there is a need to subdivide each biome into a number of
formation classes. The biome classification system, normally used, follows, the
works of Pierre Dansereau and is based on principles developed by Schimper and
Rubel.
30
1. FOREST BIOME
A forest is defined as a plant formation consisting of trees growing close
together and forming a layer of foliage that largely shades the ground. Forests
often show stratification with more than one layer. Shading of the ground gives
distinctly different microclimate than would be found over open ground. Forests
require a relatively large annual precipitation can be stated because the
effectiveness of the precipitation, and this in turn depends on air temperature and
humidity. Consequently, the forest biome spans a great climate range, from wet
equatorial to cold subarctic. The important formation classes so formed include
(i) Equatorial Rainforest,
(ii) Tropical Rainforest,
(iii) Temperate Rainforest,
(iv) Monsoon Forest.
The equatorial rainforest extends over the Amazon lowland of South
America, Congo lowland of Africa, a coastal zone extending westward from
Nigeria to Guinea and in southeast Asia from Sumatra on the west to the islands of
the western Pacific on the east. These forests are characterised by two or three
layered crowns of trees, numerous epiphytes, a wide diversity of species, little
vegetation growth on the ground due to lack of sunshine there. Repid consumption
of dead plant matter by bacterial action results in the absence of humus upon the
soil surface and within the soil profile. These conditions are typical of the
pedogenic process of laterisation with which the rainforest is identified. The
coastal vegetation in areas of equatorial rainforest is highly specialized-in the from
of mangrove swamp forest.
The tropical rainforest areas include southern and south-eastern Asia : in
Western Ghats of India, coastal Myanmar, coastal Vietnam and the Philippines,
eastern Brazilian coast, the Madgascar coast and north-eastern Australia. In many
respects, these forests are structurally similar to the equatorial rainforest but have
31
distinct differences imposed upon them by their location-which is on windward

coasts. The cooler temperatures, coinciding approximately with the period of
reduced rainfall, impose some stress upon the plants. As a result, there are fewer
species, but the epiphytes are abundant.
The temperate rainforest covers south-eastern USA, southern Japan,
southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina, south-eastern South Africa,
European highland from France in the west to Slovakia in the east, eastern Chinese
coast, south-eastern coast of Australia and New Zealand. These forests are
characterised by a well-developed lower stratum of vegetation and abundant
epiphytes. The diversity of species is further reduced.
The monsoon forest presents a more open tree growth than the equatorial
and tropical rainforests. The most important feature of the monsoon forest is the
deciduous nature of most plant regime are discussed in detail, later in this chapter.)
2. SAVANNA BIOME
This biotic region consists of a combination of tress and grassland in various
proportions. The appearance of the vegetation can be described as park-like, with
tress spaced singly or in small groups and surrounded by, or interspersed with,
surfaces covered by grasses, or by some other plant life form, such as shrubs or
annuals in a low layer. The savanna biome indicates a climate of limited total
annual precipitation with an uneven distribution throughout the year.
GRASSLAND BIOME
This biotic region consists of an upland vegetation largely or entirely of
herbs, which may include grasses, grasslike plants and forbs (broadleaf herbs). The
degree of coverage may range from continuous to discontinuous and there may be
stratification. The grassland biome may include tress in the more moist habitats of
valley floors and along stream courses where ground water is available. The
grassland biome is typical of a climate which has small total annual precipitation,
but otherwise, ranging from extreme heat to extreme cold. The important formation
32
classes of grasslands, are-1 prairies, 2.steppe, 3.pampas, 4.veld, 5.downland

Prairies are characteristic tall, deep rooted grasses of the interior North
American plains. The steppes cover a belt extending from Hungary in the west to
Mongolian and eastern Chinese plains in the east. Other important grassland areas
include pampas of South America, veld plateau of South Africa, northern and
central Africa and the downland in Australia. In this climate regime, the dominant
pedogenic process in calcification with salinisation in poorly drained areas. Soils
have excess of calcium carbonate and are rich in bases.
4. DESERT BIOME
The desert biome, associated with the climates of extreme aridity, has thinly
dispersed plants and hence a high percentage of bare ground exposed to direct
insolation and the forces of wind and water erosion or freeze-thaw action.
Although essentially treeless, the desert biome may have scattered woody plants.
Typically, however, the plants are small, e.g herbs, bryoids, lichens Because the
desert biome includes climates ranging from extremely hot tropical desert to
extremely cold arctic desert, a great range in plant communities and habitats is
spanned by the biome
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MONSOON FOREST
CLIMATE
The monsoon forest is a response to warm-humid tropical climate where a
soil moisture surplus rainy season alternates with a long dry season. Such
conditions prevail over India, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos north
Australia, parts of Africa and southern central America. In these areas, rainfall
ranges between 100 cm and 200 cm for at least four months .
PEDOGENIC REGIME
The prevailing pedogenic regime of the monsoon forest areas is that of
laterisation. Despite the dry season, a substantial water surplus is developed during
the warm rainy season. Humus does not accumulate; leaching of bases and silica is
33
the dominant soil-forming process. Common soil-types are ultisols, oxisols and
alfisols.
VEGETATION
The monsoon forest regime is characterised by an open tree growth with
medium height (10 to 30 meters). Trees have massive trunks and thick bark.
Perhaps, the most important feature of the monsoon forest is the deciduous nature
of most trees. The shedding of leaves results from the stress of a long dry season
which occur at the time of low sun and cooler temperatures. Thus, the forest in the
dry season has deciduous forests of the middle latitudes. A representative example
of monsoon forest tree is the teak. Lianas and epiphytes are present, but they are
fewer and smaller as compared to tropical rainforest, e.g.bamboo in teakwood
forest. The monsoon forest regime is characterised by a wide variety of trees-there
may be 30 to 40 species in a small track.
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SAVANNA
CLIMATE
The savanna is a response to a wet-dry tropical climate regime in which the
sever drought period is one of relatively cooler temperature but which experiences
great heat just preceding the onset of the rains. These areas include the Pacific
coast of central America and highlands of northern South America, Brazilian
highlands, central and southern Africa, peninsular India, parts of Thailand and
northern Australia. Rainfall in these areas ranges between 100 and 150 cm.
PEDOGENIC REGIME
The pedogenic process most closely associated with tropical savanna is
laterisation, promoted by the high temperatures, associated with the rainy season.
However, laterisation gives way to calsification as the savanna is traced towards
higher latitudes where thornbush, and ultimately, steppe grasslands are
encountered.
VEGETATION
34
The savanna vegetation has a park-like appearance. The savanna vegetation

lies adjacent to that of the tropical rainforest biome. The tress are of medium
height, flat topped and umbrella shaped. There is not much variety of species, as
drought and fire-resistant varieties alone can survive. Species may be xerophytic or
the broad-leaf deciduous types. Occurrence of fire is common. Rainfall results in
greening of plants, hence savanna is also called raingreen. Towards the desert
biome, the plant type changes to widely scattered thorny species. The plant
varieties include elephant grass, flat topped acacia and baobab among others.
DEFORESTATION AND MEASURES OF

CONSERVATION
DEFORESTATION
Deforestation, as the term implies, is the removal of forests their complete
clearance by cutting or burning.
For long now, human beings have cut down trees and cleared forests, for
fuel, and tp make space for agriculture, settlement and industry. But the effect was
not as disastrous as what deforestation now signifies; the process was slow and
allowed time for regeneration, so it did not have an adverse impact on the
environment. With the increase in population, the clearing of forests has been
speeded up, with disastrous effect.
In Europe much of the forests was cleared up to make way for agriculture in
early times. With the development of industry, more forests were destroyed to get
fuel (especially charcoal), and for constructional purposes. Uptil the end of the
nineteenth century, wood was the main material for ship-building; large tracts of
temperate hardwood forests were destroyed for this purpose. The railways claimed
more wood for their sleepers. Then came the destruction of trees to get wood
cellulose required for the paper and pulp industries. North America was witness
to rampant emploitation of forestresources, though it began later than in Enrope
and some parts of Asia. Forests in Chins have been steadily reduced over a long
35
period, by an ancient civilisation based on agriculture. Forests were, till very

recently, the chief source of fuel. Many developing countries today face the
problem of rapidly depleting forests due to the requirements of fuelwood and
agricultural space by a huge population.
Forests are not an inexhaustible resource if exploited in an unplanned
rapacious manner: they have no time to regenerate natrially. If too many trees are
felled, or if areas are clear cut, the forest is unable to re-establish itself.
Moreover, if select species are cut down, leaving the rest of the forest intact, the
forest gets degraded: regeneration of the particular valuable species is prevented.
Some forests in north western USA have been degraded because of the removal
of a large proportion of valuable Douglas firs.
Besides degradation, overcutting also leads to soil erosion, by gullying or
sheetwash, on the mountain slopes (and all the ills of such erosion). Landslides,
too, have been the consequence of deforestation on hill slopes.
Economically, too, deforestation has had a devastating effect-to the extent
that countries largely dependent on timber in their economy suddenly found there
were no more (or very few) trees to fell. This was specialy true for Britain during
the First World War. Later Thailand and Myanmar found their teak forests sadly
depleted and were forced to cut down the output of teak.
In the developing countries, forests are often depleted by shifting cultivators,
who burn mature forests to make way for growing crops. In earlier times, the
practice was not quite so damaging; indeed, the method was a carefully balanced
one, and did not damage the ecology, as the cleared plot was left alpne after a year
or two of cultivation, allowing forest regrowth over 10 to 15 years at least. But
with increasing
Most parts of the world have been affected by deforestation, though
some of the developed countries have witnessed an increased forest cover
during 1990-95. The rate of deforestation has been most rapid (during
36
1990-95) in Brazil, Mexico, Malaysa and Indonesia, However, the highest

rate of deforestation occurred in Malaysia.
Table showing extent of forest cover and rate of deforestation in
selected countries.
Coutry Forests Annual Deforestaion
(thousand Sq.Rm Auerage%
sq.Rm 1995) 1990-95 Change1995-95
Brazil 5511 25544 0.5
China 1333 866 0.1
India 650 -72 0
Indonesia 1098 10844 1.0
Malaysia 155 4002 2.4
Mexico 554 5080 0.9
Norway 81 -180 -0.2
Russia 7635 0 0
Sri Lanka 18 202 1.1
United Kingdom 24 -128 -0.5
USA 2125 -5886 -0.3
Vietnam 91 1352 1.4
Source: World Development Indicators 1999
(World Bank)
Population pressure and decreasing availability of land, shifting

agriculturists have been forced to reuse their traditional plots on shorter and shorter
rotation. This leads to deforestation with all its ill effects.
Forestry on a commercial scale in Malaysia and the Philippines has led to
the problem of controlling erosion in a tropical environment a difficult task.
Further, there is the real conflict between conservation and economic extraction.
37
As Goh Cheng Leong and Gillian C. Morgan point our, Economically, the best
place to build roads for the removal of timber in tropical areas is along the ridge
tops because the valleys are often steep, straight glaciated valleys of many
temperate areas. Unfortunately this positioning of the roads leads to greater
erosing than any other position, as it allows gullies to start forming right at the top
of the slopes. Such gullies may then extend right down the valley sides. Much
more rigorous conservation measures are needed in tropical than in temberate
forests, but if these were imposed, exploitation might be inhibited, with a
consequent reduction in valuable exports and local industrial development. To
make matters worse, little research has yet been done on erosional problems in
tropical regions and thus it is more difficult to know that conditions to impose on
timber operators.
Forest fires are another cause for the destruction of forests. These may be
naturally induced by lightning strike or spontaneously created in hot dry weather;
or started by human agencies fires, lit by shifting cultivators or by picknickers,
getting out of control, or trees catching fire form sparks from locomotives. Huge
tracts of forest are destroyed by such fires.
It was government intervention that finally brought a halt to mindless
exploitation of forests in the developed countries. In developing countries, though
legislation has been put in place to conserve forests, some intractable problems
remain: lack of communication, difficult terrain, remoteness of forest areas, low
awareness, and inadequate supervision. Poverty, too, plays its part: most people in
the developing countries still depend on timber for fuel, and as population
increases, the number of trees cut down also increases. Industrial users are often
unserupu
ARE FOREST FIRES ALL THAT BAD
Recent studies of the ecological role of fire in forests suggest that much of our
horror of fire and our attempts to suppress it may be misguided. Many biological
38
communities are fire adapted and require periodic fires for regeneration. In the
western United States, for instance, dry montane forests originally were dominated
by big trees such as whose thick, fire-resistant bark and lack of branches close to
the ground protected them form frequent creeping ground fires. Historic accounts
describe these forests as open and parklike, with little underbrush, luxuriant grass
and abundant wildlife.
Eliminating fire from these forests has allowed shrubs and small trees to fill the
forest floor, crowding out grasses and forbs (herbs that are not grasses) . As woody
debris accumulates , the chances of a really big fire increase. Small trees act as
fire ladders to carry flames up into the crowns of forest giants. By preventing
low-intensity fires that once kept the forest open and free of fuel, we actually
threaten the trees we intend to protect.
Our attempts to put fires out often cause more ecological damage than the fires
themselves. Firefighters bulldoze fire-breaks through sensitive land-scapes such as
tindra or wetlands, leaving scars that last far longer than the effects of the fire.
Often the only thing that extinguishes a major fire is a change in the weather.
Source: Environmental Science by William P. Cunningham and Barbara
Woodworth Saigo.
Lous and laws are often broken with impunity in connivance with corrupt officials.
In brief, the major causes of deforestation in India as elsewhere may be
listed as:
Population increase The massive population increase has put tremendous
pressure on land all over the world, especially in the countries of South Asia.
Extension of agriculture As a direct result of increase in population, the
agricultural lands have been extending day by day leading to the cutting down of
forests.
Growth of industries Furniture, and paper and pulp industries require huge
amounts of timber every year. This has led to deforestation on an alarming level.
39
Industries require large land areas and, in the past, forest land was cleared for
setting up industries.
Incidence of poverty The widespread occurrence of poverty in most Asian
countries comples people to depend on fuelwood as the main source of energy.
Corrupt practices The problem of a corrupt nexus between forest officials
and poachers/mafia has degraded the general environment of forests and led to
deforestation.
Spread of tourism The mountains habe been favourite tourist destinations,
especially in the recent past. The growing pressure of tourism has caused an
effective loss of forests to allow for construction.
Forest fire Forest fires, whether due to anthropogenic or natural factors, have
caused loss of forest resources in different parts of the world including India for
thousands of years.
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS
In the developed countries, legislation and its strict implementation
combined with a growing awareness among the people of the importance of forests
have managed to retarse, deforestation. Many developing countries too have
understood the need to conserve forests-as, indeed, early civilizations did. There
are awys in which forestry problems can be solved.
(1) Afforestation and reforestation Trees could be planted on land, which
was formerly not under plant cover, to make a forest for commercial or other
purposes. This is affprestation. Land which had once been under forest but from
which trees have been removed could be replanted and turned back into forest
land. This is reforestation.
Germany has law that requires the replacement of every tree cut down by a
new tree. In other countries marginal areas under crops or for pasture have been
planted with trees. In some countries such as Finland incentives are given by the
government to framers for turning arable land into forest. The Tennessee valley in
the USA has a well-known programme by which formerly eroded or impoverished
40
land has been brought under forestation. In lands like Australia and New Zealand,
not traditionally endowed with natural forests, afforestation with quickgrowing
conifers has of the prairies have been planted with trees to check soil erosion. In
the Landes of south-western France, a sandy region, forestry has stabilized the
sand besides improving the economy of the region.
China, cut down most of its forest one thousand years ago and has suffered
centuries of erosion and terrible floods as a consequence. Recently, however a
massive reforestation campaign has been started. An average of 4.5 million ha per
year were replanted during the last decade. South korea also has had very
successfully forest restoration programmes. After losing nearly all its trees during
the civil war thirty years ago, the country is now about 70 per cent forested again.
In spite of being the words largest net importer of wood, Japan has
increased forest to approximately 68 per cent of its land area. Strict environmental
laws and constraints on the harvesting of local forests encourage imports so the
Japans forest are being preserved while it uses those of its trading partners.
Many reforestation projects involve large plantations of single-special,
single-use, intensive cropping called monoculture forestry. Although this produces
high profits, a dense, single- species stand encourages pest and disease infestations.
This type of management lends itself to mechanized clear-cut harvesting, which
saves money and labour but tends to leave soil exposed to erosion. Monocultures
eliminate habitat for may woodland species and often disrupt ecological processes
that keep forests healthy and productive. When profits from these forest plantation
go to absentee landlords or government agencies, local people have little incentive
to prevent fires or keep grazing animals out of newly planted areas. In some
countries, such the Philippines, Israel and EI Salvador, government reforestation
projects have been targets for destruction by anti-government forces, with
devastating environment impacts.
Promising alternative agroforestry plants are being promoted by
conservation and public organization such as the new forest fund and Oxfam.
41
These groups encourage people to pant community woodlots of fast-growing,

multipurpose trees such as Leucaena, Millions of seedlings have been planted in
hundreds of self-help projects n Asia, Africa and Latin America. Leucaena is a
legume, is a legume, so it fixes nitrogen and improves the soil, Its nutritious leaves
are good livestock fodder.
Community woodlots can be planted on wasteland or along roads or slopes
too steep to plough so they do not interfere with agriculture. They protect
watersheds, create windbreak and, if composed of mixed species, also provide
useful food and forest products such as fruits, nuts, mushrooms or materials for
handicrafts on a sustained-yield basis.
Afforestation and reforestation programmes need to be undertaken seriously
in developing countries as well. Many tropical countries are taking steps to protect
forests. Indonesia has announced plans to preserve 100.000 square kilometers,
one-tenth of its original forest. Zaire and Brazil each plan to protect 350.000 square
kilometers (about the size of Norway) in parks and forest preserves. Costa Rica has
one of the best plans for forest protection in the world. Attempts are being made
there to but only rehabilitate the land (make an area useful to humans), but also
restore the ecosystems to naturally occurring associations. One of the best known
of these projects is Den Janzens work restoring the dry tropical forest of
Guanacaste National Park.
People on the grassroots level also are working to protect and restore forests.
Refores-tation projects build community pride while also protecting the land.
India, for instance, has a long history of non-violent, passive resistance to protest
unfair government policies. During the 1970s, commercial loggers began large-
scale treefelling in the Garhwal region in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern
India. Landslides and floods resulted from stripping the forest cover from the hills.
The firewood on which local people depended was destroyed, and the way of life
on the traditional forest culture was threatened. In a remarkable display of courage
and determination, the village women wrapped their arms around the trees to
42
protect them, sparking the Chepko Andolan (literally, movement to hugtrees).

They prevented logging on 12.000 square kilometers of sensitive watersheds in the
Alakanada basin.
II. Better harvesting practices Another forest management method is that
of improving cutting practices. One way is selective cutting I,e. only the mature or
weak trees are felled, and tere is a bether chance for forests to regenerate and
survive. In this selection, it is not one species which is selected to be cut down in
its entirety, thus leading to degradation. However, this method may be
uneconomical for large-scale industrial use. The alternative method is clear-
cutting: clearing all the trees from a marked area, but taking care to replant the area
with seedlings. In regions where forests are scientifically managed, trees are
farmed on a long-term system of rotation which ensure sustainable yield of timber.
This is being practiced by large pulp-milling companies, owning their own forests,
in Sweden, Finland and southern USA. In the absence of proper organization,
however, clear-cutting is bound to lead to deforestation and soil erosion, as pointed
out earlier.
Other harvest practices offer variations on, or substitutes to, clear-cutting,
Coppicing is used to encourage stump sprouts from species such as aspen, red oak,
beech or short-leaf pine and is usually accomplished by clear-cutting. In seed tree
harvesting, some mature trees (generally two to five trees per hectare) are left
standing to serve as a seed source in an otherwise clear-cut patch. Shelterwood
haruesting involves removing mature trees in a series of two or more cuts. This
encourages regeberation of wind- and sun-sen-sitive species such as spruce and fir.
Strip cutting entails harvesting all the trees in a narrow corridor.
III Reducing wastage Shortage of wood and conservation of forests can
both be met by reducing the wastage at industrial plants. Instead of wasting the
pulp unsuitable for paper manufacture, other end products may be devised from it
such as fibre-board for building purposes. Waste paper could be recycled. Trees
43
may also be used more intensively, i.e. for timber as well as other purposes such as
extraction of tannin, etc.
iv. Protection of forests Protecting forests from natural hazards such as
large-scale fires and pests needs to be undertaken with vigilance and diligence.
Scientific research into the causes and methods of overcoming such natural
destructive agents needs to be intensified if forests are to be saved, Overgrazing
should be strictly prevented in forest areas; cattle, sheep and goats destroy the
undergrowth and seed-lings, thus preventing the regeneration of forests.
Specifically speaking, forests can be Protected by demarcating regions and
types of forest growth and harvesting these in a planned manner.
Reserve forests may be protected areas such as sanctuaries, sacred groves,
biosphere reserves and national parks in different parts of a country. These
protected areas should have strict provisions for checking deforestation.
Limited production forests would be those regions at a height above 100
metres, where, fewer trees grow because of the reduced soil fertility. In such cases,
forest resources can be harvested in a rational and controlled manner in order to
save soil and trees.
Production forests should be cultivated on flat land and managed for high
production. A forest having its three storeys (viz., tall trees, smaller trees or shrubs,
ground cover of small shrubs or herbs) together with soil and microflora
constitutes a living and dynamic system, and it should be maintained as such be
good management system.
As a long-term measure, the rapid growth of population in the developing
countries should be checked. The increased pressure of population exerted on the
limited forest resource is causing soil erosion and rampant felling of trees for the
expansion of settlements.
Shifting cultivation should be checked. At the same time, tribalss rights,
should be protected to enable them to actively participate in forest conservation.
44
The role of non-governmental organizations is important in this context. Social

forestry should be en-couraged.
The unholy nexus between corrupt officials and timber mafias should be
stopped at any cost for checking the rapid loss of forest cover. The recent surge of
environmental movements all over the world-a la Chipko Movement of India-is of
paramount importance in this context.
Nowadays, scientists in the US are adopting techniques such as data from
Global Position Satellites (GPS), Geographical Indormation System (GIS), remote
sensing etc. to access information on forest fires, loss of forests due to
anthropogenic activities, etc. These should help in taking timely action for forest
protection.
Strict implementation of laws cannot only check but reduce the rate of
deforestation.
Social Forestry
Social forestry or community-based forestry has the basic objective of
involving the local community in forestry, activities to promote growth of and
preserve trees. It refers to a collective management of under-utilised or unutilized
land to produce forest products to meet the needs of the local people, especially the
underprivileged or poor. Two main strands combine in the objectives of social
forestry: presser-vation of green cover as well economic benefits for the
participating community and the region.
The objectives of social forestry are
to fulfil the basic requirements such as fuel, fodder, small timber, supplementary
food and income from surplus forest products;
to provide employment opportunities and to increase family income
considerably for alleviating poverty;
to tap the dormant energies and skills of the villagers for therir own
development by enabling them to manage their own natural resources;
45
to popularise economic tree farming alongwith crop farming;

to integrate economic gains in the distribution of other benefits to the
socially and economically poor in a village;
to organise them in their struggle for socio-economic development;
to conserve soil and water and to maintain ecological balance by enhancing
biomass genceration;
to provide congenial environment to the trubals and to help them to preserve
their cultural identity as their life and culture is intimately related to forest;
to reduce encroachment on the existing forests;
to inculcate the value of village-level self-sufficiency and self-management
in the production as well as distribution of forest products with social justice;
to foster the spirit of cooperation and to encourage cooperative
enterprises;and
to form the villagers into a well-knit community and an effective functional
unit of society which can shape its own destiny.
Most social forestry programmes involve
1. farm forestry in which farmers are given incentives by the government
and encouraged to plant trees on their on their own farms;
2. Maintenance of public woodlots planted on roadsides and alsong rivers by
forest depart-ments to meet the needs of the community ;and
3. Maintenance of community woodlots which the local people themselves
plant and look after, the products to be sared by the community.
Social forestry, in order to succeed, must involve the beneficiary from the
planning to the consumption stage. It should use community land, and there should
a mixed production system, i.e., a variety of forest produce required by the
community should be available. The main-tenance, management and the end-use
should be in the hands of the community with minimal government intervention.
However, necessary inputs, training and incentives should be provided by the
government.
46
Trees and plant species selected for social forestry should conform to the
following criteria; trees should be fast growing, early maturing and yielding; they
should have multiple usages (for food, fodder, fuel, manures); the tree trunk should
be strong and stouct; the species should be suited to climate and soil of the place;
they should have dense foliage; they should possess the capacity to tolerate adverse
climate and soil conditions; they should be in early spring and not in summer; they
should not have prominent thorns; and their planting and care should be easy and
economical.
Trees can be grouped according to peoples requirements. For the selection
of trees, people should identify locally available species first and only then go for
exotic species. This principle should always be kept in mind before a species is
selected for social forestry.
Agroforestry
Agrogorestry is a modified, expanded version of social forestry.
Agroforestry is a system of land use where woody perennials are deliaberately
used on the same land management units as annual agricultural crops and/or
animals, rather sequentially or simultaneously, with the aim of obtaining greater
outputs on a sustained basis, Agroforestry, as the definition suggests, refers to an
old land practice where land is used for agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry
purposes at the same time.
The planting of trees may aid farmers since tree roots can bind soil and limit
soil erosion, deep-rooted trees can tap new nutrient sources, leguminous trees can
fix atmospheric nitrogen and improve soil fertility, leaf litter can addorganic
matter, and tree civer can moderate temperatures. In addition, trees may provide
food, fodder, firewood and timber.
The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) has listed agri-silvicultural,
agri-pastoral and agri-silvi-pastoral systems as components of the agroforestry
system. The social/farm/agroforestry programmes cover massive afforestation
47
programmes. Every village/town/city is supposed to meet firewood, fodder and

small timber requirements by growing trees/shrubs in the land available in a
cooperative system.
Agroforestry can be of benefit to farmers by providing them with firewood,
timber and bamboo for building purposes, fodder, green manure and mulching
material, and additional income it they choose to sell any of the surplus products.
By making fule and fodder available, it also saves women from having to go long
distances to collect them otherwise. It is environmentally beneficial as the trees act
as wind-breaks, help in controlling soil erosion, increasing moisture conservation
and organic matter content of the soil.
Trees may be planted in uncultivable portions of the land, on the boundaries
(where their branches should be chopped so they grow straight upward), on bunds,
on the lower side of a catchment area, in water logging areas, in saline and alkali
soils, along with shade-loving plants such as cardamom, turmeric, coffee, tea,
black-pepper etc., and, of course, along roads, surroundings of farm houses, and at
appropriate gaps, on fodder fields.
Care must be taken to prune the trees so that excessive shade is
avoided. Hence,in agroforestry, fruit trees are best avoided. Timber trees, firewood
and fodder trees, bamboo and fibre trees are most suitable. Fruit trees, too, may be
grown if shade does not matter. Coconut and other palms are useful trees in
agroforestry as they provide several useful products all at once even as their
structure is suitable for the purpose.
48
INDIA PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

IMPORTANT MOUNTAIN RANGES
KARAKORAM RANGES:
1. Extends form the Pamir, east of the Gilgist River, 600 km long and the
average width 120-140km.
2. Ancient name was Krishnagiri.
3. Trans Himalaya, originally a part of Eurasian plate.
4. Abode of largest glaciers in India.
5. Siachen, Baltora, Biafo, and Hisper all the four of largest glacier are in
Karakoram.
6. Highest Peak: K2 or Godwin Austin (8611m)
7. Other important Peak: Gasherbrum or Hidden Peak Broad Peak and
Gasherbrum II
8. In the northern limit of Karakoram Range lies Pamir, the Aghil Mountains
and the Yarkand River and in the southern limit Rive Indus and its tributary
Shyok.
LADDAKH RANGE
1. Situated to the north of Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) and south or
Karakoram, between River Indus and Shyok.
2. Highest Peak: Mt.Rakaposhi (steepest peak in the world)
(A)GREAT HIMALAYA OR HIMADRI
1. Northern most part of the Himalayan Range is the worlds highest with an
average altitude of 6,000m.
2. include the words highest peak, Mt. Everest(8,848 m) , Makalu (8,481m)
Mansalu (8,156m), Annapurna(8,078m) and also the Indian peak Kanchenjungs
(8,598 m) and Nanga Parbat(8,126m)
1
3. Include some famous passes- Burzil and Zozila in Kashmir, Shipki La and
Bara lapchala in Himachal Pradesh, Thag La, Niti Pass, and Lipulekh in U.p
Jelepla and Nathu La in Sikkim.
ZASKAR RANGE
Western part of the main Great Himalayan Mountain is situated to the south
of Trans Himalayan.
Nanga Parbat (8,126m)
Forms the north-west part of Zaskar Range but geographically confined to
the Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal region.
Second highest peak of the Himalayan Range in India.
Dhalagiri (8,172 m)
Eastern continuation of Nanga Parbat and is located in Nepal.
(B) LESSER HIMALAYA
Also known as Himachal-Himalaya which is separated from the Shiwalik
Range by Duns.
(I) PIR PANJAL RANGE
Located in Kashmir, Punjab and extends from the Jhelum River to the upper
Beas River for over 300km.
Separated form the Zaskar Range by the valley of Kashmire (vale of
Kashmir)
(II) DHAULADHAR
Southern-most range of the Lower or Lesser Himalaya.
Rarely attains elevations higher then 4,000m
Continue eastward in to Mahabharat Range.
(C)SIWALIK RANGE
Extends from Jammu & Kashmir (150km wide) to Arunachal Pradesh (8-
15km) over 2400km.
2
Northern limit-Main Boundary thrust which separates Outer Himalaya from

the Lesser Himalaya. Its southern limit is Indo Gangetic Plain.
Also known as Sub-Himalaya or Outer Himalaya.
Youngest part of mountain chain stretching form the Brahmaputra to the
Indus.
Separated from Lesser Himalaya by Main Boundary Thrust.
CLASSIFICATION OF HIMALAYA ON THE BASIS OF
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION:
NAME LOCATION DISTANCE

1.Punjab Himalaya Between Indus and Sutlej 560 km
2.Kumaon Himalaya Between Sutluj and Kali 320 km
3.Nepal Himalaya Between Kali and Tista 800 km
4.Assam Himalaya Between Tista and Dihang 720 km
THE PURVANCHAL
(The North Eastern Highland)
The Himalaya range after crossing the Dihang gorge in the east, bend
southwards, forming a series of hills, in north south trend.
Hills, North Cachar Hills and the Tripura Hills.
PURU NEFA
(I) Mishmi Hills
The highest range of Purvanchal Hills which is situated in the north-eastern part
of Arunachal Pradesh.
(II) Patkai Bum
A synclinal range extending north south in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
3
NAGA RANGES
Forms watershed between Nagaland and Myanmar.
MANIPUR HILLS
Characterized by ridge and valley type of topography
Loktak lake (centripetal drainage) is situated in this hill.
NORTH CACHAR HILLS
Larger portion of hilly belt lying between Meghalaya and the North eastern
ranges.
MIZO HILLS
Previously known as Lushai Hills
Characterised by cuesta type of topography
TRIPURA HILLS
Characterised by ridge and valley topography
THE NORTHERN PLAINS OF INDIA
East-West Extent 2,400 km (3,200 km if the Indus plains are included)
Average width:150-300km
1.Largest alluvial tract of the world, extending from the mouth of Indus to
the mouth of Ganga between Peninsular plateau and the northern are of the
mountains.
2. Alluvial in nature, and are composed of Bhangar (old alluvium), Khadar
(new alluvium) in river bed. Bhabar (porous gravel ridden plains at the foot of
Himalaya) and Terai (damp thickly forest area, where bhabar stream reappears)
SUBDIVISION OF GREAT PLAINS

THE RAJASTHAN PLAIN
Extent:650km long.
Average width:250-300 km wide
Thar or Great Indian Desert is the westernmost region of Great Indian Plains
in the western Rajasthan.
4
A semi arid plain, lying to the east of Thar desert is known as Rajasthan
Bagar.
The Luni is the only southwest flowing rivers of this region.
The Sambhar(largest), the Kuchaman, and the Didwana are important lakes
situated to the north of Luni Basin.
THE PUNJAB HARYANA PLAINS:
Extent:640km in northwest to southeast and 300km in east west direction.
Extends from Punjab in the west to Yamuna River(Haryana)in the east.
Land of five rivers-is primary made up of doabs-the land between two rivers.
They are composed by Bet(Khadar plains)and Dhaya(Heavily gullied bluffs).
THE GANGA PLAINS:
The largest Great Plain stretching from Delhi to Calcutta across the states of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
The Ganga and its tributaries like Yamuna, Ghagra,Gomti, Kosi, and Son
deposit large amount of alluvium and make this extensive plain more fertile.
They comprise of Gango-Yamuna Doab in the west, to the east of this Doab
are the Rohilkhand plains which merges which merges with Avadh plain in the east
THE BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN
The low level plain formed by the Brahmaputra river system is situated
between Eastern Himalaya (Arunachal Pradesh) in the North, Patkai and Naga hills
in the east, Garo-Khasi-Haintia and Mikir Hills and lower Ganga Plain and Indo
Bangladesh border in the west.
PENINSULAR MOUNTAINS
Total length:800km
Highest peak: Guru Sikhar(1,722m) of the Abu Hills.
Extending from the north east to the south-west of India and separates to semi
desert regions of Rajasthan from the fertile Udaipur and Jaipur regions.
It is and example of relict mountain
5
One of the oldest fold mountains in the world.

VINDHYAN RANGE
A block mountain which separates northern India from the southern mainland.
Composed of sandstones, shales and quartzites.
South of it, Narmada River flows in the rift valley.
Acts as a natural watershed between north and south India.
SATPURA RANGE
Highest peak: Dhupgarh(1,350m) near Panchmarhi.
Average elevation: 1,030m above sea level.
Extending in east west direction, to the south of Vindhyans.
Situated between Narmada and Tapi River.
Starting from Rajpipla hills in the west through Mahadeo hill to Maikal range.
MAIKAL RANGE
Eastern part of Satpura system is situated in Madhya Pradesh.
Mount Amarkantak is the highest peak
AJANTA RANGE, BALAGHAT RANGE, AND HARISH CHANDRA
RANGE:
Extending in east west direction, are all spurs of Western Ghats forming local
watersheds.
Kalsubai(1,646m) the highest peak of Western Ghat forming local watersheds.
NILGIRI HILLS
It is the meeting point of Western and Eastern Ghats.
Doda Betta(2,637m) is the highest peak of Nilgiri Hills.
The hills are separated from southern hills by a gap called Palghat Gap
ANAIMALAI HILLS
Anai Mudi(2,695m) the highest peak of South India is in Anaimalai Hills.
CARDAMON HILLS
It is situated in the extreme south of Peninsular India
Formed of gneisses and schists.
6
RAJMAHAL HILLS
Extends in north south direction and is situated in the northeaster edge of the
Chhotanagpur Plateau.
SAHYADRIS(WESTERNGHATS)
Total length: about 1600km
Average height:1200m
Highest Peak: Kalsubai(1646m)
Runs along the western coastal plain from the south of valley of Tapi to Kanya
Kumari, the southern most point of mainland India.
Region which receives maximum rainfall and is covered with evergreen forest
The Western Ghats meet with Eastern Ghats in the Nilgiri hills.
Acts as a main watershed of Peninsular rivers.
EASTERN GHATS:
Runs along the eastern coast of India from northern Orissa to the Nilgiri Hills.
Characterised by unbroken hills between Mahanadi and Godavari.
Mahendragiri is the highest peak of Eastern Ghats.
Nallamalli Hills is situated between Krishna and Penneru Rivers.
THE INDIAN PLATEAU

BUNDELKHAND BHANDER, BAGHEL AND MALWA PLATEAU
These highlands are situated to the north of Narmada rift valley.
Bundelkhand Plateau is a part of central highlands and is composed of granite and
gneisses.
Malwa plateau is an example of dissected lava plateau, which is covered with
black soil.
MEGHALAYA PLATEAU
It comprises of Garo, khasi and Haintia Hills.
Originally a part of Peninsular plateau.
7
Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates it from the main block of peninsular plateau

CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU
Highest peak- Parasnath (1,366m) in the Hazaribagh Platean.
Situated in the north eastern part of Indian Plateau includes the region of Bihar,
adjoining Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
It consists of the Ranchi Plateau in the south, the Hazaribagh Plateau in the north,
and the Rajmahal Hills in the northeast.
Described as the Ruhr of India
Pat lands are one of the chief characteristics of Chotanagpur Plateau.
Very rich in mineral resources.
DECCAN PLATEAU
South of the Satpura Range in the peninsula is called the Deccan Plateau.
(1)The Deccan Lava Plateau Region
Northwestern part of Deccan Plateau is the region of Basaltic lava.
It includes the Western Ghats north of 16o north latitude, plateau of Maharashtra
(except the east of Nagpur) and the adjoining parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh.
(2) Telengana Plateau
Part of the Deccan Plateau, comprises of the interior region of Andhra Pradesh.
North of Krishna River is the plateau of Telengana.
South of the Krishna River, lying in the Rayalseema plateau region.
(3)The Karnataka Plateau
Situated to the south of Deccan Lava Region.
Malnad and Maidan are two physiographic regions of Karnataka plateau.
Malnad
Hilly and dissected plateau region about 64km wide lying close to the Western
Ghats.
(ii) Maidan
8
Situated in the eastern part of Malnad, relatively large rolling plains with low
granitic hills.
THE WEST COASTAL PLAIN
Runs from Rann of Kachchh to Kanyakumari and are confined to a narrow belt
about 10-15 km wide.
KATHIAWAR COAST(Total length:500km)
The West Coastal Plain between Daman in the north and Goa in the south is
examples of coast of submergence due to vertical movements , and is consequently
dissected.
Coastal lowland is uneven and is interspersed with river valleys, creeks and ridges.
(iii) Malabar Coast
Extends from Goa in the north to Kanyakumari in the south is a coastline of
emergence.
Southern coastal region receives more rainfall during summer monsoon season.
THE EAST COASTAL PLAIN

Extends from the deltaic plains of the Ganga in the north to Kanyakumari in
the south for 1100 km with an average width of 120km.
(I)UTKAL COAST
Extends for about 400km from deltaic plains of the Gango to the Mahanadi delta.
(II)ANDHRA COASTAL PLAINS
Extends from the southern limit of Utkal plains to Puliant lake(Andhra Pradesh).
It has large deltas of the Krishna and the Godavari rivers.
(III)TAMIL NADU PLAINS
Extends about 675km, from the north of Chennai to Kanyakumari in the south.
It has the deltaic plains of Kaveri and is popularly called the Granary of South
India.
IMPORTANT GULFS
GULF OF KACHCHH
9
Separates:
Kachchh and Kathiwar Penisual.
Location: West if Gujarat
Information: Region with highest potential of tidal energy generation.
GULF OF CAMBAY
Separates: Kathiawar Penisula and Gujarat
Location: Gujarat
Information: Tapi, Narmada, Mahi and Sabarmati rive drain into the Gulf.
GULF MANNAR
Separates: Sri Lanka and Southern India
Location: South east of Tamil Nadu
Information: Asias first marine biosphere reserves.
IMPORTANT LAGOONS AND LAKES
VEMBNAD LAKE
State: Kerala
Information: Large sized lagoons of Kerala, have fertile alluvial islands, 63 km in
length.
KAYALS
State: Kerala
Information: Popularly called back water in Kerala.
A chain of lakes which are connected with each other y canal.
Peaty soils of backwaters are called Kari in Kerala.
CHILKA LAKE
Maximum length -64km
Maximum breadth- 20km
Average width -150km
State: Orissa
Information: Situated to the south west of the Mahanadi Delta.
Enclosed by the sand pit, has an opening which permits sea connection.
10
Largest brackish water lake in Asia.
FRESH WATER LAKE

WULAR LAKE:
State: Jammu and Kashmir
Information: Largest fresh water lake of India
KOLLERU LAKE:
State: Andhra Pradesh
Information: A part of the sea enclosed between the deltas of Godavari and the
Mahanadi and has a number of islands in it.
PULICAT LAKE:
Information: Situated on the southern border of Andhra Pradesh.
Lagoon formed due to enclosure by sand bar.
JAISAMAND LAKE:
State: Rajasthan
Information: Largest fresh water lake of Rajasthan
NAKKI LAKE:
State: Rajasthan
Information: A small natural lake near Mt. Abu surrounded by hills important as
tourist place.
LOKTAK LAKE:
State: Manipur
Information: Site hydroelectricity power generation an example of centripetal
drainage.
SALINE WATER LAKES:

SAMBHAR LAKE
State: Rajasthan
11
Information: Largest Lake of Rajasthan lies on the border of Jaipur and Nagaur
District.
Sodium chloride (common salt) and sodium sulphate are produced mainly by the
Hindustan Salt Ltd.
DEEDWANA LAKE
State: Rajasthan
Information: Situated near Deedwana Town of Nagaur District.
GEOLOGY TIME SCALE
CENOZOIC ERA HOLOCENE
PLEISTOCENE From upper Pliocene Upliftment of Outer
to Plistocene Himalayas(Siwalik).
Main Boundary
Thrust(MBT)formed.
PLIOCENE From Miocene to Main Central
Plioceen Thrust(MCT)formed.
Upliftment of Lesser
Himalaya(Second
Phase)
OLIGOCENE From Ecocene to Upliftment of Central
ECOCENE Oligocene Himalaya.
PALAEOCENE From the Cretaceous Collison of Indian and
to Eocene Eurasion plate
begins.(Continent
continent collision)-
Indus Tsangpo Suture
Zone formed
(ITSZ)formed.
MESOZOIC ERA CRETACEOUS Extensive eruption of
(LATE) basalt leading to
formation of Deccan
Lava Plateau.
12
Enclosure of Tethys
which start shrinking.
PALAEOZOIC UPPER From Carboniferous Deposition in three
ERA to Permian great graben like
basins Mahanadi,
Damodar and
Godavari Known as
Gondwana
deposits.(Region with
rich coal reserves)
LOWER From Cambrian to Formation
Carboniferous(Early) conspicuously absent
PRECAMBRIAN UPPER Vindhyan syncline-
PROTEROZOIC devoid of
metalliferous
minerals.
Vindhyan Mountain
formed of shales,
slates, clay and
limestone
MIDDLE Satpura, Shillong
PROTEROZOIC Plateau Formation and
deposition in
Cuddapah depression.
EARLY Delhi Aravalli

PROTEROZOIC orogeny took place
CLOSE ARCHEN Dharwar system-
cover whole length of
Karnataka(region with
rich iron ore reserves)
13
LATE ARCHEAN Peninsular Gneiss and

Eastern Ghat
formation
MIDDLE Singhbhum &
ARCHEAN Keonjhar Orogeny
(rich iron orereserves)
PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
MAJOR DIVISIONS:
WESTERN HIMALAYA
(i) Jammu and Kashmir state Comparatively cool, arid and semi-arid over a
large area. Rains during summer season occurs only over a small area in the
southern part.
(ii)Punjab and Kumaun :
Himalaya Region(between Nepal in the east to Jammu and Kashmir in the north
west)- Wetter, more densely forested and more thickly populated region than
Jammu and Kashmire state.
ASSAM REGION-includes
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura and Assam.
(i) Assam Himalaya
(ii) The Brahmaputra or Assam Valley
(iii) The Meghalaya Hills or Shillong plateau including he Garo,chasi, Jaintia
and Mikir- It is a part of peninsular plateau and structurally a granitic
block.
(iv) The Eastern Highlands- Young fold mountains running from North to
South
THE PLAINS OF NORTHERN INDIA
-Rainfall is the main criterion used for dividing this alluvial plain into regions.
(i) The West Bengal Plain-Rice and Jute producing area.
14
(ii) The West Bengal duars and the Sikkim, Darjeeling, Himalaya- Wetter than
West Bengal Plain, semi-evergreen forest and tea plantation.
(iii) The Ganga Plain

Comprising alluvial plain of U.P and Bihar- Decrease in the amount of summer
rainfall in the west.
(iv) The Punjab-Haryana Plain
Situated to the west of Yamuna and North of arid and semi-arid Rajasthan desert.-
Extensive well irrigation coupled with canal-irrigation in the northern districts.
(v)The Rajasthan desert
Situated to the west or Aravalli-Region deficient in rainfall. Entirely different in
character from the highly plains of the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
THE INDIAN PLATEAU
Deccan Lava Region
Includes plateau area of Maharashtra and neighbouring states of M.P., A.P. and
Karnataka.- Receives annual rainfall between 50cm and 100cm. Region has Black
soil and produces cotton, jowar and groundnut.
The North Western Plateau and the Aravalli Range.
Situated to the north of Deccan lava region.
- Receives less rainfall during summer than the Deccan lava region and is
relatively cooler in winter.
The Karnataka Plateau
Situated to the south of the Deccan lava region-Relatively cooler in summer than
neighbouring areas due to its high elevation.
Telengana and Rayalseema
Situated to the East of Karnataka state Receives less rainfall than coastal Andhra
Pradesh.
The North Eastern Plateau
15
Situated to the east of the Deccan lava region and includes interior part of Orissa,
the Jharkhand Plateau and eastern M.P.-Regions very rich in minerals.
THE COASTAL LOWLANDS
- More productive soils , heavier rainfall and better irrigation facilities than
the Indian Plateau.
Eastern Coastal Region
(i) Coastal Plain of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa in the North.
(ii) Tamil Nadu Region - Receives rainfall during winter also.
Western Coastal Region
(i) Gujarat Region North of Daman
(ii) The Konkani Region between Daman in the north and Goa in the south.-
Largely semi arid, millet and cotton producing region. Dominated by
port and industries of Mumbai.
(iii) Goa and littoral of Karnataka, Kerala. Plantation and wet crops
producing region.
INDIA- MAJOR SOIL TYPES

ALLUVIAL SOIL
DISTRIBUTION:7.7 lakh km2 (24% of the countrys total area)
Formation:
Formed due to deposition of alluvium brought by rivers over millions of
years. Newer alluvium is called khadar and the old alluvium is called Bhangar
Terai Soil: Bhabar infertile soil: Usar
Characteristics:
Very fertile soil, rich in potash and lime, deficient in humus, nitrogen and
phosphorus.
Regions&States:
16
Northern plains or river basin: Punjab, Haryana, eastern part of Rajasthan,

Gujarat, U.P., Bihar, West Bengal and Assam Valley.
BLACK COTTON SOIL OR REGUR SOIL.
Distribution: 5.18 lakh km2 (16%)
Formation: Formed over Deccan lava, gneiss and granites.
Characteristics:
Black in colour due to presence of Fe and Mg. Deficient in nitrogen and
phosphoric acid. Rich in potash and lime.
Regions&States:
It covers lateaus of Maharastra,Sourth Orissa, Northern Karnataka, Parts of
Rajasthan (two districts of Bundi and Tonk)Central and South Tamil Nadu.
RED SOIL
Distribution: 5.18 lakh km2 (16%)
Formation: The soil developed on old crystalline rock under moderate to heavy
rainfall. It is in different shads of Red and Yellow.
Characteristics:
Red colour due to presence of Fe. Deficient in organic plant material,
phosphorus, nitrogen and lime content. Potash and alumina content are
satisfactory. Acidic like laterite but less leached than laterite soil.
Regions& States:
Larger part of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Southern parts
of Maharashtra, Eastern Mp, parts of Orissa and Chotanagpur and Bundelkhand.
LATERITE SOIL:
Distribution: 1.26 lakh km2
Formation:
The Laterite soil is a result of intense leaching due to heavy tropical rains
with alternate wet and dry seasons.
Characteristics:
17
More acidic on higher areas due to presence of Al and Fe. Deficient in

nitrogen, potash, magnesium and phosphoric acid.
Regions & States:
Tropical humid areas where rainfall is more than 200 cm e.g., Western
Ghats, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Chotanagpur Plateau and slopes of North Eastern
states.
ARID OR DESERT SOIL
Distribution: 1.42 lakh km2
Formation:
Sand and wind blown. Weathering due to temperature help in the formation
of these soils. Developed under arid or semiarid conditions in the north western
part of the country.
Characteristics:
Deficient in humus and nitrogen, rich in phosphorus, Due to less leaching
mineral content is high.
Regions& States:
Punjab, Southern parts of Haryana, Western Rajasthan and Rann of
Kachchh in Gujarat.
MOUNTAIN SOILS
Formation:
Formed by the deposition or organic matter derived from the forest growth,
Characteristic of soil varies with variation of rocks, ground configuration and
climate.
Characteristics:
Rich in humus but deficient in potash, phosphorus and like. Most suitable
for plantation crops like tea, coffee etc.,
Region& states:
Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh. Also in
Western and Eastern Ghats as well as in some region of Peninsular plateau.
18
PEATY AND ORGANIC SOIL:

Formation:
Developed in hot humid conditions as a result of accumulation of large
amount of organic matter.
Characteristics:
Dark and almost black in colour, very strongly acidic and saline.
Region & States:
They are confined to depression caused by dried lakes in alluvial and coastal
plain areas and developed under water logged environments. For example, Regions
like Kari in Kerala, T.N., coastal Orissa, W.B. and North Bihar.
MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL
AREA OF HEAVY RAINFALL
Rainfall between 200- 400 cm
The Arabian Sea branch of south west monsoon cause rainfall all along the
western Ghats and Western coastal regions from June to September.
In North East India, the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoonal winds which
causes monsoon in the southern hills of Shillong Plateau, Garo, Khasi, Jaintia hills
(Meghalaya) and other states.
In These regions Orographic features play an important role because the
moisture laden monsoon winds strike against physical barriers the like mountains,
to cause heavy rainfall.
AREA OF MODERATE RAINFALL
Rainfall between 100 200 cm
The average rainfall over North Indian Plain generally remains between 100
to 200 cm. Other areas of moderate rainfall are northeastern parts of Peninsular
India, highlands of Central India, and Tamil Nadu.
19
Rain fall between 60 100 cm occurs in the upper Ganga Valley, eastern parts of
Aravallis, eastern Gujarat, internal parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra and Karnataka.
The intensity of rainfall decreases from east to west and north to south in the
Northern Plains.
AREA OF SCANTY RAINFALL
Rain fall between 40 60 cm
Parts of Punjab, Haryana, northern and western Rajasthan and Kachchh and
Kathiawar regions of Gujarat. A narrow strip of land, lying in rain shadow areas of
Peninsular India receives rainfall below 60cm.
The dry regions of Rajasthan, west of the Aravalli hills receives rainfall
below 20cm, Northern parts of Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir are other regions
which receive scanty rainfall.
AREAS OF WINTER RAINFALL
(i) The northwestern parts of India-Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab and U.P.
plains.
(ii) Tamil Nadu: Rainfall due to North East monsoon.
INFORMATION ABOUT HIMALAYAN RIVERS
THE INDUS SYSTEM(INDUS AND ITS TRIBUTOARIES)
1.INDUS:
(One of the worlds largest river)
Source: Tibet, at an altitude of 5,180 m near Mansarovar Lake.
Total length:2,880km (709km in India)
River Basin: 1,165,00 sq.km (321,290 sq.km in India)
Information:
Mountain tributaries; Gilgit Shyok, Skardu, Shigoo.
Plain tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas.
2.JHELUM:
20
(An important river of kashmir and is the main waterway)

Source: Rises in Verinag at the foothills of Pirpranjal.
Total length: 400 km
River Basin: 28,490 sq.km (in India)
Information:
Its basin lies between Great Himalaya and Pir Pranjal Range.
It flows through Vale of Kashmir and Wular Lake before entering into
Pakistan.
3.CHENAB
(largest of all the Indus tributaries)
Source: Rises in snow covered Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh.
Total length: 1,800 (in India)
River Basin: 26,755 sq.km (in India)
Information:
Flows through Chamba state for 160 km in the trough between the Greater
Himalaya and the Pir Panjal.
4.RAVI
Source: Kullu hills of H.P
Total Length: 725 km
River Basin: 5,957( in India)
5. SUTLEJ
(Second largest tributary of Indus)
Source: Rakas Lake, at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet
Total Length:1050km (in India)
River Basin: 25,087 sq.km(in India)
Information:
It enters India through Shipki La and flows through Himachal Pradesh and
Punjab before entering into Pakistan.
6. BEAS
21
Source: Kullu hills at an altitude of 4,000 m

Total Length:470 km( in India)
River Basin:25,900 sq.km (in India)
Information: It joins Stulej near Harike.
THE GANGA SYSTEM (GANGA AND ITS TRIBUTARIES)
The Ganga:
Formed by two head streams Alaknada and Bhagirathi which join at Devprayag.
Source: Rises in Gangotri glacier of the Great Himalaya. Above Devaprayag it is
called as Bhagirathi and below it is referred to as the Ganga.
Total Length: Of its total length of 2,525 k.m, 1,450 k.m in Bihar and 520 km in
West Bengal.
River Basin: 838,200 sq.km. Largest river basin in India, Covers more than fourth
of the countrys total surface
Information:
Left Bank tributaries; Ramganga, Gomati, Ghagra, Gandak, Burhi Gandak,
Kosi. Right Bank tributaries; Yamuna, Son. The Bhagirathi Hooghly is the
western most distributary of the river. Beyond Frakka it bifurcates itself into
Bhagirathi Hooghly in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh.
The Yamuna (Largest and the most important tributary of Gang)
Source: Rises in the Yamunotri glacier which is west of Ganga source.
Total Length: 1,376 km fromits source to Allahabad where it joins Ganga.
River Basin: 3,59,000 sq. km
Information: Important tributaries; Chamba (rises in Mhow in the Vindhya)Sidh.
Betwa and Ken.
The Son
(Right bank tributary of Ganga)
Source: Rises from the Amarkantak Plateau
22
River Basin: 71,900 sq,.km

Information: It joins Ganga near Ramnagar.
Ramganga:
Source: Rises in the Kumaun Himalaya near Nanital
River Basin: 32,800 sq,km
Information: It joins the left bank of Ganga near Chapra (Bihar).
Ghagra:
Source: Rises from east of Gangotri,
Total Length: 1,080 km
Rivers Basin: 127, 500 sq,km More than half of its basin is in Nepal.
Information: It joins the left bank of Ganga near Chapra(Bihar).
Gandak:
Source: Rises near the Nepal-China border at an altitude of 7,600m in the Central
Himalaya.
Total Length:425 km(in India)
River Basin:48,500, 9,500 sq.km (in India)
Information: It flows through eastern Nepal, enters Bihar in Champaran district
and turn south east to join the left banh of Ganga near Sonepur.
Kosi
(formed by the confluence of the Son Kosi, the Arun Kosi and the Tamur Kosi)
Source: Rises from the peak of Nepal Tibet and Sikkim
Total Length: 730km (in India)
Rivers Basin:86,900, 21,500 sq, km (in India)
Information: It flows through eastern Nepal, enters Bihar in Saharasa district and
joins the left bank of Ganga below Bhagalpur (Bihar).
The river is notorious for shifting its course and causing floods, thus often termed
as the Sorrow of Bihar.
Damodar
23
(Sorrow of Bengal)
Source: Rises in Chota Nagpur plateau in the Plalamau district (Jharkand)
Rivers Basin: 22,000 sq.km
Information: It joins the Bhagirathi Hooghly in West Bengal
THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM

(BRAHMAPUTRA AND ITS TRIBUTARIES)
Brahmaputra or Tsangpo (Tibet)
Source: Rises in the Chemayungdung glacier in the Kailash Range and Mariam La
pass separates it from Mansarovar Lake.
Total Length: 2,900 km one of the longest rivers of the world.
Rivers Basin: 240,000 sq,km
Information: Important tributaries: Subansiri Kameng, Dhansiri, Dilhang, Lohit,
Tista, Torsa. Manas; Burhi Dihing, etc. It flows through Tibet, India and
Bangladesh and forms the large delta of the world along with Ganga.
PENINSULAR RIVERS
Mahanadi
(An important river of the peninsular India)
Source: Northern foothills of Dandakarnaya near Shiawa in Raipur district.
Length: 857km
Rivers Basin: 141,600 sq.km in M.P., Orissa, Bihar and Maharashtra
Information: Left bank tributaries; Sheonath, Hasdeo, Ib and Mand. Right bank
tributaries ; tel, Ong, and Jonk.
Subarnarekha, Brahmi and Baitarni:
Information:
These smaller river basins are interposed between the Ganga and the
Mahanadi basin.
24
THE GODAVARI RIVER SYSTEM

(GODAVARI AND ITS TRIBUTARIES)
Godavari:
Source: Trimbak plateau of north Sahyadri near Nasik (Maharashtra)
Length: 1465 (longest river of Peninsular India)
Rivers Basin: 312,812 half of which lies in Maharashtra and also in Andhra
Pradesh ,M.P., Orissa, and Karnataka.
Information: Largest river system of the Peninsular India and is next only to the
Ganga system in India. Left bank tributaries; Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga,
Indravati and Sabri Right Bank tributaries: Manjra.
KRISHNA RIVER SYSTEM

(KRISHNA AND ITS TRIBUTARIES)
Krishna
(Second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula)
Source: North of Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats.
Length: Flows for a distance of 1,400 km to the Bay of Bengal
Rivers Basin: 258,948 sq.km. Lies in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
Information: Important tributaries: Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghatprbha, Malaprabha,
Musi and Koyna.
Kaveri
Source: Rises in the Brahmgiri Range of Western Ghats.
Length: 800km
Rivers Basin: 87,900 sq.km.- Shared by Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
Information: Left bank tributaries: Herangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavati, etc.
Right bank tributaries: Kabani, Bhavani and Amravati etc.
WEST FLOWING RIVER

25
Sabarmati:
Source: Mewar hills in Aravalli Range.
Length: 320km
Rivers Basin: 21,674 sq. km. Shared by Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Information:
Important tributaries: Hathmati, Sedhi, Wakul, etc.
Mahi
Source: Vindhya Range at an altitude of 500 m.
Length: 533km
Rivers Basin:34,862sq.km
Information: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat share the river basin.
Narmada
(Largest west flowing Peninsular river)
Source: Rises in Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh.
Length: 1312 km ( from its source to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat)
Rivers Basin:98,796 sq.km which it shared by M.P. Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Information:
Left bank tributaries: Tawa Burhner, etc. Right Bank tributaries: Hiran
worlds famous Dhuan Dhar or Cloud of Mist Falls is located on this river. It flows
through a rift valley between the Vidhyas and the Satpura Range.
Tapi or Tapi
(Second largest of west flowing river of Peninsula)
Source: Rises near Multai on the Satpura Range in Betul district (M.P)
Length: 740 km
Rivers Basin: 65,145 sq.km in M.p., Maharashtra and Gujarat
Information: Left bank tributaries: Purna, Veghar, Girna, Bari and the Punjhar
Right Bank tributaries: Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal and Gomai. It is also Known as
the twin or handmaid of the Narmada.
26
RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS

Bhakra Nangal Multipurpose Project.
Bhakra dam: One of highest gravity dam in the world.
Govind Sagar Lake (H.P) is a reservoir.
River: Sutlej(A tributary of Indus)
State:Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
Purpose: Irrigation, Hydro electricity.
Thein Dam Project:
River: Ravi ( A tributary of Indus)
State: Punjab
Purpose: Irrigation, hydroelectricity
Dulhasti project:
River: Chenab (A tributary of Indus)
State: Jammu and kashmir
Purpose: Part of the prgramme of cascade development for irrigation
Salal project:
River: Chenab
State: Jammu and Kashmir
Purpose: Irrigation
Beas project:
River: Beas (A tributary of Indus)
State: Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
Purpose: Hydro electricity
Sharda Sahayak Project:
River: Ghagra ( left bank tributary of Ganga)
State: Uttar Pradesh
Purpose: Irrigation
Ramganga multipurpose project
27
River: Chuisot stream near Kalabagh

Purpose: Irrigation, hydroelectricity
Banasagar project
River: Son
State: M.P., Bihar and U.p.,
Purpose: Irrigation
Rihand scheme Reservoir: Govind Ballabh Sagar (U.P)
River: Rihand
Purpose: Hydroelectricity for the development of south eastern industrial region of
U.P.
Damodar Valley multipurpose project
Four dams: Tilaiya and Maithon (on the Barakar River), konar (konar River) and
Panchet (Damodar River)
River: Damodar
State: West Bengal(also shared by Jharkhand)
Purpose: Flood control, Irrigation, Hydroelectricity.
Mayr kashi project
River: Mayrkashi
State: West Bengal (also shared by Jharkhand)
Purpose: Flood control, Irrigation, Hydroelectricity.
Mayur Kashi project
River: Mayrkashi
State: West Bengal
Purpose: Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Hirakud multipurpose project (worlds longest main stream dam)
River: Mahanadi
State: Orissa
28
Purpose: Irrigation , Hydroelectricity

Poochampad Project
River: Godavari
Purpose: Irrigation
Jaykawadi Project:
River: Godavari
State: Maharashtra
Purpose: Irrigation
Nagarjuna Sagar
River: Krishna
Upper Krishna Project
River: Krishna
Purpose: Irrigation
Tunghbhadra multipurpose project
River: Tungbhadra (A tributary of Krishna)
State: Joint venture of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
Purpose: Irrigation, Hydroelectricity.
Ghat Prabha project
River: Ghatprabha ( A tributary of Krishna)
State: Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
Purpose: Irrigation
Malprabha project:
River: Malprobha( A tributary of Krishna)
State: Karnataka
Purpose: Irrigation
29
Bhima project:
River: Bhima
State: Maharashtra
Purpose: Irrigation
Mettur projects
River: Kavery
State: Tamil Nadu
Purpose: Hydroelectricity
Shivasamudram Scheme on Cauvery Falls
River: kavery
State: Karnataka
Kundah project:
River:Kundah
State: Tamil Nadu
Sharavati project (near Jog falls)
River: Sharavati
State: Karnataka
Chambal project:(Gandhi Sagar Dam M.P), Rana Pratap Sagar and Jawahar
Sagar Dam or Kota Dam
River: Chambal (a tributary of Yamuna)
State: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
Kakrapara Project
River: Tapi
State: Gujarat
Purpose: Irrigation
30
Ukai project
River: Tapi
State: Gujarat
Purpose:Irrigation
Sardar Sarovar Project
River: Narmada
State: Gujarat, M.P., Rajasthan Maharashtra
Tawa project:
River: Tawa ( A tributary of Narmada)
State: Madhya Pradesh
Purpose: Irrigation
Mahi project (Jamnalal Bajaj Sagar)
River: Mahi
State: Gujarat
Purpose: Irrigation
Matatila project:
River: Betwa
State: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Purpose: Irrigation, Hydroelectricity.
FOOD CROPS DISTRIBUTION

RICE(KHARIF CROP)
Conditions Required
Temperature: not below 21o C
Rainfall: More than 125cm
Soil: Clayey loam best suited
Distribution (in order of Production)
1. West Bengal
31
2. U P
3. Andhra Pradesh
4. Punjab
5. Tamil Nadu
6. MP
7. Orissa
8. Bihar
9. Assam
10.Karnataka
11.Maharashtra
12.Haryana
13.Kerala
WHEAT (RABI CROP)
Conditions Required
Temperature: 10 15o C (winder) 21o - 26o C (Summer)
Rainfall: 75cm -100cm (moderate)
Soil: Well drained fertile, friable loams, and clay loams
Distribution (In order of Production)
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Punjab
3. Haryana
4. Madhya Pradesh
5. Rajasthan
6. Bihar
7. Gujarat
8. Maharashtra
MILLETS
BAJRA
32
Condition Required
Temperature: 25o - 30o C
Rainfall: 40 50cm
Soil: Poor light sandy soils, black and red soils
Distribution (in order of Production)
1. Rajasthan
2. Maharashtra
3. Gujarat
4. Uttar Pradesh
5. Haryana
BARLEY
Condition Required
Temperature: 10 - 15o C
Rain fall: 75 cm to 100cm
Soil: Light clay and alluvial soil
Distribution(In order of production)
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Rajasthan
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Haryana
5. Punjab
6. Bihar
7. Himachal Pradesh
8. West Bengal
CASH CROPS
COTTON
Conditions Required
Kharif crop of tropical and subtropical areas.
33
Temperature : 21o - 30o C but not below 21o C.

210 frost free days.
Rainfall: 50 100cm or irrigation facility.
Soil: Deep black soil (regur), even grows in alluvial soils and laterite soils.
Distribution ( In order of Production)
1. Punjab
2. Maharashtra
3. Gujarat
4. Haryana
5. Andhra Pradesh
6. Rajasthan
7. Karnataka
8. Tamil Nadu
9. Madhya Pradesh
JUTE
Condition Required
Second important fibre crop of India, crop of hot and humid climate.
Rainfall: heavy rainfall of 120 150 cm with 80 90 percent of relative humidity.
Soil: light sandy or clayey loams.
1. West Bengal (70 percent of the production, over 60 percent of the area)
2. Bihar
3. Assam
4. Orissa
SUGAR CANE
34

Rainfall: 70 150 cm or irrigation facilities with high humidity.
Soil: tolerate any type of soil that can retain moisture.
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
3. Tamil Nadu (highest yield/hectare)
4. Karnataka
5. Andhra Pradesh
6. Gujarat
7. Bihar
8. Haryana
9. Punjab
10.Orissa
TOBACCO
Condition Required
Plant of tropical and subtropical climates and frost is harmful
Rainfall: 50 100 cm or irrigation facilities
Soil: Well- drained friable loam
1. Gujarat (90 percent of Tobacco from Vadodara and Kheda districts).
2. Andhra Pradesh (West and East Godavari, Prakasham, Kurnool and Nellore
are the main producing districts) Other areas of minor production (a) Uttar
Pradesh (b) Karnataka (c) West Bengal.
PLANTATION CROPS
TEA
Condition Required
35
Tropical and subtropical plant, which thrives well in hot and humid climate.
Rainfall: 150 300cm (well distributed)
Soil: forest soil rich in humus and iron content is the best suited.
1. Assam (the Brahmaputra valley, Soorma valley)
2. West Bengal (the Duars, Darjeeling)
3. Tamil Nadu (highest yield per hectare)
4. Kerala (Kottayam, Kollam and Tiruvananthapuram district).
Other areas of minor production
(a) Tripura
(b) Karnataka
(c) Uttar Pradesh
(d) Himachal Pradesh (Kangra valley)
COFFEE
Condition Required
Crops of hot and humid climate
Temperature: 15o - 28o C but does not tolerate frost.
Rainfall: 150 250cm
Soil: well drained rich friable loams with rich in humus, iron and calcium.
1. Karnataka (80 percent of total coffee production)
2. Kerala (13 percent of total production)
3. Tamil Nadu
RUBBER
Condition Required
36
Rainfall: about 300 cm (well distributed throughout the year)

Soil: well drained loamy soil of hilly region.
1. Kerala(above 90 percent of total production, Kottayam, Ernakulum,
Kozhikode and Kollan are the main producing districts)
2. Tamil Nadu
3. Karnataka
OTHER CROPS
MAIZE
Condition Required
Rainfall Kharif Crops
Rain fall: 50 100 cm
Soil: well drained alluvial, or red loams
Distribution (In order of production)
1. Bihar
2. Uttar Pradesh
3. Karnataka
4. Andhra Pradesh
5. Madhya Pradesh
6. Rajasthan
7. Himachal Pradesh
JOWAR
Conditions Required
Both Kharif and Robi crops
Temperature: 26o - 33o C for kharif crops and not below 16oC for rabi crops
Rainfall: >30 cm but <100 cm; rainfed crop in dry farming areas
37
Soil: Variety of soil including clayey, sandy

1. Maharashtra
2. Karnataka
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Andhra Pradesh
5. Tamil Nadu
6. Uttar Pradesh
7. Rajasthan
8. Gujarat
RAGI
Conditions Required
Soil: red, light black and sandy loams
1. Karnataka
2. Tamil Nadu
3. Maharashtra
4. Uttar Pradesh
5. Andhra Pradesh
GRAM
Conditions Required
Most important of all pulses
Rainfall: 40 45cm
Soil: Grows well in loamy soil
1. Madhya Pradesh
38
2. Uttar Pradesh
3. Rajasthan
4. Haryana
5. Maharashtra (These five states produce over 90 percent gram of India)
NON METALLIC MINERALS
MICA, ASBESTOS, GYPSUM, LIMESTONE, DOLOMITE, ATOMIC
MINERALS DIOMAND
MICA:
(Abhrak) valuable mineral in electrical and electronic industry.
Distribution: Bihar Gaya, Hazaribagh (now in Jharkhand), (Largest mica
producing state of India)
Andhra Pradesh Nellore.
Rajasthan Ajmer, Bewar, Tonk, Bhilwara, Udaipur, and Banswara.
LIME STONE:
75% used in cement industry 16% in irons and steel industry. 4% in
chemical industry.
Distribution:
Madhya Pradesh- Satna, Jabalpur, Betul, Sagar and Rewa.
Chhattisgarh Bilaspur, Raigarh, Raipur and Durg.
Andhra Pradesh-Adilabad, Warangal, Nalgonda, Mohboobnagar, Guntur
Karnataka Bijapur, Gulbarga, Shimoga (cement grade limestone)
Rajasthan Jhunjhunu, Bikaner, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Pali, Sirohi, Udaipur
Chittorgarh, Ajmer, Sawai Madhopur, Bundi, Banswara.
Gujarat Banaskantha, Amreli Junagadh, Surat, Kachchh, Kheda and
Panchmahals.
DOLOMITE:
Distribution:
Bihar Rohtas
39
Jharkhand Chaibasa in Sighbhum district and Palamau district.

Orissa (largest produces)-Sundargarh, Sambalpur, and Koraput districts
Madhya Pradesh Chhindwara, Jhabua, Jabalpur, Balaghat,
Chhatisgarh Bilaspur, Durg and Bastar district.
Gujarat Bhavnagar and Vadodara district.
ASBESTOS:
Used for making fire proof cloth, rope, paper, paint, etc. and also
asbestos cement products like sheets etc.
Distribution:
Rajasthan Alwar, Ajmer, Pali, Udaipur and Dungarpur districts,
Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah district.
Karnataka Shimoga, Chickmagalur, Hassan, Mandya and Mysore districts.
GYPSUM:
Mainly used in making of ammonia sulphate fertilizer in cement industry and in
making plaster of paris, etc.
Distribution:
Rajathan (largest producer of gypsum in India): Churu, Ganganagar, Bikaner,
Jaisalmer, Nagaur and Pali districts produce 95 percent of the total gypsum of
India.
Jammu and Kashmir Baramula and Doda districts.
Tamil Nadu Tiruchirapalli
DIAMON:
Distribution:
Madhya Pradesh Panna
Andhra Pradesh Anantpur, Kurnoot
Marnataka Bellary.
ATOMIC MINERALS
(URANIUM, THORIUM)
40
URANIUM:
Distribution:
Bihar Gaya
Jharkhand Hazaribagh and Singhbhum.
Uttar Pradesh Saharanpur
Rajasthan Udaipur.
Kerala Uranium from monazile sand of coastal regions.
THORIUM:
Distribution:
Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Rajasthan.
METALLIC MINERALS
(IRON, BUXITE, COPPER, LEAD/ZINC, MANGNESE, MAGNESIUM,
GOLD.)
IRON:
Distribution:
Jharkhand: Singhbhum (Noamundi, Sindurpur, Kiriburu)
Orissa Mayurbhanj( Gurumahisani., Badampahar, Sulaiput), Keonjhar
Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur, Balaghat
Chhatisgarh Durg (Dalli Rajara), Bastar (Bailadila)
Andhra Pradesh Guntur, Kurnool
Tamil Nadu Salem, Tiruchirapalli
Maharashtra Surajgarh, Lohra-Piplagaon Ratnagir.
Kerala Kozhikode
BAUXITE:
Distribution:Jharkhand Palamanu, Ranchi
Madhya Pradesh Katni, Amarkantak, Maikata Range.
Chhattisgarh Sarguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur.
Orissa Kalahandi, Koraput
41
Tamil Nadu Salem, Nilgiri, Coimbature and Madurai.

Gujarat Sabarkanha, Jamnagar, Surat.
Maharashtra Kalaba, Ratnagiri, Kolhapur.
Karnataka Belgaum.
COPPER
Distribution:
Jharkhand Hazaribagh, Singhbhum.
Madhya Pradesh Balaghat (Malanjkhand belt)
Andhra Pradesh Khammam, Guntur and Kurnool
Rajasthan Jhunjhunu, Khetri, Alwar, Bhilenara and Udaipur.
Maharashtra Chandrapur
Karnataka Chitradurga, Hassan.
LEAD AND ZINC:
Distribution:
Sikkim, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah)
Rajasthan- Zawar(Udaipur) Aguncha Rampura (Bhilwara)
Gujarat _ Banaskantha, Panchmaha, Vadodra, Surat.
LIGNITE COAL:
Distribution:
Tamil Nadu Neyveli
Jammua and Kashmir, Rajasthan (Palana in Bikaner dist.)
Gujarat (Umrasar)
TERTIARY COAL FIELD:
Distribution:
Assam Makum (Sibsagar), Najtra, Janji
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh(Namchik, Namphuk)
OIL FIELDS:
Distribution:
42
Assam Digboi, Naharkatia, Moran, and Sibsagar.

Gujarat Mehsana, Cholka, Kalol, Nawagam, Ankaleshwar and Kosamba
OFF SHRE OIL FIELDS
Distribution:
1. Mumbai High
2. Bassein
3. Ravva
4. Aliabet
OIL REFINERIES:
Distribution:
Assam Digboi(IOC), Guwahati (IOC), Bongaigaon
Bihar Barauni (IOC)
Uttar Pradesh Mathura
Gujarat Koyali, Jamnagar (largest oil refineries)
Maharashtra Mumbai (BPCL)
Karnataka Mangalore(MRPL)
Kerala Kochi(CRI)
West Bengal Haldia (IOC)
Andhra Pradesh Vishakhapatnam (HPCL)
Tamil Nadu Chennai (MRI)
IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES OF INDIA
COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY:
The oldest and the larges t organized modern industry of India.
MANUFACTURING CENTRES:
Maharashtra (122mills)
Mumbai (63 mills), largest centre,
Other centre: Nagpur, Amaravati, Wardha, Jalgaon, Aurangabad, Pune,
Satara, Scholapur, and Kolhapur.
43
Gujarat (118 mills)

Ahmedabad (73 mills), Second largest centre after Mumbai
Other centres: Porbandar, Rajkot, Vadodra, Surat.
Madhya Pradesh:
Bhopal, Indore, Dewas, Ujjain, Ratlam, Gwalior, Jabalpur, etc
Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore. (Most important centre). Other centres Chennai, Perambur,
Salem, Tirchirapalli, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, etc,
West Bengal
Kolkata (Most important entre).
Other centre: Howrah, Serampur, Murshidabad,etc.
Uttar Pradesh
Kanpur (largest centre). Other centres: Varanasi, Mirzapur, Lucknow, Agra,
Modinagar, Saharanput, etc.
Rajasthan
Jaipur, Pali, Bhilwar, Kota, Udaipur, Ganganagar.
Karnataka
Bangalore, Mysore, Mangalore, Chitradurga, Belgaum.
Orissa
Cuttack
Punjab
Amritsar, Dhariwal, Phagwara, Ludhiana.
Kerala
Thiruvananthapuram, Alleppey
Bihar
Patna, Gaya, Bhagalpur.
Andhra Pradesh
Hyderabad, Secundarabad, Rajahmundry, East Godavari and Udayagiri.
44
JUTE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

First large scale industry was established in 1855 at Rishra,(near Serampur)
in Bengal.
This industry suffered a great setback because of partition in 1947 because
80 percent of Jute producing area went to Bangladesh while all Jute mills
remained in India
MANUFACTURING CENTRES
West Bengal (56 mills)
Kolkata (Calcutta)
Other centres: Rishra, Serampore, Titagarh etc. mainly along the both banks
of Hooghli river.
ANDHRA PRADESH
Vishakapatna, Eluru, Guntur and Ongole.
Other important states:
UTTAR PRADESH
Kanpur, Gorakhpur and Shahjawan.
BIHAR
Darbhanga, Samastipur, Purnea, Katihar and Gaya
CHHATTISGARH
Raigarh
ORISSA
Cuttack
WOOLLEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY

One of the oldest textile Industries of India
PUNJAB (257 mills)
45
Dhari (largest centre).

Other centres: Amristsar, Ludhianan and Patiala
MAHARASHTRA (31 mills)
Mumbai (industry based on imported wool)
Other centres:Jalgaon, Ambernath.
UTTAR PRADESH
Kanpur(Largest Woollen Textile centre in the state)
Other centres: Modinagar, Allahabad, Varanai and Mirzapur.
GUJARAT
Jamnagar, Kalol, Vadodara.
Karnataka : Bangalore, Bellary Tamil Nadu: Chennai, Salem
Jammu and Kashmir: Srinagar Himachal Pradesh: Kullu
West Bengal: Kokata.
SILK & SYNTHETIC FIBRE INDUSTRY

Karnataka: Bangalore, Kolar, and Mysore
West Bengal: Murshidabad, Bankura, 24 Parganas and Birbhum district
Jammu and Kashmir: Srinagar(big centre);
Other Centres: Baramula, Anantnag, Udhampur, Jammu
Bihar: Bhagalpur (famous for silk industry), Patna, Gaya.
Jharkhand: Palamu, Hazaribagh.
Madhya Pradesh: Birlanagar, Viragram and Indore.
Uttar Pradesh: Varanasi
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES:
46
Fourth largest set of industries after textiles, iron and steel and engineering
industries.
Products of chemical industry are more multifarious than of nay other industries of
equal importance.
HEAVY INORGANIC CHEMICALS
Alkali Chemicals:
Caustic Soda
Widely used to manufacture paper, textile, soaps and detergents and alumina.
Manufacturing Centres
West Bengal: Kolkata, Titagarh Gujarat: Porbandar, Mithapur
Maharashtra: Thane, Nepa paper mills in Nagpur
Soda Ash
Sodium Choride and Limestone mainly used in the manufacture of soap, paper,
textile, glass, detergents and refined petroleum.
Manufacturing Centres:
Gujarat: Mithapur, Okha, Uttar Pradesh: Varanasi Punjab: Nangal
Tamil Nadu: Tuticorin
Acids
Sulphuric Acid:
Used for manufacturing synthetic fibre, fertilizer, plastics, paints and dyestuffs.
Nitric Acid:
Bulk of production from fertilizer factory.
Manufacturing Centres:
Rajasthan: Hindustran Zinc, Debari, Hindustan Copper, Khetri
Maharashtra: Mumbai, FCI in Trombay (largest producer)
Tamil Nadu: Chennai Jharkhand: Jamshedpur Kerala: Alwaye
West Bengal: Kolkata, Delhi
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
47
Petrochemical Industry:
Raw materials derived from petrochemical resources and industries are
concentrated near petroleum and coal fields region.
Used to produce petroleum byproducts like synthetic fibres, plastics and rubber.
Manufacturing centres:
Trombay: UnionCarbide India Lid. (First petrochemical industry)
Koyali: Udex plant Vadodara: Indian Petrochemical Ltd (IPCL), first public
sector enterprises. Chennai: Madras Petrochemical Ltd. Thane: National Organic
Chemicals Ltd. Bongaigon: Second public sector enterprises.
48
CARTOGRAPHY
MAP
Representation of the earths patterns as a whole or part pf it or the heavenly
bodies a plain surface
Amount of information can be represented on a map depending on the following.
(i). Scale
(ii). Projection
(iii). Conventional signs & symbols
(iv). Skill of draughtmanship / cartographer
(v). Method of map making
(vi). Requirement of eh user
Large the scale more the info
Frame work of the map - depend on the latitude - longitude
Kid also knows as gratitude
There are various tase by which we can prepare a map
1. By actual survey by using instructs like prismatic, compass chain, taps,
teodialite, plane tabbet
2. By photographs by manless flights (Gird photographs, Ariel photographs)
3. Free hand sketches and diagram no accuracy
4. Computer maps by using (R.S.S.) remote sensing satelitel digital mapping,
Global positioning system.
History of Maps
300 years before Egyptians were the fast to prepare acceptable maps. But the
foundation for modern cartography by Greeks and unquestionable till 16th cen
Greeks recognised earth as spheroids c pole, c equator, c tropics, divided the earth
into climatic zones (heuxbtus) sys. Of graticules, had the idea of projections.
Contributors
i. Anaximander (5th cen B.C) Gnomen
ii. Aristotle (4th cen B.C)
1
iii. Eratosthenes (3rd cen B.C)

iv. Hipparchus (2nd cen B.C)
Projection is modified
Polyclone projected (1:1 million)
- It took 2222 sheets to complete the entire globe
- Topographical maps are also known as toposheets
c). Wall maps class room maps
- used in cater to large audience
- used to represent continent & whole ctry, hemisphere
- Smaller than topographical but larger than atlas maps
d). Atlas maps / Chorographical maps
- Very small maps
- give a generalized picture, specifics are deft out mainly b/o lack of space
- Only main topographical features are depicted
- Eg. 1:150 km, 1:15, million i.e. 1:15000000
e). Classification bused on purpose
a. Astronomical maps shoring heavenly bodies
b. Orgraphic maps
c. Geological maps
- Rock, structural geo
- Mode of occurrence
- Period of Rock formation
d. Daily weather maps
e. Senical maps
f. Climatic maps
g. Vegetation maps
h. Soil maps
i. Cultural maps
j. Distribution maps (popln maps)
2
- Distribution of diff objects of definite value that are grouped together

Eg Rainfall, Temp, popln, industries
- Represented in various forms based on
- Colours chorochromatic
- Symbols choroschematic
- Dots
- Shading
- Bar diagram
- Circles, spheres
Propleth maps Joing equal lines
Chlorolpeth maps prepared on the basis of avg. no, offer unit area ex density of
POP / unit area
Scale
Indicates the proportion at c dist betn 2 pts of on a map bears to the dist betn
corresponding points on ground
Scale depends on the following
1. size of the area to be mapped
2. the amt of details required
3. size of paper
scale can be represented in 3 ways
i. By a stmt (statement)
Eg. 1 inch on the map represents 10 miles on the grd or 3 inches to the mile
ii. Graphical representation
- St Line is divided into a no of equal parts
- One advantage can enlarge / reduce the map
iii. Rrepresentative fraction
Numergor and Demominator have same unit of length
Advantage (Adv)
Foreign map can be compaired
3
R.F. = Map dist
Ground dist
Find R.F. when scale is 1: 5 mile
1: 63360 x 5 1 mile = 63360
1: 316800
Find R.F. when scale is 1:2 km (1cm = 2km)
1: 2, 00,000 1 km = 1, 00,000 cm
R.F. of a map is 1:2 milloin
Scale in terms of miles to inch
1: 2,000000 / 63360
1 = 31.6 miles
Spl types of scales
1. Vertical Interval
Interval in c contour lines are drawn
2. Horizontal Equivalent (H.E)
- dist beln 2 successive condowrn
- length of H.E. will vary depending on the degree of slope
- sleeper the slope smaller the H.E
3. Squre roof scale
Geographical maps showing certain quantities in circular graph or pie chart
4. Cube roof scale
Sphere diagrams (of volume is gn)
5. Scale of verticals
For Arial photography where vertical or top pictures / photographs are
taken
6. Perspective scale
- used in landscape drawing
- eg block diagrams or filed sketches
4
- user from forged to a vanishing pt in the horizon
7. Diagonal scale
- to measure precise length
- divide shorter lines into equal parts
8. Venire scale
Dividing fraction into equal parts
Enlargement or Reduction of scales
1. Sqr Method
Map can be dividing into any suitable w/ws of sqrs
- applicable mare in a fairly large area
- side of a sqr was 2 cms & psed to 8 cm then area will psed by 16
times
ii) Similar a method
used to reduce or enlarge a narrow area such as Road, Railway, River, Canal
In sqr. Map R.F = 1
-------
40,000000 is converted into
1: 80,000000 area reduced by 4 times
sides reduced by 2 times
Map c R.F. 1: 63360 has been enlarged by 4 times then new R.F. = 1:15840
(cenlarged)
iii). Instrumental Method
Instrument proportional compasses, pantographs, camera lucida, Photostats,
eidographs
A proportional compass has & bass clamped together by sliding screw and a
pair of needle points used in sqr and similar & method
Pantographs - 4 tabular bass
- freely hinged together to form parellogram
5
- use for reduction of plans (top view)

- charts, map (not used far enlarged)
Eidograph - 3 graduated bass

- 2 lled and one central horizontal bar
- More precise and moro reliable than pantograph
- Principle is based on similar as
Camera Lucida
- Based on principle of optics and photography
- Suitable for reduction of large map especially wall maps
- The distance from the drawing paper to prism is less than the dist
from the prism tot eh original map to enlarge and vice versa (i.e
reduction)
Measurement of Distance
(Stmt 1.5 = I latitude concert it into R.F)
Gn 1 lati = 69 mile = 111 km
1.5 = 69 x 63360
1 = 69 x 63360
-------------
1.5
= 4371840
----------
15
= 29.14560 1: 29.14560
1. If the lines are too irregular, conveniently divide into st. line
2. A piece of thread or wise can be used
3. By using opismeter
Opisometer - Instrument used for measuring irregular line
- It has small toothed wheel as the wheel relates dist recorded
6
- Form of Rolometer
- Can be used in plain surfaces
Measurement of Area
Planimeter Invented by amster (swiss mathematician) simpler planimeter
Hatcher planimeter
Sea level Datum plane
In India Datum plane is taken to be the mean sea level at spring tide at Chennai
formerly it was at Karachi
Relief
Indicates variation in the nature of the land surface includes the broad
features and relative heights of highlands and lawlands
Representation 3 ways
1. Pictorial
2. Mathematical
3. 1 + 2
1. Pictorial
Hachure presenting relief by mean of sets of finely drawn disconnected lines c
will indicate the direction of flow of water
- Line are thicker and closely drawn on sheep slopes and thin wide
apart on gentle slopes
- Draw back doesnt indicate absolute heights only indicate rough
feature
Hill shading
Shade is gn on the base of
a). Vertical illumination
- Sheeper slope darker shade
- Flat areas lighter shade
b). Oblique illumination
- Illumination frm one comer
7
- Help in finding angle of slope

- Idea is to find out direction of the slope & will not give any idea on
relative steepness
2. Mathematical Methods
i) Spot height gives actual heights of places above sea level fixed by survey
- These are shown by dots followed by no
- c represents height
- ground height is given
ii). Bench Marks
Marks placed on building indication height above sea level by actual
survey
iii) Trigonometric stations
- paints on the surface of the earth
- used as station for triangulation survey
iv). Control method
- std method of representing relief
- Imaginecy lines on the ground joining places of same heights
above sea level
- Pts are fixed by accurate survey
- Process is time consuming and costly (but present situation is not
too much costly b/o global positioning sys)
Satellite bases hard used computer system
24 satellites
8
Can be seen 4 at a time

(Stated in 1994)
- Contours are used as a basis for showing other relief
v). Form lines Approximate contours
- Shown in broken lines
- Help to understand minor details of topography
(c is not shown in contours maps)
- Normally done by eye sketching
Various contours features
Maintain Height more than 300 feet above the surrounding landscape
Hill less than 300 feet & greater than 500 feet slops & gradients
Slope
Uniform slopes Contours are evenly spaced
Concave slopes Contours are close together near the top of the hill and
Further apart downwards
Convex slope - Contours are closest at any other point than the top
Undulating slope spacing of contours are variatle
Gradient Amt of veritical rise of a land in reln to horizontal equivalent
Intervisibility
- whether a distant pt is visible from another pt
- hidden area from line of sight is known as dead ground
- if 2 pts are on the same plains inervisibility depends on obstructer
in betn
- if 2 pts are across a river valley - visible
- if 2 pts are either side of valley visible
- if slope of the line joining 2 pts is concave visible
- convex not necessary intervisible
Interpolation pf contour
9
Drawing contour lines on a map when spot heights are gn

About contour
- contour line join adjacent places
- contours of diff elevation do not cross each other
- in case of diff, waterfall, inscarpent the contour seems to merge but it
will cross
- contour lines of same elevation cannot merge & continue as same line
- spacing contour lines indicates nature of slope
- for a hill high contours are closely placed
- a depression low contours are closely placed
- contour line should close on itself on a map or it should begin at one edge
and end at another
- it can either slop within the map nor end inside the map
- in case of ridge contours either run llel to each other or they are
enclosed at the top or vice-Aversa for valley
profiles
- created to analyse slope & relief
- the area study may be magined as cut into thin slicer at intervals and
series of profiles of lled line may be drawn for clear understanding of
platforms
Serial Profile
- a no of llel lines drawn on a map and series of profile are shown
Superimposed Profile
- if all the slopes are traced on a single frame then such profiles are knows
as super imposed profile
Projected Profile
- careful superimposition
- position of each profile c comes below the succeeding one is left untraced
Composite profile
10
- it will show only ruggedness of skyline

- it is constructed to represent the surface as viewed in horizontal plain of
summit levels from an infinite dist
Went worth method
General and random method far avg slope determination
Smiths Relative Relief method (Guy Harold Smith)
Raisz and Henry improved on smiths relative method
Raisz Co-efficient of landscape
A.H.Robinson devised a method c quantitatively accurate relief maps
showing slope variation was made
Slop Analysis - 2 x devices
1. Hypsographic proportion of the area of surface at diff elevation above or
below the datum lines
2. Altrimetric frequency Curves
Involve the computation of frequency of occurrence of height above sea
level and plotting on the paper
Block diagrams
- To show diff types of landforms and their evolution
- Given by G.K.Gilbert
- Perfected by W.M.Davis
- Diagrammatic & 3-D
- Advantage simple to understand
Topographical maps in India
- Survey started in late 1000
- Country is mapped on scale of 1, 2, 4 miles
- To an inch 1 mile to an inch
1 mile to 2 inch
1 mile to 4 inch
- Most map was 1: 10,00,000
11
- 2 series - i). India & adjacent countries series

ii). International series of La carte
International du-monde
India & adjacent series
- Includes Afghan, Nepal Pak, Bhutan & adjacent countries
- These are 4 x 4 series
Each block of 4 x 4; has been numbered
- For referring sheet no is used known by dominant or important city
(EG Srinagar sheet or no 83 sheet)
- Colours are determined
Letters - black
Wat - bluc
Contour - brown
Roads - red
Towns
- These are 1: 1000,000 maps
1 : 15.56 miles
- Each sheet is farther divided into 16 parts & named as A,B,C,D, .. P
i.e. Srinagar sheet having no 53 then each part of its division is
represented as 53A, 53B, 53C, . 53P
Each small block is of 1 scale
Block scale is 1 : 16 mils
: 1 mile
They are known as Quarter inch maps
1 - contours interval 250 feet
- A,B,C,D further divided into 16 parts 53A/1, 53A/2, .53A/16
Climogram / Climograph - Griffith Taylor
- Temp & relative humidity is considered
12
- 12 sides each side represent 1 month mean monthly temp relative

humidity is taken
- Each corner is named
- Basically made to give an idea about Europeans who wanted to settle in
far off place
- If temp below 40o F & relative humidity > 70%
- RAW Temp = 40o F, R.H. > 70%
- SCORCHING Temp >60o F, R.H.<40
- KEEN Temp <40, R.H.<40
- MUGAY Temp >60, R.H.<70
Climography scale of habitability
Hot Desert Scorching
Cold Desert Keen
Hither Graph 12sided fig
- Avg monthly temp & R.H
- To compare climatic characters of diff regions c affects the cultivation
- Stared during colonial period
Egograph
- Graphical Representation of statistical data to show reln ship bet n
season, climate & crops
- Cycle of plant growth closely corresponds to season
- Diff season come c diff climate and crops
i). Annual crop
ii). Bimanual
- Show many variable
Band Graph
- Compound or Aggregate line graph
- Shows trends of values in % age / no/ quantity in both total or in parts by
a series of line drawn on same frame
13
Compound pyramids d(or Popln pyramids

- Sex & Age structure
- Growth & occupational structure
Cartogram
- Representation of statistical data on map in a diagrammatic way by
purposefully distorting the original shape or appearance of area
Rectangular Cartogram
Rectangle are made to follow outline of subdivision so that of there be need the
outline of region c its subregions may marked easily.
PROJECTIONS
A globe cannot be presented accurately on a plain sheet blo converting
3Dpicture into 2D is difficult c involves 3 issues
1. Shape
2. Area
3. Direction
So on plain paper we can assure only 2 issues for this globe is useful
Problems c Globe
1. Otherside cannot be seen
2. Globe can be made on small scale only
3. Portability is not that much easy
A concept called developable surface and non developable surface c can or
cannot fold into a small space.
Developable surface
- Can infold into a flat surface

- Cone and cylinders are developable
- Spheres are indevelopable while pasting definitely wrinkles should be
there
- Our task in map-making is complicated b/o sphere c is underelopable
14
Types of Projection
A. On the basis of method of construction
i. Perspective Projection Src of light is used in the map making
ii. Non-perspective Projection
i). Perspective Projection using light 3 types
1. Gnomonic Light is in the centre
2. Stereographic - If light is placed opposite side of the place
3. Orthographic - Rays coming from infinity
In perspective projection longitude & latitude & small division on a grid is
known as Graticule
ii). Non-Perspective
- Light is not used
- Mathematical calculation are used for development
B. Based on the developable surface used
i. Conical
ii. Cylindrical (eg. Mercators projection)
iii. Azimuthal / Zenitahl developable surface is plane
iv. Connectional (mathematical projections)
- Uses a no of developable surface
- Border of cone touches on only one latitude other portions having
some distortions
- The latitude along c cone touches known as std llel . We tried to have
more std llel so it becomes a multiconical / conventional projection
Eg of Conventional projection is
Bonnes Projection, Multiconical Projectin.
C. Based on preserved qualities
i. Homolographic - ensure that area is not distorted
- Equal area projection.
ii. Orthomorphic - ensure that shape is maintained
15
- Also known as conformed / shape

iii. Azimuthal (or) Bearing
- ensure the direction
iv. Equidistant
- based on the concern of perfect distance preservation
D. Based on the position of the tangent surface
i. Equatorial or Normal Zenithal sheet is placed vertical, touching the
equator
ii. Oblique (at any angle)
(Developable surface we used is a sheet)
iii. Polar sheet is placed on poles llel to equator
E. Based on the position of the light
i. Gnomonic
ii. Stereographic
iii. Orthographic
F. Based on the geometric shape of the final sheet
i. Rectangular
ii. Circular
iii. Elliptical
iv. Butterfly shaped
- Cylindrical Projections are suited for law latitudes (equatorial areas)
- Conical Projections suited for middle latitudes
- Zenithal Projections Polar regions
Both zenithal & cylindrical projections are variables of conical projections
If we se the angle of conical projection to 180
It will become zenithal & reduced to 0o it will becomes cylindrical
1. Zenithal
- Direction is ensured
- Bearing is maintained
16
- 2 types
1. Perspective 2. Non perspective
3 types
1. Stereographic polar zenithal
2. Gnomonic polar Z
3. Orthographic polar Z
a. Stereographic Polar Zenithal projection
- light is on one pole & sheet is on opposite pole
- meridians - Str lines
- latitudes circular / concentric circles
- distance b/w motions towards equator
- length of latitude is towards equator
(As we move away form centre)
- distorted view as shape will be there as we move away from the centre
- shape will be maintained for the small areas near the centre
- it is both azimuthal and conformed (slightly more than equator)
- commonly used for hemispherical maps
b. Gnomonic Polar zenithal projection (light at centre)
- Also known as great circle sailing chests
- The shape of meridians and 11els enormously outward from the map
centre
- Impossible to draw map on one hemisphere boos equates become infinite
- Suited for small areas around the pore
- Also used in air navigation all great circles are str times and short list
bet 2 pts can be directly seen (sheet no 3 fig 2011)
- Rhomb line line along c dir is donaintained also known as loxodromes
C. Orthographical polar zenithal (light from infinity dist)
- Parallels or latitudes crowed together near the outer margins
17
- Largest possible piston of a globe c can be shown is a hemisphere

- Parallels or latitudes crowd together near the outer margins
- Give clear picture
- Very similes to the photograph of the globe
- In Books, Articles, Illustrations it is used because looks like a
photograph
- Astronomical purposes
Normal zenithal projections
- Latitudes grand nears the post
- Meridians will be elliptical in shape
- Used in studying the astronomical maps
- Astronomers used to see the position of heavenly bodies every time on
such a map
NON-PERSPECTIVE
a. polar Zenithal exult area projections
- Designed by lambent
- Dir is maintained in zenithal and we are trying to maintain area also
- 11es are concentric circles
- Meridians have true or prefect angular dist
- To maintain the area we are forcing to reduce the spacing
Circles of latitudes become closes away from the poles to maintain area
Equal area projection or Lambert projection
b. Polar Zenithal equidistant projection

Azimuthal equidistant projection
- Dir or dist is maintained
- Meridian are equidistance
18
- Arbitrary projection
- Not a perspective projection
- In any case llel can never to be equidistant
- Near poles can be used for smaller areas around 30o latitudinal extent
(for Artic circle)
Dist & dir are perfect

c. Stereographic Normal Zenithal
- Light, opposite side, sheet touching the equater
- Orthomorphic
- Central meridian and equator are to each other (st. lines) other llel
and meridians are carved lines
CONICAL PROJECTION
a). Conical perspective
- Touch the globe on one std llel
- If std llel is the slope
- Meridians are st. lines radiating from common centre
- Scale can be preserved only along std llel
- If the std llel is 30o, the shape of the map will be a semi-circle
- If the std llel is <30o, the shape of the map will be more than a semicircle
- If the std llel is > 30o , the shape of the map will be less than a semicircle
- If con show more than a hemisphere
- Limited utility it has to be adjusted mathematically
- Suitable to that area having less than 20o latitudinal extent especially
those countries ties in mid-latitudes
(Baltic, States, Ireland etc)
- Used first time by Ptolemy
b). Modified conical perspective projection ( non-perspective) c two std llel
- Neither the cone, touches the sphere nor cuts the sphere
19
- Instead tow circles of the cone corresponds to the two respective llel of
the globe and form o ordinary cone independent of the globe
- Neither equal area nor orthomorphic (shape)
- Suitable for mid-latitude countries c small latitudinal extent. So that 2/3
rd of the N-S extent of the ctry should lie within the 2 llel
- Eg to show trans Siberian Railway
c. Polycmic projection
- Multiple std llel
- As many cones as the circle of latitude to c they correspond
- Latitudes are not concentric circle a in case of simple conic / Bonnes
projection
- Neither conformal nor equal area
- The scale in true along the central meridian and all parallets
- Good for maps of Europe toposheets international maps
- Not suitable for more than 60o latitudinal extent
d. Boonnes projection (non-perspective)
- All llel true to scale with one llel as std along c it can be drawn
- Equal area projection LAMBRTS
- Projection (Shape) is conformal along central meridian
- All llel are equispaced and drawn as axcs of concentric circles from a
common centre
- Modified version of simple conic projection
- Suitable for drawing single continent except Africa
- (For Africa, Sinusoidal prohjection is used c is a spl case of Bannes
projection where equator is taken as std llel )
c. Conical equal area projection c one std llel (or)
Lamberts conical equal area projection
- Parallels are arcs of concentric circles
- Meridians are radial st. lines at equal angular intervals
20
- llel intersect to meridians

- Scale along the std llel is correct
- llel are unequally spaced
- Scale along llel exaggerated
- Exaggeration away from std llel
- Scale along meridian is minimized
- Widely used in world aeronautical charts exp. USA coast and Geodetic
survey
- llel are deliberately spaced to ensure conformal properties
- if we take std llel as 33o a or 45o then scale of error is only 0.5%
(No need for any gnemonic projections in mainland USA)
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS
i. Natural cylindrical projection or Gnomonic perspective
- Cylinder wrapped around the Globe touching the equator
- Meridinal and llel scales are exaggerated away from equator true only
along equator
- Poles cannot be shown
- Not useful for any purpose
ii. Simple cylindrical projection (non perspective)

- Cylindrical equidistant are kept equidistant
- llel lines & RT angles
- Lngth of all llel are equal to equator
- All meridians are the length half that of equator
- Sale along equator is true
- Latitudinal length away from the equator
- Along meridians scale is true
- Exaggeration of area towards poles as well as great distortion of shape
towards pole
21
- Neither orthomorphic nor homolographic
iii. Cylindrical equal area projection (Lamberts)

- Deceived by using llel light rays (orthographic)
- Longitudes & latitudes str lines for to each olier
- Areas are made equal at the cost of great obliteration in shape towards
higher latitudes
- Meridians are equally
- All llel have same length
- Orthomorphic only near equator
- Used to show distribution of commodities
- Dist bet llel goes on towards the piles
iv. Mercators Projection
- Cylindrical orthomorphic projection
- Shape is maintained
- Most popular for world map
- 1st map used fro navigation
- llel & meridians as to each other
- dist betn llel towards poles
- meridian are equidistant
- Scale is considerately towards poles
- Orthomorphic and azimuthal
- Greenland appears to be bigger than South American
- At 68 area is 4 times and 75o area is 15 times 80o 33 times
exaggerated
- Projection is used to show only upto 80o llel
- Any line we draw it will cut equal c longitudes & latitudes Rhomb
lines loxoderms
- Used for navigation
22
- Suitable for showing ocean currents wind system dirs, navigation

routes, drainage pattern, political map
- llel & meridian c with same proposition
v. Homolosize Goods projection
- Combination of sinusoidal & molleweide proj
- Equal area
- Molleweids is homolographic for pole ward regions
- Sinusoidal is homolographic for equational regions
So towards pole mollweide
Towards equator sinusoidal
Eckert iv projection
- Equal area
- Meridian are ellipres
- llel equally cut by the meridians
- poles are shown as half the length of equator
v). Samson Flamstend Projection (Sinusoidal) conventional
- Used sine curves
- Mollification of cylindrical equidistant and Bonnes Proj
- Each llel is tree to scale and is divided in equal dist division by meridians
- Equator as std llel
- Std meridian as st line
- Equal area
- All llel and std meridian are str. Lines
- Great distortion along the margins of the globe
- Suitable for equatorial cries small E W & N- S oxen distribution maps,
Africa, South America
Mellweides Projection (Elliptical Projection) conventional
- Equal area
- All
23
- Spacing does towards poles

- Easily recognized by the ellipsoid boundaries
- All meridian except central at the 90th one form ellif
- So called elliptical projected
- Used as distribution maps
- Distortion in shape towards the margins nut less as compare to sinusoidal
Galls Projection 45 llel true to scale
- Stereographic, cylindrical, Similar to Mercators projection
- Dist betn llel towards the poles but not so much as in Mercator
- Net an equal more projection
- Cylinder thus halfway (i.e.45o N.S)
- Used in Gen. purpose world map.
24
OCEANS AND OCEANOGRAPHY

Oceanography is the scientific study of all aspects of the ocean, including
the nature of water (salinity, chemical composition, etc.), temperature, movements
(tides, currents, waves, etc), depth and biology (flora and fauna).Ocean is the vast
expanse of salt water that covers over 70 percent of the earths surface. The term
world ocean refers to the combined ocean bodies and seas of the globe. Its average
depth (when shallow seas are included with deep ocean basis) is 12.500 ft (3,800
m).
For major portions of Atlantic, pacific and Indian Oceans, the average depth
is about 13,000 ft (4000 m). The total volume of World Ocean is about 1.4 billion
cu km, comprising over 97 percent of worlds free water. Of the remaining
volume, about 2 percent is in the form of ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland
and about 1 percent in the form of fresh water of the land. Thus, the world ocean
largely represents the hydrosphere.
THE OCEAN RELIEF
The ocean basins are in many ways similar to the land surface. There are
submarine ridges, plateaux, canyons, plains and trenches. A section drawn across
an ocean illustrates the typical submarine relief features.
1. The continental shelf.

This is, in fact, the seaward extension of the continent from the shoreline to the
continental edge marked, approximately, by the 100 fathom (600 feet) isobath
(isobaths are contours marking depths below sea level). The continental shelf is
thus a shallow platform whose width varies greatly, from a few miles in the North
1
Pacific off the continent of North America, to over 100 miles off north-west
Europe.
In some places where the coasts are extremely mountainous, such as the
Rocky Mountain and Andean coasts, the continental shelf may be entirely absent.
Off broad lowland coasts like those of Arctic Siberia, a maximum width of 750
miles has been recorded! A width of 20 to 100 miles is generally encountered. The
angle of the slope is also variable, and is normally least where the continental shelf
is widest. A gradient of 1 in 500 is common to most continental shelves.
Many regard the continental shelf as part of the continent submerged due to
a rise in sea level, e.g. at the close of the Ice Age, when the ice in the temperate
latitudes melted and raised the sea level by several hundred feet. Some smaller
continental shelves could have been caused by wave erosion where the land is
being eroded by the sea. Conversely such shelves might have been formed by the
deposition of land-derived or river borne materials on the off-shore terrace.
The continental shelves are of great geographical significance for the

following reasons.
Their shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through the water, which

encourages the growth of minute plants and other microscopic
organisms. They are thus rich in plankton on which millions of surface
and bottom-feeding fishes thrive. The continental shelves are therefore
the richest fishing grounds in the world, e.g. the Grand Banks off
Newfoundland, the North Sea and the Sunda Shelf.
Their limited depth and gentle slope keep out cold under-currents and increase
the height of tides. This sometimes hinders shipping and other marine
activities since ships can only enter and leave port on the tide. Most of
2
the worlds greatest seaports including Southampton, London, Hamburg,

Rotterdam, Hong Kong and Singapore are located on continental
shelves.
2. The continental slope.
At the edge of the continental shelf, there is an abrupt change of gradient
to about 1 in 20, forming the continental slope.
3. The deep-sea plain.
This is the undulating plain lying tow to three miles below sea level, and
covering two-thirds of the ocean floor, generally termed the abyssal plain. It was
once thought to be featureless, but modern sounding devices reveal that the abyssal
plain is far from being level. It has extensive submarine plateaux, ridges, trenches,
basins, and oceanic islands that rise above sea level in the midst of oceans, e.g. the
Azores, Ascension Island.
4. The Ocean deeps.
These are the long, narrow trenches that plunge as great ocean deeps to a
depth of 5,000 fathoms or 30,000 feet! Contrary to our expectations, most of the
deepest trenches are not located in the midst of oceans. They are more often found
close to the continents, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, where several deep
trenches have been sounded. The greatest known ocean deep is the Marianna
Trench near Guam Island, which is more then 36,000 feet deep. We can see from
this that ocean trenches are greater in magnitude than the highest mountains on
land, for the highest peak Mt.Everest is only 29,028 feet. Other notable ocean
deeps include the Mindanao Deep (35,000 feet). The Tonga Trench (31,000 feet)
and the Japanese Trench (28,000 feet), all in the Pacific Ocean.
THE OCEANIC DEPOSITS

Materials eroded from the earth which are not deposited by rivers or at the
coast are eventually dropped on the ocean floor. The dominant process is slow
3
sedimentation where the eroded particles very slowly filter through the ocean water
and settle upon one another in layer. The thickness of the layer of sediments is still
unknown. Its rate of accumulation is equally uncertain. Generally speaking, we
may classify all the oceanic deposits as either muds, oozes or clays.
1. The muds.
These are terrigenous deposits because they are derived from land and are
mainly deposited on the continental shelves. The muds are referred to as blue,
green or red muds; their colouring depends upon their chemical content.
2. The oozes.
These are pelagic deposits because they are derived from the oceans. They
are made of the shelly and skeletal remains of marine micro organisms with
calcareous or siliceous parts. Oozes have a very fine; flour-like texture and either
occur as accumulated deposits or float about in suspension.
3. The clays.
These occur mainly as red clays in the deeper parts of the ocean basins, and
are particularly abundant in the Pacific Ocean. Red clay is believed to be an
accumulation of volcanic dust out from volcanoes during volcanic eruptions.
THE OCEAN SALINITY

Almost every known chemical element can be found in varying proportions
in the oceans whose most characteristic feature is their salinity, in contrast to the
fresh water of lakes and steams. All sea water contains large amounts of dissolved
mineral matter of which sodium chloride or common salt alone constitutes more
than 77 percent. The other more important compounds include magnesium,
calcium and potassium, while the rest are distinguishable only in traces of very
minute quantities.
4
Due to the free movement of ocean water, the proportions of different salts,
remain remarkably constant in all oceans and even to great depths. But the degree
of concentration of the salt solution in oceans does vary appreciably in different
areas. This is expressed as salinity, the degree of saltness of water, either as a
percentage or more often in parts per thousand. Variations are shown in salinity
distribution maps by isohalines, lines joining places having an equal degree of
salinity.
Generally speaking, the average salinity of the oceans is 35.2%, about 35
parts of salt in 1,000 parts of water. In the Baltic Sea, where there is much dilution
by fresh water and melting ice, the salinity is much lower, only about 7%. In the
Red Sea where there is much surface evaporation and fewer rivers to bring in fresh
water, the average salinity increases to 39%. In enclosed seas, which are areas of
inland drainage, such as the Caspian Sea, the salinity is very high, 180%, and in the
Dead Sea of Palestine, a salinity of 250% has been recorded. The highest salinity is
perhaps, that of Lake Van, in Asia Minor, with 330 %. It is a salt lake, and salts are
collected from its shores. The density of the water is so high that in Lake Van or
the Dead Sea, it is almost impossible to sink. Beginner-swimmers will find it much
easier to float here than anywhere else! The variation of salinity in the various seas
and oceans is affected by the following factors.
1. The rate of evaporation.
The water fringing the High Pressure Belts of the Trade Wind Deserts,
o
between 20 and 30o N and S., have high salinity because of the high rate of
evaporation caused by high temperature and low humidity. The temperate oceans
have lower salinity due to the lower temperature and a lower rate of evaporation.
2. The amount of fresh water added by precipitation, streams and
icebergs.
Salinity is lower than the average 35% in equatorial waters because of the
heavy daily rainfall and high relative humidity. Oceans into which huge rivers like
5
the Amazon, Congo, Ganges, Irrawaddy and Mekong drain, have much of their
saltness diluted and have a lower salinity. The Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters
have a salinity of less than 32% because of the colder climate with little
evaporation and because much fresh water is added from the melting of icebergs,
as well as by several large poleward-bound river, e.g. Ob, Lena, Yenisey, and
Mackenzie.
3. The degree of water mixing by currents.
In wholly or partially enclosed seas such as the Caspian Sea, Mediterranean
Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf, the waters do not mix freely with the ocean water
and they are not penetrated by ocean currents. Salinity is high, often over 37%. In
areas of inland drainage without links with the oceans, continuous evaporation
under an almost cloudless sky causes the accumulation of salts around the shores.
In the open oceans where currents freely flow, salinity tends to be near the average
35% or even a little lower. The range of salinity is negligible where there is free
mixing of water by surface and sub-surface currents.
THE TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATER

Like land masses, ocean water varies in temperature from place to place both
at the surface and at great depths. Since water warms up and cools down much
more slowly than the land, the annual range of temperature in any part of the ocean
is very much smaller. It is less than 10 o F, for most of the open seas. Generally, the
mean annual temperature of the surface ocean water decreases from about 70 o F
in equatorial areas to 55 o F at latitudes 45o N. and S., and drops almost to freezing-
point at the poles.
The reduction of temperature with latitude is however never constant,
because of the interference by warm and cold currents, winds and air masses.
Unlike the solid earth, ocean water is mobile and variations in the temperature
between different parts of the oceans can be expected. Water flowing out from the
6
Arctic and Antarctic as cold currents, such as the Labrador Current off north-east
Canada, tends to reduce the surface-water temperature. Ports of eastern Canada
even at 45o N. are thus icebound for almost half the year. In the same way, coasts
warmed by warm currents, such as the North Atlantic Drift, have their surface
temperature raised. The Norwegian coast, even at latitudes 60 o to 70 o N. is ice-free
throughout the year!
The highest water temperatures are found in enclosed seas in the tropics, e.g.
the Red Sea which records a temperature of 85o to 100 o F. The Arctic and Antarctic
waters are so cold that their surface is permanently frozen as pack-ice down to a
depth of several feet. In the warmer summer, parts of the ice break off as icebergs
that both dilute the water and lower the surface temperature of surrounding ice-free
seas.
The temperature of the oceans also varies vertically with increasing depth. It
decreases rapidly for the first 200 fathoms, at the rate of 1o F. for every 10 fathoms,
and then more slowly until a depth of 500 fathoms is reached. Beyond this, the
drop is scarcely noticeable, less than 1o F. for every 100 fathoms. In the ocean
deeps below 2,000 fathoms (12,000 feet), the water is uniformly cold, just a little
above freezing-point. It is interesting to note that even in the deepest ocean
trenches, more than 6 miles below the surface, the water never freezes. It is
estimated that over 80 percent of all ocean waters have a temperature between 35o
to 40 o F.
OCEAN CURRENTS MOVEMENTS

Ocean currents are large masses of surface water that circulate in regular
patterns around the oceans. Those that flow from equatorial regions polewards
have a higher surface temperature and are warm currents. Those that flow from
polar regions equatorwards have a lower surface temperature and are cold currents.
7
Their direction of movement is indicated by the arrows. But why should they
follow such a pattern? Some of the underlying factors are explained below.
1.The planetary winds.
Between the equator and the tropics blow the Trade Winds which move
equatorial waters polewards and westwards and warm the eastern coasts of
continents. For example the North-East Trade Winds move the North Equatorial
Current and its derivatives, the Florida Current and the Gulf Stream Drift to warm
the southern and eastern coasts of U.S.A. Similarly, the South-East Trade Winds
drive the South Equatorial Current which warms the eastern coast of Brazil as the
warm Brazilian Current.
In the temperate latitude blow the Westerlies. Though they are less reliable
than the Trade Winds, they result in a north-easterly flow of water in the northern
hemisphere, so that the warm Gulf Stream is driven to the western coast of Europe
as the North Atlantic Drift. In a similar manner, the Westerlies, of the southern
hemisphere, drive the West Wind Drift equatorwards as the Peruvian Current off
South America and the Benguela Current off southern Africa. The planetary winds
are probably the dominant influence on the flow of ocean currents. The strongest
evidence of prevailing winds on current flows is seen in the North Indian Ocean.
Here the direction of the currents changes completely with the direction of the
monsoon winds which come from the north-east in winter and south-west in
summer.
2. Temperatures.
There is much difference in the temperature of ocean waters at the equator
and at the poles. As warm water is lighter and rises, and cold water is denser and
sinks, warm equatorial waters move slowly along the surface polewards, while the
heavier cold waters of the Polar Regions creep slowly along the bottom of the sea
equatorwards.
3. Salinity.
8
The salinity of ocean water varies from place to place. Water of high salinity
are denser than waters of low salinity. Hence waters of low salinity flow on the
surface of waters of high salinity while waters of high salinity flow at the bottom
towards waters of low salinity. For example in the Mediterranean region, there is
great difference in salinity between the waters of the open Atlantic and those of the
partially enclosed Mediterranean, Sea. The less saline water of the Atlantic flows
on the surface into the Mediterranean, and this is compensated for by an outflow of
denser bottom water from the Mediterranean.
4. The earths rotation.

The earths rotation deflects freely moving objects, including ocean currents,
to the right. In the northern hemisphere this is a clockwise direction (e.g. the
circulation of the Gulf Stream Drift and the Canaries Current). In the southern
hemisphere it is an anti-clockwise direction (e.g. the Brazilian Current and the
West Wind Drift).
5. Land.
A land mass always obstructs and diverts a current. For instance, the tip of
southern Chile diverts part of the West Wind Drift northwards as the Peruvian
Current. Similarly the shoulder of Brazil at Cape Sao Roque, divides the west-
flowing equatorial currents into the Cayenne Current which flows north-westwards
and the Brazilian Current which flows south-westwards.
THE CIRCULATION (THE ATLANTIC OCEAN)

Let us now study more closely the circulation of ocean currents in the
Atlantic Ocean .We shall begin with the North and South Equatorial Current at the
equator. The steady Trade Winds constantly drift two streams of water from east to
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west. At the shoulder of north-east Brazil, the protruding lands mass splits the
South Equatorial Current into the Cayenne Current Which flows along the Guiana
coast, and the Brazilian Current which flows southwards along the east coast of
Brazil.
In the North Atlantic Ocean, the Cayenne Current is joined and reinforced
by the North Equatorial Current and heads north-westwards as a large mass of
equatorial water into the Caribbean Sea. Part of the current enters the Gulf of
Mexico and emerges from the Florida Strait between Florida and Cuba as the
Florida Current. The rest of the equatorial water flows northwards east of the
Antilles to join the Gulf Stream off the south-eastern U.S.A. The Gulf Stream Drift
is one of the strongest ocean currents, 35 to 100 miles wide 2,000 feet deep and
with a velocity of three miles an hour. The current hugs the coast of America as far
as Cape Hatteras (latitude 35oN), Where it is deflected eastwards under the
combined influence of the Westerlies and the rotation of the earth. It reaches
Europe as the North Atlantic Drift. This current, flowing at 10 miles per day,
carries the warm equatorial water for over a thousand miles to the coasts of
Europe.
From the North Atlantic, it fans out in three directions, eastwards to Britain,
northwards to the Arctic and southwards along the Iberian coast, as the cool
Canaries Current. Oceanographic researches show that almost tow-thirds of the
water brought by the Gulf Stream to the Arctic regions is returned annually to the
tropical latitudes by dense, cold polar water that creeps southwards in the ocean
depths. The Canaries Current flowing southwards eventually merges with the
North Equatorial Current, completing the clockwise circuit in the North Atlantic
Ocean.
Within this ring of currents, an area in the middle of the Atlantic has no
perceptible current. A large amount of floating sea-weed gathers and the area is
called the Sargasso Sea.
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Apart from the clockwise circulation of the currents, there are also currents
that enter the North Atlantic from the Arctic regions. These cold waters are blown
south by the out-flowing polar winds. The Irminger Current or East Greenland
Current flows between Iceland and Greenland and cools the North
Atlantic Drift at the point of convergence. The cold Labrador Current drift south-
eastwards between West Greenland and Baffin Island to meet the warm Gulf
Stream off Newfoundland, as far south as 50o N. where the icebergs carries south
by the Labrador Current melt.
The South Atlantic Ocean follows the same pattern of circulation as the
North Atlantic Ocean. The major differences are that the circuit is anti-clockwise
and the collection of sea-weed in the still waters of the mid-South Atlantic is not
so distinctive.
Where the South Equatorial Current is split at Cape Sao Roque, one branch
turns south as the warm Brazilian Current. Its deep blue waters are easily
distinguishable from the yellow, muddy waters carried hundreds of miles out to sea
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by the Amazon further north. At about 40 S. the influence of the prevailing
Westerlies and the rotation of the earth propel the current eastwards to merge with
the cold West Wind Drift as the South Atlantic Current.
On reaching the west coast of Africa the current is diverted northwards as
the cold Benguela Current (the counterpart of the Canaries Current). It brings the
cold polar water of the West Wind Drift into tropical latitudes. Driven by the
regular South-East Trade Winds, the Benguela Current surges equatorwards in a
north-westerly direction to join the South Equatorial Current. This completes the
circulation of the currents in the South Atlantic. Between the North and South
Equatorial Currents is the east flowing Equatorial Counter Current.
THE CIRUCLATION (PACIFIC OCEAN)
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The pattern of circulation in the Pacific is similar to that of the Atlantic

except in modifications which can be expected from the greater size and the more
open nature of the Pacific.
The North Equatorial Current flows westwards with a compensating

Equatorial Counter Current running in the opposite direction. Due to the greater
expense of Pacific and the absence of an obstructing land mass the volume of
water is very much greater than that of the Atlantic equatorial current. The North-
East Trade Winds blow the North Equatorial Current off the coasts of the
Philippines and Formosa into the East China Sea as the Kuroshio or Kuro Siwo or
Japan current. Its warm waters are carried polewards as the North Pacific Drift,
keeping the ports of Alaskan coast ice-free in winter.
The cold Bering Current or Alaskan Current creeps southwards from the
narrow Bering Strait and is joined by Okhotsk Current to meet the warm Japan
Current as the Oyashio, off Hokkaido. The cold water eventually sinks beneath the
warmer waters of the North Pacific Drift. Part of it drifts eastwards as the western
U.S.A. and coalesces with the North Equatorial Current to complete the clock-wise
circulation.
The current system of the South Pacific is the same as that of the South
Atlantic. The South Equatorial Current, driven by the South-East Trade winds,
flows southwards along the coast of Queensland as the East Australian Current,
bringing warm equatorial waters into temperate waters. The current turns
eastwards towards New Zealand under the full force of the Westerlies in the
Tasman Sea and merges with part of the cold West Wind Drift as the South Pacific
Current. Obstructed by the tip of southern Chile, the current turns northwards
along the western coast of South America as the cold Humboldt or Peruvian
Current.
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The cold water chills any wind that blows on-shore so that the Chilean and
Peruvian costs are practically rainless. The region is rich is microscopic marine
plants and animals that attract huge shoals of fish. Consequently, millions of
seabirds gather here to feed on the fish. Their droppings completely whiten the
coastal cliffs and islands, forming thick deposits of guano, a valuable source of
fertilizer. The Peruvian Current eventually links up with the South Equatorial
Current and completes the cycle of currents in the South Pacific.
THE INDIAN OCEAN CIRCULATION

The currents of South Indian Ocean form a circuit. The Equatorial Current,
turning southwards past Madagascar as the Agulhas or Mozambique Current
merges with the West Wind Drift, flowing eastwards and turns equatorwards as the
West Australian Current.
In the North Indian Ocean, there is a complete reversal of the direction of
currents between summer and winter, due to the changes of monsoon winds. In
summer from June to October, when the dominant wind is the South-West
Monsoon, the currents are blown from a south-westerly direction as the South-
West Monsoon Drift. This is reversed in winter; Monsoon blows the currents from
the north-east as the North-East Monsoon Drift. The currents of the North Indian
Ocean, demonstrate most convincingly the dominant effects of winds on the
circulation of ocean currents.
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CLIMATOLOGY
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is made up of gases and vapour, and receives incoming
solar energy from the sun giving rise to what we call climate. We actually live at
the bottom of this indefinite layer of atmosphere where the air is densest. Hither
up, the air thins out and it is still a matter of conjecture where the atmosphere ends.
One estimate puts this limit at about 600 miles above sea level. The lowest layer, in
which the weather is confined, is known as the troposphere.
It extends from the earths surface for a height of 6 miles, and within it
temperature normally falls with increasing altitude. The climatic elements such as
temperature, precipitation, clouds, pressure and humidity within the troposphere
account for the great variations in local climate and weather that play such a great
part in our daily live. From analyses taken in different parts of the globe, it is found
that the lower part of the atmosphere contains a consistent proportion of certain
gases: 78 percent of nitrogen, 21 percent of oxygen, 0.03 percent of carbon dioxide
and minute traces of argon, helium and other rare gases.
In addition, it has an unpredictable proportion of water, existing either as a

gas like water vapour, a liquid like rain, clouds and sleet or a solid like snow and
hailstones, as well as other solid particles like smoke and dust. It is because of the
variable water content of the atmosphere that we have such great contrast in
weather and climate over different parts of the world. If we were to live in a dry
atmosphere, absolutely without water, there would be no weather and not even
much climate.
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere or the upper layer of the
atmosphere. It extends upwards for another 50 miles or even more. It is not only
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very cold, but cloudless, with extremely thin air and without dust, smoke or water
vapour but there are marked seasonal temperature changes.
Beyond the stratosphere is the ionosphere which goes several hundred miles
up. It has electrically conducting layers which make short-wave radio transmission
possible over long distances. Modern artificial satellites, launched in the upper
strata of the atmosphere, as well as balloons are used to transmit back to earth
valuable information regarding the conditions of the conditions of the atmosphere.
Insolation
The only source of energy for the earths atmosphere comes from the sun
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which has a surface temperature of more than 10,800 F. This energy travels
through space for a distance of 93 million miles and reaches us as solar energy or
radiant energy in the process called insolation. This radiation from the sun is made
up of three parts, the visible white light that we see when the sun shines and the
less visible ultra-violet and infra-red rays.
The visible white light is the most intense and has the greatest influence on
our climate. The ultra violet rays affect our skin and cause sun-burn when our
bare body is exposed to them for too long a period. The infra-red rays can
penetrate even dust and fog and are widely used in photography. Only that part of
the suns radiation which reaches the earth is called insolation.
What matters most is the effect of the atmosphere upon the incoming solar
radiation. It is estimated that of the total radiation coming to us, 35percent reaches
the atmosphere and is directly reflected back to space by dust, clouds and air
molecules. It plays practically no part in heating the earth and its atmosphere.
2
Another 14 percent is absorbed by the water vapour, carbon dioxide and other
gases. Its interception by the air causes it to be scattered and diffused so that the
visible rays of the spectrum between the ultra-violet and infra-red give rise to the
characteristic blue sky that we see above us. The remaining 51 percent reaches the
earth and warms the surface.
In turn the earth warms the layers of air above it by direct contact or
conduction, and through the transmission of heat by upward movement of air
currents or convection. This radiation of heat by the earth continues during the
night, when insolation from the sun cannot replace it. The earth-surface therefore
cools at night.
The rate of heating differs between land and water surfaces. Land gets
heated up much more quickly than the water. Because water is transparent heat is
absorbed more slowly and because it is always in motion, its absorbed heat is
distributed over a greater depth and area. Thus any appreciable rise in temperature
takes a much longer time. On the other hand the opaque nature of land allows
greater absorption but all the radiant heat is concentrated at the surface, and
temperature rises rapidly. Because of these differences between land and water
surfaces land also cools more quickly than water.
Elements of climate and Factors affecting them

Of the various climatic elements, temperature, precipitation, pressure and
winds are the most important because of their far reaching global influences. These
elements and their distribution, whether horizontal from equatorial to polar
regions, or vertical from ground to atmosphere, are in one way or another affected
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by some or all of the climatic factors: latitude, altitude, continentality, ocean

currents, insolation, prevailing winds, slope and aspect, natural vegetation and soil.
TEMPERATURE
The importance of Temperature
1. Temperature influences the actual amount of water vapour present in the air and
thus decides the moisture-carrying capacity of the air.
2. It decides the rate of evaporation and condensation, and therefore governs the
degree of stability of the atmosphere.
3. As relative humidity is directly related to the temperature of the air, it affects the
nature and types of cloud formation and precipitation.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEMPERATURE
1.Latitude.
The mid-day sun is almost overhead within the tropics but the suns rays
reach the earth at an angle outside the tropics. Temperature thus diminishes from
equatorial regions to the poles. Two bands of rays coming from the sun to two
different latitudes on the earths surface. Band RI falls vertically over the
equatorial latitudes on surface E. Band R2 falls obliquely over the temperate
latitudes on surface T. RI travels through a shorter distance and its concentrated
solar insolation heats up a smaller surface areal temperature in thus high. On the
other hand, R2 travels through a longer distance and much of its R2 travels through
a longer distance and much of its heat is absorbed by clouds, water vapour and dust
particles. Its oblique ray has to heat up a large are; temperature is therefore low.
2. Altitude.
Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by conduction from the earth, it can
be expected that places nearer to the earths surface are warmer than those higher
up. Thus temperature decreases with increasing height above sea level. This rate of
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decrease with altitude (lapse rate) is never constant, varying from place to place
and from season to season. But for all practical purposes, it may be reckoned that a
fall of 1oF.occurs with an ascent of 300 feet or 0.6o C. per 100 metres. It is usually
more in summer than in winter.
For example in temperate latitudes, in summer, an ascent of only 280 feet

will cause the temperature to drop by 1oF., whereas in winter it requires 400 feet.
Similarly, the lapse rate is greater by day than at night, greater on elevated
highlands than on level plain. In tropical countries where the sea level is 80oF., a
town that is located at a height of 4,500 feet will record a mean temperature of
65oF.
3. Continentality.
Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces, because of the
higher specific heat of water. In other words, it requires only on-third as much
energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of land by 1oF.as it does for an
equal volume of water. This accounts for the warmer summers, colder winters and
greater range of temperature of continental interiors as compared with maritime
districts.
4. Ocean currents and winds.

Both ocean currents and winds affect temperature by transporting their heat
or coldness into adjacent regions. Ocean currents like the Gulf Stream or the North
Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of Western Europe keeping their ports ice-
free. Ports located in the same latitude but washed by cold currents, such as the
cold currents, such as the cold Labrador Current off north-east Canada, are frozen
for several months.
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Cold currents also lower the summer temperature, particularly when they are
carried landwards by on-shore winds. On the other hand on-shore Westerlies,
convey much tropical warm air to temperate coasts, especially in winter.
The Westerlies that come to Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in summer
and warm winds in winter and are most valuable in moderating the climate.
Local winds, e.g. Fohn, Chinook, Sirocco, Mistral, also produce marked
changes in temperature.
5. Slope, shelter and aspect.
A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle
one. Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher
temperature on the south-facing sunny slope than the north facing sheltered
slope. The greater insolation of the southern slope is better suited for vine
cultivation and has a more flourishing vegetative cover. Consequently, there are
more settlements and it is better utilized than the shady slope. In hilly areas a hot
day followed by calm, cloudless night during which the air cools more rapidly over
the higher ground may induce cold, heavy air to flow down the slope and
accumulate at the valley bottom pushing the warmer air upwards. The temperature
may then be lower in the valley than higher up as the slopes. A reversal of the
lapse rate has taken place. This is called a temperature inversion.
6. Nature vegetation and soil.
There is a definite difference in temperature between forested regions and
open ground. the thick foliage of the Amazon jungle cuts off much of the in-
coming insolation and in many places sunlight never reaches the ground. It is, in
fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees lower than that of
open spaces in corresponding latitudes. During the day trees lose water by evapo -
transpiration so that the air above is cooled. Relative humidity increases and mist
and fog may form.
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Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers.
Such soil differences my give rise to slight variations in the temperature of the
region.
As a whole, dry soils like sands are very sensitive to temperature changes,
whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much moisture and warm up or cool down more
slowly.
PRECIPITATION
Types of Precipitation.
If air is sufficiently cooled below dew-point, tiny drops of water vapour will
condense around dust particles. When they float about as masses of minute water
droplets or ice crystals at a considerable height above sea level, they form clouds-
cirrus, cumulus or stratus. When condensation occurs at ground level without
necessarily resulting in rain, haze, mist or fogs are formed. In higher latitudes or
altitudes, where condensation of water vapour may take place in the atmosphere at
temperatures below freezing-point, snow falls, either as feathery flakes or
individual ice crystals. If the moist air ascends rapidly to the cooler layers of the
atmosphere, the water droplets freeze into ice pellets and fall to the earth as hail or
hailstones.
As more and more super-cooled water drops accumulate around a hailstone,

it increases steadily in size; some of them weigh as much as two pounds. In a
severe hail-storm the hailstones do great damage to crops and buildings. Very
often, the ice-pellets exist as frozen rain-drops, melting and re-freezing on their
way down; this forms sleet. It is only when the droplets in clouds coalesce into
larger drops between 0.2mm and 6mm that rain falls.
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RAINFALL
Types of Rainfall.
There are three major types of rainfall.
1. Convectional rainfall.
This type of rainfall is most common in regions that are intensely heated,
either during the day, as in the tropics, or in the summer, as in temperate interiors.
When the earths surface is heated by conduction, moisture-laden vapour rises
because heated air always expands, and becomes lighter. Air rises in a convection
current after a prolonged period of intense heating. In ascending, its water vapour
condenses into cumulonimbus clouds with a great vertical extent.
This probably reaches its maximum in the afternoon when the convectional
system is well developed. Hot, rising air has great capacity for holding moisture,
which is abundant in regions of high relative humidity. As the air rises it cools and
when saturation point is reached torrential downpours occur, often accompanied by
thunder and lightning. The summer showers in temperate regions are equally heavy
with occasional thunderstorms. These downpours may not be entirely useful for
agriculture because the rain is so intense that is does not sink into the soil but is
drained off almost immediately.
2. Orographic or relief rain.
Unlike convectional rain which is caused by convection currents,
Orographic rain is formed wherever moist air is forced to ascend a mountain
barrier. It is best developed on the windward slopes of mountains where the
prevailing moisture-laden winds come from the sea. The air is compelled to rise,
and is thereby cooled by expansion in the higher altitudes and the subsequent
decrease in atmospheric pressure.
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Further ascent cools the air until the air is completely saturated (relative
humidity is 100 percent). Condensation takes place forming clouds and eventually
rain. Since it is caused by the relief of the land, it is also known as relief rain.
Much of the precipitation experienced on the windward slopes of the north-east of
West Malaysia, western New Zealand, western New Zealand, western Scotland
and Wales and the Assam hills of the Indian sub-continent, is relief rain.
On descending the leeward slope, a decrease in altitude increases both the

pressure and the temperature; the air is compressed and warmed. Consequently, the
relative humidity will drop. There is evaporation and little or no precipitation. The
area in the lee of the hills is termed the rain shadow area. The effects of rain
shadow are felt on the Canterbury Plain of South Island, New Zealand and the
western slopes of the Northern and Central Andes and in many other areas.
3. Cyclonic or frontal rain.

This type of rainfall is independent of relief or convection. It is purely
associated with cyclonic activity whether in the temperate regions (depressions) or
tropical regions (cyclones). Basically it is due to the convergence (meeting) of two
different air masses with different temperatures and other physical properties. As
cold air is denser, it tends to remain close to the ground. The warm air is lighter
and tends to rise over the cold air. In ascent pressure decreases, the air expands and
cools, condensation takes place and light showers called cyclonic or frontal rain
occur. The heavier and colder air masses eventually push up the warmer and
lighter air and the sky is clear again.
9
PRESSURE AND PLANETARY WINDS
World pressure belts.

The circulation of water in the oceans and noted that they follow a regular
pattern, flowing from the poles equatorwards and from the equator polewards. In
the same way, there is also a circulation of air over the surface of the earth caused
by the differences in pressure.
Along the equator and within 5 degrees north and south, is the Equatorial
Low Pressure Belt, where there is intense heating, with expanding air and
ascending convection currents. This equatorial belt is often termed the Doldrums,
because sailors in the olden days often found themselves becalmed here. It is a
zone of wind convergence.
About 30o N. and S. are two Temperate Low Pressure Belts which are also
zones of convergence with cyclonic activity. The sub-polar low pressure areas are
best developed over the oceans, where temperature difference between summer
and winter are negligible.
At The North and South Poles 90o N and S. where temperatures are
permanently low, are the Polar High Pressure Belts. Unlike the water masses of the
high latitudes in the southern hemisphere, high pressures of the corresponding
latitudes in the northern hemisphere are a little complicated by the presence of
much land. Some pressure differences between summer and winter can be
expected.
The Planetary winds.

Within this pattern of permanent pressure belt on the globe, winds tend to
blow from the high pressure belts to the low pressure belts as the planetary winds.
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Instead of blowing directly from one pressure belt to another, however, the effect
of the rotation of the earth (Coriolis Force) tends to deflect the direction of the
winds. In the northern hemisphere, winds are deflected to their right, and in the
southern hemisphere to their left. This is known as Ferrels Law of Deflection. The
Coriolis force is absent along the equator but increased progressively towards the
poles.
For this reason, winds blowing out from the Sub-Tropical High Pressure
Belt in the northern hemisphere towards the Equatorial Low become North-East
Trade Winds and those in the southern hemisphere become the South-East Trade
winds. These trade winds are the most regular of all the planetary winds. They
blow with great force and in a constant direction. They were thus helpful to early
traders who depended on the wind when sailing the high seas; hence the name
trade winds. Since they blow from the cooler sub-tropical latitudes to the warmer
tropics, they have great capacity for holding moisture. In their passage across the
open oceans, they gather more moisture and bring heavy rainfall to the east coasts
of continents within the tropics. As they are off-sore on the west coast, these
regions suffer from great aridity and form the Trade Wind Hot Deserts of the
world, e.g. the Sahara, Kalahari Atacama and Great Australian Deserts.
From the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts, winds low towards the
Temperate Low Pressure Belts as the variable Westerlies. Under the effect of the
Coriolis force, they become the South-Westerlies in the northern hemisphere and
the North-Westerlies in the southern hemisphere. They are more variable in the
northern hemisphere, but they play a valuable role in carrying warm equatorial
waters and winds to role in carrying warm equatorial waters and winds to western
coasts of temperate lands.
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This warming effect and other local pressure differences have resulted in a
very variable climate in the temperate zones, dominated by the movements of
cyclones and anticyclones. In the southern hemisphere where there is a large
expanse of ocean, from 40o S to 60o S., Westerlies blow with much greater force
and regularity throughout the year. They bring much precipitation to the western
coasts of continents. The weather is damp and cloudly and the seas are violent and
stormy. It is thus usual for seafarers to refer to the Westerlies as the Roaring
Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking or Stormy Sixties, according to the varying
degree of storminess in the latitudes in which they blow.
It must be pointed out that not all the western coasts of the temperate zone
receive Westrlies throughout the year. Some of them like California, Ibria, central
Chile, southern Africa and south Western Australia receive Westerlies only in
winter. This is caused by the shifting of the wind belts of such regions which lie
approximately between the latitudes 30o and 40o N and S. Due to the earths
inclination, the sun is overhead at midday in different parts of the earth at different
seasons. The entire system of pressure and wind belts follows he movement of the
midday and wind belts follows the movement of the midday sun. In June when the
overhead sun is over the Tropic of Cancer, all the belts move about 5o - 10o south
of their average position. The Mediterranean parts of Europe and California then
come under the influence of the Westerlies and receive rain in December (winter in
the northern hemisphere).
Lastly, mention must be made of the Polar Easterlies which blow out from
the Polar High Pressure Belts towards the Temperature Low Pressure Belts. These
are extremely cold winds as they come from the tundra and ice-cap regions. They
are more regular in the south than in the north.
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LAND AND SEA BREEZES AND MONSOONS
Land and sea breezes are, in fact, monsoons on a smaller scale. Both are
basically caused by differential heating of land and sea, the former in a diurnal
rhythm and the latter in a seasonal rhythm.
During the day, the land gets heated up much faster than the sea. Warm air
rises forming a region of local low pressure. The sea remains comparatively cool
with a higher pressure so a sea breeze blows in from sea to land. Its speed or
strength is between 5-20m.p.h and it is generally stronger in tropical than
temperate regions. Its influence does not normally exceed 15miles from the coast.
It is most deeply felt when one stands facing the sea in a coastal resort.
At night the reverse takes place. As the land cools down much faster than the
sea, the cold and heavy air produces a region of local high pressure. The sea
conserves its heat and remains quite warm. Its pressure is comparatively low. A
land breeze thus blows out from land to sea. Fishermen in the tropics often take
advantage of the out-going land breeze and sail out with it. They return the next
morning with the in-coming sea breeze, complete with their catch.
In the same way, monsoons are caused. Rapid heating in the hot summer
over most parts of India for example induces heated air to rise. The South-West
Monsoon from the surrounding ocean is attracted by the low pressure over the land
and blows in, bringing torrential rain to the sub-continent.
Similarly, in winter when the land is cold, the surrounding seas remain
comparatively warm. High pressure is created over Indo-Pakistan and the North-
East Monsoon blows out from the continent into the Indian Ocean and the Bay of
Bengal.
FOHN WIND OR CHINOOK WIND
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Both the Fohn and Chinook winds are dry winds experienced on the leeward
side of mountains when experienced on the leeward side of mountains when
descending air becomes compressed with increased pressure. The Fohn win is
experienced in the valleys of the northern Alps, particularly in Switzerland in
spring. Chinook winds are experienced on the eastern slopes on the eastern slopes
of the Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada in winter.
Air ascending the southern slopes of the Alps expands and cools.
Condensation takes place when the air is saturated. Rain and even snow fall on the
higher slopes.
In descending the northern slope, the wind experiences and increase in
pressure and temperature. The air is compressed and warmed. Most of its moisture
is lost and the wind reaches the valley bottom as a dry, hot wind the Fohn. It may
raise the temperature by 15o to 30oF., within an hour! It melts snow and causes
avalanches. In North America it is called Chinook, meaning the snow-eater. But
it has its blessings too, it hastens the growth of crops and fruits and thaws the
snow-covered pastures. In the Rockies, the Chinook has been known to raise
temperature 35oF. within 15 minutes! The occurrence of frequent Chinooks means
winter is mild.
CYCLONIC ACTIVITY
Tropical cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes and tornadoes
All These are different kinds of tropical cyclones. They are well developed
low pressure systems into which violent winds blow. Typhoons occur in the China
Sea; tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean; hurricanes in the West Indian islands in
the Caribbean; tornadoes in the Guinea lands of West Africa, and the southern
U.S.A. in which the local name of Whirl-wind is often applied and willy-willies
occur in north-western Australia.
14
Typhoons occur mainly in regions between 6o and 20o north and south of the
equator and are most frequent from July to October. In extent, they are smaller
than temperate cyclones and have a diameter of only 50 to 200 miles, but they have
a much steeper pressure gradient. Violent winds with a velocity of over 100 m.p.h
are common. The sky is overcast and the torrential downpour is accompanied by
thunder and lightning. In the wake of the typhoon, damage is widespread, e.g. in
1922, a typhoon that hurled huge waves on to the Swatow coast drowned 50,000
people.
The other tropical cyclones have similar characteristics and differ, perhaps,
only in intensity, duration and locality. Hurricanes have calm, rainless centres
where the pressure is lowest (about 965 mb.) but around this eye the wind
strength exceeds force 12 of the Beaufort scale (75 m.p.h). Dense dark clouds
gather and violent stormy weather lasts for several hours. A terrible hurricane
struck Barbados in the West Indies in 1780, which nearly destroyed the whole
island, tearing down buildings and uprooting trees. About 6,000 inhabitants were
reported dead.
Tornadoes are small but very violent tropical and sub-tropical cyclones in
which the air is spiraling at a tremendous speed of as much as 500 m.p.h! A
tornado appears as a dark funnel cloud 250 to 1,400 feet in diameter. As a tornado
passes through a region, it writhes and twists, causing complete devastation within
the limits of its passage. There is such a great difference in pressure that houses
virtually explode. Tornadoes are most frequent in spring but not common in many
countries and their destructive effects are confined to a small area. Tornadoes are
most typical of the U.S.A and occur mainly in the Mississippi basin.
Cyclones.
These are better known as depressions and are confined to temperate
latitudes. The lowest pressure is in the centre and the isobars, as shown in climatic
charts, are close together. Depressions vary from 150 to 2,000 miles in extent.
15
They remain quite stationary or move several hundred miles in a day. The
approach of a cyclone is characterized by a fall in barometric reading, dull sky,
Oppressive air and strong winds. Rain or snow falls and the weather is generally
bad. Winds blow inwards into regions of low pressure in the centre, circulating in
anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere . Precipitation resulting from cyclonic activities is due to the
convergence of warm tropical air and cold polar air. Fronts are developed and
condensation takes place, forming either rain , snow or sleet.
Anticyclones.
These are the opposite of cyclones, with high pressure in the centre and the
isobars far apart. The pressure gradient is gentle and winds are light. Anticyclones
normally herald fine weather. Skies are clear, the air is calm and temperatures are
high in summer but cold in winter. In winter intense cooling of the lower
atmosphere may result in thick fogs. Anticyclonic conditions may last for days or
weeks and then fade out quietly. Winds in anticyclones blow outwards and are also
subject to deflection, but they blow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
CLIMATIC TYPES AND NATURAL VEGETATION
It is necessary to divide the world into several climatic zones, each with its
own climatic characteristics, natural vegetation (forests, grasslands or deserts),
crops, animals and human activities. Though the geographical characteristics may
not be absolutely uniform in each climatic type, they have many things in common.
The scheme of the worlds climatic types with their seasonal rainfall and natural
vegetation.
Climatic Zone Latitude Climatic Type Rainfall Regime Natural Vegetation
16
1.Equatorial 0 o 10o N & S 1.Hot,wet equatorial Rainfall all year Equatorial rain forests
Zone round:80 inches
o o
2.Hot Zone 10 30 N&S 2.(a)Tropical Heavy summer rain: Monsoon forests
Monsoon 60 inches
(b) Tropical Marine Much summer rain:
70 inches
3. Sudan Type Rain mainly in Savanna (tropical
Summer: grassland)
30 inches
4. Desert :( a)Saharan Little Desert vegetation and
type (b)Midlatitude rain: 5 inches scrub
3. Warm
Temperate
Zone 30 o 45oN&S 5.Western Margin Winter rain:35inches Mediterranean forests
(Mediterranean type) and shrub
6.Central Continental Light summer rain: Steppe or temperate
(steppe type) 20 inches grassland
7. Eastern Margin: Heavier summer rain: Warm, wet forest and
(a)China type 45 inches bamboo
(b)Gulf type
(c) Natal type
4.Cool
Temperate
Zone 45 o 65oN&S 8. Western Margin More rain in autumn Deciduous forests
(British type) and winter:30inches
9. Central Light summer rain: Evergreen coniferous
continental 25 inches forests
(Siberian type)
10. Eastern Margin Moderate summer Mixed forest
(Laurentian type) rain:40 inches (coniferous and
deciduous)
5.Cold Zone 65 o 90oN&S 11.Arctic or Polar Very light summer Tundra, mosses,
rain:10 inches lichens
6. Alpine Zone 12.Mountain climate Heavy rainfall Alpine pasture,
(variable) conifers, fern,snow.
17

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Dream Dare Win www.jeywin.

It involves several kinds of physical movements which are predominantly in

Degrading Humification Mineralisation

FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION

4. LATERTIC SOILS/ LATOSOLS/ FERRALSOLS

formed in the Mediterranean region and are characterised by insoluble traces of

The uppermost layer in the mineral horizon is H. it is a mixed horizon made

The B horizon is a zone of maximum accumulation of silicate clay minerals

escaping downward.) The subsoil is followed by the C horizon or the parent

movement of soil which is reflected by tilted fences, posts or trees. It produces a

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOIL EROSION

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL

(a) crop management, and

Agriculture practices like intercropping and mixed cropping are effective in

The first organisms to become established in an eco-system, undergoing

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUCCESSIONS

Beach Maple Forest ComplEX

The bog successions of Canada are an example of a primary succession.

Oak Forest Climax

distinct differences imposed upon them by their location-which is on windward

classes of grasslands, are-1 prairies, 2.steppe, 3.pampas, 4.veld, 5.downland

The savanna vegetation has a park-like appearance. The savanna vegetation

DEFORESTATION AND MEASURES OF

period, by an ancient civilisation based on agriculture. Forests were, till very

1990-95) in Brazil, Mexico, Malaysa and Indonesia, However, the highest

Population pressure and decreasing availability of land, shifting

These groups encourage people to pant community woodlots of fast-growing,

protect them, sparking the Chepko Andolan (literally, movement to hugtrees).

The role of non-governmental organizations is important in this context. Social

to popularise economic tree farming alongwith crop farming;

programmes. Every village/town/city is supposed to meet firewood, fodder and

INDIA PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Northern limit-Main Boundary thrust which separates Outer Himalaya from

NAME LOCATION DISTANCE

SUBDIVISION OF GREAT PLAINS

One of the oldest fold mountains in the world.

THE INDIAN PLATEAU

Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates it from the main block of peninsular plateau

THE EAST COASTAL PLAIN

Largest brackish water lake in Asia.

FRESH WATER LAKE

SALINE WATER LAKES:

EARLY Delhi Aravalli

LATE ARCHEAN Peninsular Gneiss and

(iii) The Ganga Plain

INDIA- MAJOR SOIL TYPES

Northern plains or river basin: Punjab, Haryana, eastern part of Rajasthan,

More acidic on higher areas due to presence of Al and Fe. Deficient in

PEATY AND ORGANIC SOIL:

(An important river of kashmir and is the main waterway)

Source: Kullu hills at an altitude of 4,000 m

River Basin: 71,900 sq,.km

THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM

THE GODAVARI RIVER SYSTEM

KRISHNA RIVER SYSTEM

WEST FLOWING RIVER

RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS

River: Chuisot stream near Kalabagh

Purpose: Irrigation , Hydroelectricity

FOOD CROPS DISTRIBUTION

Temperature : 21o - 30o C but not below 21o C.

Temperature: 21o - 27o C

Rainfall: about 300 cm (well distributed throughout the year)

Soil: Variety of soil including clayey, sandy