Vol 2 Combined Final

DIVERSE PROVIDERS OF
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN
BANGLADESH
CREATE BANGLADESH POLICY BRIEF 3
APRIL 2011
DIVERSE PROVIDERS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH

This policy brief on diverse providers of primary education in Bangladesh analyses the role of a
range of different providers of education in the country. Drawing upon policy documents, literature
as well as empirical research, it argues that official policies need to recognise the existing and
potential future role of these diverse providers of education for achieving EFA. Sector Wide
Approaches to Education and the next Primary Education Development Plan need to bring diverse
providers of education into a coherent national policy framework. This policy brief is based on the
CREATE Monograph Debating Diversity in Access to Primary Education in Bangladesh
(Pathways to Access Series, No. 34) written by Zia-Us-Sabur and Manzoor Ahmed.
A Brief History of Educational Provision in curbed centuries-old culture of community

Bangladesh involvement in running primary schools. Many of
Having made remarkable progress in terms of initial the present problems of government-run or
enrolment in primary education as well as gender government-controlled primary schools can be
equality (Ahmed et al. 2007), Bangladesh still faces traced back to the nationalisation of primary
enormous challenges in ensuring that all children schools in 1973.
complete primary education and achieve basic
literacy and numeracy competencies. Diverse In 1990, a compulsory primary education law was
providersstate, quasi-state and non-statehave adopted which required all children to be enrolled in
helped raise initial enrolments and improve the primary school. The law, in the wake of the global
gender balance. The question now is how they can EFA initiative of 1990, helped expansion or primary
improve learning outcomes, especially for enrolment, but it was not implemented with
disadvantaged children. sufficient vigour and was not backed up with
adequate resources.
In 1973, shortly after independence, the
government took over existing general primary The Second Primary Education Development
schools (other than madrasas and private schools) Programme (PEDP II), initiated in 2004, was
and all employees became national government prepared with the involvement of the concerned
employees. It abolished primary school ministries, directorates, and development partners.
management committees, giving the government It was visualised as a sector-wide approach for
management responsibility for the nationalised primary education, but in the end dealt only with
primary schools. The purpose of nationalisation government schools (GPS) and RNGPS, excluding
was to improve the management of schools and from its remit the significant number of children
thereby accelerate access. It can be argued with served by the madrasas and NGOs (Ahmed et al.
hindsight that the government action effectively 2007).
Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE)
http://www.create-rpc.org Tel: 00 44 (0)1273 877984 create@sussex.ac.uk
EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:1

DIVERSE PROVIDERS OF PRIMARY
EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH
Diverse Providers of Primary Education removing illiteracy within such time as may be
The number of primary-level institutions increased determined by law.
from 19,000 in 1947 to over 80,000 to date,
including both government and non-government The fundamental principle regarding free and
providers (Ahmed et al. 2007). Government primary compulsory education, is by its very nature subject
schools (GPS) include all institutions directly to interpretation. The phrase uniform, mass-
managed by the government, almost half of the oriented and universal system of education, has
primary level institutions, serving about 60 percent often been invoked to justify a state-provided
of the enrolled children (Figure 1). Other primary common type of primary school for all children. At
institutions are non-government primary schools times, the words have been used as a political and
(RNGPS), non-registered non-government primary populist argument to ban one or another type of
schools (NRNGPS), primary level ebtedayee non-state provision, such as, NGO-run, private
madrasas, primary classes attached to high (especially English medium) and madrasa-based
madrasas, kindergartens, formal NGO schools, primary education. At the very least, it has been
community schools, and primary classes attached argued that the constitution requires a standard
to high schools. Madrasas and RNGPS get national curriculum, common textbooks, and other
financial support from the government and are regulatory measures to be applied to all primary
subject to control over the curriculum, except for a education activities in Bangladesh. This argument
category called the quomi (indigenous) madrasas, finds its place in various education policy
which are not subject to any government regulation. statements including the most recent education
policy (2010).
Figure 1. Providers of Primary Education in
Bangladesh The new education policy approved by the national
parliament in December 2010 says: The process
Government Primary of nationalisation of primary education should
Schools continue. The responsibility for primary education
cannot be transferred to the private sector or
1% 2% Registered Non- NGOs. However, the policy ambiguously agrees at
government Primary the same time that a non-government organisation
5% School
7% or an individual can run primary schools subject to
Non-formal Primary
Education approval of authorities and state regulations
9%
(Government of Bangladesh, National Education
Madrasa Policy, 2010:4-5).
57% In Bangladesh, non-government and quasi-

Kindergarten government schools have flourished. Though it has
19%
not announced an official policy decision, the
Primary attached to
governments long-standing position is apparently
high school not to significantly increase the number of directly
government-run schools, but to allow the quasi-
Others (Community government institutions to carry much of the burden
school, unregistered, of expanding primary education services to achieve
etc)
universal primary education. An important
consideration may be the limitations in the
The Constitution of Bangladesh, adopted in 1972, centralised financing and personnel management
provided for free and compulsory education as one structures established under the 1974
of the fundamental principles of state policy. Nationalisation of Primary Education Law, in which
Article 17 of the Constitution says that the state all primary teachers of government schools are
shall adopt effective measures for the purpose of employed by the central government. The result is
establishing a uniform, mass-oriented and universal that almost a quarter of the children, largely the
system of education and extending free and poorer and disadvantaged populations, are served
compulsory education to all children to such stage by non-government providers.
as may be determined by law - relating education to
the needs of society and producing properly trained Concerns About Equity and Inclusiveness
and motivated citizens to serve those needs; and Many alternative providers in Bangladesh serve
population groups which have been marginalised or

disadvantaged for different reasons and may be be addressed. Realising the goals of quality with
better served by flexible and responsive equity will require effective strategies both in terms
approaches to service delivery. For example, both of inputs and processes.
BRACs non-formal primary education and the
government and World Bank assisted ROSC Effective governance and management, at both
(Reaching Out of School Children) project are central and school levels, will require meaningful
flexible in their organisation and structure, in their decentralisation in planning and resource
recruitment and preparation of teachers, and in management.
their involvement with the community. And neither Building a unified (but not necessarily uniform)
has permanent school buildings. Such flexibility can national system with a common core curriculum
be difficult to apply in a centralised government and core standards for provisions that allow a
system. common educational experience for all children,
irrespective of which school they attend, and
The potential to supplement public financial
resources and the capacity to use these resources Making use of the strengths of the diverse delivery
effectively are strong justifications for harnessing mechanismsand overcoming their weaknesses
multiple providers, including non-state providers, for given that up to 10 different types of primary
primary education. In terms of responsiveness and schools now exist.
flexibility, public systems find it difficult to change
and innovate, often because of the inherent CAMPEs position regarding the need for a diversity
characteristics of bureaucracies and the tradition of delivery mechanisms should be understood in
within which they operate. The programmes of non- the context of the PEDP IIs limited scope and the
government organisations have an advantage, reluctance to recognise the value of
because they often have a grassroots reach that complementarity and mutually beneficial interaction
helps them to understand local contextswhat between state and multiple providers in order to
citizens want for their children; what the obstacles fulfil the right to education for all children. Few
to education access, participation, and quality are; would disagree that for a new primary education
and how local institutions can be strengthened and sub-sectoral programme for the years 20102015,
decentralisation processes supported (Aga Khan which is under consideration by the government,
Foundation team, 2007:20). and for the longer-range development of primary
and basic education, the concerns listed above
SWAPs and Multiple Provision in Primary must be taken into account seriously and
Education systematically.
The governments ambivalence about multiple
provisions constrained the design of PEDP II, Conclusions and Recommendations
limiting it to GPS and RNGPS, although it was The significant role that multiple providers play in
called a sector-wide approach (SWAP) for education in Bangladesh shows that the state does
developing primary education nationally. As PEDP not have a monopoly on service provision. The
II winds down, policy questions around the diversity overarching policy imperative is to develop a
of provision and the roles that government and regulatory framework for universal primary
donors play in it have surfaced again. education, one that reconciles the states obligation
to guarantee basic education of acceptable quality
A position paper prepared by CAMPE (2008) for all children with the reality of multiple providers
outlined a set of propositions about the status, who are able to reach certain groups of the
situation, and an envisioned future of universal population more effectively. With this in mind, we
primary education in Bangladesh. The CAMPE argue that the regulatory framework should contain
study pointed out several critical areas of concern the following elements:
which need to be addressed in a comprehensive
programme to develop primary education in 2010 Articulation of the principles of multiple providers,
2015. A sector-wide approach has to justify its recognising the reality of state, quasi-state and
relevance and value by addressing effectively these non-state providers, and their strengths and
concerns: potentials.
Low quality, along with large variations between Criteria and principles for determining the relative
both geographic regions and different population size and role of different providers within a common
groups, has resulted in serious inequity that must national primary education system.

Establishing common core standards regarding Country Analytic Review of Primary and Secondary
physical facilities, teachers, class sizes, financing, School. CREATE Country Analytic Review.
and management with accountability in all types of Brighton: University of Sussex.
primary education institutions.
Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE) (2008)
Introduction of common curricular standards with Achieving Universal Primary Education in
core and flexible supplementary curricula, Bangladesh. Position paper on formulating a
textbooks, and learning materials for all types of National Programme for Primary Education
institutions. Development in Bangladesh (2010-15) submitted to
the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education.
Assessing learning achievement and outcomes of Dhaka: Campaign for Popular Education.
all students based on the grade appropriate
standards of competencies that students in all Government of Bangladesh, (2010) National
types of institutions should achieve. Education Policy, 2010, Ministry of Education,
Dhaka
Introduction of area-based (for each upazila)
mechanisms to coordinate and plan provision for Us-Sabur, Z., and Ahmed, M., (2010) Debating
primary education involving all actors and Diversity in Provision of Universal Primary
providers. Education in Bangladesh, CREATE Pathways to
Access Research Monograph No. 34, BRAC
Moving towards compulsory education up to University and University of Sussex, Dhaka and
grade eight with agreed roles and contributions by Brighton
all providers.
This policy brief is based on Us-Sabur and Ahmed
Financing criteria and principles that ensure (2010) Debating Diversity in Access to Primary
adequate resources for basic education of Education in Bangladesh, CREATE Pathways to
acceptable quality for all children, regardless of Access, Research Monograph No 34. Brighton:
geographical area and type of institution. University of Sussex, and was written by Manzoor
Ahmed
Promoting greater authority and responsibility at
the institutional level for organising teaching and
learning, managing personnel, and using financial
resources with accountability to parents and
communities.
CREATE is a DFID-funded research programme
Appropriate collaborative mechanisms to apply consortia exploring issues of educational access,
the regulatory framework to distinctly non-state transitions and equity in South Africa, India,
providers. Bangladesh and Ghana. For more information go
to: www.create-rpc.org
One way to introduce an effective regulatory
framework for universal primary education
provisions would be to adopt a Right to Education
Law, as adopted in India in 2009, which specifies
the rights and the obligations of all parties and
provides a legal framework for implementation of a
rights-based programme.
References
Aga Khan Foundation Team (2007) Non-State
Providers and Public Private - Community
Partnerships in Education. Background paper
prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring
Report 2008. Paris: UNESCO.
Ahmed, M., Ahmed, K. S., Khan, N. I. and Ahmed,

R. (2007) Access to Education in Bangladesh:

ISSN 1811 - 0762
EDUCATION
Volume 7 Number 2
December 2008

EDUCATION
Manzoor Ahmed
Advisory Editor
Abu Hamid Latif

Editor
Volume 7 Number 2 December 2008
UNESCO
BAFED UNESCO, DHAKA BU-IED
A half-yearly journal published jointly by BAFED and BU-IED with financial assistance from UNESCO

BANGLADESH EDUCATION JOURNAL
A half-yearly journal published jointly by BAFED and BU-IED with financial
assistance from UNESCO.
Editorial Board
Advisory Editor : Manzoor Ahmed
Editor : Abu Hamid Latif
Member : Shamsul Haque
Sekander Hayat Khan
Siddiqur Rahman
Harunur Rashid Khan
Ali Md. Shahiduzzaman
Cover Design
Abul Mansur
Manan Morshed
Bangladesh Education Journal, Volume 7, Number 2, December 2008, Published by

Nazmul Haq, Executive Secretary, BAFED, on behalf of Bangladesh Forum for Educational
Development (BAFED) and BRAC University Institute of Educational Development
(BU-IED), 278/3 Elephant Road (3rd Floor), Kataban, Dhaka 1205. Phone: 9668593,
E-mail: bafed@bangla.net, Website: www.bafed.org
Printed by Arka, 6/11 Eastern Plaza, Hatirpool, Dhaka-1205, Phone: 9661129.
Price : in Bangladesh Tk. 100.00, Abroad US$ 5.00

Editors Note
The lead article of the current issue points to a set of policy dilemmas faced in ensuring
access of all children to primary education with quality and equity. A classic dilemma is of
balancing the trade-off between expanding access and improving quality, not ignoring that
below a threshold of quality, access is meaningless. Another is the substantive logic and
efficiency arguments for a comprehensive programme approach, also known as the
sectorwide approach, and the need for decentralised and particpatory decision-making and
not to put the diverse components of the sector into a management straitjacket, which may
defeat the purpose of the programme approach. A position paper on the critical issues related
to the next phase of primary education development for the period 2010-15 was presented to
the government and was the subject of a policy dialogue on 5 November, 2008 organised by
Campaign for Popular Education and the Centre for Policy Dialogue. The Ministry of
Primary and Mass Education has responded positively to the issues raised in the paper and
has shown interest in instituting an inclusive process for deciding on the scope and character
of the next phase of primary education development. Because of the significance of the
position paper, and to make it available to a wider professional circle, it is published in the
journal in a slightly abridged version. The second article by M. Zulfeqar Haider, based on an
evaluation of test items in Secondary School Certificate examination, argues that the tests do
not measure the communicative skills of students, the focus of English language instruction
at the secondary level. The article draws attention to the confusion in the purposes of English
instruction, and the methods and content used and the assessment tools applied, which are
not consistent with the purposes.
We are happy that the current issue marks the completion of seven years of publishing of the
journal. We hope that readers have found it a source of relevant professional and research-
based material on education in Bangladesh.
Manzoor Ahmed, Advisory Editor

Contents
Editors Note
Achieving Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh

Towards A National Primary Education
Development Programme 2010-15
Manzoor Ahmed and James H. Williams
07 - 45
Assessing "Communicative" Writing Skills:

An Evaluation of the SSC English Examination
Md. Zulfeqar Haider
47 - 62

Achieving Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh
Towards A National Primary Education
Development Programme 2010-15
*
Manzoor Ahmed
James H. Williams**
Abstract
With June, 2010 as the expected date for termination of the Second Primary Education
Development Programme (PEDP II), it is high time to begin preparation for the next phase
of government-led national activities in primary and basic education. This paper was
prepared as a response to MoPME's request to CAMPE to present a brief on behalf of civil
society on its role in achieving universal primary education. In the course of preparing this
paper, discussions were held with NGOs and the academic community brought together by
CAMPE, DPE's senior staff, and development partners (individually and through a meeting
of ELCG on 20 August, 2008). It was submitted as a position paper to MoPME in October,
2008.
This paper outlines an initial set of propositions about the status, situation, and an
envisioned future of universal primary education in Bangladesh. Most importantly, the
paper argues for the beginning of a process to discuss, air views, and consider options
regarding the major concerns.
One key point made in this paper is that the most critical feature of a sectoral approach is
sectoral thinking, not a rigid administrative modality. It argues that sectoral thinking should
permeate planning and coordinating, and may include multiple components or projects and
multiple implementation mechanisms within an overall programme plan. Indeed, such
flexibility is needed to make the scope of the programme as much sectoral as possible and to
implement effectively the multiplicity of tasks an education programme is expected to
incorporate within itself and implement. The paper has emphasized the need for initiating a
government-led national process and mechanism to mobilise and use effectively national
capacities as well as international technical support and resources to formulate the national
primary education development programme and oversee its implementation.
I. Background
As Bangladesh looks to the EFA goals of 2015 and beyond, it is time to begin preparation for
the next major phase of government-led national activities in primary and basic education.
PEDP II ends in June 2010, and the next programme is likely to run to about 2015, the target
year for achievement of the minimal goals represented by EFA and MDG. The country is not
at present on target to reach all the key goals.
*
Institute for Educational Development (IED), BRAC University
**
George Washington University

08 Bangladesh Education Journal
Despite a delayed start, a complex set of financing mechanisms, and the challenges of first
time implementation of a programme approach, PEDP II has made substantial progress,
particularly in quantitative dimensions - construction of classrooms, the hiring of teachers
and a corresponding reduction in the backlog of untrained teachers, and distribution of free
textbooks. Ground work has been laid for implementation of gender and inclusive education
frameworks, and implementation of School Level Improvement Plan (SLIP) has begun on a
pilot basis. Nonetheless, major challenges remain in terms of classroom teaching learning,
application of the inclusive education and gender framework, effective introduction of
school level and upazila level planning, better data base for effective monitoring, capacity
building at field and central levels, and ultimately making a real difference in learning
outcome of children (CAMPE 2007). There is a general consensus that for the next phase of
primary education development, effective ways must be found to address the qualitative
dimensions of education with equal opportunity for all children to benefit from improvement
in quality.
Planning of reform initiatives must be carried out so as to reach the 2015 milestones of EFA
and the MDGs (see Annex 1). At the same time, these goals need to be set in the longer-term
perspectives of national aspirations for 2020 and beyond. Meeting the minimal EFA targets
for 2015 will require a redoubling of the level of current efforts and a rethinking of
approaches to achieving educational goals. A critical step is to make universal primary
education truly a national agenda, harnessing all stakeholders' contribution and involvement
in fulfilling the agenda. Government, even as it provides the lead, cannot and need not carry
the whole burden alone without the support of all who can and want to contribute.
Bangladesh has substantial assets and capabilities in its non-government organizations and
institutions and the larger civil society. There is no good reason for not putting these assets to
use to achieve national goals.
The Consultative Process
This paper is part of a planning process initiated by MOPME's invitation to CAMPE to
prepare a brief that looks at the role of civil society in helping achieve universal primary
education. As an initial step in preparatory work on primary education development beyond
PEDP II, a fact-finding mission was sent by ADB in June 2008. It is generally agreed that
preparation for the next phase of primary education development, including its scope and
focus, should be a government-led process with effective participation of all stakeholders.
Consultations with civil society. In July 2007, MOPE/DPE organized a sharing session
with civil society organizations. Subsequent interactions were held with the participation of
MOPME and DPE officials, where significant and successful NGO and public system
examples were presented. On November 5, 2007, the Campaign for Popular Education
(CAMPE) and Education Watch Group organized a civil society consultation during
midterm review of the PEDP II programme, in which MOPME, DPE and Development
Partners at senior levels participated. These occasions provided the opportunity for sharing

Bangladesh Education Journal 09
information. While these interactions were welcome, these did not constitute a modality of
partnership and meaningful participation in programme development and implementation
of the non-government actors including NGOs, academic and research institutions and
professional bodies, and teachers' organisations.
For instance, a series of issues were raised in the civil society consultation on the occasion of
MTR and recommendations were made regarding effective implementation and necessary
course correction of PEDP II, taking advantage of the mid-term review. This significant
consultation received only a brief mention in the Government-DP aide-memoire, but there
was no mention or recognition of the suggestions offered through the consultation, or how
these might be addressed (CAMPE 2007).
On June 12, 2008, the ADB Project Preparatory Technical Assistance Fact Finding Mission
of the Proposed Primary Education Sector Development Program (PESDP) met with NGOs
and civil society representatives to discuss the process and initial issues raised in beginning
to outline a future primary education programme. It was emphasized in the discussion that
the task of achieving universal primary education of high quality is a national responsibility
requiring the efforts of all. Indeed NGOs already play a significant role in the provision of
and thinking about education for all. The need was recognized for greater consultation
between government and civil society and non-government actors in education and greater
participation on their part in the planning and implementation of educational development
strategies. Secretary, MOPME, who chaired this meeting, proposed that CAMPE facilitate
the preparation of a brief on the next phase of primary education development. (Project
Preparatory Technical Assistance Fact Finding Mission, 2008).
Next primary education programme. The timing and the task are critical, both for the sectoral
programme to come, and for the longer- range goals of the country. The years 2010-15 are
the last ones for reaching the EFA goals set in Dakar in 2000. And sectoral programs
(SWAPs), despite the logic of their intentions, remain an experimental form subject to
adaptation to specific contexts. We know that the project mode of developmentworthwhile
but piecemeal uncoordinated efforts, often heavily dependent on outside technical
supportmay not lead to sustained sectoral reform or capacity building. However, we have to
find the ways to make coordinated, policy framework-guided, country-owned programs
work. In that sense, the SWAp is still (or should be) an experimental learning experience in
each country in which it is attempted (UNESCO, 2007; Williams & Ahmed, 2007), with
specific design tailored according to national capacity and needs. A recent review of SWAp
experience concludes:
Whilst one can draw lessons and so-called 'best practices' from case studies of SWAp
development, the most important lesson emerging from the increasing experience of
SWAp development and implementation is the necessity to contextualise. Each country
will have a different context, not only because of its existing development plans, but also
because of its history and particular relationships with international development
partners (UNESCO, 2007, p 12).

A sectoral approach is about sectoral thinking, not a specific administrative modality.

Planning and coordinating in a sectoral approach can include multiple components or
projects and multiple implementation mechanisms. Indeed, such flexibility is needed to
make the scope of the programme more sectoral and to implement effectively the
multiplicity of tasks the sectoral education programme is expected to coordinate and
implement.
This paper outlines an initial set of propositions about the status, situation, and future of
universal primary education in Bangladesh. The paper draws from the consultations and
discussions noted earlier. In the course of preparing this paper, discussions were also held
with individuals from the NGO and academic community brought together by CAMPE,
DPE's senior staff and development partners (individually and through a meeting of ELCG
on 20 August, 2008). While this paper attempts to reflect a considerable degree of consensus
expressed in these consultations, what is presented here should be regarded as propositions
for further discussion and dialogue. It is recognized that the task of building consensus about
the future steps to be taken and the process for making and implementing those decisions
remain ahead. This paper, by presenting the initial propositions, is intended to spark and
foster a broad-based dialogue among stakeholders in primary education and to assist the
government in giving the lead in orchestrating the process. It is intended to be a living
document, one that will evolve as dialogue proceeds.
The paper is organized into four sections. It begins with a vision for universal primary
education in the context of human resource development and national development
priorities key elements of a 2020 perspective and the goals and priorities for 2010-15
(section II). The paper then discusses the fulfillment of the vision, identifying critical areas
of concern and challenges that must be met to achieve the vision of quality universal primary
education (section III). The paper then focuses on the consensus-building and decision-
making processes necessary to address these areas of concern (section IV). Finally, it turns
to next steps, tasks, time-table and milestones, responsibilities and mechanisms for
collaboration ( section V).
II. A Vision for Universal Primary Education in the Context of

Human Resource Development and National Development Priorities
The premise we begin with is that we need to have a vision for Bangladesh as a middle-
income country, democratic, progressive, and pluralistic, with a stake for all citizens in it. We
believe that the education system will play a critical role in establishing this stake for all in
an environment of the globally competitive economy. This vision requires universal access
to a unified and equitable primary school system of high quality, substantially expanded
opportunities for secondary and tertiary education, and numerous opportunities for
acquisition of skills for a globally competitive labour market. Such a system is possible only
with strong governance and management of the education systems and governance in
general as well as adequate levels of resources and effective and efficient utilization of these

resources. Important elements of a forward looking vision for EFA are presented in the
government's National Plan of Action II. It should, however, be noted that the proposed
programme for primary education, if extended up to grade 8, and includes second chance
NFPE and preschool, woud go much further towards EFA than the curernt programme, but
would still fall short of covering the full range of EFA goals (see annexes 2 and 3).
The vision for primary education in the context of human resource and national development
priorities has to emphasize creation of a knowledge-based economy and substantially
reduced poverty based on equity, transparency and accountability in provision of education
and other human resource services. Primary education has to be universal, equitable, and of
high quality; lifelong learning opportunities have to be available for all. The values of
community cohesion, democratic practices and norms, human rights, and gender equity have
to be reflected in the provisions and plans for primary and complementary basic education.
Conditions have to be created for the government, NGOs, broader civil society, the
community and other stakeholders to share the responsibility for achieving these goals.
Principles to Guide Primary Education Development
Implicit in the anticipated vision are key principles, which should guide action:
1. Basic education, including primary education for all children, is a human right.
2. No child should be excluded from quality education because of poverty, gender, or
disability; and low quality should not be a cause for virtual exclusion, when children
are enrolled in school without being engaged in learning.
3. Basic education refers not just to enrollment in primary school or a similar
institution, but to the acquisition of competencies necessary for participation in the
social and economic life of family, community, nation, and world, as well as in
further educational opportunities, formal or non-formal.
4. Basic education is a national obligation; government has the key responsibility to
ensure that this national obligation is fulfilled and that all children receive a basic
education
5. In ensuring that all children receive a basic education, government need not be the
sole provider; Government, by determining priorities, setting standards,
coordinating efforts and mobilising resources, has to support and encourage all who
can to contribute to fulfilling the national obligation.
6. The effectiveness of an education system must be gauged by the learners' learning
outcomes.
A Focus on Results Reflecting Quality with Equity
From these principles follow several key considerations which must guide the preparation of
a national primary education development programme:
1. Following the premise that the goal of a new primary education programme ought to
be the education of all children, all ought to be included in the programme,
regardless of the school/institution in which they enroll.
2. The primary education system must be unified and universal. All children ought to
complete primary education with a common core of competencies and skills. All

providers should be included in the framework of the programme and must

contribute to achieving the common learning goals.
3. Because effectiveness is to be gauged in terms of children's learning, the critical
locus of educational activities is classroom teaching and learning and the school
creating the conditions for learning. The function of the education system is to
support these teaching-learning processes. The effectiveness of the system is thus
gauged by the extent to which classroom teaching-learning activities are supported
and improved.
4. Shifting the critical locus of activity to the classroom and the school shifts the roles
of actors in the system. Government's role shifts from that of sole provider, decider,
and controller, to that of facilitator, setter of standards, ensurer of quality access to
all, and supporter of instructional efforts at the upazila, school, and classroom level.
Teachers and head teachers' roles shift from faithful implementers of central
decisions and curricula to active instructional agents, taking initiatives and
exercising leadership.
5. Recognition of the classroom and the school as the locus of action implies
appropriate authority and resources in the hands of the school and its managing
committee, a leadership role and commensurate status of the head teacher,
community support and accountability of the school to the community, and
involvement of the local government in planning and achieving the primary and
basic education goals.
6. Implementing such an agenda for primary education requires the efforts,
commitment, and insight of all national and local actors. Thus the roles of parents,
NGOs, and larger civil society shift from peripheral to the educational process to
core partners in support of the educational programme.
Progress and Critical Deficiencies
Bangladesh has made substantial progress in increasing access and improving equity. Most
Bangladeshi children have access to a school, a considerable improvement over the past 20
years. Moreover, the country has achieved gender parity in enrollment at the primary and
secondary level, another significant achievement. Places in higher levels of education have
substantially increased.
At the same time, there are numerous challenges. Redeeming the promise of the
Constitution, realizing the plans adopted by government, and achieving the vision of a
middle income economy will require more than incremental changes to the system:
l Quality is low in much of the system, with large variations. Such variations lead to
serious inequality. with adverse consequences for the poor and other disadvantaged
groups. The average level of education of the population is lower than needed for a
middle income country relying primarily on its human resources in a competitive
global economy. All nations that have grown economically over the past 100 years
without a strong natural resource base have done so on the basis of universal basic
education with a minimum guarantee of quality.
l The system is extremely diverse, with up to 11 or more different types of primary
schools. This diversity is less by design and more by happenstance. It challenges the

coherence of the system and its effectiveness and reinforces the prevailing divisions
and disparities in society. This situation calls for a unified national system reflected in
core learning contents and achievable competencies and a guarantee of common
minimum standards in provisions, even if there is diversity in delivery modes.
l The strategies for making the primary system inclusive has been mostly general
measures such as stipends, expansion of facilities and personnel, distribution of
textbooks, and stricter supervision, which are all helpful. However these are not
necessarily focused and targeted measures for the highly vulnerable and the deprived.
Differentiated approaches responsive to specific combination of constraints for
children in a school catchment area including ones with special needs, or in pockets of
ecological and economic disadvantages, seem to be difficult to design and implement
in a centralised and top-down system. Involvement of NGOs, communities and local
government who could assist in such efforts has not been adopted as a strategy. Nor
have there been research and development involving academic institutions and non-
governmental practitioners.
l Preparedness for school for all new entrants to primary school, but especially for
children from disadvantaged family background, such as first generation learners,
ethnic and linguistic minorities, and children in extreme poverty, is recognised as a
good investment for better performance and outcome in primary school. An
operational framework for preschool has been approved, but it is still to be made
operational. NGO efforts in preschool, which have expanded substantially and have
demonstrated their efficacy also have not yet been incorporated into the government
programme strategy.
l Increasingly, five grades are not considered sufficient preparation for the citizens of a
middle-income country, a status which Bangladesh aspires. There is growing
consensus that effective participation of children in basic education calls for
participation up to grade 8. Increased retention and completion up to grade 5, a key
goal of the new programme, will make it impossible to put off consideration of this
question.
l The critical role of teachers and pedagogy has become clear as have the inadequacies
of the current system in terms of numbers of teachers, preparation and professional
development, support, and incentives. The quality and content of initial training in
PTIs, continuing in-service training, the effectiveness of activities at URCs and the
capacity of NAPE to support and lead teacher development all need to be
strengthened and in many cases redesigned, departing radically from current
premises and practices. The basic question frequently posed with good reason is
whether all the activities carried out in the name of training and the substantial
expenses incurred make any difference in the classroom and in student's performance.
Active involvement of teachers and their professional organisations will be important
in addressing this issue.
l While substantial investments have been made in PEDP II and previous projects in
infrastructure development, there are serious deficits in terms of both quality and
quantity of physical infrastructure judged by the criteria of desirable class size,
contact hours, teaching-learning environment and co-curricular activities.

l The essential role of the curriculum, teaching-learning materials and formative and
summative assessment has been recognised and progress has been made in
production and distribution of free textbooks; however, the quality of the textbooks,
adequacy of other learning support materials, the lack of teachers' guides and
supplementary materials, and proper learning assessment organized to support
instruction remain major problems. Concerns have been expressed about the
professional and technical capacities for curriculum development and the provisions
for textbooks and learning materials and the organizational structures and processes
for these critical tasks; these issues cannot remain unaddressed any longer.
l The system lacks resources sufficient to cross minimum thresholds of quality and
equity. In addition to inadequate levels of resources are the problems of their
effective use, further aggravating resource deficits and causing wastage of scarce
resources.
l The system lacks a sufficient learning and capacity-development mechanism, by
which it monitors conditions and makes necessary adjustments so as to better reach
system goals; or learns new skills (e.g., coordinating a range of sectoral activities
implemented by different organizations; managing school/upazila level
decentralization, allowing sufficient autonomy and discretion while monitoring
results and maintaining accountability). Support and encouragement for action
research and trial of innovation are lacking; so is the capacity for these within the
system, and collaboration with non-government organizations and institutions for
this purpose has been found to be difficult.
l The management information system and essential data collection for management
and monitoring have remained weak; so much so that benchmarks for key indicators
such as net enrollment, dropout and completion of the primary stage cannot be
provided with confidence. Reliable and updated data for progress on these indicators,
therefore, are unavailable. Even more problematic is information and data regarding
learning achievement and outcomes, essential for result-based management. ICT
should be effectively used to strengthen MIS and minitoring.
l Moving towards greater decentralization of management and strengthening
responsibility and authority at the school and upazila level were key objectives of
PEDP II. School Level Improvement Plans supported by small disbursement of funds
was an important strategy to empower schools, but has progressed slowly; so far a
trial run has been conducted only in some 26 upazilas with UNICEF support. A fast-
track initiative in more upazilas is in preparation, but the amount of fund available to
a school has been cut to Taka 10,000 from already meagre Taka 20,000 for a year. No
progress has been made in respect of Upazila Educational Planning which was
expected to be initiated parallel to SLIP. It appears that the planning and management
premises and practices remain constrained by the way the Primary Education
Nationalisation Law of 1973 has been interpreted and operationalised to make
primary education management highly centralised and implementable mainly by the
central government through the government machinery.
l With a focus on quality, governance and management issues come to the fore, at both
central and school levels. Effective decentralization is essential to a system focused

on results and outcomes, with attendant needs for professionalism and capacity
building, especially at school/local levels. Moreover, major organizational decisions
such as extending free universal education to grade eight will entail political decisions
at the national level. Primary and basic education, as a national responsibility, should
involve oversight and consultation by representatives of all major stakeholders.
Mechanisms for such participatory decision-making does not exist at present.
l Finally, in order to achieve these goals, the system needs to foster greater participation
in the education system on the part of parents, NGOs, academic institutions, and other
institutions of civil society. Participation ranges from consultation in scoping and
planning the next programme, to ongoing policy review and planning, monitoring and
accountability, to planning and support of local schools.
The following section discusses these challenges in greater detail, identifying critical areas
of concern for 2010-15 in the context of a longer term vision. These concerns are inter-r
elated and reflect the focus on universality, quality, transparency, accountability, and
participation.
III. Fulfilling the Vision - Getting there from here:

Critical Areas of Concern
As noted, at the current rate of progress, Bangladesh is not on track to meet the EFA and
MDG goals set for 2015. The period from 2010-15 will be critical if Bangladesh is to meet
its targets, and honor its national commitment to offer free and compulsory education to all
boys and girls as stated in Article 17 of the Constitution. Substantial changes are necessary
to speed up the rate of progress. More important perhaps than the details is the willingness
and capacity to think in creative new ways about strategies and solutions to deep-rooted
educational issues. Key elements of the new strategies and creative solutions are proposed
below for consideration and agreement on these as salient features of the new national
primary education development programme. Agreement on these key elements will guide
the preparation of the details of the new programme and the means and mechanisms for its
implementation.
1. Unified national basic education, preschoolgrade 8
Primary education is currently offered in more than 11 different types of schools, not all
under the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education. A decision was made early on in the
PEDP II design process to focus attention on schools under the Ministry's purview and not
attend to the rest, which account for some 17 percent of primary enrollment. PEDP-II
covers only formal education, excluding the madrasas as well as other complementary
activities such as youth and adult literacy, or second chance opportunities as well as pre-
school education.
All eligible children. We take the position that increasing access and learning on the part of
all eligible children requires targeting all children, in and out of school, in all significant

educational institutions where children are learning. Doing this effectively requires a
unified basic education system, emphasizing the national responsibility for primary
education, beyond the mandate of any particular institution.
The notion of a unified system raises the question of what the next education programme
should be called: From one perspective, the use of the terms primary schooling
emphasizes the most common but not the only institution responsible for delivery of core
competencies. From another perspective, primary schooling is too limited. A better term
might be basic education, which suggests a broad range of educational institutions,
activities and supports. We leave this as a question for deliberation, using the term primary
education as the most widely-understood terminology, which can embrace different
modalities of acquiring primary education.
Unified not uniform. Unified does not necessarily require uniformity in all aspects of service.
A unified system could be fostered by developing, through consultation with stakeholders,
minimum standards for provision and a common core curriculum for all children and all
types of primary schools, including madrasas, even if there is diversity in the delivery of
services. Ideally, competencies for each grade in the core subjects would be defined and
used to organize curriculum. The notion of a common core can be seen in the Chief Advisor's
words:
We have to ensure that a set of core knowledge and competencies are acquired by all
students, along with choices for additional/complementary learning options. This calls
for a core curricular content and objectives irrespective of the type of institution and
provider of service. (A Framework for Action on Education Governance, 2008, p 1)
Ideally a unified system would draw on a national curriculum framework, which would link
formal and non-formal education, as well as early childhood, primary and secondary
education, and around which the teacher training curriculum would be organized. (See also
sub-sections 3 & 4 below). Ideally, a unified system would be coordinated with community
education centers, second-chance educational opportunities, lifelong learning, and so forth.
A unified system is not necessarily uniform in a rigid way and can include different
delivery modes as long as agreed core elements in terms of learning content, objectives and
provisoons in facilities are present.
A unified system can draw on the energies and capabilities of all basic education providers.
It would eliminate the problems sometimes faced by graduates of NGO-operated schools
when they seek to continue their education in the formal primary schools or when they seek
to sit for the common examinations and scholarship exams.
Basic education stage to grade 8. As far back as 1974, the Qudrat-e-Khuda Commission
recommended that compulsory primary education should extend to grade eight. Several
subsequent education commissions endorsed this recommendation, although this goal has
not figured so far in any official plan or programme for primary education. In an aspiring
middle income economy, in order to ensure acquisition of needed competencies by young

learners, extension of the primary cycle from five to eight grades cannot be kept on hold any
longer, this of course requires a political decision and assessing organizational, instructional
and financial implications of such a decision.
A transition strategy may be to recognize the principle that basic education of children
should include preschool to grade 8, initiate upazila-based planning to expand access beyond
grade 5, assess existing provisions for grades 6-8, and expand provisions gradually in
existing secondary institutions and some selected primary schools. It is not necessary to add
grades 6-8 in all existing primary schools or bring all grades 6-8 classes under the present
primary education organizational structure immediately. It is more important to find
pragmatic ways to ensure quality teachers, teacher supervision and learning materials,
whichever institution students go to for grades 6 to 8. If primary grade retention and
completion are improved, which have to be key objectives of the new primary education
programme, a major expansion of grade 6-8 access cannot be put off in any case.
Reaching all children. To reach all eligible children, a unified system would need specific
strategies to serve children who cannot be reached by conventional approachesworking
children, the ultra poor, ethnic minorities, children with disabilities. Primary education can
also be delivered in ways other than the conventional school, as it is being done effectively
and on a sizeable scale through NGO-run non-formal primary education. NGOs also are
providing pre-primary education to help children prepare for school in addition to
spontaneous baby classes in existence in many primary schools. Pre-primary education is
generally viewed as an essential component of effective primary education. All these
essential complementary strategies have to be incorporated into a comprehensive primary
education plan (see Rahman & Rahman, Mapping of Non-formal Education Activities in
Bangladesh).
Projects for hard-to-reach urban children and the reaching out-of school-children in
rural areas are attempting to reach them throough non-conventional means. There are
possibilities of linking basic education provisions with poverty reduction projects such as
Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction (CFPR). Improving effectiveness of all
these innovative strategies, mostly implemented by NGOs, and more importantly, bringing
them under the framework of the national primary educational development programme,
without stifling their capacity to be innovative, would be an important challenge.
2. Quality with equity
Quality standards have not kept up with the rapid expansion of access to education (Ministry
of Primary and Mass Education, 2008, section 1.4). Half the children who enroll do not
complete primary school, and as a result, a majority of Bangladeshi children still enter
adulthood without basic literacy and numeracy skills (CAMPE, 2005, p 2). Much of the
effort in the first phase of PEDP II has gone into inputs (i.e., buildings, teachers), but it is not
clear that the inputs have translated into commensurate levels of learning. There is not a
commonly-shared definition of quality, but by common measures, system quality is quite
variable, and often low.

Variation in provision. The system is characterized by great variations in provisions. The

best off schools have substantially greater resources than the poor schools. In most schools,
attendance rates are poor, contact hours are low, and drop out is high. Worst off are children
from poor families, in remote areas, and ethnic minorities. Primary school provides the
foundation for subsequent schooling. These variations in quality translate into vastly
different opportunities for later success in the formal economy. The system has
unintentionally become pro-rich, and much of the increased access is not meaningful. (
IED/CREATE 2007)
As a result, the primary education system has not contributed sufficiently to poverty
reduction and is arguably reinforcing existing social and economic divisions in society. The
excluded, the dropout and the poor performer, who learn little even if they are nominally
enrolled for five or more years in school are almost always the poor (including the working
children, the first generation learners, children of the landless and from the urban slums,
children with special needs, children from ecologically difficult areas, children without
stable families, and those of ethnic and linguistic minorities). These children add up to be the
majority of primary school children.
Conditions for successful learning among the poor. NGO experiences, such as of BRAC
and others in Bangladesh, as well as innovative models in other countries, suggest the
conditions necessary for successful retention and learning among disadvantaged students:
- All direct costs such as fees must be eliminated, and indirect costs, such as, those imposed
by school scheduling should be minimized.
- Schools must have a minimum of essential teaching-learning inputs - textbooks, teachers'
guides, supplementary materials.
- Assessment is necessary to track system progress and take corrective action.
- There must be a sufficient number of teachers to ensure an adequate student-teacher
ratio.
- Teachers must be provided with adequate levels of supervision and instructional support;
the weaker the capacity of the teacher, the more supervision is needed.
- System management needs to make sure the inputs and supervision are in place.
- Management should focus on the teaching-learning process with an eye on the outcomes.
Under these conditions, it has been seen that students, even those from extremely
disadvantaged backgrounds, will stay in school and acquire basic competencies. This
experience suggests that attention to both demand (e.g., elimination of direct costs) and
supply (provision of a threshold level of quality in the learning environment) is necessary to
reach, teach, and retain the poor. Resources directed to implementing such a strategy has
proved to be more effective to attract and retain students from poor families than stipends and
poses a question about how scarce resources should be used cost-effectively.
Failure to make the threshold. Unfortunately, many current schools in Bangladesh's primary
education system fail to meet these criteria. Indirect and direct costs are often too high for

the poor. Many if not most schools lack sufficient teaching-learning materials. Results of
assessment are rarely used to take corrective action. There are too few teachers for adequate
class size. Teachers often receive little supervision, and teachers with the least capacity
generally receive the least support. Management is too far from each school to ensure that
the critical inputs and instructional supports are in place.
In order to rectify these deficits, inputs are supplied to schools. Often, however, only some
of the necessary inputs are in place. If, for example, buildings are constructed but teachers
are not deployed, or if the curriculum is changed, but textbooks remain the same or teacher
guides are absent, student learning is unlikely to improve. Given the size and complexity of
the system, and the centralization of discretion and authority, focus often shifts to problems
other than the teaching-learning process. Instructional support may take a back seat to
control.
Student learning as outcome of successful programming. We have proposed that the true
measures of programme success should be increases in equitable access and student
learning. Several implications follow. First, though disbursement of funds and
implementation of plans are necessary activities, programme success must be evaluated by
improvements at the level of classroom and school. Programme activities should be
evaluated both by their successful implementation and by the extent to which they lead to
and support increases in equitable access and student learning.
Useful in this regard, is what is called the backward mapping planning approach (Elmore
1982), by which planners begin with the targeted change, in this case improved access and
learning on the part of students, and plan and provide for each necessary step backward to
ensure that the changes take place. Backward mapping may be a useful supplement to
conventional forward mapping approaches in which the planner begins with central
provisions and maps the way forward. In practice, forward planning or provision processes
often break down or attention is diverted before resources and support reach the classroom.
There is often not a mechanism to check whether provisions have reached the school, and the
authorities with discretion over those resources are quite far from the school.
Increasing role and function of head teacher. Systems organized and managed to promote
learning should provide instructional leadership at the school level. One strategy for this is
to upgrade the position and the professionalism of head teachers. Head teachers has to play a
critical instructional leadership role in improving quality at the school level. The leadership
and management functions of the head teacher would be critical, if schools are expected to
assume greater responsibility and authority to improve quality and manage resources and be
accountable to community, as noted below. (In addition, training is more easily organized for
head teachers, being fewer in number, than for all teachers.)
Meaningful decentralization. Meaningful decentralization, whereby resources and
autonomy are given to schools, according to capacity and with transparency, and
accountability, allows school to be responsive to specific needs and circumstances of the

children in improving quality and equity. Such a system might be organized within the
context of an area-based planning for the upazila involving local government and all service
providers to ensure minimum quality standards for all children. Second-chance NFPE
opportunities could be organized within area-based upazila planning as well with donor-
assisted NFPE as a component of national and upazila plans, and linked with adult/life-long
learning. Similarly, dedicated education programs for the ultra-poor and area-based upazila
planning for children with special needs could be implemented by partnerships of local
government, NGOs, and communities.
The SLIP. PEDP II has developed a School-Level Improvement Plan (SLIP) mechanism to
begin the decentralization process. An initial trial in 13 Upazilas were undertaken in 2007
and 13 more were added to this in 2008 with UNICEF support. In 2008-9, another 200 are to
be brought under slip in a fast-tack approach. Still, to date, funds have been disbursed
through UNICEF in the first 26 upazilas and the mechanism to do so through the regular
government mechanism are still to be put in place. Meanwhile, the fast track approach
proposes to reduce funds available to school, after considerable infromation-gathering,
planning and documentation, to Tk 10,000 from already meagre Tk 20,000 per school per
year. There is a high degree of resistance to trust school authorities and provide any fund to
them for use in their discretion. Whether the proposed mechanism has the necessary
elements of an effective model are to be seen, and the effects on learning and other aspects
difficult to assess. The application process seems to limit activities to physical improvement
and available funds are meagre for the efforts and time required.
Inclusive and responsive school. An inclusive school responsive to the needs of the highly
deprived, poor groups and areas, and first-generation learners is likely to need additional
supports as compared with a school serving more advantaged children. A pro-poor basic
education system would need affirmative policy action in favor of the poor. At the same
time, as noted above, the school has to be the locus of action to adapt and design the measures
necessary for each child who is vulnerable in a unique way with a specific combination of
factors
3. Curriculum, learning materials and assessment- key quality components
A basic condition for student learning is adequacy of curriculum and availability of high
quality textbooks. To be effective, textbooks should be complemented with other learning
aids, such as teacher's guides and supplementary materials. Teacher's guides help teachers
implement the curriculum. They are especially useful when teachers are weak in capacity.
Workbooks and supplementary materials help children deepen, reinforce and apply their
understanding of the concepts presented in the textbooks. Workbooks and supplementary
materials are most useful for all children, but especially in contexts where children have few
other print resources in school, home, or community, and where there is little reinforcement
of school lessons outside the classroom, as is the case for children from the poor and
disadvantaged families.

Status of classroom materials. There is an official curriculum with detailed specification of

content and textbooks are provided by the government to students of most types of school.
PEDP II funding supports the provision of free textbooks, which is said to have helped
marginalized students (Civil Society Consultation). Yet while there is increased provision of
supplementary materials under PEDP II, few schools are fully equipped. There are very few
if any teachers' guides in use in schools, though materials have been developed by NGOs and
academic institutions, based on the official curriculum, and are available for immediate use
(CAMPE, 2007).
Teacher's guide and supplementary materials prepared in the form of learning packages
by IED on the basis of NCTB curriculum and textbooks for classes one to three and offered
to DPE to be tried out in primary schools have so far not been accepted for trial; apparently
because the necessary approval and review by authorities including NCTB for a trial could
not be undertaken. A turf mentality and the reluctance to involve any non-government
actor in these official tasks seem to have become an insurmountable barrier. Meanwhile
teachers and students were left without the essential tools for improving instruction the
central goal of PEDP II.
Though textbooks have been prepared and distributed as part of PEDP II, there have been
instances of low quality, even mistakes. Some have suggested return to the previous system
in Bangladesh where private publishers prepared textbooks based on the common
curriculum. Textbooks were reviewed by a government-appointed committee and given
seal of approval. Schools selected textbooks for their school from a list of approved
textbooks. Others have suggested that the process of textbook preparation, production and
distribution should not be the function of the curriculum board which should concentrate on
the professionally demanding task of curriculum development including testing, trial and
continuing development and strengthen its capacities for this purpose. The curriculum
development process also should be linked with assessment of learning so that the learning
objectives are realized and defined competencies are acquired by learners (see below).
Need for coordination. It is clear that the entire system of textbook and materials production
and distribution must be coordinated with the articulation of content standards and the
curriculum development process, as well as pre- and in-service teacher training, and
assessment systems. At the same time, all available materials and resources, especially
those coordinated with the official curriculum, should be utilized.
ICT Resources. ICT resources must be widely and creatively used for increasing the supply
of interesting learning materials, improving the quality of teaching-learning as well as to
support teacher development and enhance accountability at all levels. As suggested by the
Chief Adviser, BTV facilities should be made available to introduce a 24-hour education
channel. It can serve learning objectives of diverse learner groups effectively, if its planning
and management authority can exercise the autonomy to involve education service providers
to select and develop content and integrate these with the main curriculum and educational
programmes

Assessment. An approach organized around student learning has major implications for
assessment and the utilization of assessment information. Accurate information on the
learning achievement of children is necessary at both school and system levels to gauge the
success of current efforts and take corrective action. Assessment of learning should be
related to curriculum content and objectives.
Multiple purposes of assessment. Assessment serves at least five purposes in an education
system, 1) Assessment of performance at different levels - to assess student learning and thus
understand the general effectiveness of instruction, at classroom; and performance at
school, upazila, national, and international levels, or the effectiveness of instruction for
particular groups; or to discern the effectiveness of particular interventions and policies; 2)
Diagnosis of problems - to diagnose, in a formative sense in the classroom or school, topics
which students have mastered and those they have not, and so to take corrective action;
similarly, assessment can be used to diagnose individuals who are having trouble mastering
the material, for further assistance; 3) Establishing accountability - to assess student learning
and thus hold teachers, schools, upazilas, and the central administration accountable for
learning or lack thereof; 4) Credentialing - to certify satisfactory completion of a level of
schooling, a school year for example, or the primary cycle; and 5) Screening - to select
students for higher levels of education or training. In Bangladesh, assessment serves
primarily functions 4 and 5, that is, certification of successful completion of a certain level of
school and selection. Classroom teachers also use assessment in a less formalized and
systematic sense to diagnose classroom difficulties. The system is beginning to use
assessment for the first purpose, to assess overall levels of learning, and differences in
achievement across groups with the trial introduction of primary School completion
(Shomaponi) examination at the end of class 5. (see CAMPE, 2005). How assessment can
be a true measure of competencies and skills acquired by students rather than of
meomorisation and recall of texts still remain a major concern.
Valid, reliable instruments of course must be developed by those with expertise and steps
need to be taken to develop national capacity in assessment. The content must be
coordinated with the other basic conditions of educational quality curriculum and teacher
training and development. The system should be monitored periodically for unanticipated
outcomes associated with assessment systems. Care should be taken in structuring the
system so that accountability is located at the appropriate level of the system, and that
adequate resources and support are provided that level to improve.
4. Teachers and pedagogy
Obviously, teachers are the single most critical factor in school quality. Through PEDP II, the
system has hired a number of new teachers and has improved the recruitment process. Still,
the needs are far greater than even the enhanced current supply, in both quantitative and
qualitative terms.
Too few contact hours. Contact hours are a necessary component of time-on-task, one of the
essential components of learning. Bangladeshi primary students have too few contact hours,

only about half of the international standard of 900 to 1000 hours (in about 220 calendar
days). Student-teacher contact time is currently limited by double shifts, which are used to
accommodate large numbers of students in over 90 percent of primary schools.
More teachers needed. Quantitatively, more teachers are needed to reduce class size,
increase the number of contact hours, and, ideally, eliminate double shifting. At least 80,000
more teachers must be recruited by 2015, a recent study shows, to meet EFA targets (Civil
Society Consultation). Hiring of additional teachers has budgetary implications of course,
and places corresponding demands on teacher training and development system.
Raising the quality of new teacher recruits. There is considerable agreement that the quality
of new cohorts of teacher needs to be raised, that the prestige of primary school teaching is
low, and that teaching is less desirable career than a number of others. Initial teacher quality
might be indicated by intelligence and commitment, as well as high levels of academic
performance. PEDP II has reportedly made good progress in hiring more qualified teachers,
but retention has been a major problem, given the low salaries, poor benefits, and short
ladder of advancement opportunities.
Improving salary scales and career opportunities. Higher salaries and advancement
prospects in the teaching career are necessary conditions for improving the quality of
applicants for teaching. Indeed, these measures may be necessary incentives for current
teachers to stay in the system and improve. Higher salaries, and the hiring of more teachers
raises budgetary questions in a context in which more than 90% of the recurrent budget goes
to personnel costs. To offer effective incentives, salary scale, criteria and benefits must be
regarded as fair. Fair does not preclude differentiation according to transparent criteria to
which all could aspire. To enhance the professionalism of teachers, we feel the government
should put into effect the long-discussed primary education cadre proposal, for which
qualified primary education teachers should also be able to apply.
Differentiated career ladder. One strategy is to differentiate teaching positions (for
example, entry-level assistant teachers, teachers, senior/master teachers/ team
leaders/subject matter specialists, assistant headmasters and headmasters), then to link
salary to promotion tied to clear criteria for performance. This would help in the enhancing
the role of the headmaster as an instructional and institutional leader (see also Governance
below). provide incentives for new teachers to enter teaching and for those in the system to
improve their performance. Another strategy would be to aim at higher qualifications for
primary teachers, enticing new more qualified teachers with higher salaries. Such moves
would be more feasible and effective in providing incentives than across-the-board raises.
Training. Teacher development (generally in the form of teacher training though the concept
is broader) is almost universally regarded as essential to improving teacher and thus student
performance, yet the effects and effectiveness of current teacher training efforts on student
achievement are not clear. At present, about 80 percent of government school teachers and
35 percent of RNGPS teachers are reported as trained (Civil Society Consultation). Current

training efforts take teachers away from the classroom without provision for substitute
teachers, thus further reducing student-teacher contact. All teacher development activities
must be coordinated with the curriculum.
The after-school coaching centre system as currently organized does not promote quality
with equity. Alternative ways of organizing fair compensation for teachers' work might be to
open extra-school coaching to all students who need or want it, charge according to ability to
pay, pool the money, but deny no student because of poverty.
Professional development plan. Finally, a comprehensive professional development plan is
needed to organize these efforts. Personnel policies should facilitate professional
development and encourage professional staff to rise to positions of management. The head
teacher's role is critical. Training is needed (and the plan should include) not only for
teachers and head teachers, but SMC members as well as upazila, district, and central
education officials. There should be an analysis of school management needs, an outline of
short and longer specialised training and professional development courses, a redesigned
pre-service and in-service training for teachers and members of school management
committee, including refresher training. Such training need not be delivered only by
traditional means. ICT can be mobilized to provide more convenient and flexible training,
likely at lower cost (A Framework for Action on Education Governance, 2008).
Rethinking teacher recruitment and induction. An approach to induct academically
competent people to teaching in primary schools and to keep them in the profession would be
to introduce education courses in the three year general education degree programme and
offer education as a subject in one well-equipped degree college in each district. Candidates
can be attracted competitively by offering stipends to selected ones with an undertaking from
them that they would serve in a primary school for at least five years. To attract and keep the
right people in the profession, these new teachers have to be placed at a salary level
comparable to other civil servants with similar educational credentials. Currently employed
teachers may be offered this salary level if they meet specified criteria including the
graduation requirements with an academic career without any third division/class results.
This combination of general education and pedagogy in the undergraduate college
programme is used in many countries. The PTIs in this scenario can gradually become in-
service training institutions for the large teacher population anticipated in the next decade.
A primary education teacher service commission that regulates and manages recruitment,
registration of qualified teachers, and assessment of eligibility for levels in the ladder and
awarding incentives should be given consideration, because of the large numbers involved
and the complexity of the tasks.
5. Level and utilization of resources
Overall levels. The overall level of resources available to primary education, about US$13
per student per year as recurrent expenditure, and a little more than two percent of GDP as
public resources for total public expenditure on education, is arguably below the threshold

necessary to operate a system with minimum acceptable quality. If items under the
development budget, which should actually be counted as recurrent expendituresuch as, free
textbooks, stipends and some of the training activitiesare included, the per student
expenditure may come to about US$30. Still, this is among the lowest in the world for any
national system. The percent of GDP needs to double within the next decade and the share of
government for education needs to increase proportionately from the present level of under
15 percent.
Filling historical deficits. Many of the necessary provisions made under PEDP II are serving
to fill historical deficits rather than significantly advance levels of resources available to
schools. For example, a number of newly built classrooms have replaced existing
dilapidated facilities rather than adding significantly new capacity. Annual attrition must be
considered in assessing the net impact to the teaching corps of the 14,000+ new teachers
recruited and even larger numbers needed in the future. Even with the new provisions for
facilities and personnel, the requirements derived from the goals for contact hours, class-
size, student-teacher ratio, and elimination of double shift schools are difficult to meet. Other
quality and governance items listed under Primary School Quality Level (PSQL) are even
more difficult to achieve.
Utilization of resources. Whether $13 or $30, one must also ask whether the allocations of
expenditures are optimal. The core recurrent budget ($13) is almost entirely used for teacher
salaries, leaving little for instructional materials, training, and other necessary inputs.
Incentive expenditures to promote demand (stipends) use up the bulk of the development
budget -two-thirds of the domestic development allocation and one-third of total
development allocation including external assistance. While the provision of a transfer
payment to poor families can be justified on several grounds, there are questions whether
stipends serve the goal of retaining children in school and improving school performance of
children from poor families. BRAC's and other NGOs' experience suggests that a basic
level of critical inputs must be in place in the schooltextbooks, teachers guides,
supplementary materials, teachers, training, supervisory support, and managementas well as
elimination of direct costs to parents of the poor and minimization of indirect costs. In
thinking about future directions, one must ask whether the large spending on stipends starve
out essential quality inputs, thus ultimately defeating the purpose. Are stipends, then, cost-
effective given the goals and proportion of budget devoted to them? How should existing
resources be better utilized? Where should any additional resources go? To school meals
and what else? The cost-effectiveness of combinations and tradeoffs of stipends and critical
inputs could be an important area for experimentation, dialogue, and learning.
(IED/CREATE 2007)
In addition to substantially increasing resources, it will be important to allocate these
resources according to well-considered and transparent criteria such as the child population
in each upazila, making allowances for children who have special needs or are particularly
difficult to reach. We feel that ultimately resources can best achieve quality and equity on

the basis of local, decentralized, school-focused planning (Civil Society Consultation 2007).
Given the system's current centralization, a phased process of capacity development will be
necessary in most cases. It is likely the case that different locales will proceed at different
paces in the process of decentralization. An initial step before beginning a new programme
would be to plan such a phased process. Implementation can be facilitated by academic
institutions and NGOs.
Critical threshold. As noted, a critical mass of inputs is necessary for effective learning.
Interventions that provide only some of the necessary inputs, regardless of cost, may not
improve learning. Curriculum development, for example, must be coordinated with
textbook preparation and distribution and provisions for teachers' guides, which must be
coordinated with teacher training and professional development, as well as the testing,
assessment and selection systems. If one of the critical inputs is missing, provision of the
others will be less effective or ineffective, and so huge investments can be made in upgrading
inputs with little effect on learning.
Utilization of learning resources. Provisions that focuses too exclusively on issues at the
central level run the risk of overlooking critical elements at the school. School should be
supported and given the authority to ensure that critical inputs come together, that deficits are
compensated for, and that children who fall behind are helped to catch up. Educational
improvement efforts are less effective to the extent that they focus only on provision of
inputs without also considering their utilization and their utilizers. To date, more efforts
appear to have been focused on central provision and not enough on strengthening
instructional leadership at the level where it matters most the school and the classroom, as
well as support for them at the local level.
Obviously, increasing the number of teachers, increasing the salary and benefits of some of
them, adding grades, and providing more resources will be costly. We have thus called for a
doubling of resources, along with attention to their effective utilization. The question must
be asked as to the long-term costs of not investing in a quality basic education system, and the
opportunities that such investments make possible.
6. Learning lessons and making SWAp work
If improved student learning is the goal, changes in both organizational culture and personal
attitudes and work roles are required, at both central administrative and local levels of the
system. Learning on the part of system management is also likely to require changes in
attitudes and perceptions as well as a willingness to assume new roles and adapt institutional
processes as part of decentralization, partnership, and results-based management.
One implication of the complex yet experimental nature of SWAPs is that SWAps need to put
learning (analyzing, thinking) mechanisms in place. A SWAp needs a mechanism to help it
think, to collect and analyze information, reflect and learn how best to achieve programme
goals. Learning of this kind has not yet systematically organized in PEDP II. Learning how
to achieve programme goals requires flexibility for experimentation with possible

alternative strategies of educational provision. Action research and a certain amount of trial
and error are involved (as well as learning from the error). Implementation of the current
programme allows little provision for piloting new interventions. A new programme
structure needs to allow intentional space for mid-course corrective, as the programme
learns.
Accurate data. Good baseline and time-series data and careful analysis are required. An
analytic capacity and institutional mechanism are needed to inform dialogue, management
decisions and programme monitoring. Present EMIS capacity and mechanism in DPE have
not been able to provide adequately and on a timely basis data for key benchmatk indicators
or progress on these indicators. A pertinent question is whether collection, analysis and
reporting of key educational statistics and information should not be with an independent
body. The Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) could
be such a body, especially if all education sector came under one Ministry and BANBEIS
could be given the authority and its technical capacity enhanced. The Primary Education
authorities at the central and district and local levels will still need to have a working EMIS
which provides required information for planning, management andf monitoring.
BANBEIS with enhanced capacity and a degree of professional autonomy can be the
Secretariat of the proposed Permanent Commission on Pre-tertiary (school) Education. ( See
below)
Need for master plan for developing system capacity. Development of system capacity at
both central and local levels requires systematic planning. Current strategy focuses mainly
on the central government, relying for the most part on individuals--external consultants and
government counterparts, with little attention to institutional arrangements for transfer and
development of capacity. At the national level, capacity development is complicated by
government personnel policies, with frequent transfers of staff across sectors and little
provision for development of institutional memory or expertise. Capacity development in a
SWAp is particularly difficult because the programme aims both to implement an ambitious
system development plan while, at the same time, improving the capacity of the system to
implement such plans, analogous perhaps to reconstructing a ship while sailing it.
Enhancement of capacity for good and effective governance is needed at all levels.
At the local level, plans need to be developed for enhancing the capacity of head teachers,
URC staff, and SMC members. While some steps are indicated on paper, they lack
comprehensiveness, and remain substantially unimplemented.
One of the opportunities and challenges in a decentralized system is capturing the
comparative information advantage of each level of the system. The school and community
have comparative advantage in knowing who is attending school regularly and who is not,
who is in school, who has dropped out, and who has never enrolled. Similarly, the upazila is
likely to have the best picture of comparative needs and resources of schools in a particular
region. The center is best able to see the system as a whole. There respective advantages can
be put to use in decentralized planning and management.

7. Governance and management

Key to achievement of the vision and the goals envisaged is good governance and
management, at both central and local levels. National leadership has to take the decisions
necessary to make more than incremental changes to the system. Central management
should ensure that resources are in place, minimum standards set and met, inter-sectoral
coordination and alignment of policies occur, and national and public interests are protected
and served. Educational planning and management leadership at the school and local levels
make certain that resources are in place and used effectively and efficiently, and that all
children are being served. School leadership has to mobilise available community resources
and support for the work of the school. Civil society is necessary at both levels, at the
national level to help meet the national responsibility for education for all and at the local and
community level to help implement education plans.
Research suggests that where individual schools or a group of schools have shown better
performance (in individual schools or in some upazilas), three factors stand out:
a) Greater resources have been mobilized complementing public resources -
through NGO support and from the community thus crossing the
threshold of minimum required resources.
b) The head teacher and the managing committee of the school have assumed
and exercised leadership in identifying problems, setting goals and making
and implementing plans to achieve the goals sometimes getting around
standard procedures and norms of the system.
c) The community and parents have been closely involved in making plans
and setting goals and keeping them engaged in the affairs of the school.
In this way, the locus of action to improve quality and equity in education should be the
school.
Unfortunately, at this point, absence of authority at the school levelfinancial, use and
deployment of teachers, class scheduling, school time-table, routine repair and maintenance,
etc. prevents the school from being responsive, for example, to the specific difficulties of
students from poor and disadvantaged families who are under-performing, attending school
intermittently, vulnerable, and likely candidates for drop out. Only at the school can
education authorities reach the child, can parents and teachers can work out appropriate
measures to act on specific circumstances of disadvantage. This aim can be supported by the
government by inviting and encouraging schools to take responsibility and demonstrate their
capacity to do so on the basis of agreed criteria. Schools which perform well, based on Key
Performance Indicators (KPIs) which are localized to the specific needs of the community,
can be rewarded, and given autonomy to develop and follow their own higher standards, as
incentive for nurturing self-regulation and greater school-level responsibility with
accountability.
Role of school leader. As already noted, the key role of the head teacher of the primary school
as an educational leader and manager with enhanced authority should be recognized, and

appropriate training and support, as well as salary and status, provided. Only recently has
head teacher been given some recognition with a modest salary increment. Still, in many
schools, the head teacher is just another teacher who has attained seniority and is saddled
with additional administrative tasks.
Working toward greater accountability, the Annual Confidential Report (ACR) for teachers
(in government schools) needs to be transformed into a performance evaluation system and
enforced (A Framework for Action on Education Governance, 2008).
Local coordination. Local coordination is needed to ensure that all service providers in a
geographical unit, such as the upazilagovernment education authorities, NGOs, or
community organizationswork together to ensure that every child can participate in an
institution which meets minimum agreed standards of quality instruction, irrespective of
provider.
School management committees. School management committees play an important role in
involving communities more closely in the decentralized governance of schools. In order to
make SMCs more responsive and accountable, political and education authorities should
take steps to make selection of the chairperson and SMC membership less beholden to local
political personalities, more a genuine choice of the community, a responsibility entrusted to
those with genuine interest in education. Gender balance is important as well, so as to foster
real rather than symbolic participation of women in school management. Training is needed
to SMCs' understanding and skills.
NGOs. Non-governmental and community organisations can serve as intermediary between
public education services and community and parents, bringing stakeholders together.
Educational institutions then can become truly responsive and answerable to the community
and the parents. Community, voluntary and non-governmental organisations and the private
sector need to be encouraged and supported to create and manage community learning
centres, ICT centres and education programmes for youth and adults as the building blocks
of a learning society. Local government institutions, as they become stronger, can play a
more direct role than at present in this process.
SLIPs. School Level Improvement Plans (SLIPs) were the primary mechanism under PEDP
II by which these decentralization processes were to take place. Unfortunately, the delayed
piloting of SLIPs and the elaborate guidelines and procedures have hindered the
decentralization efforts. As designed for implementation, SLIPs are quite demanding of
teachers' scarce time (which further reduces teachers' scarce teaching time).The
requirements are disproportionate to the funds to be made available. More workable might
be a phased approach, whereby SLIPs were initially used as a means to engage teachers and
parents in a simple, specific action focused on a specific result, such as reducing dropout or
improving performance by a certain proportion of those who lag behind. These simple
initiatives may differ by school or even by class. Action research undertaken collaboratively
on UNICEF's current implementation initiatives with appropriate research institutions could
yield valuable insights.

UPEPs. UPEP is an important mechanism complementary to and supportive of SLIP with

the aim of fostering better local planning, decision-making and control over resources. In the
absence of experience in this area and potential uncertainty, the strategy of developing and
piloting models on a small scale in each division seems most appropriate.
UEOs and URCs. A final quality intervention, though a difficult one to implement
effectively, is the URC as a genuine resource base for supporting teachers and schools. URC
work also should be in tandem with the support and supervision work of the Upazila
education staff.
Research institutions and NGOs can be mobilized in at least four ways to help build a
resource team at the upazial around the Upazila primary education office and URC; to
design trials to research, develop and pilot UPEPs, to work with SMCs and mediate between
schools and communities, and to develop workable models for the SLIPs.
Shifting roles. As noted, decentralization involves shifting rolesgreater responsibility,
discretion, accountability and corresponding capacity at the local level, and a shift to a
coordinating, facilitating role at the central level. The shift entails a move from full
responsibility for provision and control to and shared responsibility for provision, support,
and the establishment and monitoring of transparent and appropriate standards. National
public authorities are responsible for ensuring the rights of all children to basic education but
that the responsibility for provision can be shared more broadly. The balance between
unification, common standards, and equity on the one hand, and autonomy and local
discretion, variation, and control on the other, is delicate.
Enhanced capacity for good and effective governance is needed at all levels. The greatest
need is for the political will to move beyond the incremental.
Single ministry. The cause of educational development in Bangladesh would seem, at this
time, to be best supported by a single ministry. The transaction costs of coordination across
organizational units are quite high, especially in a unified programme context. Of course,
such restructuring is a political decision, best informed by dialogue among stakeholders in
public service and the larger civil society.
Political decisions from the top. Indeed, as we have noted, political leadership will be
necessary to make decisions beyond the incremental, including decisions to move to a
unified system, the extension of basic education to grade 8, the commitment of substantially
greater resources to basic education, a commitment to decentralization that paves the way for
necessary operational change, the commitment to sectoral thinking and coordination with
multiple modes of implementation, etc.
Consensus. At the same time, a consensus is needed regarding the importance of keeping
partisan politics out of education. As a political government re-emerges following the
planned parliamentary election at the end of the year, political parties need to restrain
themselves from involving teachers and teachers' organizations as well as students in

partisan politics. Educational decision-making including appointments, transfers and

promotion should be protected from extraneous political influence. Codes of conduct for
teachers and students should be developed and enforced. Legal provisions and election rules
should be enacted and enforced to protect educational institutions from undue political
influence.
National responsibility. Finally, with education as a national responsibility, civil society has
a stake and a responsibility in helping ensure all children's access, quality and equity. A
substantial number of children are now educated by non-governmental providers. Yet the
role of civil society extends beyond provision. We propose that civil society be explicitly
engaged in the conceptualization and design of the next education programme, and that a
body of respected, knowledgeable and committed scholars and practitioners be constituted
as a standing statuatory education commission, to provide leadership and continuity in
advising government about education, and be a forum for public discussion and debate. This
commission is discussed in more detail below.
IV. Consensus-building and Decision-making

We have come to the view that consideration of process is a critical, often neglected
dimension, in the development of national education programming. We have suggested that
major changes in basic and primary education are needed if Bangladesh is to achieve its
development goals, and that this is a crucial time to begin the conceptualization of the next
programme. Achieving the nation's goals requires thinking in the longer time frame to 2020-
25 and placing the next programme within that context. In order to achieve the kinds of
changes discussed here, a broad consensus is needed on this longer term perspective.
We believe critical educational policy decisions and priorities should be decided
transparently with ample public dialogue and the opportunity for review by stakeholders. To
that end, we propose a national consultative process for the planning of the new programme.
In particular, the consultative process should be guided by a steering body including
government, academics, NGOs and other key stakeholders, who would assist in decision-
making about goals, targets and strategies for 2010-15 programme within a longer term
perspective, foster political support and provide guidance for programme formulation and
approval, and mobilise national and international technical capacity and support.
We propose the establishment of a single Ministry of Education and Human Resources. The
experience since the 1990s suggest that the problems in respect of articulation, coordination
and integrated planning in key areas such as curriculum , teacher preparation, extending
basic education beyond grade five (an urgent emerging issue), outweigh the benefits in
respect of greater management attention and priority to primary education by a separate
Ministry. The question of priority to a sub-sector and policy and management attention is
more a matter of political choice rather than an organisational arrangement. In fact there
have been periods in recent history when the separate ministry under the prime minister's
office has led to lack of leadership and inattention to primary and mass education matters.

The single Ministry may have two separate divisions one for basic and secondary education
and another for higher and professional education, in recognition of the distinct
characteristics of these sub-sectors. We also argue that greater decentralistaion should
lighten the burden of the central ministries, who then should concentrate on broader issues of
policy, inter-sectoral coordination and mobilistation of resources
We also propose a permanent statutory commission on pre-tertiary education. This
commission, in line with the suggestion of the Chief Adviser, would constitute a consultative
mechanism for policy dialogue and continuity. Such a National Commission on Education
for pre-tertiary education would be independent, composed of distinguished and respected
representatives of the major stakeholders the civil society, the academic community, and the
government education establishment. It would be answerable directly to the National
Parliament. As a statutory body, the Commission's functions and status would be specified
in an act of law.
The Commission would require a secretariat with technical capacity and charter for broad
policy review and evaluation of the performance of the education system. The Bangladesh
Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS), with enhanced technical
capacity and authority, can be the secretariat of the permanent commission. It is recognised
that BANBEIS has or should have other statisics and information functions in relation to the
education system, for which it needs to be professionally strengthened. These other
functions would be consistent with the purposes of the permanent commission. The
Commission may provide an overall report on the national education system and on a
specific aspect or sub-sector of the system in alternate years.
We envision a more diverse set of roles for non-governmental organizations and civil society
bodies extending substantially beyond, for example, the innovation grants currently offered,
and mostly ineffective so far. This paper has noted at least eleven roles for civil society in
helping the nation reach its targets of education for all:
l Helping foster a national dialogue on goals and strategies in upcoming education
programme
l Reviewing and dialoguing about progress in education
l Providing a reality check from stakeholders' points of view
l Mobilising technical assistance and capacity building support through institutional
partnership; especially with academic and research institutions in sample research,
action research, analysis and interpretation
l Technical assistance from and among NGOs in planning, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation of programme activities and national and local levels
l Development of innovative models to address complex problems the system is
facingmodels of effective school-level decentralization in Bangladesh, effective
strategies for reaching and retaining the children of the ultra-poor, etc.

l Helping to scale-up school level improvement plans (SLIPs) upazila primary

education plans (UPEPs), through partnership in different forms at the field level
l Expansion of pre-schools, already begun on a sizeable scale, especially for first-
generation learners from disadvantaged families
l Liaison between public education officials and communities; development of SMCs
l Design and implementation of interventions to reach particular populationsethnic
groups, young children, children with disabilities, dropouts, child laborers, the ultra
poor; linkinh education, poverty reduction and other development activities, where
appropriate.
l Creation and management, perhaps in collaboration with the private sector, of
community learning centres, ICT centres and education programmes for youth and
adults
In short we see roles for non-governmental organisations in helping guide education
activities, in provision, experimentation, scaling up, mediating among public officials and
stakeholders, reaching particular populations, monitoring implementation and achievement
of goals at national and local levels.
As the discussion above indicates, fulfilling the vision for primary education development
requires a series of political decisions at the highest level of government, sustained by broad
political support, to be taken by political government. Among these are questions regarding:
l The value of one education and human resource development ministry
l A permanent statutory education commission for pre-tertiary education, ideally with
research and information processing capabilities (with an enhanced BANBEIS as the
Secretariat)
l Meaningful decentralization, with a elimination of the current legal constraints to
decentralization
l Unified primary/basic education system with its extension up to grade 8
l Substantial increase in resources to primary education
l Restructuring of the curriculum board
l New strategies for teachersselection, training and ongoing development,
deployment, career ladder and compensation
These issues of national interest must be resolved through the political process. It is
necessary for CAMPE and other civil society institutions to begin a process of sensitization
of the political parties and civil society at large on these issues.
In order to move beyond incremental changes, simultaneously with the political
sensitisation and dialogue to be carried out through a civil society process of consultation, a
technical and government level policy discussion needs to be initiated. A working group
appointed by the government, but consisting of government and other stakeholders, need to

work on the following issues, for which at least tentative answers should be formulated,
which can be refined progressively, to guide the process of preparation for the next phase of
primary education development:
l Agreement needs to be reached on a government-led process to develop the
programme, again with the participation of practitioners, academics, NGOs, and
other key stakeholders.
l A consensus is needed on the longer-term vision and perspective outlined here.
l Decisions need to be made about the scope goals, targets, and strategies for a 2010-15
programme; and the appropriate design of the programme or sector-wide approach in
the specific context and experience of Bangladesh mobilising political support and
technical guidance for programme formulation and approval through a steering
body to include government, NGOs, academics, and other key stakeholders. (See
Annex 4 for a proposed schematic for an appropriate progarmme approach for
primary education development in Bangladesh.)
l Agreement needs to be reached on the financial envelope, the principles of
partnership mechanisms and strategies for finance, implementation, and monitoring.
Several other more operational questions should be considered to guide subsequent
discussion:
l An initial scoping process has been initiated by ADB for a follow on to PEDP II. A
rapid assessment has been proposed. Details and decisions about how to proceed
should be agreed upon: What are the terms of reference? What is the timeline? How
can CAMPE and other institutions of civil society help conceptualize the scope of the
task? How can CAMPE and institutions in civil society and the development
partners be involved in assisting government?
l How can the programme be organized to overcome the structural obstacles to
implementation faced by PEDP II? Significant components of the vision in the
PEDP II programme framework were not included in the PP format? How can the
programme be organized to think and coordinate sectorally while allowing the
diversity of implementation mechanisms needed for the diverse activities proposed?
l What modalities and mechanisms are needed for true partnership between the
government agencies such as DPE and non-governmental actors to make this
arrangement work for all partners? This would include such issues as:
- partnership agreements- explore options for modalities, joint ventures,
contractual services
- how to build, transfer and utilise capacity and retain services, etc
- regulatory framework to monitor and manage the partnership
- reporting and accountability
- governance and transparency
- assurance of quality of services
- partnership durations
- exit strategies/options, etc.

l Given the complexities of preparation and approval of programme agreements, what

are the critical time lines for government and development partners? What work can
be done over the next period of time to maintain a deliberate planning process and
avoid precipitous decisions made to accommodate the various organizational
imperatives and timetables?
l What studies, fact-finding, and analyses are needed to lay the groundwork for
effective design of a new sector-wide programme? In fact, several of the key
components of PEDP II still have not been effectively operationalised. Design of a
follow-on programme would be strengthened by a better understanding of how such
components can be effectively implemented by government, what factors have
prevented their implementation to date. Examples include the SLIP and UPEP
mechanisms. Alternately, what strategies are effective for primary schools to
effectively reach, teach, and retain the ultra-poor, children with disabilities, ethnic
minorities?
l What baseline data is necessary to have a starting point for gauging future
programme progress? What benchmarks?
V. Next Steps, Tasks, Time-table and Milestones

This paper has presented a vision of a primary and basic education system that will better
enable Bangladesh to reach its educational goals for 2015 for EFA, the MDGs, NPA and PRS
and its goal of becoming a middle-income economy in the next decades. We have outlined
the challenges we see, and the issues that the next primary and basic education programme
must address. We have also outlined some of the processes by which civil society and the
larger stakeholders of basic education can be better engaged and utilised, first in the
conceptualization and design of the next sectoral programme; later in planning,
implementation, and evaluation; and finally in assuming a share of responsibility for
educational development.
This paper, as noted, is a starting point, in the expectation that a process will begin in which
CAMPE and its constituency as well as other stakeholders will have the opportunity to
participate actively and effectively.
Regarding the process to be followed, we propose:
l Establishment of a working group, appointed by the government and including
diverse parties with interest and expertise in education, for programme development.
Ideally, the working group would continue in overseeing implementation.
l Discussion and decisions regarding the preparatory tasks, mentioned in the previous
section, establishing milestones and time-line and responsibilities for carrying out
the tasks.
l Beginning public information and communication with stakeholders and civil
society on the vision and scope of the programme; priorities, focus and strategies of
the programme; status of programme development; implementation and financing
mechanisms; and how all stakeholders are involved. CAMPE should facilitate the

public dialogue and communication including political sensitization about key

structural and progremme issues.
l Discussion of funding and implementation mechanisms needed to achieve the
purposes of the programmefunding in terms of the medium-term budgetary
framework linking revenue and development budgets, and an overall programme
framework with multiple implementation mechanisms for major components and
complementary activities; this will also require revisiting the PP mechanism.
It has to be recognized that there are issues about basic policy and structural changes which
require political decision and public dialogue, as outlined above. There are other technical
and administrative decisions focusing on an investment plan which also require consultation
and a participatory process involving key stake-holders beyond the directly involved
government personnel.
The aim is a government-led national process and mechanism which mobilizes and
effectively uses national capacities as well as international technical resources and technical
support in achieving the nation's primary and basic education agenda. The first important
step would be for the government to appoint a national working group without delay and
proceed with a sense of urgency with a defined time-frame and time-line.
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ANNEX 1. A Note on SWAps

Sector Wide Approaches (SWAps) to programmes in education and health came about as a
result of disillusionment, primarily on the part of funding agencies, with the project mode of
development assistance. The collective efforts of many projects to build schools, provide
textbooks, train teachers, develop assessment systems, and facilitate information collection
and utilization had not led, in too many cases, to reformed education systems. Donor
funding of multiple and uncoordinated initiatives, with corresponding demands on
government staff for implementation and reporting, coupled with undue reliance on external
technical assistance, had not led to sufficiently increased capacity on the part of governments
to plan and manage their own education activities and budgets.
Though definitions vary, and there are many ways to design a SWAp, SWAps typically
consolidate the recurrent and capital financial requirements, as well as national and
international resources in a medium-term expenditure framework for the sector. This
expenditure framework guides and prioritises education strategies and expenditures
according to an overall coherent sectoral development plan. The SWAp is envisioned as
sectoral in scope, incorporating all levels and types of education and all significant providers
and funding, into a coherent framework. A number of countries have adopted sub-sectoral
programmes as an intermediate step toward sectoral planning. PEDP II, focusing as it does
on a segment (albeit a major segment) of the primary education system, would be a sub-
sectoral education programme.
The purposes of the SWAp mode are:
l to align external assistance with national priorities and objectives reflected in
country's development plans - such as, poverty reduction strategy and NPA - so that
development efforts are driven by national priorities and objectives, not those of
funding agencies;
l to improve coordination (e.g., getting away from multiple, divergent projects, stove
piping, high transaction costs fostered by project approach, external funding);

l to promote sector-wide thinking and planning on the part of planners and

implementers;
l to develop national institutions, competencies and systems;
l to focus accountability of government plans toward national constituencies rather
than external funders; and
l to harmonize efforts of different assistance agencies.
Core elements are government leadership on behalf of the nation to bring stakeholders
together in national dialogue around a national education sector plan, which is linked with
national development planning. The resulting framework prioritises expenditures according
to the most important strategic goals, and recognises necessary tradeoffs. It uses common
financial and implementation mechanisms to promote harmonization, coherence alignment
toward common goals, and accountability, with the aim of strengthening government
capacity to ensure education for all.
At the same time, there is no single approach to the design and implementation of SWAps to
achieve these ends. In many ways, the SWAp remains somewhat experimental. Adaptation
is needed to the capacities and needs of particular national contexts. SWAps, as the label
suggests, can be understood as an approach, not a single or particular financial or
implementation modality. They can encompass different financial and implementation
modalities, including projects, but are unified by agreed-upon goals/objectives and
priorities, coordination of all education initiatives, and government leadership.
While SWAps can be designed in a process limited to agencies, consultants, and
government, the philosophy and goals of the SWAp generally require broad participation.
While participation can be limited to consultation on the final plan, it is best achieved
through active involvement at all stages of the design and implementation process setting
ground rules for dialogue and decision-making, goal-setting, development of plans,
implementation, monitoring and formative evaluation, and summative evaluation.
However sensible in theory, SWAps involve a number of practical challenges. Recurring
issues include:
l Challenges of government learning by doing, and the task being that of implementing
a very complex process
l Coordination across agencies within government
l Differing perspectives and priorities among funding agencies, among government
agencies
l Coordination across DPs multiple agencies, leadership among agencies,
coordination of multiple agendas, voice of different partners (Criteria for differences
in voice? To what extent should the weight of a vote or view be determined by the size
of financial package offered?)

l Accountability who's accountable to whom for what? Government to DPs?

Government to people? DPs to government?
l How is accountability organized?
l Broader participation Who? How? When? (To what extent does government already
represent the nation? To what extent and how should other national stakeholders be
involved?) The added complexity of even more partners, who are even less well
organized institutionally. Avoiding special interests.
l Balance between government leading and other perspectives on what should be done
(others within the country, DPs) What if government, or one who speaks for the
government, is wrong?
l Balance between overall priorities and areas that really need work
l Tradeoffs between long-term value vs. short-term complexities of (whole) sector vs.
sub-sector
l Tradeoffs between allowing diversity of mechanisms under programme umbrella
(but weaker overall coherence) vs. uniformity of funding & implementation
mechanisms (but difficulty in making needed post-design changes & inability to
accommodate different financial & administrative needs of different activities)
References
Mundy, Karen, Jeannie Moulton, Michel Weimond, & James H. Williams (2002). Education Reforms
in SubSaharan Africa: Paradigm Lost? Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Riddell, Abby. (2007) The New Modalities of Aid to Education: The View from Within Some Recipient
Countries. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008. Education for All by
2015: Will We make It? Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2007). Education Sector-Wide Approaches: Background, Guide, and Lessons. (Education
Policies and Strategies 12). Paris: UNESCO, Section for Education Support Strategies, Division of
Education Strategies and Field Support.
Williams, James H. & William K. Cummings (2005). Policy-making for Education Reform in
Developing Countries: Volume 1: Contexts and Processes. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.
ANNEX 2. The Six EFA Goals

We hereby collectively commit ourselves to the attainment of the following goals:
(i) Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education,
especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children;
(ii) ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult
circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete
free and compulsory primary education of good quality;
(iii) ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through
equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes;

(iv) achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially
for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults;
(v) eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and
achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls' full
and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality; and
(vi) improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so
that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in
literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.
Source: Dakar Framework for Action, paragraph. 7 as adopted by the World Education
Forum, Dakar, Senegal, April 2000
ANNEX 3. The NPA II Vision

5. A Vision of Basic and Primary Education by 2015
5.1 The basic goal of NPA II is to establish a knowledge-based and technologically-oriented
competent society to ensure that every school-age child has access to primary level
institutions that provide all necessary facilities, continue in school to receive and achieve
quality education, and provide opportunities to pre-school children, young persons and
adults to meet their learning needs in a competitive world, both in the formal and non-formal
sub-sectors of basic education without any discrimination.
5.2 It is envisaged that through successful execution of NPA II, the educational scenario by
2015 will encompass the following:
(i) An informed, knowledge-based and learning society for all has taken firm roots
facilities are available for enhancing learning and gaining appropriate employable
and life skills through formal, non-formal and informal education mechanisms;
(ii) All pre-school children, 3-5 years of age, are attending ECCE programs of some kind
and have access to programmes of health, nutrition, social, physical and intellectual
development, and being initiated into formal education;
(iii) All primary school-age children (6-10 years), boys and girls, including all ethnic
groups, disadvantaged and disabled, are enrolled and successfully completing the
primary cycle and achieving quality education;
(iv) Adequate scope exists for primary level graduates to go on to secondary education
and beyond; children can plan and pursue their career path and switch from one
stream of education to another of their choice at any level;
(v) All primary level institutions, formal and non-formal, offer standardized and quality
basic education, providing a strong foundation which prepares children and others
to face challenges in higher education, training and broader life with confidence and
success; equivalence between formal and non-formal basic education and between
different streams within each firmly established at all levels;
(vi) All residual illiterate and semi-literate young persons and adults have access to
learning opportunities basic education, adult literacy, post-literacy, continuing
education and life-long leaning, including skills development for gainful wage or
self-employment;

(vii) Gender equality in basic and primary education, for teachers as well as learners, is a
normal phenomenon, both in the institutions and homes of children as well as the
broader society;
(viii) All children enrolled in basic and primary education level institutions have access
to health, nutrition, water and sanitation, cultural, social development and similar
other services and activities, which ensure a healthy learning and living
environment for better life; are involved in school management and decision-
making processes; and they are all aware of the dangers of and ways of dealing with
HIV/AIDS, arsenic contamination and such others;
(ix) Poverty is substantially reduced in line with PRSP and MDG targets through and as a
result of quality basic education and selective skills development training, in
conjunction with and measures taken for eradication of poverty in other sectors of
development, both public and private, particularly NGOs;
(x) The government, NGOs, broader civil society, the community and other stakeholders
share the responsibility and work in conjunction to achieve the EFA national goals
and also share and exchange information on their respective programmes through
MIS and GIS systems established in the government and non-government sectors
via computer-based wide area network (WAN); and the database are updated at
given intervals and freely and easily accessible to all through websites;
(xi) There is transparency and accountability in program development, organization and
management, financial transactions, and in activities of managers, supervisors and
teachers as well as the SMC members and all others involved, both in the
government and non-government education sectors; and
Source: Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Primary and Mass Education. Learning for
Change: Education for All National Plan of Action 2003-15 (NPA II). Dhaka 2007.

Annex 4. Suggested Schematic of the National Primary Education

Development (NPED) Program (2010-15)
Outline of Components and Implementation Structure for a Pragmatic
Programme Approach
NPED Program and Components Implementation mechanisms Financial mechanisms

Program Framework: National A National Steering Committee with A budget framework and financing
Primary education development Technical Sub-Committees for one or principles established for total
Programme (2010-15) with Multiple more components to adopt policy program (taking account of NPA and
Components (Projects), and Multiple decisions, guide program design and PRS), with flexible mechanisms for
Delivery Mechanisms and Core implementation and ensure each project, overseen by the
Common Standards for Provisions, resources.1 Steering Committee. 5
Curriculum and Learning Objectives.
Project 1
Govt.Primary School Development DPE Directorates (with redesigned Government budget allocations
(Ensuring all project inputs brought functions and capacity to serve within a medium term budget
together to serve government schools Upazila-based planning and framework (MTBF) with deficits
with the program framework and management)2 made up by external assistance as
based on upazila-based primary
education plan.
Project 2
R N G P S D e v e l o p m e n t s a m e DPE Directorates (with similar Sector support.
objective as Project 1 change in function and capacity as
Project 1)2
Project 3
Ibtidayi Madrasa Development Madrasa Education Board (with Same as above
major professional capacity
enhancement)
Project 4
Curriculum, Learning Materials and Redesigned National Curriculum
Learning Assessment Same as above
Board (with enhanced professional
capacity and divesting from it
textbook production/distribution)
working closely with academic and
research institutions.
Project 5
Same as above
Teacher Development and Support Project management support unit
designed and established at DPE (in
close collaboration with Directorate
of Secondary and Higher Education
for work with degree colleges)
Project 6
Grade 8 basic education extension Same as above
Basic Education Extension to
Grade 8 project designed and project

management support unit set up at

DPE (with Directorate of Secondary
& higher education collaboration.
Project 7
Basic Education Infrastructure Project Management support unit Same as above
Development designed and set up at LGED.3
Project 8
Preschool Development Project Mngmnt Support Unit Same as above
designed and set up at DPE
(implemented through NGOs).
Project 9
Educational Information and A redesigned BANBEIS with Same as above
Statistics Capacity independent statistics and data
collection analysis and reporting
capacity for all levels of
education.4
Project 10
Second Chance Basic Education NGOs and/or NGO Consortia External funding by Donor
(NFPE), primary/basic education for working with local government. Consortium/ individual donor to
extremely vulnerable, hard-to-reach NGOs recorded and included within
groups (linked with poverty the national programme and subject
reduction projects, e.g. CFPR) to guidance /oversight of National
Steering Committee .
Notes:
1. The Steering body will guide National level management and implementation support
units which will facilitate and support the work of district level technical teams and
upazila education plans with the goal of empowering schools to assume and exercise
greater authority and responsibility with accountability to the community (see note 5
below).
2. The projects for GPS, RNGPS and Madrasa development will essentially ensure that all
activities are carried out within the framework of upazila-based planning for overall
primary education development , bringing the inputs from different projects, such as
curriculum development, infrastrncture and teacher development together to support
the upazial's and individual school's development plan. A district level technical,
capacity will be needed to support upazila primary education planning and to carry out
the activities in a responsive and accountable manner with the goal of moving towards
genuine decentralization of primary education planning and management. (see note 5
below.)
3. It is expected that the project support unit at LGED will coordinate planning with
different projects and upazila plans, provide technical support and set standards, but
progressively the maintenance, repair and new school infrastructure building will be
handed over to school managing committees.

4. An independent national capacity for educational statistics and information collection,

analysis and reporting was the original rationale for BANBEIS. This need has been
underscored repeatedly. In addition to the role of the independent statistics agency of
BANBEIS, each project will still need its own monitoring mechanism,. In the context of
decentarlisation, statistical capacities will be needed at the upazila and district levels.
Development of these capacities and promoting their use in planning and management
will also be tasks of BANBEIS, for which its own capacity has to be developed. A
professionally enhanced BANBEIS can be the secretarial of a permanent statutory
national education commission an idea being advocated by education stakeholders.
5. One Ministry of Education for the education sector will bring all the projects under one
sectoral MTBF (including the activities for extending basic education to grade 8,
curriculum development and teacher development, which will go beyond the purview
of present MOPME), but this is not an absolute pre-requisite.
District technical teams will have to be formed to guide and assist coordinated planning
including financial planning of the upazila- wise primary /basic education development.
This will help transform the present highly top-down budget planning and
management process. The different projects under the program will depend on the district
technical teams and the upazila planning process to ensure that their inputs serve the
coordinated upazila plans and plans of individual schools.
Annex 5
Acronyms
ACR Annual Confidential Report
ADB Asian Development Bank
BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics
BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee; Renamed in 2007 as Building
Resources Across Communities
CAMPE Campaign for Popular Education
CFPR Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction
CREATE Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions & Equity
DPE Directorate of Primary Education
ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education
EFA Education for All
ELCG Education Local Consultative Group
EMIS Education Management Information System
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIS Geographical Information System

GPS Government Primary School

HIV/AIDS Human Immune Deficiency Virus/Human Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IED Institute of Educational Development
KPI Key Performance Indicators
LGED Local Government Engineering Department
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MIS Management Information System
MOPME Ministry of Primary and Mass Education
MTBF Medium Term Budgetary Framework
MTR Mid-Term Review
NAPE National Academy for Primary Education
NCTB National Curriculum and Textbook Board
NFPE Non-Formal Primary Education
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NPA National Plan of Action
PEDP II Primary Education Development Program II
PESDP Primary Education Sector Development Program
PP Project Proforma
PPTA Project Preparation Technical Assistance
PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy
PSQL Primary School Quality Level
PTI Primary Teachers' Training Institute
RNGPS Registered Non-Government Primary School
SLIP School Level Improvement Plan
SMC School Management Committee
SWAp Sector Wide Approach
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
UPE Universal Primary Education
UPEP Upazila Primary Education Plan
URC Upazila Resource centre
WAN Wide Area Network

UNESCO
BAFED UNESCO, DHAKA BU-IED
A half-yearly journal published jointly by BAFED and BU-IED with financial assistance from UNESCO

National
Education Policy
2010
Ministry of Education
Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh
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Preface
Education is the key to a nations development. Education is the principal means to achieve the
goal of poverty alleviation. A properly educated nation, which is modern in genius and intellect
and forward-looking in thinking, can only put the country at the zenith of its development. Thats
why education is the backbone of a nation.
Earlier, Bangladesh Awami League took an initiative to prepare an Education Policy in tune with
the need of the modern times, with a view to building the future generation as a human resource,
efficient in knowledge and technology and inspired with moral values, national tradition and the
spirit of liberation war.
I am very sorry & heavy-hearted to think of the misfortunes of the people of our country. Thirty-
nine years have passed since our emergence as a free nation, but no Education Policy has been put
to implementation. Immediately after our independence, at the initiative of Bangabandhu Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman, the Father of the Nation, the first Education Commission was constituted to
prepare an Education Policy under the leadership of Dr. Qudrat-e-Khuda, a renowned scientist
and educationist. That Commission prepared a pro-people, modern and science- oriented
education policy on the basis of exhaustive inquiry and contemplation. But, the sequence of the
usurpation of power through illicit corridors began with the diabolical murder of Bangabandhu
and his family members on August 15, 1975. As a result, the education policy prepared by
Qudrat-e-Khuda was not implemented. Rather, the nation experienced the toying with the destiny
of people; no step was taken to fulfill their basic needs.
In 1996, as Awami League came to power after 21 years, it again took steps to prepare an
Education Policy. The Report was ready by 1997. "Education Policy-2000 was prepared on the
basis of that Report. But with the change of power, that Education Policy was shelved again. In
2008, as we formed the government through the victory in national election, the responsibility of
updating the education policy prepared earlier with some fixed objectives was entrusted on some
eminent educationists and subsequently views of people belonging to diverse classes and
professions were received. Since it recognized the importance of public views and reactions to it,
this Education Policy has earned a nationwide receptivity.
In this process, we now have the long-awaited Education Policy. I heartily thank the Ministry of
Education for formulating this education policy. We all know that a right set of principles is
essential to achieve some targeted goals. In our Election Manifesto 2008, we set the goal of
building up Bangladesh as a poverty-free, non-communal, liberal and democratic state. Without
the right kind of directives and guidance, no right programs can be undertaken. Anyway a point
will be mentioned here to avoid the risks of incompleteness. Bangladesh Awami League formed a
number of sub-committees including one on educational affairs. The objectives behind forming
these were to underline the principles of the party regarding the basic demands of people and to
find out our partys role to meet them. These basic demands include-education, health,
environment, agriculture etc.
These sub-committees organized discussion meetings and seminars at regular intervals and
produced clearly defined concept papers to determine the principles of our party as reflected in
our declaration. This had been a homework to prepare the party for running the state when it
assumes power in future. Mr. Nurul Islam Nahid, the present Minister for Education was the
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Education Secretary of Bangladesh Awami League and Prof. Dr. A. K. Azad Chowdhury, former
Vice- Chancellor of Dhaka University was the chairman of the sub-committee. They organized a
good number of seminars and symposiums. So, this Education Policy is the product of the
preparation that Awami League (as a political party) had for public service. My sincere thanks are
to all members of the committees of both 1996 and 2009. Most of the members of Dr. Qudrat-e-
Khuda Commission of 1972 are no more. My gratitude goes to all- living and demised.
The important aspect of this Education Policy is that it emphasizes religion, science and technical
education. This Policy attaches importance to the natural sensitivity of people and also to the
delivery of education that helps find employment in the material world. The country will move
ahead, with the acquisition of the knowledge of modern science and technology. We will be able
to build up a golden Bangladesh, free of poverty as was envisioned by our Father of the Nation.
We will pay our sacred homage to the sacrifice of lives of our 3 million martyrs, when we
celebrate the golden jubilee of our independence in 2021, with our heads high in the committee
of nations.
I expect cooperation from all in materializing the principles of this Education Policy successively.
Joy Bangla Joy Bangabandhu

Long live Bangladesh
Sheikh Hasina
Prime Minister
Government of Peoples Republic of Bangladesh
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Foreword
Since the Independence of Bangladesh, it has not been possible for us to implement any
Education Policy in the last four decades. Although the first Education Policy was formulated
under the initiative of the founder of independent Bangladesh and Father of the Nation
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman based on the needs of an independent country, the
gruesome murder of Bangabandhu and his family members, on 15 August 1975 by the
conspiratorial forces of anti-liberation faction to take revenge of their defeat, followed by actions
to destroy the values, goals and spirit of the Liberation War including the Education Policy,
initiated the process of ruination of all our achievements. During the subsequent years, six more
education policy/reports were prepared but they also remained unimplemented.
Another Education Policy (Education Policy 2000) was undertaken by Sheikh Hasina, daughter
of Bangabandhu, when she came to power in 1996 but that too was shelved and nullified with the
change of government in 2001.
Following the overwhelming victory of the Awami League-led Grand Alliance under the
leadership of Sheikh Hasina and the formation of a new democratic government in January 2009,
new possibilities appeared before the people. The Awami League manifesto to bring about change
in the quality of life, Vision 2021 and the promise of establishing a digital Bangladesh drew
immense support from the people and that created positive grounds for the realization of these
huge possibilities. Within the shortest possible time, after taking over power, the government once
again reinitiated and moved ahead with the process of formulating a National Education Policy
and its implementation. An 18-member Education Policy formulation committee started working
with National Professor Kabir Chowdhury and Dr. Qazi Kholiquzzaman Ahmad as the chair and
co-chair respectively. Within four months, a draft National Education Policy was developed, but
before its finalization, it was put to website and other media for sharing widely with the people of
all walks of life for their feedback. There had been a large response to it. It became a subject of
wide discussion and review in the media. Different seminars and meetings were held on the draft
policy and comments were recorded. The draft policy has now been finalized with further
additions and amendments with the incorporation of relevant views, recommendations and
suggestions received from educationists, teachers, students, parents, politicians, alems (Muslim
theological experts), businessmen, investors, professionals and people from all strata of life. I take
this opportunity to convey my thanks and gratitude to the committee for formulating Education
Policy and to those who have contributed to this final shape of the Policy by offering their views
and suggestions.
Two things need to be stated clearly regarding the policy- 1) this is not an education policy of any
particular political party - it reflects the aspiration and expectations of the entire nation; 2) this
policy is not an absolute entity and the scope for changes and amendment will always be there
and errors can always be rectified. Education is a dynamic concept. Keeping pace with the
development of knowledge and science, the process of adaptation and modernization will
continue. Practical experiences acquired during its implementation stage and application of
modern knowledge, science and technology will continue to enrich the policy.
The National Education Policy embodies the nations verdict and aspirations, the spirit of
liberation war and independence; it reflects peoples goals and values and thereby follows the
142
basic Constitutional guideline. The object to ensure the rights and the opportunities for education
for all eradicating all differences has been selected as the rationale for this education policy.
Ensuring education for all children is a fundamental issue. It is crucial for our future generation to
acquire quality, modern and updated knowledge of science and technology and evolve as a skilled
human resource so that they may contribute to eradicate poverty, illiteracy, corruption,
communalism and backwardness and build up a developed and prosperous Bangladesh. The
education system of Bangladesh needs to be structured towards addressing these issues. Through
the expansion of technical and vocational education, the large youth population of Bangladesh
will have to be turned into a professional and skilled human resource.
Ensuring quality education for all is a great challenge for us. The main important force behind
quality education and development of skilled human resource is a team of properly qualified,
skilled and committed teachers. Technology has emerged as the most important factor in the
modern world. Computer and Information Technology has become the inseparable and most
important part of education all over the world. We need to give it a priority in our education
system as well.
Just as we need to eradicate illiteracy through ensuring education for all, on the other hand, we
need to upgrade the quality of our higher education to match the international standard. It is very
important for the young people to acquire professional skills and we will have to take all
necessary steps to ensure this.
On the whole, to achieve quality, modern and updated education, it is important to acquire and
apply knowledge based on information technology. Language, mathematics, history, science,
information technology - technical knowledge and education, and a society with learning at its
base are all matters of priority. There is no scope for leaving any thing to be done in the future.
No matter how huge the challenges are, we have to face them and must come out successful.
Education is the most useful tool to help us achieve the goals we have set for the country. Diverse
issues right from eradicating illiteracy to ensuring technology-based education must find place in
our education system.
Unified effort of the entire nation, irrespective of political and ideological differences is
absolutely essential to make the implementation process of this policy or objectives to achieve the
goals. A nation-wide awakening and united initiatives can only make that success happen.
Qualitative change in our education system is the most important priority of the day. We hope that
people from all strata of society will be actively involved in this noble initiative of building the
future society. The process of implementing the policy will start with this hope. Education is the
most important factor of our present and future. There has to be qualitative increase in both
government and non-government investment and cooperation for education. There is need for a
huge investment in order to expand and implement ICT. Investment in education means
investment for a brighter future.
It is important to instill moral values, honesty, patriotism, accountability and social responsibility
into the youths as they acquire quality modern education and knowledge of contemporary science
and technology. Knowledge of our national heritage, values and glorious history will make our
future generation proud and courageous, efficient in the acquisition of knowledge and help them
grow up into a true patriotic force. They will have to be enterprising, creative and able to provide
leadership in their respective fields.
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We cannot push the life of a learner into a path without a destination. We cannot allow any learner
to drop out or get lost in the middle of her/his learning process unless s/he acquires the minimum
level of skills or quality education. In order to make the life of the learner meaningful, s/he must
acquire at least one recognized academic qualification. Every educational institution must note
that it has to properly convince the learner about the utility and value of the time s/he spends
during her/his academic association with the institution. We do never want any learner to get lost
from her/his academic life with the experience of failure.
Basic changes need to be implemented in the examination methods or evaluation of the standard
of learning. This requires successful classroom teaching. The learners will be enabled so that they
can do without the unwanted problems of so-called notebooks and private tuitions. Examination
has to be held in a peaceful, secure and congenial environment; it will never become scaring for
them, rather they will accept it as a joyful festivity. The examinees will welcome the examinations
as an opportunity of evaluation and recognition of the success of their academic life.
Comprehensive education will contribute to make life attractive, secure and joyful. Creation of
such an environment is what we wish to achieve.
Education for children must be imparted in a friendly learning environment, with joyful teaching
methods and attractive contents and not by any kind of force. To realize our national dream, our
young generation has to be developed as a human resource, efficient in education, knowledge and
technology.
Our major aim is to ensure that our next generation is provided with real education and
knowledge of science and technology and thereby they will develop into an efficient and skilled
human resource, respectful and committed to people and inspired by patriotic spirit.
We seek sincere cooperation and support of all in order to achieve the noble goals set in the
National Education Policy.
Joy Bangla, Joy Bangabandhu

Long live Bangladesh
Nurul Islam Nahid, MP

Minister, Ministry of Education
Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh
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Contents
Chapters
1. Aims and Objectives of Education 1
2. Pre-Primary and Primary Education 4
3. Adult and Non-Formal Education 11
4. Secondary Education 13
5. Vocational and Technical Education 16
6. Madrasa Education 19
7. Religious and Moral Education 21
8. Higher Education 23
9. Engineering Education 26
10. Medical, Nursing and Health Education 28
11. Science Education 30
12. Information and Technology 32
13. Business Studies 34
14. Agriculture Studies 36
15. Law Studies 38
16. Womens Education 40
17. Fine Arts and Crafts Education 42
18. Special Education, Health and Physical Education, Scout, 43
Girls Guide and Bratachari
19. Sports Education 47
20. Libraries 49
21. Examination and Evaluation 51
22. Students' Welfare and Counselling 54
23. Admission of the Students 56
24. Teachers Training 57
25. Status, Rights and Responsibilities of Teachers 60
26. Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbooks 62
27. Educational Administration 64
28. Some Special Initiatives to be taken regardless of Educational Levels 70
Annexures
1. Articles of the Constitution of Bangladesh relating to Education 72
2. Committee for the Formulation of National Education Policy 2009 73
3. Committee for further review and scrutiny of the English version of 74
National Education policy 2010.
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1. Education: Aims and Objectives
The directives as noted in the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh (Annex1) have
been taken into consideration in the formulation of National Education Policy 2009. The UN
Child Rights Convention that emphasizes the ensuring of rights of children in every member state
has been a further area of consideration. The primary objectives of this policy are directed toward
the cultivation of human values. It seeks to prescribe ways through which citizens can be groomed
to become leaders in pro-people development programs and progress of the society. They will
become rational and intellectually accomplished human beings with ethical perceptions, who have
respect for their own religion as well as for others' faiths. Education will help them to grow up as
non-communal, patriotic and efficient persons free from superstitions. And simultaneously, it is
only education that can equip the nation to acquire the qualities and skills that will strengthen
Bangladesh to work with equal capacity and pace of the global community. This education policy
will work as a basis for an education system suitable for the delivery of education which will be
pro-people, easily available, uniform, universal, well planned, science oriented and of high
standard according to the constitutional directives and it will also work as a strategy to counter all
problems. With this idea in view, the aims, objectives, goals and principles of the Education
Policy will be as follows.
1. to reflect the Constitutional guarantee at all levels of education and make learners aware of
the freedom, sovereignty and integrity of Bangladesh;
2. to stimulate the intellectual and practical qualities of the learners so that moral, human,
cultural, scientific and social values are established at personal and national levels;
3. to inspire the students with the spirit of our war of liberation and develop patriotism,
nationalism and qualities of good citizens (i.e, sense of justice, non-communalism,
dutifulness, awareness of human rights, cultivation of free thinking and discipline, love for
honest living, the tolerance of corporate life, friendliness and perseverance);
4. to promote the continuity of national history, tradition and culture through an inter-
generational process;
5. to foster creative and thinking faculties among the learners through a system of education
that contains indigenous spirit and elements and which will lead to a life-oriented
development of knowledge of the learners;
6. to evolve an education process that is oriented to creativity, practicability and productivity
to achieve advancement in the economic and social fields of the country; to create a
scientific mindset of the students and to develop in them the qualities of leadership;
7. to remove socio-economic discrimination irrespective of race, religion and creed and to
eradicate gender disparity; to develop non-communalism, friendliness, global fraternity,
fellow-feeling and respect for human rights;
8. to create unhindered and equal opportunities of education for all as per learners talents and
aptitudes, irrespective of geographical, social and economical situations to establish a
1 National Education Policy 2010
148
society that is free from discrimination; to resist use of education as a commodity to reap
profits;
9. to show tolerance for different ideologies for the development of a democratic culture and
to help develop a life-oriented, realistic and positive outlook;
10. to ensure the marginal competencies of learners at each level so that they are discouraged
from rote learning, rather use their own thoughtfulness, imagination and urge for curiosity;
11. to ensure skills of high standard at different areas and levels of education so that learners
can successfully compete at the global context;
12. to attach substantial importance to information and communication technology (ICT) along
with maths. science and English in order to build up a digital Bangladesh based on
knowledge-orientation and cultivation of ICT;
13. to put special emphasis on the extension of education; to give priority to primary and
secondary education; to motivate the students to show dignity of labour; to enable students
to acquire skills in vocational education to facilitate self-employment, irrespective of levels
of education;
14. to develop some uniform and basic ideas amongst all learners; to establish a sense of equal
status amongst all citizens of the country to implement a uniform curriculum of certain
basic subjects at the primary level schools of diverse delivery systems; to prescribe and
ascertain the learning of some uniform textbooks to attain that; to initiate some method of
teaching in some basic subjects at the secondary level to achieve similar objectives;
15. to ensure a creative, favorable and joyful environment for the students at the primary and
secondary levels for their proper protection and congenial development;
16. to help students grow up with sound moral character through lessons from their respective
religious teachings and moral sciences;
17. to ensure proper quality of education at each level and to correlate the competencies learnt
at the earlier level (as per the aims and objectives of education) with the next one to
consolidate the formations of knowledge and skills; to promote extension of such
knowledge and skills; to enable the learners to acquire these skills; to motivate the people to
participate in the educational process, at the primary, secondary and vocational levels, in
particular to realize the objectives of education;
18. to build students as skilled human resources to fight the challenges of the world threatened
by climate change and other natural disasters and to create in them a social awareness about
environment;
19. to ensure quality of the higher education in all disciplines and motivate students in research
and to create a congenial and necessary environment of research within the country through
the cultivation of knowledge and sciences;
20. to ensure the proper context and situations in the education system at the higher level that
facilitates ideal cultivation of learning;
21. to extend the use of information and communication technology ( ICT) instrumental in
educational process at every level
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22. to take special measures for the development of education of the backward classes of the
country including the street-children;
23. to promote and develop the languages and cultures of the indigenous and small ethnic
groups;
24. to ensure the education of the physically and mentally challenged learners;
25. to create a society free from the curse of illiteracy ;
26. to initiate special measures to promote education in the areas identified as backward in
education;
27. to ensure efficient and correct teaching of Bangla language;
28. to take necessary steps to create facilities of playground, sports, games and physical
exercises in all educational institutions for the healthy growth of the physical and mental
qualities of the learners;
29. to take various steps to foster hygienic awareness of the students;
30. to caution the students and make them aware of the dangers of taking drugs or similar
items.
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2. Pre-Primary and Primary Education
A. Pre-Primary Education
Aims and Objectives
Before the children begin their formal education, we need to create an environment conducive to
the growth of the universal human dispositions like the senses of endless wonder, infinite
curiosity, joy and inexhaustible fervour that reside in the deep recesses of the infantile psyche.
And this environment will prepare the children mentally and physically. So, it is important to
introduce pre-primary schooling to prepare them for school education. This preparatory education
conducted together with other fellow-mates will create an enthusiasm for learning in the children.
With this objective, a one-year pre-primary schooling must be introduced for 5+ children. Later,
this will be extended up to 4+ children. The curriculum at this phase will be:
Activities aimed at inspiring children to learn and to go to the school and cultivating their
finer senses;
Grooming them to be tolerant to others and to infuse in them the ideas about discipline
necessary for their subsequent formal education.
Strategies
1. Teaching at pre-primary level will be delivered through pictures, colours, attractive and
simple education materials, models, rhymes, songs, games and handiwork.
2. Teaching will be conducted in a pleasant environment characterized by love and care in
appreciation of childrens spontaneous vigour, spirit and their natural inquisitive faculties
and curiosity. The safety of the children will have to be ensured to resist any possible
physical or mental tortures on them.
3. Posts for teachers and number of classrooms will be increased in every school to facilitate
pre-primary schooling. But since this is an expensive endeavor and requires a long time-
span, so the initiative will be implemented in phases.
4. This schooling will include the instructional programs of the mosques, temples, churches
and pagodas presently being conducted by the Ministry of Religious Affairs, which seek to
impart religious teachings with alphabetical knowledge and modern education with moral
lessons.
B. Primary Education
Aims and Objectives
Primary education possesses utmost importance in our national life. Primary education is the basis
of building up a skilled citizenry and the path to include the whole population within the
education system. So, equal opportunities will be created to ensure access of all sections of
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children to primary education irrespective of ethnicity, socio-economic conditions, physical or
mental challenges and geographical differences. This is the Constitutional responsibility of the
state. Since this stage forms the foundation of subsequent levels of education, so delivery of
quality primary education is a must. And since many of the students seek employment after this
stage, a strong base in primary education will equip them better in the job market. To strengthen
the general foundation of primary education at the national level, the existing discriminations
among schools in regard to facilities, infrastructure constraints, lack of adequate number of
teachers and the weaknesses in training will be adequately addressed. Primary education will be
universal, compulsory, free and of uniform quality for all. At present 100% children cannot be
given access to primary schools for economic, regional and geographical factors. By 2010-11,
100% enrollment of primary education will be ensured. At least one primary school will be
established in the villages that have none.
Aims and Objectives

to develop a curricula and textbooks imbued with the national spirit with a view to cultivate
the humanistic values. A congenial and joyful environment need to be created in the schools
to promote healthy physical and mental development of the children;
to initiate a uniform and mandatory syllabus for some basic subjects to be taught in diverse
types of schools delivering primary education;
to help the students inculcate moral and spiritual values like idea of justice, sense of duty,
discipline and etiquettes, non-communalism, human rights, accommodative attitudes toward
corporate living, curiosity, friendliness and perseverance, and to encourage them to acquire
scientific, cultural and human values and to shun superstitions;
to ignite in them the spirit of our national liberation movement and encourage them with
patriotism to dedicate themselves to nation-building;
to make them motivated and capable of pursuing higher education through ensuring the
qualitatively adequate marginal skills at respective levels of studies; To achieve this,
adequate number of quality teachers will be appointed. Besides, the development of
physical infrastructure, favorable social ambience, competent pedagogy, warm teachers-
students relationship and the respectable status of women have to be ensured.
to take effective steps to ensure the acquisition of essential knowledge, subject-based
knowledge, life skills, attitudes, values and the sense of social awareness to meet their basic
learning needs that will enable them to move ahead to the next level of education;
Pre-vocational education will be in place from Classes VI to VIII to develop respect for
manual labour and to give them some idea of vocational education.
to facilitate learning in the mother languages of the indigenous peoples and small ethnic
groups at the primary level of education;
to initiate special monitoring for primary education especially in the backward areas;
Equal opportunities have to be ensured for all kinds of disabled and underprivileged
children.
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Strategies
The responsibilities of the State
The Constitution makes it mandatory for the State to ensure basic education for all. So, the State
is solely responsible for the management of primary education and the State has to discharge its
duty.
The process of nationalization of primary education will continue. The responsibility of primary
education cannot be delegated to private or NGO sectors. Any individual or any NGO willing to
run primary education institutions must seek permission of the respective authority in compliance
with rules and regulations of the State.
Duration and implementation of primary education

1. The duration of primary education will be extended from Class V [now in practice] to Class
VIII. There are two significant concerns to realize it: a) the need for infrastructural
development and b) recruitment of adequate number of qualified teachers.
The following steps will be taken immediately to include Classes VI, VII and VIII into the
primary education structure from FY 2011-12:
to prepare new curriculum , textbooks and the teachers guidelines for Classes I to VIII;
to organize effective training for the teachers for pedagogical practices in view of the
extension of the curricula;
to bring in required reorganization in the educational administration and management.
For this restructuring of primary education, the physical facilities and the number of teachers will
have to be increased. This 8-year long primary education will be ensured for all children of the
country, regardless of gender, socio-economic conditions and ethnicity by 2018 through the
implementation of appropriate methods.
Integration of different streams

2. According to the Constitution of Bangladesh, the State is committed to ensure uniform
basic education for all. As per this Constitutional directive and with a view to introducing
non-discriminating education system, a uniform curricula and syllabus will be followed in
some specific subjects at the primary level in all schools across the country. This will be
done to integrate all the streams of primary education such as government and non-
government primary schools, kindergartens (both Bangla & English media) and ibtedaye
madrassas. The schools can teach some extra subjects, in addition to those specific subjects,
with permission from the relevant department or directorate of education.
3. To develop the skills of the learners and for quality education, the ibtedaye and all kinds of
madrashas will introduce and follow 8-year primary education program and they have to
implement the newly integrated primary education system.
4. Steps will be taken to eradicate the existing discrimination in terms of facilities in different
types of primary education institutions (community schools, non-registered and registered
schools, government schools, kindergartens and urban/rural schools). All such institutions
including the kindergartens, English medium schools and all types of madrashahs will have
to register themselves with concerned authorities in compliance with set rules.
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Curricula and Syllabi
5. Specific subjects such as Bangla, English, Moral Science, Bangladesh Studies,
Mathematics, Social Environment, Natural Environment with emphasis on topics like
climate change, Science and Information Technology are to be there in the syllabus as
compulsory subjects for all students of diverse streams of primary education. A committee
of experts will be formed to develop the curricula and course contents of all subjects. This
committee will act with critical examination and appropriate attention. The instruction
related to information technology will be delivered through books as long as infrastructure
is not adequately developed and adequate number of computers and teachers cannot be
provided. Appropriate steps will be taken from the very beginning to ensure English
Writing and Speaking skills and that will be continued and emphasized in the forthcoming
classes as per needs. Subjects suitable for co-curricular programs can be introduced from
the Class I. Teaching of respective religious studies and moral sciences will be introduced
as a compulsory subject right from the primary level. In the last three Classes, i.e, from
Classes VI to VIII, students will be exposed to pre-vocational and information technology
lessons so that they can avail themselves of job opportunities if they discontinue their
studies after the primary level.
The age of admission/enrollment

6. The existing rule for the age of admission at 6+ will be made compulsory.
7. The ratio of teacher and students in primary education will be 1:30. This goal will be
achieved in phases by 2018.
The environment of the school

8. Attention will be paid to see that the responsive behavior of the teachers at primary level
does attract the learners to schools. Teaching methods will be joyful, attractive and learner-
friendly.
9. A safe, caring and favorable environment will be ensured for teaching and learning in the
school.
Education materials
10. The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB), in the light of the set objectives of
the primary education, will prepare subject-based textbooks, supplementary text materials,
exercise books and teaching aids (books with analyses, exercises and examples) with a view
to meeting the marginal requirements of every subject and class. All textbooks must be
flawless and written in easy and lucid language, directed towards creating an interest in the
students. The textbooks for the blind children will be prepared following the Braille
method.
Solution to drop-out
11. The volume of stipend for poor students will be extended.
12. The school environment will be made attractive and joyful. Some important steps that will
be taken in this regard include adequate facilities for games, sports, cultural activities, warm
interaction between teachers and students, caring and sympathetic attitudes of the teachers
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and a clean physical environment of the school. Separate modernized lavatories will be
made for boys and girls. Physical punishment will have no place.
13. The provision for lunch in schools is an urgent issue. This provision has to be implemented
phasewise in all schools located in the rural and backward areas.
14. Special attention will be given to create residential facilities in the schools of hilly and
remote areas.
15. In the schools located in the wetlands and areas prone to frequent natural calamities,
provisions will be there to change the timing of the school hours and to reschedule the
holidays according to their needs. In this regard, decisions can be taken at the local level on
the basis of community-based recommendations.
16. The trend of drop-out among girl students is quite high. So, special attention will be given
to improve this situation. Teasing of girl students at schools will be dealt with stringent
measures.
17. At present, the drop-out rate till or before the completion of Class V is about 50% and of
the rest, about 40% leave the school before completing Class X. It is extremely urgent to
bring down this rate of drop-out. So, necessary measures will be implemented so that all
students are enabled to complete Class VIII and it will be ensured by 2018.
Children of ethnic groups

18. Measures will be taken to ensure the availability of teachers from ethnic groups and to
prepare texts in their own languages so that ethnic children can learn their own indigenous
languages. In these initiatives, especially in preparing textbooks the inclusion of respective
indigenous communities will be ensured.
19. Special assistance will be provided to the marginalized indigenous children.
20. There are areas where no primary school exists. Primary schools will be set up in these
areas inhabited by ethnic people, both in hilly or plain lands. In some areas, there is a thin
ethnic population. So the schools may suffer from dearth of children. So, in order to create
opportunities of enrollment of sufficient number of children, residential facilities for
teachers and learners have to be created. This also claims necessary attention.
Physically challenged students

21. The facilities of the lavatories and the scope of smooth movement will be adequately
designed and created with special attention in order to fulfill the special needs of the
physically challenged learners.
22. Special and preferential attention will be given to their needs.
23. At least one trainer will be recruited in each of the PTIs to facilitate the special teaching
methods and needs of various types of challenged learners.
Street children and other ultra-deprived children

24. Special provisions like free admission, free education materials, free lunch at schools and
stipends will be arranged to attract and retain these children in the schools. Effective
measures will be taken for their safe protection within the schools.
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Acute discrimination of primary schools of different types & locations
25. Such existing discriminations will be minimized by phases. To meet this end, special
programs will be undertaken to extend special assistance to the schools in the rural and
backward areas so that the situation gets improved within some years.
Teaching methods
26. An interactive teaching method will be pursued to develop the creative faculties and skills
of the children and help them do the exercises through individual or group-work. Research
initiatives to find out the appropriate methods for innovation of effective teaching,
evaluation and implementation will be encouraged and supported.
Student assessment
27. In Classes I & II, there will be continuous assessments, while from Class III onwards,
quarterly, half-yearly & yearly examination systems will be in place. On the completion of
Class V, a terminal examination with identical set of questions will take place at Upazilla/
Pourashava/ Thana levels (of big cities). On the completion of Class VIII, a public
examination will take place to be initially known as Junior School Certificate Examination.
The Education Boards concerned with examination will conduct this public examination.
Improvement of schools, monitoring for quality education & community participation

28. To ensure community participation in the development activities of school, the management
committees will be further empowered, where necessary, to become more active. The
management committees will be constituted of some ex-officio members and others elected
through thoughtful consideration. Simultaneously, the accountability of the committee must
be ensured.
29. Measures will be taken to raise eagerness of the guardians regarding schools and their
childrens education through the establishment of pro-active guardians-teachers
committees.
Teachers recruitment & promotion

30. Minimum qualification for recruitment of teachers for Classes I to V will be HSC with 2nd
division or its equivalent degree. And for Classes VI to VIII, they will be men or women
with 2nd class Bachelor degrees. For lower classes, female teachers will get priority. The
recruited teachers have to receive training and earn C-in-Ed/B.Ed degree within 3-years
from their joining. For direct appointment in the post of a Head Teacher, the minimum
qualification will be graduation with 2nd class and he or she has to earn C-in-Ed or B.Ed
(primary) within 3 years. Teachers will be offered incentive through substantive packages
and salary scale for different levels (i.e., assistant teacher, assistant Head Teacher, Head
Teacher), with opportunities of promotion. Their pay and allowances will be fixed keeping
in mind their dignity and their important role in nation-building. Simultaneously, their
accountability must be ensured.
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31. Initiatives will be taken for teachers training and scope of their in-service training will be
broadened. Overseas training will be arranged depending on necessity and availability. The
skill and capacity of the national training institutions will be improved.
32. It is necessary to connect promotion with the training received by teachers. Vacancy for
higher posts will be filled in through direct appointment or accelerated promotion of higher
degree holders and qualified and trained teachers. If necessary, up gradation of posts will be
done through appropriate rules and regulations.
Teachers' selection
33. A separate Private Teachers Selection Commission will be established similar to Public
Service Commission for teachers selection for the non-government primary schools
(government approved & supported)) and ibtedaye Madrasas. This Commission will be
comprised of persons associated with education and administration. It will conduct the
selection process through written and oral tests. The selection will be at Upazila or district
level. The appropriate recruitment authority will recruit teachers for various schools out of
the candidates selected by the Commission. Coordinated efforts taken at Upazilla/Thana
level will annually decide on the number of teachers needed and the Commission will be
reported accordingly. On the basis of that, the target for recruitment of subject-wise
teachers will be fixed. The responsibility of teachers selection for secondary and private
(government supported) degree colleges will be delegated to this Commission.
The supervision and monitoring of education within the school

34. The main responsibility of supervising within the school rests with the Head Teachers. So,
special training has to be arranged for them so that they can discharge their duties skillfully.
The external monitoring and the supervision of the school will be decentralized as much as
possible. The officials responsible for (for example, ATPO) this task have to be assigned
with some fixed number of schools so that they can supervise and monitor skillfully.
Others
35. Various facilities will be increased by setting up required number of schools for the
extension of universal primary education. Surveys have to be conducted to find out the
villages where there is no school or where more schools will be built.
36. The status of National Academy for Primary Education (NAPE) has to be elevated to a top
national institution of very high quality so that it can innovate new methods of activities for
the development of primary education. Some necessary measures are to be undertaken to
achieve that, such as, training of the academic staff of PTIs and the other field officials
engaged in different projects; preparation and approval of syllabus for basic teachers
teaching, supervision of training, conducting of the exams of the trainees and conferral of
diploma and initiation of appropriate research activities for the development of primary
education, conducting of seminars and workshops.
37. The whole nation has to invest all its energies to ensure quality primary education for all.
38. Steps will be taken to build up elementary hygienic awareness among the learners (such as,
trimming the nails, washing the hands, cleaning the teeth etc.).
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3. Adult and Non-formal Education
Aims and Objectives

The objective of adult and non-formal education will be to make all the adult citizens of the
country literate by the year 2014. Bangladesh is one of the largest illiterate populated countries of
the world. At present, only 49% population above the age of 15 is literate, which means 51%
population of this age is still illiterate. The illiteracy rate is rife in the country due to limited scope
and rigidity of formal education on the one hand, and population explosion and poverty on the
other. For various reasons, a large number of students do not get enrolled in the schools or cannot
continue their studies. So, it is a pressing need to implement an effective mass education program
through adult and non-formal education formulated on the basis of the age of the learners and
their areas of learning.
Adult education
The aim of adult education is to make people literate, to offer them minimum skills in reading,
writing and numeracy, to instill in them some humane values, to make them aware of health and
environment and to increase their professional skills. Efforts will persistently continue till the
enrollment rate reaches 100% and all the adult people become literate.
Non-formal education
Non-formal education is a complementary stream to the formal primary education system. Those
children who cannot be in the schools till 100% enrollment is ensured at the primary level or drop
out of primary education are supposed to receive some basic education or vocational training to
use their skills in real life situations through the non-formal schooling system.
The children and adolescents completing their non-formal education will be eligible for admission
in the appropriate class of primary education.
Strategies
Adult education
1. Adult education will include literacy, development of human qualities, social awareness and
professional skills development.
2. This education will be provided to all illiterate male and female population of the country.
However, those who are between 15 to 45 years of age will enjoy priority.
3. Special training will be provided to the teachers for the delivery of adult education. Other
than those specified for literacy, the course contents will vary depending on the timeline of
the courses, pedagogy, qualifications of the teachers, learning methods, the demand of local
and non-resident population, the availability of the resources and the nature of professions
of the people. The national committee for curricula development of mass education
program will appropriately integrate other areas of studies like vocational and technical
education, health, nutrition and family welfare, agriculture, forestry and environment,
fisheries and livestock and it will design the contents of the courses keeping in mind the
opportunities of export of skilled manpower to the foreign countries.
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4. Opportunities of continued education will be created for continuous use of acquired
knowledge and skills. Study circles and community learning centers will be established in
each village.
5. Initiatives will be taken for collaborative efforts with all the government and non-
government organizations, civil societies through the coordinated means of diverse
methods, materials, processes supplemented by joint efforts of the target groups to wipe out
illiteracy from the country. Pragmatic initiatives will be encouraged and the most effective
ones, found out by evaluation, will be pursued and supported. An evaluation committee will
be formed consisting of the dignitaries of the society interested in education.
6. The educated individuals of the locality and students of colleges or universities enjoying
their vacations will be asked engage themselves for short-term adult education programs. In
that case, some realistic and practical models, presently in use, can be replicated for speedy
implementation.
7. The distance learning method through radio or television can be used for literacy program.
Non-formal education
8. The age limit for enrollment in the non-formal education will be from 8 to 14 years.
9. The course materials of non-formal education program will be prepared in the light of the
national curriculum of primary education and the materials will reflect the need felt by the
nation. The materials will be prepared to ensure the quality of education. A technical
committee for the curricula of mass education will evaluate the materials prior to approval.
10. The non-government voluntary organizations will be encouraged to conduct non-formal
education programs following the curriculum of national primary education. Efforts will be
made to make it accessible to the children from the backward, remote areas of the country
and belonging to the most deprived groups.
11. Training of teachers for non-formal education is an important issue. The teachers will be
trained in the learner-centered pedagogical approach.
The coordination of initiatives in the mass education sector

12. All necessary measures will be undertaken to coordinate all activities in the mass education
sector.
13. The role of the national media and of different ministries and departments will be
coordinated in the expansion of mass education.
The law related to mass education

14. Appropriate legal structure will be in place to fulfill the Constitutional obligations relating
to adult and non-formal education.
National awakening and volunteers

15. A nation-wide awakening will be created to achieve the goals of literacy. Measures will be
taken so that every educated person can contribute to this as per his/her possible ability.
16. A team of volunteers will be formed to make literacy movement a success.
17. The students of colleges and universities will be part of this movement.
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4. Secondary Education
Aims and Objectives

In the new academic structure, the secondary level of education will include Classes IX to XII. At
the end of this level, students will choose different streams of higher studies according to their
capabilities, or they will earn their livelihood by their acquired vocational education or they can
seek further vocational skills.
The aims and objectives of secondary education are:
to help develop learners' latent intellect and comprehensive inner faculties;
to develop a learner with competencies so that s/he can compete in the job market,
especially in the economic sector of the country;
to impart quality education at this primary level to extend and consolidate the knowledge
acquired during primary education to help the students acquire a strong foundation of
quality higher education;
to make efforts to mitigate discriminations among various secondary educational
institutions and among various socio-economic, ethnic and socially backward groups;
special steps will be taken to support advancement of education in the backward regions as
long as necessary;
to design, continue and implement a uniform curriculum and syllabus for the selected
subjects, irrespective of streams.
Strategies
Media of instruction
1. At this level, the media of instruction will be Bangla, but as per the competence of any
educational institution, it may also be English. For foreigners, there will be provision for
teaching of easy Bangla lessons.
Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbooks

2. There will be three streams at the secondary level, general, madrasa and technical and each
stream will have several branches. However, for all streams, uniformity will be maintained
through some stipulated compulsory subjects, such as Bangla, English, Bangladesh Studies,
General Mathematics and Information Technology. Examinations of each of these subjects
of all the streams will be held with identical question papers. Of course, there will be some
compulsory and optional subjects in each of the streams.
3. To achieve excellence in the stream-related subjects, the syllabus will be designed as per
needs and specific syllabus will be developed accordingly.
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4. An experts team will be constituted to prepare curricula and syllabi for all streams.
5. National Curriculum and Textbook Board will be responsible to design the uniform
curriculum and prepare necessary textbooks for every stream at secondary level, excepting
the special subjects of Madrasa and Vocational Education. Bangladesh Madrasa Education
Board and Bangladesh Technical Education Board will be responsible for designing and
preparing the textbooks and curriculum of special subjects of Madrasa and Vocational
Education.
Infrastructure, teachers and staff

6. High schools need to be added with Classes XI & XII, while higher secondary colleges will
have to add Classes IX & X. For this, the number of classrooms, furniture and educational
instruments will be increased. In high schools, subject-related teachers including English
will be appointed to teach at higher secondary level. For the implementation of these steps,
special care will be taken for supply of funds.
7. Infrastructure development of the educational institutions and availability of educational
materials will be ensured to deliver proper education and there will be facilities of enriched
library and instruments of sports. For better management of the library, the post of a
librarian will be created.
8. Every school offering science subjects must have a laboratory with necessary tools and
apparatus and its proper use and maintenance will be ensured.
Unprivileged students and under-developed regions

9. Appropriate facilities similar to the steps noted in the primary education section will be
provided to ensure equal opportunities for the students who suffer from some limitations.
Regional discriminations will be dealt with accordingly.
Economic activities and development of technology

10. Measures will be taken to expedite government support on a priority basis (such as salary
and benefits of teachers, the instruments and materials for teaching sciences etc.) to the
schools offering various subjects of science or subjects related to social sciences and
business studies, such as economics, accounting and other subjects like information
technology, computer sciences connected with technical education. All these subjects are
closely related to economic activities and development of technology.
Teacher-student ratio
11. Teacher-student ratio will have to be progressively raised in phases to 1:30 by 2018.
Recruitment of teachers
12. Adequate number of subject-wise teachers for different streams will be selected every year
by the proposed Non-Government Teachers Selection Commission following appropriate
process of written and oral examination. This Commission will function like the Public
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Service Commission. Appropriate authority will appoint teachers in different institutions
from the selected persons (details in Chap. 27).
Teachers training
13. Training will be arranged for all the teachers of all subjects. Teachers yet untrained need to
undergo training immediately. Newly-appointed teachers will undergo primary training
before they join their work. Priority will be given to the trained teachers while filling in
vacancies.
Student assessment
14. On completion of Class X, a public examination will be held on a national basis. This will
be known as Secondary Examination and stipends will be awarded till Class XII based on
the score of this examination. On completion of Class XII, another public exam will be
held, which will be called Higher Secondary Examination. Creative methodology will be
applied to both the examinations and evaluation will be made in the grading system.
Stipends for higher studies will be offered on the basis of the results in Higher Secondary
Examination. (details in Chap. 21)
Invigilation and monitoring

15. Administration will conduct regular and effective invigilation and monitoring of the
educational institutions.
Others
16. All cadet colleges will follow the uniform curricula in matters of basic subjects and take
part in the general public examination system.
17. Since the course contents, curriculum, examination and assessment of the O level and A
level education are held on overseas policy, so these will be treated as a special system.
This system will be run according to government approval. But both the levels will have to
include Bangla and Bangladesh Studies as in practice in the general stream of secondary
education. With the fulfillment of this condition, O level will be treated as equivalent to
SSC while A level to HSC.
18. The courses called adya, madhya and upadhi of Sanskrit and Pali will continue after
necessary revisions. A modern course will be designed and put to practice by integrating the
subjects of uniform curricula, such as Bangla, English, Bangladesh Studies, General
Mathematics and Information Technology with the compulsory courses of Sanskrit and
Pali.
19. The equivalence of the certificate/Upadhi of traditional Sanskrit and Pali education will be
enacted as per the recommendations of University Grants Commission.
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5. Vocational and Technical Education
Aims and Objectives

Skilled workforce is an essential concomitant of national development. Methods and strategies of
development have changed worldwide on the wake of new innovations and inventions of science.
Each and everyday, developing countries are facing unequal and aggressive competition in the
world of business, transport, marketing of products, export of skilled manpower and
communication in the international market. For a developing country like Bangladesh,
opportunities of economic development will be created in this state of unequal competition and
the value of physical labor will be enhanced. So highest importance will be given to turn our
students into competent manpower through vocational and technical education with emphasis on
science, technology and specially on information technology. It is noteworthy that at present, in
the rural areas of Bangladesh, expansion of science and technology is reaching out very fast from
agriculture and farming to sugarcane threshing machines, rice-mills, communication sector,
supply of electricity, power looms, etc. The country needs to develop in these sectors including
Information and Communication Technology (ICT). It needs competent manpower to meet up
internal needs. Moreover, there is a high demand of skilled manpower abroad and this will
gradually increase over the coming years. And export of skilled manpower can increase our
foreign currency earning. Development programs will be undertaken to build up competent
manpower in view of national and international demands.
The aims and objectives of vocational and technical education are:
to increase competent manpower in diverse sectors including Information and
Communication Technology at a fast pace keeping in mind the national and international
demands;
to build up skilled manpower at a fast pace to create opportunities of economic
development and to increase dignity of labour;
to create wide-ranging employment opportunities through export of skilled manpower and
to enhance foreign currency earnings.
Strategies
1. Pre-vocational and Information Communication Technology education will be introduced
in every stream of primary education to create skilled manpower. All students of primary
level must complete 8-year cycle with pre-vocational and ICT courses as included in the
curricula of Classes VI to VIII.
2. On completion of Class VIII, a student can enroll in vocational/technical education.
Facilities will be created for the students of this stream so that they can gradually go up for
higher education in their desired technical subjects.
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3. On completion of Class VIII, some students may opt out of mainstream education. But they
can take up a 6 months' vocational training program. Then they will be considered to have
acquired National Standard of Skills-1. By completing Classes IX, X and XII in vocational
and technical education, one can attain respectively National Standard of Skills 2, 3 and 4.
4. On completion of Class VIII, one can undergo vocational training of 1, 2 and 4 years to be
coordinated by mills, factories, and government technical institutes or non-government
vocational training institutes situated in the upazillas and districts and thereby earn National
Standard of Skills 2, 3 and 4.
5. SSC graduates and students having certificates of National Standard of Skills 4 are eligible
for admission in various diploma programs by coordinating credits. These programs include
Diploma in Engineering/ Business Management (XI-XII)/Diploma in Commerce (XI-XII)
and courses of similar standard. But priority will be given to the students who have degrees
in vocational education.
6. Students having technical diplomas will be eligible for admission in Bachelor program of
different and relevant courses (such as Engineering, Textiles and Agriculture etc.) through
some tests and coordination of credits.
7. In the vocational and technical educational institutions, teacher-student ratio will be 1: 12.
8. In every curriculum of vocational and technical education, highest importance will be given
to achieving proper competencies. Computer and ICT will be included as compulsory
subjects in vocational and technical education curricula.
9. Apprenticeship program will be introduced nation-wide. The Apprenticeship Act 1962 will
be updated and revised.
10. Special attention will be given to the students with disabilities to ensure their participation
in the vocational and technical education.
11. Hands-on training within mills and factories on the subjects studied will be compulsory for
teachers of all levels. To ensure training for every teacher of vocational and technical
education, posts/seats in VTTI and TTTC will be increased and if necessary, the number of
such institutes will also be increased.
12. Adequate number of relevant books in Bangla will be authored, translated and published to
facilitate vocational and technical education.
13. In every upazilla, one technical education institute will be established for the expansion of
technical education. Besides, the number of polytechnic institutes, textile institutes, and
leather institutes will be increased.
14. The vocational and technical institutes offering secondary level vocational education will
provide courses on technical, agricultural and business studies.
15. All technical and vocational education institutes of the country will be put under the control
of the Technical Education Directorate to consolidate this education stream. Technical
Education Directorate will be further empowered and funds and manpower will be made
available as per necessity.
16. Government budget will be allocated on priority basis in the sector of vocational and
technical education.
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17. Appropriate steps will be taken to fill in the vacant posts in vocational and technical
institutes.
18. Public-private partnership collaboration will be encouraged to establish new technical and
vocational institutes and to develop their management. But boys and girls belonging to
insolvent families will have opportunities to study in these institutions.
19. Technical and vocational institutions can run two shifts for Diploma in Engineering and
other diploma courses in order to ensure the highest use of their infrastructure and other
facilities. But attention will be given to maintain quality and to ensure standard contact
hours.
20. School leavers and elderly people can be turned into competent manpower by designing
evening and short courses of vocational or diploma curricula with the use of the facilities of
vocational education institutes.
21. Students unable to study beyond Class VIII or those who discontinue after any level of
secondary education for sundry reasons (economic or familial) will be motivated to
undertake vocational or technical courses and to complete the courses. Necessary stipends
will be given to them as financial help. Such students will be brought under vocational
curriculum within a reasonably acceptable time-frame.
22. Private sector will be encouraged to establish quality vocational and technical institutions.
Priority will be given to them for inclusion of MPO for the teachers of these institutes.
Necessary resources, materials and instruments and financial support will also be provided.
23. A survey will be conducted about the needs of the countries that import manpower from
Bangladesh. Course materials in vocational and technical education will be included
accordingly. Provision will be there to train the students to have some primary skills of the
languages of those countries.
24. The curricula of vocational and technical education will be constantly under review and
revision in view of job markets of home and abroad.
25. In future, steps will be taken to establish a technical university.
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6. Madrasa Education
Aims and Objectives

In Madrasa Education, all possible opportunities to learn Islam and to develop this stream will be
ensured. Steps will be taken so that the students can understand the ideals and spirit of Islam and
learn about its doctrines and ways of life. At the same time, the students will get competencies in
different branches of knowledge and sciences. They will be able to add qualitatively in those
areas. They will be enabled to equally compete with the students of general and English medium.
With this end in view-
The aims and objectives of madrasa education are:
to establish firm belief in Almighty Allah in the minds of the learners and his Prophet
(Pbuh) and to enable them to understand the true meaning of Islam;
to build them up as students motivated to preach and propagate the tradition of Islamic
virtues; to build up their character in a way so that they can make the communities aware of
different aspects of Islam, its religious customs and rituals and to inspire the learners to the
codes of life as prescribed in Islam;
to build them up in a way that they can know and understand the true ideal and spirit of
Islam and accordingly become persons of sound moral characters and are able to reflect
those ideals and principles in all aspects of life;
to instruct and follow the general and compulsory subjects as recommended for different
levels of others streams.
Strategies
1. At present, Madrasa education is an inseparable part of the national education process.
Therefore, necessary steps will be taken to keep the originality of this stream but it will be
updated according to the demands of present times so that it imbibes new vigor.
2. Currently, in Bangladesh 5-year Ibtedaye, 5-year Dhakil, 2-year Alim, 2-year Fazil and 2-
year Kamil courses are in practice. To maintain equivalence to other streams, Madrasa
courses will be redesigned where Ibtedaye courses will be of 8-year and Dakhil and Alim 2-
year each. 4-year Fazil honours and 1-year Kamil course will be introduced to coordinate
these with the higher education of general stream, subject to recruitment of necessary and
qualified teachers and availability of necessary materials. But till these facilities can be
ensured, the existing duration of Fazil and Kamil courses will continue.
3. At the Ibtedaye level, curriculum of different classes will be coordinated in tune with other
streams including the compulsory subjects such as, Bangla, English, Moral Science,
Bangladesh Studies, General Mathematics, Social Environment, Environmental Science
with the inclusion of the concepts of climate change, and Information Technology. These
subjects will be compulsory for all. From Classes VI to VIII, pre-vocational and
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communication technology education will be offered. At Dakhil level, Bangla, English,
General Mathematics (upto Class X), Information Technology and Bangladesh Studies will
be compulsory subjects.
4. The salary structure and benefits of madrasa teachers will be revised in similarity with
general education and accordingly, the opportunities of higher training and research will be
made available to them. To attain this, teachers training will be organized at Madrasa
Teachers Training Institute at Gazipur for teachers of different levels. Necessary steps will
be taken to extend the scope of training.
5. A Kowmi Madrasa Education Commission will be formed with representatives from the
persons involved with the learning process and management of this stream. This
commission will prepare necessary recommendations for education in this stream and
submit them for the consideration of the government.
6. Like other streams, importance will be given to the subjects such as, English, Science,
Mathematics, Bangladesh Studies, Information Technology and Vocational Education in
the syllabus and curriculum of Ibtedaye and Dakhil levels so that the students get equal
opportunities and find them competent for the demand and needs of the national and
international job market. To attain this goal, the Madrasa teachers will be properly trained;
laboratories with adequate supply of tools and apparatus will be established and
infrastructure will be developed like other vocational and technical education institutions.
7. As in the general stream, in Madrasa education too, necessary reforms will be enacted.
Necessary education materials, scholarships, supply of free textbooks and instruments for
sports etc. will be ensured and a rich library will be established in every madrasa.
8. Bangladesh Madrasa Education Board will be reorganized to function more effectively for
the approval and re-approval of madrasas, designing curriculum, textbooks, conducting
examinations and giving certificates at the Ibtedaye, Dakhil and Alim levels.
9. The evaluation process as practiced in the education of general stream will be followed in
madrasas too.
10. Proper management and supervision will be effectively in place to improve the quality of
teaching at every level of madrasa education. The process will be in consistent with the one
proposed for general education system.
11. Comparative theology will be offered as an optional subject at Fazil and Kamil levels.
12. At present, for the higher levels of Madrasa education, namely Fazil and Kamil, the overall
responsibility of management including recommendation of curriculum and textbooks,
supervision and monitoring of the institutions and the conduct of the examinations lies with
Islamic University at Kushtia. It is difficult for a regular university to accomplish all these
responsibilities. An affiliating Islamic University will be established to perform all these
functions.
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7. Religious and Moral Education
Aims and Objectives

The objective of religious and moral education is imparting knowledge about the respective
religions of the learners, improvement of the students behavioral pattern, and establishment of
moral virtues in life and society and building of moral character of the learners.
The objectives of this education are:
to impart proper and quality religious and moral education by radicalizing the existing
system;
to put further emphasis on moral aspect; along with fundamental teachings of every
religion; Religious education will not limit itself only to religious customs and rituals,
rather it will seek to build up the moral character of the students.
Strategy
a. Religious Education
Islam
1. Developing firm belief in Allah, his Prophet (Pbuh) and the Judgment Day; Islam will be
taught in such a way that the learners realize the essence of Islam and not just the religious
rituals.
2. Appropriate and quality books need to be authored so that the students become aware of
different aspects of Islam including the religious rituals and customs.
3. Proper measures will be taken for the teaching of the significance of Kalima, Namaz, Roza,
Hajj and Zakat.
4. Students will be encouraged to acquire noble virtues, honesty and courage. They will be
infused with patriotic spirit. Students will build up their characters with moral and human
values that will be reflected in their social and national consciousness.
Hinduism
1. Concepts will be given to the students so that they can realize that the Almighty is at the
root of all creations, and the Almighty is the root of religion. Students will know about the
theory of creation and Hindu theology.
different aspects of Hinduism including the religious rituals and customs.
3. Tales and stories contained in various religious books of Hinduism will be part of the
curriculum to inculcate moral values.
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Buddhism
1. Students will be taught about Shiddharthas skills in diverse areas of learning, four
philosophical stands of Buddha, control over the senses and his last advices.
different aspects of Buddhism including the religious rituals and customs.
3. Students will be inspired with moral values through the teaching of the tales and stories
related to Gautam Buddha and they will know that material luxury of earthly life and wealth
has no value after death and that only the good deeds are the reward of life.
Christianity
1. Students will find the path, directives and lessons necessary for the fulfillment of life
through the knowledge of life, work and teachings of Jesus Christ.
different aspects of Christianity including the religious rituals and customs.
3. Students will be appropriately taught to lead a sound physical, psychological and spiritual
life and they will be mentally prepared to help others to lead a healthy spiritual and moral
life.
Other Religions
Indigenous people and other communities who observe different religious faiths, other than the
four major religions, will have opportunities to learn about their own religions and concerned
values.
b. Moral education
Morality is rooted in religion. However, social and cultural values and regional realities also
significantly contribute to it. The methods of teaching moral education will be determined by
attaching importance to these factors and through the preparation of appropriate textbooks.
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8. Higher Education
Aims and Objectives

The purpose of higher education is to generate and innovate knowledge, at the same time to build
up a skilled manpower. Autonomy is a must for the centres of higher studies including the
universities. But it will be implemented under some set rules. A government monitoring system
will be in place to monitor whether the allocated fund is being utilized in a proper way. At
present, many specialists of specific areas devote their knowledge and research intensively to their
specialized areas. That creates divisism in the area of knowledge. On the other hand, a
counteraction also takes place leading to increasing interdependency of different branches of
knowledge. As a result, science and technology, sociology, literature, arts, economics and other
subjects are becoming interdependent. This is added by inventions of new technologies.
Especially, with the unprecedented development of information technology and newer scientific
inventions, the perception about the world is getting renewed. In this context, no one can deny the
importance of the co-ordination of knowledge that counteracts the divisism in the area. The
traditional higher education system is not enough to fulfill present-day the needs of an
independent country like Bangladesh. In this respect, re-structuring of the whole system is an
imperative need. The non-government higher education institutions must run according to set
rules so that they can deliver quality education, in particular, in the areas of science, technology
and business studies.
The aims and objectives of higher education are:
to help the students in the acquisition of world class education; to generate inquisitiveness
among them and to help them grow up with human qualities;
to help in the unhindered practice of intellectual exercises and growth of free thinking;
to relate the realities of the country with higher education in all conceivable areas; to
identify the problems of the society and state and to find out solutions to them;
to expand the horizon of knowledge through ceaseless cultivation of knowledge and
through multidimensional, original and practical research;
to effectively introduce students to the knowledge of the modern and fast advancing world;
to build up citizens who will possess scientific, secular, liberal, humane, progressive and
forward-looking mindset;
to innovate new areas of knowledge through cultivation, research and creativity;
to build up a citizenry inspired by wisdom, creativity, human values and patriotism.
Strategies
1. After successful completion of secondary education from different streams, students will be
allowed to take up higher study according to their merit, interests and aptitudes.
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2. Measures will be taken to provide residential facilities, special help and scholarships for the
children of freedom fighters, of small ethnic communities and socially backward groups for
sundry reasons.
3. Academic institutions, which can ensure quality education, (such as colleges and
universities) will provide higher education. Minimum qualification will not be relaxed for
quota system or any other reasons.
4. All necessary steps and care will be taken to improve the standard of higher education.
5. 4-year Honours degree will be considered as the terminal degree and acceptable/required
qualification for jobs in all sectors excepting teaching positions at higher education
institutions.
6. 4-year Honours course will be introduced in the colleges gradually in stead of the existing
3-year degree courses..
7. Masters, M.Phil or Ph.D will be considered as specialized education. Only those interested
in research and teaching positions at tertiary level will seek admission for post-graduate
degrees. To ensure pursuance of research, graduate programs will be introduced in all
departments of all universities. They will offer regular programs for Masters, M.Phil or
Ph.D degrees. General duration of Masters course will be one year, for M.Phil 2 years and
for Ph.D, it will be 6 years from the date of registration.
8. Colleges now offering Masters degrees under National University will continue to do so.
But the libraries, laboratories and infrastructural facilities of these colleges have to be
improved. Teachers of these colleges must have the opportunities of wide-ranging teachers
training. The colleges that will introduce 4-year Honours degree courses will ascertain
similar improvement in the areas noted above.
9. English will be taught as a compulsory subject at the degree level of all colleges and
universities. It will carry 100 marks/3 credits.
10. Teachers and students together have to take part in research work. At the universities,
special emphasis will be given on original research. Sufficient and attractive funds will be
made available to the brilliant students to carry on innovative research. There will be larger
number of fellowships beside the recently introduced Bangabandhu fellowship. At the same
time, steps will be taken to create necessary facilities of research in the degree colleges.
11. Curricula and syllabi of higher education will be updated to meet international standards. In
order to expand tertiary level education, it is essential to translate standard books of modern
knowledge and science into Bangla. Recognizing the national importance of such a
program, urgent steps will be taken. English will remain as a medium of instruction in
higher education along with Bangla.
12. The scope of higher education will include subjects like defense studies, comparative
theology, peace and conflict, climate change etc.
13. Necessary investment in education sector will be ensured to maintain international standard
of higher education. Beside the government funds, institutions of higher studies will have to
make use of students fees and collect funds at personal levels to meet expenditures. At
present, the amount of admission and tuition fees at public colleges and universities is
nominal. Tution and other fees will be determined as per the financial solvency of the
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parents. Poor parents and students will benefit from such a system. The guardians will have
to produce proofs of their financial insolvency. Appropriate rules and regulations in this
regard will be formulated.
14. Scholarships will be awarded to the students according to their merit and financial solvency
of their parents. Moreover, provisions will be made for meritorious students for academic
bank loans at soft terms.
15. Steps will be taken to update and strengthen Jute Research Institute, Textile College and
University and College of Leather Technology since jute, garments and leather are the most
prospective sectors in view of the developing economy of Bangladesh.
16. Refreshers teachers training is an urgent issue. With this in view, seminar or subject-based
training will be organized in the universities during the long vacations. The teachers of
colleges and universities can work together in such programs.
17. Every university and college will follow a planned and fixed academic calendar. Academic
calendar, containing the date of beginning of new classes, examinations and all annual
activities, will be published in printed form before the commencement of the academic
year.
18. To uphold the quality of higher education, the private universities, proposed or approved,
must maintain the standard of education, curriculum, syllabus and recruitment of teachers of
high academic qualifications at par with the public universities. These universities cannot
discriminate students in respect of race, religion, caste, socio-economic conditions and
physical disabilities. Such institutions will not be established and conducted for
profiteering. They cannot advocate anything against our freedom, spirit of war of liberation
and Bengali culture and must refrain from doing anything of that kind.
19. At the tertiary level, teachers will be persuaded to carry on their research in their own
institutions. To strengthen research activities, measures will be taken to initiate institution-
based consultancy. Teachers involved with such projects will be entitled to standard
honorarium. Such activities are in place in many universities. On evaluation and assessment
of these activities, a policy guideline can be formulated.
20. Measures will be taken for the introduction of radio transmission, multi-information system
and allocation of longer time on T.V. channels like opening a second channel of BTV, for
better functioning of the Open University.
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9. Engineering Education
Aims and Objectives

Modern age is the age of science and technology. Now, not just in the developed countries, the
use of science and technology in every sphere of life has become very common in our society too.
As a result, the scenario of social life and social activities has kept on changing dynamically.
Accordingly, the academic curricula of Engineering will have to undergo substantial changes in
the 21st century.
The aims and objectives of engineering education are:
to produce competent engineers with practical and scientific minds and to build up
technically trained manpower who can work for the development of country, for the
procurement of resources, for poverty eradication and who can contribute to the
improvement of the society and its economic conditions;
to put special emphasis on information technology in all spheres of life to build up an
information technology-based Bangladesh; to create engineers who are likely to work to
fulfill this goal.
Strategies
1. At present, there is a special demand for skilled engineers at national and international
levels. There is a need for modern technology to cope with the changing socio-economic
environment, development, production and management system. In order to fulfill this
demand, the institutions of engineering have to operate in more than 1 shift. If necessary,
steps will be taken to increase the number of engineering and technology universities.
2. More attention will be given to the research and post-graduate courses at the university
level to develop the resources of the country and solve different technical problems and to
produce highly skilled engineers. Engineering problems of local industries will be the major
areas of research.
3. Curricula will be developed in keeping pace with the unprecedented and rapid growth of
modern technology. Care will be taken to connect it with education.
4. New faculties of studies will be introduced in science and technology universities to build
up competent engineers and technologists required in the field of large industries like
information technology, engineering, chemical industry, textiles, jute, leather, ceramic and
gas sectors. In this regard, decision has to be taken as per the rules of University Grants
Commission. Decisions that involve further financial aid will only be taken on the
assurance of supply of such funds from appropriate organizations.
5. Courses in engineering, information technology and technologies will be made more
effective in view of national and international demands. Curriculum and course contents
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need to be updated. Provision will be made in the factories and industries for supplementary
studies of the students.
6. Industrial organizations and service providers will be connected with the institutions
offering engineering education. Research work on issues related to apprenticeship will be
conducted. At the same time, proper initiatives will be taken for mutual collaboration
among engineering institutions and Chambers of Commerce and Industry.
7. Emphasis will be given on economics, sociology, development, poverty eradication and
management while preparing the curriculum and syllabus of engineering education.
8. Continuous training, education and professional development programs for the professional
engineers will be in place on a larger scale in the context of shortened life-cycle of science
and technology and the continuous thrust of information and technology.
9. The diploma engineers may seek admission for higher studies in the engineering and
technology universities. They will be eligible for regular admission tests according to their
merit and quality and by appropriate coordination of their credits.
10. To ensure proper evaluation and standardization of prevailing engineering and technical
education at various levels, there will be a system of evaluation and recognition as in
practice in other countries of the world. The task will be undertaken by high professionals
and specialized organizations.
11. The textile engineering college and university, technical teachers' colleges and leather
Technology College will be developed and strengthened.
12. The government will provide guidance to encourage higher studies and research in the area
of engineering. University Grants Commission will take the responsibility of coordination,
monitoring and financial assistance.
13. Academic Calendar will be published and followed at the very outset of every academic
session.
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10. Medical, Nursing and Health Education
Aims and Objectives

A healthy and able population is a must for a country to move forward. For this, it needs health
awareness, preventive measures to combat diseases, proper treatment and medical facilities. So
proper education is essential to produce sufficient doctors, nurses, male nurses, health workers
and specialists. Learners have to gain professional competency and at the same time, they have to
grow up as sensitive and conscientious persons.
The aims and objectives of health education and medical services are:
to produce competent doctors, nurses, specialists, consultants of high standard, dentists,
health assistants and workers, health technicians and health manpower to ensure necessary
medical facilities to the entire population of the country to keep them healthy and to build
them up as an active population;
to build up capable manpower to ensure the primary healthcare for all to be provided by the
government;
Since medical profession is characteristically more sensitive and is related to the physical,
mental sufferings/sickness that concern the issues of life and death, the specialists and
general doctors, dentists, nurses, health assistants and workers and health technicians are to
be motivated and trained as to work as sensitive and conscientious human beings devoted to
the service of mankind.
The benefits of the advancement of medical sciences will be carried to the people,
particularly to the rural population. To do this, extension of medical education in the forms
of training and research for the specialists, general doctors, dentists, health assistants and
technicians, nurses and health workers is simply essential. They will be motivated to devote
themselves to social and human services.
to ensure higher training and use of modern technology to build up qualified medical
educationists and specialists to cope with the problems of ailment of the countrys
population;
to conduct medical research to invent or discover new indigenous methods for healing
diseases.
Strategies
1. Admission test will be held to admit new students in medical colleges after the completion
of HSC degree No candidate will be allowed to sit for the admission test more than
twice/two years.
2. Medical colleges will follow 5-year curricula and syllabuses and 1-year of internship.
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3. Larger number of medical academics and specialists are required for the extension and
development of post-graduate medical studies. Steps will be taken in this regard. The
existing post-graduate medical courses conducted by different medical colleges will
continue.
4. Standard of education must be ensured in all medical colleges. Provision for sufficient
equipments and instruments in the laboratories will also be ensured. Measures will be taken
for other provisions required.
5. The demand for nursing profession has been increasing day by day at home and abroad. So
opportunities for quality nursing education and nursing training have to be extended.
6. Measures will be taken to introduce B.Sc. and M.Sc. courses in nursing.
7. Nursing training centers will be attached to hospital management.
8. Measures will be taken for the expansion of education and skilled training for the health
assistants.
9. Facilities for standard paramedical education will be expanded. Minimum requirement for
admission in this course will be SSC or its equivalent. With the objective of building up
larger manpower, all medical college hospitals will offer courses in nursing and paramedics.
10. Beside developing modern medical education, steps will be taken to improve the traditional
Homeopathy, Unani and Ayurvedic medical practices.
11. To ensure quality education and training in private medical colleges, there must be a proper
evaluation and monitoring system. Meticulous care will be taken to evaluate the project
while approving new private medical colleges. A powerful medical accreditation council
will be formed with efficient and appropriately powerful personnel to evaluate and certify
these institutions.
12. Besides, academic institutions for physio-therapy, clinical psychology, physical medicine
and psychiatry will be established.
13. Steps will be taken for necessary training in electro-medical and bio-medical engineering,
biophysics, medical information science and physio-therapy in view of the increasing
demand of health services.
14. Provision will be created for higher education for the paramedics holding diploma in
medical technology.
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11. Science Education
Aims and Objectives

The chief objective of science is to understand nature. Science has been unraveling the mystery of
nature by experiment, observation and mathematical logic. On one hand, it fulfills the
inquisitiveness of human being and on the other, it helps human civilization to continuously move
forward through the utilization of different technologies originated out of scientific knowledge.
Proper study of science can only help the nation reach its destination quickly.
The aims and objectives of science education are:
to prepare the learners in a way that helps them develop their talent, practice of knowledge
and creativity equal to an international standard;
to provide science education to the learners in a way so that the learners understand that
there exists a close relationship between technology and humanities and each of them is
complementary to the other; Science will be taught as a coordinated discipline.
Strategies
Primary education
1. Science education will be introduced at the initial stage. Learners will not be loaded with
information but they will learn science with the proper introduction to nature, environment
and facts around them. From the very beginning, they will be trained up to develop a
scientific mindset.
2. In addition to classroom teaching, there must be some facilities to show them pictures,
videos and to use their observation skills. There will be scope for some experiments that can
be carried out with easily accessible materials.
3. Teachers will always encourage the learners' curiosity and their quality to think
independently. Teachers will also help them to use facts and information from practical life
rather than asking them to memorize a lot of information.
4. There will be an integrated science course that includes its different branches for the
students of Classes VI to VIII at the primary level. Textbooks must be attractive, easily
comprehensible and full of illustration. The learners will receive education on health care.
Secondary Education
5. Since the study of science is closely related to maths, special emphasis will be given to the
learning of maths. Graduates in maths will be appointed as math teachers.
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6. Textbooks and teaching methods will be prepared in a way that these will help learners gain
basic knowledge about different branches of science and make them feel comfortable in
problem-solving and enable them to use this knowledge in real life.
7. Without practical classes, science education becomes useless. So, practical classes on a
regular basis will be arranged for science and maths. Proper evaluation of practical tests
will be ensured so that arbitrary assessment does not take place.
8. In order to popularize science and mathematics to the students, science fair or Math
Olympiad will be organized in every school in tune with annual sports or cultural week.
Science fair and Maths Olympiad will also be organized at national level.
Higher Education
9. 4-year Honours course will be considered as the terminal degree. So this qualification will
be accepted as satisfactory qualification for jobs in all sectors excepting teaching at higher
level or for research positions. Syllabus will be designed in that way.
10. Proper research work can only be undertaken in Graduate schools (Post-graduate level)
through regular Masters and Ph.D programs. So these programs will be introduced with the
opening of graduate schools in all universities. Decision for research will be undertaken by
finding out the problems of the country to suggest necessary solutions. Fund for research
will be made available.
11. Investment will be increased for research in sciences. Efforts will be made to establish
collaborative relationship among universities and industrial organizations.
12. Research journals will be published to share the result of research with others.
Simultaneously, measures will be taken to make all research journals accessible to the local
researchers. Communication will be established among all libraries of the country through
information technology and networking.
13. National and international conferences will be organized regularly to create an environment
of research.
14. Employment opportunities will be created to attract meritorious students in the study of
sciences. High quality central research centre and institutions will be established.
Others
15. There must be some in-service training programs to train up teachers from primary to the
university levels so that they can acquire the techniques and skills of teaching by using
modern science and technology.
16. To ensure the practical learning of science, it is essential to establish science laboratories in
all Upazilas under the supervision and financial aid of the Government. Students of schools,
colleges and madrasas will have opportunities to work there by turns.
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12. Information Technology Education
Aims and Objectives

About two centuries ago, civilization took a radical turn on the wake of industrial revolution.
Change is again taking place in the 21st century because of ICT revolution. By becoming a part of
this revolution, Bangladesh, as a developing country, has found remarkable opportunities to
alleviate poverty. Proper use of information technology can lead to the achievement of expected
skills. Technology can play a vital role in the eradication of corruption by bringing in
transparency in the state machinery. More attention will be given to prospective areas of export
such as software, data processing or call centre services industry including supply of skilled
manpower in information technology.
The aims and objectives of information technology education are:
to produce competent manpower of international standard, trained and educated in
information technology to perform efficiently in relevant fields;
Information technology will not be limited to computer science only, rather mobile phones,
radio, television data collection and processing of information are also to be included and
emphasis will be given on its multi-angular necessity.
Strategies
Primary, Secondary, Vocational and Technical education
1. Right from the Primary level of education, computer will be used as a tool of teaching.
2. All students will be computer-literate before they reach the secondary level.
3. Secondary education level students are supposed to study computer science along with
mathematics and science.
4. In vocational and technical education, there must be the scope of learning graphic design,
multimedia, animation, CAD/CSM etc.
5. In order to increase interest in information technology, IT Olympiad can be organized at
national and international levels.
Higher education
6. Computer Science and Information Technology departments of international standard
curriculum will be opened in all universities.
7. Teaching of computer science and information technology of high standard will be
regularly updated at the university level and students will be offered necessary training to
build them up as skilled IT manpower.
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8. Opportunities will be created for the students of science and other subjects to appear at
national level examination system so that they can become IT manpower. If necessary,
training courses will be arranged for them.
9. Close relationships will be built up between universities and industrial institutions.
10. Open University will be built up as a true digital university enriched by facilities of IT.
11. A system will be developed so that all graduates can learn basic skills in computer by 2013.
12. An Information Technology University (ITU) will be established for the purpose of training
of teachers engaged in teaching of IT in higher education and to facilitate research in this
field.
Others
13. Coordinated steps will be taken in order to expand IT education and computer science at the
grassroots level and to establish IT training centers and tele centers at district and
upazila/thana levels.
14. Training will be arranged to develop computer skills for government/non-government
officials and policy-makers.
15. Computer skills will be treated as an additional qualification for recruitment in third class or
higher position in government/non-government institutions.
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13. Business Studies
Aims and Objectives

Contribution of industry, trade and service organizations is very important in the economic
development of the country. In this education policy, business studies has been treated as an
integrated formation of necessary branches of knowledge that are required to conduct the
activities of industries, trade and services organizations. Proper learning of business studies can
help find a job or take business as a career as a means of living. In the present world, which is
characterized by market economy, widespread global commodity market and strong
competitiveness, efficient management and activities related to it constitute the pre-condition of
institutional success. This is why the importance and demand of business studies have been
increasing in the present world including Bangladesh.
The aims and objectives of business studies education at various levels are:
to ensure acquisition of fundamental knowledge about trade and commerce;
to build up ethical values in the area of trade and commerce;
to impart necessary knowledge to become a successful entrepreneur;
to help acquire necessary knowledge on financial, commercial and human management and
thereby getting the most from the workers and further to create efficient managers;
to prepare learners to find self-employment in case of drop out at any level of student life;
to create skilled human resources as lower, middle and higher rank officers, executives,
managers, accountants in accordance to the needs of variable size of organizations;
to select and train the workers and help the workers to acquire knowledge with the objective
of increasing their productivity;
to facilitate in earning the professional degrees in management, accounting, financial
management, bank and insurance management.
Strategies
1. Measures will be taken for extension, revision and coordination of business studies on the
basis of demands at home and abroad. To do this, it is necessary to bridge the educational
institutions with the private sector. This will be a continuous actively.
2. Business Studies will be initiated from the secondary level i.e. from Class IX.
3. Use of computer will be compulsory for all students of business studies and all kinds of
information technologies will be made easily available to them. For this, establishment of a
computer lab is a must in the Business Studies Departments of all colleges and universities.
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4. Facilities will be created to improve teachers' training at all levels of Business Studies
education and to encourage the establishment of a Business Studies Training Institute.
5. Formal steps will be taken to help conduct research by the teachers of Business Studies in
relating to the actual problems in industries, banks, insurance and trade organizations.
6. Course curriculum and textbooks will be prepared for all levels of Business Studies
education on the basis of the demand of industries, trade and service-oriented organizations
and their prospective development. Curricula for different levels will depend on the
respective demands and objectives of each level.
7. Curricula and textbooks of secondary level will be prepared under the supervision of
National Curriculum and Textbook Board in view of existing realities and demand.
8. It is necessary to have exchange of views between universities and industries or business
houses in designing syllabus and course curriculum at university and college levels. A joint
committee can be formed with university teachers, industrialists and representatives of
managerial cadre to prepare the curricula and course contents to be practiced at the
university level. An institutional sharing meeting can be arranged, where different
universities will take part.
9. Short-term internship in the industry, trade and service sectors will be made compulsory for
the graduate and post-graduate students so that they can gain practical knowledge and
experience.
10. In order to utilize the infrastructure of 16 commercial institutes of the country more
effectively, updated trade courses will be offered and necessary manpower will be recruited.
11. It is necessary to identify the prospective sectors like tourism, hotel management and in
order to expand them, sufficient and efficient manpower will be created. So, provision of
education and training will be there for the sectors thus earmarked.
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14. Agricultural Studies
Aims and Objectives

Bangladesh is an agricultural country. It represents an agro-based economy. So, the development
and improvement of socio-economic conditions of life are related to the development of
agriculture. National development of agro-based Bangladesh is connected with agricultural
studies, research and extension of the system. Agriculture is an applied science. Agricultural
development can be defined as the planned development and management of crops, livestock,
fisheries and forestry of the country. Higher agricultural studies will mean the study and research
at graduate, post-graduate and doctoral level in the planned development and management of
agriculture, veterinary science, animal husbandry, agricultural engineering, agricultural economy
and fisheries.
The aims and objectives of agricultural studies are:
Raising awareness about the soil, water, natural resources, development of environmental
energy and possibilities of the country.
Improvement of agro-based socio-economic conditions for national development.
Appropriate development of agricultural economy directed toward proper use of natural
resources through scientific and mechanical devices.
Establishment and extension of the importance of agriculture in national life as a profession
as well as an area of science.
Increasing land-based and water-based productivity with attention to protect natural
environment.
Motivating self-employment through agricultural studies.
Undertaking extensive research on agricultural development in the context of the threats of
climate change.
Changing the social mindset and raising awareness to treat agriculture as the key to socio-
economic development.
Motivation and awareness-raising for the usage of modern technology in agriculture.
Achieving self-sufficiency in food, fighting malnutrition and alleviation of poverty.
Creation of rural employment opportunities.
Strategies
1. Larger number of training will be organized in the Agricultural Training Institutes,
Veterinary Training Institutes, Livestock Training Institutes and similar training institutes in
order to strengthen the expertise of teachers of agricultural science at the primary and
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secondary levels through practical and realistic approaches with a view to strengthening the
teaching process and to make it attractive in nature.
2. Inclusion of compulsory subjects, optional subjects, experience of field and rural activities,
sociology, language and fundamental sciences will be made in a logical way in the curricula
at graduate level. Adequate importance will be given to practical learning.
3. Since the course system is time-bound, so its comprehensive success depends on the teacher
in terms of his knowledge of the subject, efficiency, sincerity and dedication. So, in order to
attract the efficient and meritorious persons in the profession of teaching, congenial
environment and incentives will be created. Provision of higher education, training and
opportunities of updating knowledge will be ensured.
4. Evaluation of teaching, research and other responsibilities of teachers will in place.
5. 3-Semester long M.S course will continue at Bangladesh Agricultural University, other
agricultural universities and universities offering agricultural studies. Doctoral program will
be basically research-oriented. But, if necessary course-work will be included.
6. Initiative will be taken for research on high yielding seeds, climate change, agriculture and
bio-technology.
7. New courses will be introduced along with the traditional courses to upgrade agricultural
studies in view of scientific progress and demands of national development (such as,
environmental science, organic technology, genetic engineering, resources economics,
management of bio-diversification, land-holdings and management, nutritional science and
social science etc).
8. Diploma level education in agricultural studies, fisheries, livestock and poultry and forestry
will be extended. With this end in view, new institutions will be established at government
and non-government levels and the existing ones will be strengthened.
9. New action research will be undertaken by Bangladesh Agricultural University on the
effective use of its existing land and other resources.
10. Computer science will be compulsory at the graduate level while optional and specialized
computer courses will be offered at the post-graduate level.
11. A technical committee to work on coordination, evaluation and monitoring need to be
formed to ensure the standard and equivalence in higher studies of agriculture. The
University Grants Commission will take initiative in this regard.
12. Teaching of English course of 100 marks/ 3 credits will be compulsory for all students at
degree level of all agricultural universities and colleges.
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15. Law Studies
Aims and Objectives

It is the Constitutional right of all citizens of the country and all the people who reside in
Bangladesh to enjoy the protection and privileges of law. Study of law is very important in order
to establish the rule of law according to the Constitution and to create responsible citizens. Study
of law as a modern and advanced discipline is extremely important for the establishment of justice
and to ensure social as well as economic parity. It has two aspects: professional and practical.
Proper reflection of none of these two aspects is noticeable in the traditional form of law studies
in our country. On the one hand, the quality of law studies is deteriorating for different reasons
and on the other, practice of law studies does not always bring good for the people. Therefore, it
is necessary to enact holistic reorganization and modern approaches to the study of law. Law
studies will be analytical and pragmatic for the future generation students, so that they can play an
active role to establish the rule of law, human rights and justice and also to protect national
interests in the international arena.
The main aims and objectives of law studies are:
to help protect the lawful rights of the people and to create skilled teachers, lawyers, law
experts and justices in order to ensure the rule of law;
to create such highly qualified, morally strong, prudent and knowledgeable persons who-
will be able to uphold the rule of law and ideals of justice;
can enrich the arena of domestic and international knowledge of law;
will establish professional skills and ethical standards;
will be able to reform and improve the system of law and judgment;
will be able to strike balance between the study of law and its practice in view of the
new demands of the changing society.
Strategies
1. At present, 4-year honours degree course is offered only in the universities. But in the
colleges, the duration of general LL.B course is of two years. The duration of law studies in
colleges will be of three years and emphasis will be given on practical courses in the
terminal year. Gradually, 4-year Honours degree course in law will be implemented in all
educational institutions instead of 3-year LL.B course. The syllabus and curriculum will be
similar and identical in all universities and colleges.
2. Incentive will be given for higher studies and research in law. So at least one Centre of
Excellence for Law will be established within the next few years.
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3. The duration of Masters' degree course in law will be of two years. Masters Degree course
will be divided into two parts. M.Phil degree will be awarded to those who will opt for
course program in 1st part and thesis program in 2nd. Traditional rules will be applicable for
a Ph.D degree.
4. The infrastructure facilities, proper management and educational qualification and
efficiency of teachers of law colleges will be ensured to improve the standard of Law
Studies.
5. Affiliation of law colleges will be strictly bound by pre-requisitions like college building,
library, teacher recruitment, college administration and formation of the governing body.
6. Part-time teachers and part-time students and evening courses of the present law colleges
have created an environment of part-time delivery of education, which need to be improved.
In such colleges, regular and total education program will be ensured.
7. Minimum two-thirds of teachers of a law college must be on regular and full-time basis.
Not more than one-third teachers can be appointed as part-time teachers.
8. Curricula of law studies must reflect an inter-disciplinary approach, so that students can be
exposed to social problems to conceive them adequately. The curricula will include national
history, economics, political science, social science, logic etc.
9. Law studies must include a logical combination of academic and technical/practical aspects
so that the law graduates can acquire knowledge and competencies that may help them in
legal as well as in other professions. More practical methods are necessary to be used in the
teaching of law such as-Socrates methods, problem method, case studies, moot court, mock
trial, clinical legal education etc.
10. Admission tests will be put in practice in colleges to effect improvement of law studies.
11. Colleges will be brought under effective supervision. A special supervisory committee
comprised of representatives of Bar Council and educationists will be formed to ensure
quality education in the law colleges.
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16. Women's Education
Aims and Objectives

Education is the founding stone for the development of the country and society. A large number
of women of the country is deprived of education for various social, economic and cultural
reasons. Women constitute half of the country's population. Women's scope of work is usually
limited to family welfare, child care and domestic chores. Women are generally allotted a passive
role in national development. This existing trend must be changed. Emphasis will be given on
women's education to ensure women's comprehensive development and empowerment and
womens participation in a balanced social advancement.
The main aims and objectives of women's education are:
to foster awareness and confidence among women and to strengthen women's outlook in
favour of demanding equal rights;
to motivate women at all levels to acquire skills in order to participate in the affairs of
running the country;
to ensure women's participation in poverty alleviation and socio-economic development
programs;
to strengthen them in a way that they can play their roles in the socio-economic
development of the country through self-employment or being employed in various
positions;
to change their existing subordinate position and to empower them to take strong steps to
ensure equal rights and to resist dowry as well as violence against women.
Strategies
1. There will be special allocation for women's education in the budget. A special fund will to
be mobilized to promote women's education at all levels. Steps will be taken to encourage
private initiative and financing in this regard.
2. Steps will be taken to minimize the dropout rate of girl students and to find ways to get
them back in mainstream education. Those who cannot be put back within the system will
be accommodated within the vocational programs.
3. Attention will be given to create opportunities for women for education of part-time,
vocational, non-formal and technical nature.
4. More girls will be included in institutional education. They will be motivated to go for
higher/professional education. In view of this, positive opportunities for women's education
will be created in various educational institutions. Proper steps will be taken to raise
awareness among people irrespective of sex.
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5. The curriculum of the primary level will reflect a positive and progressive image of women.
It will include the issue of equal rights. This may help bring up a change in the social
behaviour and mindset of all students.
6. The course contents at primary and second levels will include in larger volume the
biographies of great women and pieces written by women.
7. The secondary level curriculum of last two years will include gender studies and issues of
reproductive health.
8. All students, irrespective of their sex, must have equal liberty to choose their courses of
studies at the secondary level and equal importance will be attached to all subjects. Girls
will not be persuaded to take up some specific courses like home economics.
9. Commuting to schools will be made safe for the girls so that they do not encounter any
difficulty. Necessary transport will be arranged and where necessary, safe girls hostel will
be established.
10. Girls will be encouraged to study science and professional subjects (i.e engineering,
medical, law and business studies).
11. There are four women's polytechnics in the country. In order to include more girls within
the technical or vocational education net, if necessary, more polytechnics for women will be
established. Women's enrollment in the proposed upazila level technical schools will be
encouraged. Adequate opportunities will be created for them.
12. Special stipends will be provided for the poor and meritorious girl students to pursue higher
education and undertake research. Provision will be made for interest free/ low-interest
bank loans at soft terms for women's education.
13. Women's participation must be ensured at all levels of policy and decision-making, namely,
in matters of primary, secondary and higher education.
14. The regulations for punishment relating to sexual harassment and repression on women
must be strictly followed in the educational institutions.
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17. Fine Arts and Crafts Education
Aims and Objectives

Fine Arts and Crafts education is an important factor to build up a culturally rich, aesthetic and
tradition-conscious and disciplined nation. This education includes music, painting, arts and
crafts, recitation, acting, dancing, body language etc. These help develop the quality of learners
minds and contribute to intellectual enhancement. This education provides the students with
knowledge of the painting, sculpture, music, plays, folk performances and theatrical arts of the
country. Students can also learn about the history of arts and cultures of other nations. Fine Arts
and Crafts education contributes to aesthetic enrichment of the students and moreover, it can help
the students find out self-employment.
The primary aims and objectives of Fine Arts and Crafts education are:
to enrich learners minds and intellect to nourish their attitudes and persuade them to
exercise discipline in their mental world and work;
to inspire students to nurture an aesthetic life; motivate them in the pursuit of arts and help
them become professional as they acquire necessary skills;
The present-day world represents serious marks of decay with the dangerous volume of
increasing drug addiction among the youths. This education may play an effective role to
resist this danger through the cultivation of disciplined intellectual exercises.
Strategies
1. Necessary steps will be taken to develop Fine Arts and Crafts education to achieve
professional ends.
2. Special opportunities will be created for the students belonging to backward classes and
small ethnic groups.
3. Fine Arts and crafts will be introduced at the primary and secondary levels as an optional
subject. Measures will be taken for phase-wise teaching of different forms of Fine Arts and
Crafts education at both levels in all the educational institutions.
4. Measures will be taken to recruit qualified teachers to provide necessary teaching
environment with textbooks, properly equipped rooms, teaching aids and other materials.
5. Steps will be taken for higher education in different fields of Fine Arts and Crafts.
Opportunities for training of teachers will be created.
6. National art galleries, music and dance academies and theatres will be established under
public initiative.
7. Mobile exhibitions of arts, paintings and crafts will be held at urban and rural locations and
opportunities of music, dance and theatrical performances will be created through public
and private initiatives.
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18. Special Education, Health & Physical Education,
Scout, Girls Guide and Bratachari
A. Education for challenged learners: Special education

Aims and Objectives
Challenged children are those who are blind, deaf and dumb and physically and mentally
handicapped. These children are categorized as mild, semi and acutely handicapped according to
the degree of their disabilities. The education for the handicapped depends on their types and
degrees of challenges. With the adoption of some necessary measures, many of them can be
inducted into mainstream education. But special education will be provided for those acutely
handicapped children who cannot be enrolled in the general school system. Policy will be
specially designed for them. The aims and objectives of special education include the following :
Steps will be taken to include the handicapped in the mainstream education.
Special education will be provided to the acutely handicapped children who cannot fulfill
the demands of daily life due to their physical or mental disabilities. These children are
incapable of studying in the usual schooling system. Other than special education, they will
be brought under efficient remedial system, special care and nursing.
Strategies
1. Survey will be conducted to find out the exact number, type of challenges and to categorize
the handicapped population as per the degree of their disabilities.
2. As per necessity, a coordinated education system will be initiated in some selected schools
for the education of the challenged children so that they can quickly receive it in company
with the normal children.
3. Under the integrated education program, t least one teacher of each school will be trained
properly to instruct the challenged children.
4. A properly trained teacher will be recruited to look after physical education and sports for
these children.
5. 64 Secondary schools are now under Social Welfare Directorate where integrated
education program is in place for the visually handicapped children. Delivery system of
these schools has to be improved. Similar measures will be taken for the deaf and dumb and
physically and mentally handicapped children.
6. Integrated education program at the primary level will be started at the district and upazila
levels for the blind, deaf and dumb and mentally and physically handicapped children.
7. Separate schools will be established according to special needs and in view of the
differential nature of disabilities of the challenged children.
8. Challenged children, unable to cope up with one or more than one subject, will be allowed
to follow a flexible curriculum
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9. Steps will be taken to distribute education materials free or at a low cost for the challenged
children.
10. PTIs will arrange training for teachers of the school for disabled children about the
integrated education program and for the teachers delivering special education. Steps will
be taken to establish training colleges/institutes.
11. In order to initiate the proposed integrated education program in the general schools, the
teachers training colleges will include lessons relevant to special education for the
challenged children. This will encourage teachers to admit such children in the general
class.
12. Issues related to handicapped children can be incorporated in the syllabus from primary
level in order to increase knowledge and create awareness among the people.
13. Eligible handicapped candidates will enjoy equal opportunity in the job market.
B. Health and Physical Education

Aims and Objectives
Health and physical education are the neglected areas in the field of education of Bangladesh.
Like general education the importance of health and physical education to build up an educated
nation can never be underestimated. Without this general education remains incomplete.
If all learners, irrespective of boys and girls, cultivate physical education right from their
childhood, they will take more care of their health through physical exercises. They will start to
learn about discipline and regulations. Punctuality is one of the lessons of physical education. The
children can display their faculties in sports through physical education. In future, a successful
sportsperson may come out of them. If there are enough opportunities of physical education in the
educational institutions for the students, the possibility of their going astray at the stage of
adolescence is lessened. The evil curse of drug addiction cannot allure students if they get
befitting environment for sports.
The aims and objectives of Health and Physical Education are:
to encourage the students to take physical exercise for keeping fit and help create a sense of
discipline and punctuality
to introduce physical education as a compulsory subject at primary and secondary levels;
to keep the children away from the dreadful curse of drug by providing appropriate
environment for sports.
to encourage courses of physical education at college and university levels.
Strategies
1. This will not be a part of public examination at any stage of education. However, for the
eligibility in the public examination at primary and secondary levels, students must achieve
a set standard in this subject that will be assessed through successive evaluation. Syllabus of
physical education will be made flexible, standardized, modern and scientific depending on
the age and ability of every student of each and every class.
2. Trained teachers will be employed for physical education.
3. A playground will be regarded as an indispensable condition for the registration of a new
school.
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4. Materials will be distributed in schools and colleges for physical education at a low
expense.
5. Indigenous games will be introduced especially in the primary and secondary schools.
6. Budget allocation for physical education will be increased.
C. Scout, Girls' Guide and BNCC

Aims and Objectives
to help grow up the children, adolescents and youths as self-respectful, independent, honest,
morally sound, enterprising, caring, health-conscious and above all, good citizens of
country;
to help the youths acquire the qualities to become responsible (at national and international
levels), self-conscious and philanthropic persons by developing their personality through
the cultivation of the programs of scout and girls guide;
to help the students of college and universities to acquire efficiency, sound moral attitudes
and discipline through the exercises under BNCC.
Strategies
1. Scout is quite widespread (in the schools, colleges and madrasas) throughout the country. It
will be expanded and made more organized. For this purpose
Cub scouting and scouting (if already in place) must be strengthened in every level of
educational institution. Institutions not having these programs will introduce them.
2. Throughout the country, girls' guide movement is already in practice. It will be further
expanded and organized. For this purpose-
Girls' guide (if already in place) must be strengthened in every level of educational
institutions
3. The Teachers' Training Institutes will have provision of training in cub scouting, scout and
girls guide..
4. Branches of BNCC will be opened in all colleges and universities of the country.
5. One class a week will be allocated in this regard.
D. Bratachari
Viewed from the inherent context of the objectives, Bratachari program has some similarities to
Scout and Girls' Guide. But this has grown out of our indigenous roots. This is a well-disciplined
form based on songs and dance. This can also be regarded as entertainment to the students.
Bratachari presents dance performances through rhymes and lyrics to infuse the objectives of this
movement. The presentation can easily attract the audience with social and moral values.
Bratachari is in practice in a number of primary and secondary schools of Sylhet, Dhaka, Khulna,
Tangail, Mymensingh and Joypurhat. The objectives are:
to help students to become good citizens; to show dignity of manual labour; to cultivate
secularism; to become diligent; to make collective efforts to build up the country and to
serve the common people;
to help grow up the young people to become dedicated to physical exercises, hard-work,
philanthropy and liberal thinking.
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Strategies
1. The introduction of Bratachari will be accepted in principle.
2. An evaluation of the program can be made by reviewing the practices in the schools already
existed and a standard will be set.
3. Primary and secondary schools across the country will be encouraged to introduce this.
4. Half an hour Bratachari program can be initiated into the primary and secondary schools at
some convenient time slot twice a week.
5. Children and adolescent programs of other organizations identical to Bratachari can be
promoted in the Primary and Secondary schools.
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19. Sports Education
Aims and Objectives

The importance of physical fitness and sports is an imperative factor for the holistic development
of the youths and students. Education, training, creativity, productivity and other relevant qualities
in combination with good health and healthy mind help develop human resources. The
combination of mind, body and intelligence brings fulfillment in life. Though sports and physical
education have been occupying a special place in our country for a long time, the achievement in
this field is questionable. It may be mentioned that, at present, sports education and achievement
in this area have earned institutional recognition in many countries. Throughout the world, youths
educated in games & sports have earned enviable professional recognition. But our sportspersons
have not achieved any worthy and honourable recognition in the world. So the continuity of our
glorious achievements is not maintained. At present Bangladesh Krira Shikhsa Pratisthan (BKSP),
located at Savar, Dhaka, the lone institution of sports education is conducting SSC and HSC
program according to the current syllabus of Dhaka Board, and degree course under National
University. Such programs are not enough to give a complete shape to sports education and to
elevate it to a global standard. In this context, sports education must be given an important place
in our national education system and it is necessary to take practical steps.
The aims and objectives of sports education are:
to encourage the students to take part in sports;
to provide facilities so that boys and girls throughout the country can get equal
opportunities to contribute to the field of sports;
to inspire the students to take sports as a profession;
to help make trained sportspersons who can update sports education in order to create
sportspersons of international standard;
to create opportunities for our sportspersons through institutional education so that they can
become renowned as professionals at home and abroad;
to help them build up a good image for the country through achievement in sports.
Strategies
The following strategies will be undertaken to expand quality sports education:
1. In order to extend sports education at primary and secondary levels, one school for sports
will be established in each administrative division of the country.
2. Education at the schools of sports will not create any complication to undergo higher
education in the general stream. So the subjects included in the uniform curricula at primary
and secondary levels will be taught as compulsory subjects in the schools of sports too.
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3. The secondary level examination of all schools of sports will be conducted by one of the
Education Boards.
4. Approval will be given to separate schools and colleges of sports established under either
government or non-government initiatives.
5. Sports education will be updated in tune with the demands of the modern world. So BKSP
must be developed into a full-fledged sports university so that it can produce sportspersons
of international standard. Sports education programs will be conducted under the
supervision of BKSP with the establishment of schools and colleges of sports at district
levels.
6. Till BKSP becomes a full-fledged university of sports, certificates of bachelor degree in
sports will be awarded by National University.
7. To expand sports education and to popularize it, annual sports completion will be organized
at inter-school/college and national levels.
8. Sports education will be a thoroughly residential program. So, residential provisions will be
made in every institution of sports education.
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20.
Library
Aims and Objectives

A library is considered to be the mirror of civilization. A library is one of the major indexes to
measure the level of general state of culture. On the other hand, it is considered to be the soul of
an educational institution. The environment and quality of education of an educational institution
is reflected through the lively use of its library. The importance of library and information centre
is undeniable in formal or life-long education and training, research, policymaking, planning and
acquisition of learning. The role of library and information centre is to make knowledge and
information easily accessible through intercommunication at local, national and international
levels. With this vision, the country will build up libraries and information centers. So it is
essential to bring our national library, which is run by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and
libraries of public universities and different colleges under a digital ICT system. And steps must
be taken from the very beginning to implement this process.
The main aims and objectives of library education are:
to foster reading habits among students by creating opportunities of reading books and to
create a congenial environment of education for all;
to facilitate the cultivation of knowledge by students with the establishment of rich and
organized libraries at all levels;
to operationalize the libraries through ICT by phases and thus open up ways to access
global knowledge;
to enrich the libraries with books, journals and periodicals necessary for the students;
to collect and conserve basic documents and papers of national history and properly
organize them for use in research.
Strategies
1. Every school will have a library enriched by necessary books for the students.
2. Each upazila headquarters will be equipped with a public library. One of its responsibilities
will be to supply books to primary/secondary schools. By phases, these libraries will be run
through ICT system.
3. One or more than one selected school in each union will be built up as a centre for mobile
library. Proper use of this library will be ensured. Later, initiative will be taken to establish
a library at the union level similar to the one at the upazila. To do this, private initiative will
be welcomed.
4. Appropriate progrmas will be taken to create reading habits amongst the students.
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5. Steps will be taken to modernize the libraries of PTIs, NAPE and central libraries of various
directorates.
6. It is essential to establish developed and modern libraries in secondary schools and colleges,
and also to create posts for librarians and to fix up the salary scale of the library staff in a
rational way. The government will allocate annual funds to the libraries.
7. Enriched libraries will be set up in every college and university. All research journals will
be collected through electronic subscription. All libraries of the country will be connected
through networking so that any student can have access to the resources of other libraries.
By phases, digital edition of books and journals will be made available.
8. Recognizing the importance of the institutions, the structural format of the national library
and archives will be reorganized and they will be brought under the digital system. There
will be a research and training section in the national library and this section will be
enriched with information technology.
9. Phasewise steps will be taken to establish national libraries in all divisional cities and
district headquarters. Local government authorities will establish city and municipal
libraries.
10. It is essential to establish a statutory, dignified and effective library council constituted with
the representatives of the ministries of education, culture and local government to find
solutions to the problems relating to policy making, planning and coordination and to
undertake development programs.
11. Ministry/departments and directorate offices will follow the advice of the council for the
development of the libraries and resource centers within their agencies and to prepare
policies and planning in the case of establishing any new library.
12. The posts of librarian, assistant librarian and other posts will be created in every educational
institution and their proper status will be determined.
13. Opportunities of promotion of the officials and staff working in the libraries will be
increased.
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21. Examination and Evaluation
Aims and Objectives

Examination and evaluation is a regulatory system through which the success of a student in
achieving the comprehensive goals of education is measured. The qualities that are considered to
be the most important factors for a student to build up his/her personality are related to acquisition
of knowledge, emotional attitudes responsiveness and intellectual faculties. Among these three
areas, only the first one is evaluated in the existing or traditional system of our schools, colleges
and universities. Steps can be taken to evaluate it in a more effective way. Besides, two other
qualities will also be evaluated and necessary regulations will be formulated for that.
The aims and objectives of examination and evaluation are:
to initiate a creative method that seeks to evaluate the students acquisition of the course
contents and not rote learning;
to formulate regulation to prepare some uniform strategies to determine the methods and
levels of examination and evaluation;
to prepare rules and principles of developing textbooks and paper-setting to facilitate proper
evaluation and suggest ways of easy comprehension that are applicable both to the paper-
setters and examinees and to make them aware of those.
Strategies
1. Proper attention will be paid to the true evaluation of knowledge acquired at all stages of
education. The examination systems will be made more effective.
2. Initiatives can be taken to fix up and realize the methods of evaluation that reflects the
continual growth of the emotions and intellect of the students.
3. In the existing system, primarily, rote learning is evaluated. This cannot be a proper
evaluation. In fact, proper evaluation can be made when the internalized knowledge of the
student is assessed and not rote learning. The proposed creative system of evaluation is
oriented to that end. The proper implementation of this system will depend on the
preparation of right kind of textbooks, set of rules to prepare question papers and an
effective understanding of the process by the paper-setters and students. So, effective steps
will be taken to prepare the right kind of textbooks, to set proper rules and to create
appropriate awareness and knowledge of all concerned.
Primary and Secondary Education

4. The existing system of continual evaluation conducted by the schools for Classes I & II and
the quarterly, half-yearly and annual evaluation system for the students of Class III and
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onward will continue. Effective continual evaluation system will be in practice for every
class. Sports and drills will be included in the continual evaluation system.
5. The final examination on completion of Class V will be conducted at the Upazila/
Municipality/ Thana (big cities) with identical questions.
6. Public examination will be held on the completion of Class VIII. Initally, this examination
will be known as Junior School Certificate (JSC) and be conducted by the Education Board
concerned. Rote learning will be discouraged in all exams and the creative system will be in
place. On the basis of the results of this public examination, division-wise scholarships will
be awarded.
7. Students not taking part in this public examination will be eligible to have a certificate from
the school attesting the completion of studies till Class VIII including the report of
evaluation of internal examination and continual assessment with their date of birth
recorded in the certificate.
8. On completion of Class X, a public examination will be held at the national level, which
will be known as Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination. Scholarships for
Classes XI to XII will be awarded on the basis of the result of this examination. On
completion of Class XII, another public examination will be held, to be known as Higher
Secondary Certificate (HSC) Examination. For both the examinations, questions will be set
in the creative method and evaluation will be done by gradation. Scholarships for higher
education will be awarded on the basis of the results of HSC examination.
9. In the madrasa system, uniform question papers will be set, for the compulsory subjects
(included for all streams) for Junior Dakhil, Dakhil and Alim Examinations.
10. Steps will be taken so that the practical examinations of the secondary level are evaluated
properly.
11. In case of failure in one or two subjects at the secondary level, a student will be allowed to
take part in the examinations of those subjects for two times. If the curriculum and syllabus
gets changed, the student will be allowed to sit for those subjects in which he/she failed
earlier, according to the previous curriculum or syllabus. But there will be no provision for
interim examination.
12. The officers and other employees of Education Boards will be transferred from one Board
to another in order to increase their efficiency and dynamism.
Technical and Vocational Education

13. As continual evaluation plays an important role in technical and vocational education, the
present testing and evaluation system will continue in this stream.
Graduation and Post-Graduation Examinations

14. Where necessary, internal and external evaluation systems will be in practice at Graduation
and Post-Graduation levels. The evaluation system of different universities will be revised
to encourage the internalization of knowledge instead of rote learning.
15. There will be a uniform evaluation system for public and private universities.
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16. Greater importance will be attached to continual evaluation, homework and mid-term
examinations.
17. Departmental committees and the Deans of Faculties will conduct intensive supervision of
the evaluation system.
18. There will be a uniform grading system for secondary, graduation and post-graduation
levels.
Rules applicable to all levels

19. Examination dates of terminal and public examinations will be fixed at the very beginning
of the academic year and that will be followed strictly.
20. Training will be provided for the head examiners, other examiners and moderators.
21. It will be ensured that the examiners do return the scripts within fixed time. They will be
penalized in case of failure. The honorarium for checking scripts will be positively
reviewed.
22. Guide books, note-books, private tuitions, coaching centers etc. are some of the hindrances
to quality education system. Steps will be taken to stop all these. Steps will be taken against
those persons involved in preparing and distributing guide and note-books. Necessary steps
will be taken against the teachers neglecting their duties. Besides, the students will be
cautioned against the negative effects of guide books, note books and coaching centers.
23. The teachers and the administrators of the institutions should take initiatives to prevent
unfair means in the examinations. All concerned will be made aware of this at frequent
intervals. Special meetings may be organized underlining the bad effects of copying in the
examinations in the educational institutions to caution the students. Some publications can
be made available in this regard. Strict steps will be taken against those who will adopt
unfair means in the examination and those who might help them.
24. There will be no merit list after the initiation of grading system. But those who score the
highest grade in the Graduation (general or honours) level, they will be specially
recognized. Special recognition systems can also be there at the primary and secondary
levels. The teachers will be trained to properly evaluate the examination scripts in the
grading system.
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22. Students' Welfare and Counselling
Aims and Objectives

Very often many students become spoiled, tortured, confused and misled for multiple problems
that they face. To counter this, effective students' counselling programs will be in place. This can
lead to a better and secure educational environment for the students in the schools. The quality of
education will also be enhanced.
The aims and objectives of students welfare and counselling are:
to determine and implement effective systems directed toward the development of academic
environment in the primary and secondary schools and also to create an improved
environment for higher education;
All human beings, irrespective of sex, race, ethnic roots, socio-economic situations and
physical or mental conditions are eligible for equal human rights. This very sense will be
infused into the students right from the primary level.
to provide primary health services for students of all levels, extensive development in health
services will be strengthened in higher educational institutions particularly in the
universities;
to make students' assistance available at all levels of education as per necessity;
to encourage the students to study in achieving the objectives of education through
reduction of educational expenses; to provide hostel facilities; to create opportunities of
extra-curricular activities for the students.
Strategies
1. Student welfare and counselling will be initiated and strengthened at all educational levels.
2. Teachers delivering counselling will be properly trained.
3. Students will be encouraged and helped out to take part in extra-curricular activities (such
as, sports, debate, reading, essay competition, publication of magazines etc.).
4. Free textbooks are being provided to primary and secondary schools. This system will
continue.
5. Stipends for poor and meritorious students of primary and secondary levels will be
increased in number and the banks and similar organizations will be persuaded to arrange
loans for higher education at soft terms.
6. Nutritious lunch and primary health services will be provided for the primary and secondary
students. There will be a standard medical centre at every college and university with the
provision for primary health services.
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7. A working committee will be formed with teachers, guardians, students and community
representatives to improve the environment of the schools at primary and secondary levels.
Effective measures will be taken for higher education on the basis of an action plan.
8. Initiative will be taken to provide scholarships to poor and meritorious students from a fund
created through the contribution of the authority, donations of citizens and former students.
9. Steps will be taken to build separate gymnasiums for boys and girls in each of the primary
and secondary schools. The size and form of all these gymnasiums will be determined
through a proper evaluation process.
10. The existing counselling and instructive services of the universities will be strengthened.
Training programs will be arranged for the teacher-counsellors. Effective counselling and
instructional programs will be made available in other educational institutions.
11. Primary health services will be initiated in every educational institution and the medical
facilities now existing in some of the institutions will be strengthened. Standard medical
centers will be established by phases in all colleges and universities of higher education.
Such existing centers will continue to function and steps will be taken for their
improvement.
12. Importance will be attached to establish a national student welfare counselling and advisory
centre to guide the teacher-counsellors and facilitate training programs for them so that they
can provide better help for the students.
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23. Admission of the Students
Aims and Objectives

For their proper education, it is essential to facilitate the students to get admission in such
institutions where their talents and aptitudes will be promoted properly. It will be ensured that, for
admission, the students' merit and qualities are to be taken into account and not the regional,
social or economic factors. The trend to evaluate students on the basis of subject-based
examination demanding information of multiple areas as early as at Class I will be discouraged.
Policies will be made for admission tests at post-primary levels and those will be followed
properly.
In this connection, the names of both father and mother or legal guardian will be mentioned in
case of getting admission at any level of educational institution. The aforesaid names will also be
mentioned at primary school examination certificate as well as in other necessary fields.
Strategies
1. All pubic universities will formulate appropriate rules and conduct a centralized selection
test. This will include language-based (Bengali & English) and subject-based questions.
The result of the previous public examinations will be properly considered and there will be
principles for evaluation in this regard. Admission test process will be completed within one
month after the publication of the result of HSC examination.
2. For the admission in different colleges under National University, the results of the previous
public examinations will be taken into account according to rules. Besides, admission test
will be conducted under the rules and supervision of National University. The test will be
on language (Bengali & English) and on the subjects chosen by the students.
3. In principle, there will be no admission test for Class I. But the schools where the number
of admission-seekers far surpass the seats available, they may be allowed to conduct an
admission test. Steps will be taken to introduce code numbers while taking the test and
further in the publication of results at the post-primary and post-secondary levels so that
neutrality can be maintained in the admission of the learners in the necessary classes.
4. Teachers-students ratio will be considered in relating to the admission of students. Students
cannot be admitted in violation of the standard ratio.
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24. Teachers Training
Aims and Objectives

Qualified teachers are essential for proper and quality education. To ensure the quality of
teachers, it is essential to recruit qualified teachers through scientific and transparent recruitment
process on one hand, and on the other, quality teachers education and repetitive demand-driven
training is imperative to develop the professional excellence of the teachers.
The existing teachers training system of our country is very traditional, insufficient, certificate-
based, loaded with theoretical knowledge, incomplete in practical learning, based on rote learning
and conventional testing system. That is why the expected results cannot be achieved. At present,
there are 14 government training colleges, National Academy for Educational Management
(NAEM) for the secondary level teachers, 1 Training Institute for the Madrasa teachers, 5 HSTTIs
for the subject-based training of higher secondary college teachers, and 1 educational and research
institute for higher training and research under Dhaka University. 14 government training colleges
offer B.Ed courses and some of them also award M.Ed degree to the teachers. The Open
University also award B.Ed degree through distance learning. Besides, there are 106 private
secondary teachers training centres. The infrastructure, quality of training system, contents taught
in all these institutions are, to a large extent, of low standard.
For the training of the teachers of primary schools, there are 53 government and 2 private Primary
Training Institutes. 1-year training is provided in all these institutions. The existing teachers
training system is inadequate, far short of demand and poorly traditional. So the number of
trainers will be increased and the quality of training will be enriched. Besides, there will be a
system to evaluate the efficiency of the trainers too.
The aims and objectives of teachers training are:
to help teachers acquire knowledge and skills in the strategies of teaching-learning through
teachers education and training;
to help teachers develop and update their professional knowledge;
to develop the personality, innovative knowledge and qualities of leadership of the teachers;
to introduce the teachers with the socio-economic conditions and immediate problems of
the country and to help them to get involved in the issues concerned;
to identify the behavioural strengths and weaknesses of the teachers and to find remedies;
to encourage them to acquire efficiency to use the modern materials for teaching;
to increase their efficiency in the strategies for new educational methods;
to help grow professionalism in them to prepare research papers and report writing;
to encourage them to teach students by creating equal opportunities for all, irrespective of
religion, race and socio-economic conditions;
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to help them acquire efficiency in delivering education to the students of disadvantaged
community and small ethnic groups and the disabled learners by sincerely responding to
their special needs;
to enrich their quality to analyze problems and to take decisions;
to train teachers of all levels in information technology and to ensure wider use of IT to
build up a modern and developed Bangladesh;
to inspire them to be conscious of their duties and responsibilities;
to encourage and make them confident to take part in research work.
Strategies
1. Immediately after their recruitment, primary and secondary teachers will undergo 2-
months foundation training and for the college teachers it will be of 4-months. The primary
and secondary level teachers must take part in courses of C-in-Ed and B.Ed within 3-years
of joining their posts.
2. The curriculum and syllabus for the training program will be modernized.
3. The trainers will be accordingly trained in their own subjects before the change in
curriculum and syllabus takes place. They should have adequate knowledge and idea
regarding their own subjects.
4. The existing primary teachers training program known as C- in- Ed will be revised and the
duration of the new programs will be one year and a half instead of one. Modern strategies
of teaching-learning and evaluation will be incorporated. Practical classes will continue for
at least nine months in two phases through the introduction of internship.
5. The government college teachers are usually trained at National Academy of Educational
Management (NAEM) and this training will continue. Phasewise, every teacher will have to
undergo freshers' courses in every 3 years. Steps will be taken to establish one Regional
Academy of Educational Management in each division to accelerate the course-based
training programs.
6. Comprehensive training will be introduced for employees at middle and senior levels to
create qualified and confident officials in educational administration.
7. A basic training will be organized for the teachers of non-government schools and colleges.
These teachers will also be trained at HSTTI. The existing subject-based training conducted
at HSTTI will be strengthened.
8. In order to standardize the quality of all training institutions and with a view to creating a
standard environment in them, the officials of equal status of different institutions will be
transferred from one to the other.
9. Training facilities of the trainers will be created both at home and abroad to upgrade their
standard. Existing special training for Head teachers and Principals will continue.
10. Extensive co-curricular programs will be included in the training and the role of the trainees
will be properly evaluated.
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11. Internet connection will be provided to all educational and training institutions to help all
academic staff/personnel update themselves with the latest information.
12. Continuous assessment will be conducted to evaluate the proficiency of the trained teachers.
Any weakness found will be remedied through special measures.
13. The training programs, designed for creating efficient teachers appointed for performing
different duties at different types of educational institutions (primary, secondary, higher
education, technical, vocational and for the disabled) will include various courses of diverse
contexts.
14. Teachers' organizations should be encouraged to play their roles in upgrading the standard
of teachers and not just in realizing their professional demands.
15. Universities will be encouraged to initiate training programs for the young/fresh faculty
members.
16. Increment of financial grants/remunerations and other facilities for the trainees will be
ensured.
17. Training programs should be made more realistic and effective. To do so and to ensure full-
time training, the establishment of non-government training institutions of inferior standard
will be discouraged. Rather, the number of government institutions will be increased to a
rational number and full residential facilities will be provided to the trainees to make the
training programs meaningful and effective.
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25. Status, Rights and Responsibilities of Teachers
Reality and Guidelines

The proper dignity of teachers everywhere from the primary to the highest level is a very
important factor. The status of teachers of all levels requires to be re-evaluated through in-depth
examination since they are supposed to inspire the meritorious students to be interested in the
teaching profession by discharging their proper duties. This is important because the teachers
claim proper dignity and facilities for their jobs. At the same time, their rights are closely
connected with their duties. Teachers must responsibly carry out their professional and other
duties. All concerned should contribute to the development of educational standard and
environment.
Strategies
1. Steps will be taken to reorganize the status, dignity, facilities and responsibilities of teachers of
all levels and streams through an in-depth examination in the perspective of social reality. Two
points are to be considered in this regard.
The status of teachers and facilities available to them:
If the issue of the status of teachers is limited to rhetoric and the teachers do not enjoy
a respectable social status in real terms, the quality of education cannot be improved.
The teachers are to be trained up as self-confident, efficient and important persons in
the cause of education. This is an urgent task. So, opportunities of training for them at
home and abroad will be created and stipends and training courses in the overseas
countries will be made available to them. These steps can strengthen the education
sector. A separate pay scale will be introduced for teachers of all levels to enhance
their financial benefits.
Responsibilities of teachers:
It is essential to ensure the proper training skills, status and accountability of all
teachers from the primary to university levels. There will be a system of continual
evaluation in this regard.
A high-powered committee having representatives from all institutions concerned will be formed
to make recommendations for all levels of education regarding the two points stated above.
2. Female teachers will not be discriminated for any reason whatsoever particularly in matters
of recruitment. Equally qualified female teachers will enjoy priority particularly in primary
and secondary education.
3. Promotion of teachers at all levels of education will depend on seniority and their teaching
qualities. Methods to measure the teaching proficiency will be introduced. Training courses
received by them will also be considered in case of their promotion at all levels of
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education. Publications of high standard and researches and trainings received for
consideration of promotion at the universities will continue.
4. Teachers will be honoured and encouraged for any special contribution to the field of
education, society, creative writing and publications.
5. Teachers selected on the basis of merit, efficiency and experience will be posted at different
levels of educational administration and there will be opportunities of promotion for them.
6. Teachers organizations should introduce some ethical/moral codes and rules and
regulations and ensure that these are being followed. The government may also play an
active role in this regard.
7. Proper security measures will be taken to protect the teachers from the attacks of terrorists
and criminals as they try to prevent copying and unfair means while they are on invigilation
duty in the examinations.
8. Punitive actions for teachers accused of violating professional rules and regulations will be
clearly spelt out and these will be applied accordingly.
9. Primary school teachers will not be engaged in activities beyond their professional duties
excepting during the vacations.
10. Teachers of government and non-government educational institutions will enjoy earned
leave (EL) like others.
11. The major duties of the teachers include : to inspire and encourage the students to cultivate
fine habits; to build them up with the habits of diligence, tolerance, perseverance, patience,
respect for religion of his/her own and of others; to build them up as patriotic, efficient
citizens free from superstitions. Their responsibilities will include delivery of lessons within
the classroom with sincerity and involvement in activities related to education. They will
feel responsible to build up the future of the learners. The teachers will be present in their
respective institutions for some fixed hours. They will deliver their work within the schools
as per the following timetable:
Level of Class Timetable

Education
Weekly Teaching Counselling Preparation of others
Working Hours and exercises
Welfare
Duties
Pre-primary Pre-primary 24 12 6 3 3
I to V 36 18 6 8 4
Primary
VI to VIII 40 24 6 6 4
Secondary IX to XII 40 24 6 6 4
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26. Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbooks
Aims and Objectives

Curriculum is the heart of education. So it should represent on the one hand, national ideals and
values, aims and objectives and contemporary needs, on the other it needs to be prepared by
taking into account the age, merit, and receptive ability of the learners. Since it is desirable that
the education system of a country is built on the socio-economic and political conditions, age-old
cultural traditions, religious beliefs, moral and human values, all these must be reflected in the
curriculum. Education primarily aims at building up a skilled, patriotic, self-dependent, morally
strong, diligent and a good community of citizens based on the learners' knowledge,
outlook/attitudes, and efficiency and desired behavioural changes. So the importance of the
curriculum and syllabus design and textbooks is immense. The textbooks will be written in
accordance with the guidelines of curriculum and syllabus. While preparing the textbooks, it will
be kept in mind that real education must be related to real life and inspire the students with
patriotism and the spirit of our liberation war and further facilitate the development of thinking
ability, imaginative capability, inquisitiveness and creativity of the learners.
Strategies
A. Curriculum and Syllabus
1. Curriculum, syllabus and textbooks of the compulsory courses at primary and secondary
levels will be uniform and identical and will be followed and taught in all types of primary
and secondary schools.
2. Curriculum and syllabus of all levels will reflect the social, human and moral values.
3. The curriculum and syllabus of all stages of educational levels including primary and
secondary will reflect the spirit of liberation war, the context of liberation war, its spirit and
factual narrative, language movement, the existing realities of the country, mother
language, literature, culture and history.
4. The curriculum of primary level will be designed on the basis of essential learning
continuum and will reflect the indigenous realities of life.
5. The educational system will aim at effecting a positive change of learners' attitudes through
the acquisition of knowledge, skills and human values. It will be directed toward forming
interest in the learners mind for manual labour and dignity of labour.
6. The curriculum and syllabus at graduate and post-graduate levels will be
redesigned/restructured to inspire the creativity and liberal thinking of the learners and they
will feel initiated to newer researches so that they can move ahead with a strong foundation.
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B. Textbooks
1. Textbooks of all levels will include in appropriate sections the context and spirit of
language movement and liberation war, the factual history related to them and the narratives
of heroism of the freedom fighters.
2. The departments of printing and publishing textbooks and co-curricular materials of
primary level will be decentralized in phases.
3. The existing policies of preparing, printing, publication and free distribution of subject-
based textbooks at primary and secondary levels will continue.
4. The textbooks at primary and secondary levels must be attractive and printed carefully and
free distribution of those on schedule will be ensured.
5. The honorarium of the authors of textbooks published by National Curriculum and
Textbooks Board will be paid by a single cheque. Expert authors on different subjects will
be given special honorarium and recognition in order to encourage them to write more
books.
6. For higher education, publishers will be encouraged to publish the specific books as well as
creative and research books of high standard.
7. Results of primary and pragmatic researches and action plans will be taken into account and
the guidelines of National Curriculum Coordination Committee will be followed to effect
the development, revision, and re-organization of the textbooks.
8. The continual process of up gradation and revision of textbooks will continue.
9. For the graduate and post-graduate levels, text and reference books will be recommended
with a careful view to include current advancement and continuous development of
knowledge. In this regard, attention will be given to the growth of knowledge in various
subjects for students of different levels.
10. Steps will be taken to facilitate the easy availability of required text and reference books for
the students. The use of information technology in libraries and their upgradation will be
ensured to facilitate that.
C. Policies for authoring textbooks

1. The instructions of existing curriculum and syllabus regarding the preparation of course-
based textbooks will be changed through realistic review.
2. The principles and directives for preparing textbooks will continue as per the guidelines
specified in the amended curriculum and syllabus.
D. National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NTCB)

1. The efficiency of NTCB must be improved with professionally skilled and trained
personnel.
2. For upgrading the curriculum and textbooks, highly experienced, efficient and retired
specialists will be appointed as advisors.
210
27. Educational Administration
Aims and Objectives

Ensuring quality education through successful implementation of the National Education Policy
and qualitative excellence of the education system depends largely on educational administration
responsible for its management. For the overall development of education and expansion of
educational facilities for the citizens, and strengthening of implementation of appropriate
programs and projects, it is essential to update educational administration. To ensure competent
governance in the educational administration and make all tiers of educational administration and
management free of corruption, efficient, dynamic, accountable, transparent and effective, all
necessary steps will be taken and implemented in the light of realities and demands.
The aims and objectives of the educational administration are:
to strengthen the education system to facilitate in building up a knowledge-based society
that can produce necessary innovative ideas directed towards national progress;
to ensure accountability, dynamism and transparency at all levels of educational
administration to make it more effective and free of corruption;
to improve quality education with the realization of transparency, accountability and
dynamism in the educational institutions by ensuring the effective role of educational
administration;
to ensure equitable expansion and qualitative improvement of education for all people of
all regions;
to develop knowledgeable and skilled human resource for the progressive development of
the country.
Strategies
The following strategies will be adapted to help achieve the aims and objectives of educational
administration:
1. Formulation of Consolidated Education Law

Steps will be undertaken in the light of this Education Policy and taking into account all laws
regulations and policies, directives related to education to formulate a newly coordinated
Education law and to ensure its proper implementation.
2. Formation of Permanent National Education Commission

Considering the fast changing global and the national contexts, the process of revision and
amendment of the National Education Policy will be in place to address the periodical needs.
211
Necessary steps will be taken to conserve and use all kinds of information data and Information
Technology related to education.
An autonomous statutory and permanent National Education Commission will be formed taking
into account the above mentioned points. This Commission will be an advisory organization to
the education ministry, ministries related to education and University Grants Commission, to help
them implement the National Education Policy. One of the responsibilities of this Commission
will be to observe the proper and effective implementation of the Education Policy at various
levels and streams. Another will be to present the annual report along with recommendations to
the government and National Parliament. The Commission will also be responsible to prepare
recommendations for revision and amendments in the Education Policy as and when necessary.
3. Teacher recruitment, training, transfer and promotion of teachers serving in educational

institutions covered by the National Education Policy and beneficiaries of MPOs
Some measures are to be ascertained in matters of recruitment of quality teachers, improvement of
the teachers, capacity development of the teachers already recruited and in order to guarantee
optimal utilization of limited national resources. The following measures will be taken:
A non-government teachers selection commission will be formed similar to Public Service
Commission for recruitment of teachers based on their capability and merit for the non-
government primary schools, approved and financially aided by government, ibtedaye
madrasa, secondary schools and colleges.
Teachers will be selected by the non-government teachers selection commission and
thereupon be recruited as per local and institutional needs.
Teachers of the non-government educational institutions will be promoted to higher
positions, for example, lecturer to assistant professor, assistant professor to associate
professor, associate professor to professor through a competitive process that reviews their
qualifications (higher degree, original research works, improvement of teaching methods
etc.). This process will be carried out according to the non-government teacher recruitment
regulations. Increment of salary will be subject to successful completion of training and
achievement of higher degree. On a broader context, the basic benefits will be met first,
while other facilities will be connected with the acquisition of higher qualification and
skills.
At present, a statutory organization, NTRCA is responsible for registration of teachers of
non-government schools and colleges. With the establishment of the non-government
teachers selection commission, NTRCA will be abolished.
The positions of teachers of all streams and levels within the MPO system will be made
transferable under specified policies. Teachers enjoying MPOs may be transferred to
equivalent position in similar institutions of identical streams, if the government feels it
necessary.
Regular subject-based training for teachers of all streams and levels will be made
compulsory. With this end in view, the existing training system will be reorganized.
4. Formation of Accreditation Council

At present, there is a good number of non-government universities and institutions offering
graduate and post-graduate degrees in the country. It is essential that these universities and higher
212
educational institutions (graduate and higher level) are accredited and certified by relevant
authority and to examine whether they have the capacity to deliver quality education, conduct
research and whether the charging fees for the students are justified, or whether they have
necessary facilities to offer education in science and technology. This is equally applicable for
non-government institutions offering health, engineering and agricultural education.
On the other hand, the public universities and other government institutions offering graduate and
post graduate education will be brought under examination to evaluate their performances and
these will be accordingly ranked and means of their improvement will be recommended.
An Accreditation Council with necessary authority and expertise will be formed to carry out the
above mentioned responsibilities.
The University Grants Commission, Education Ministry and appropriate authorities will take
necessary measures (as providing incentives to highly performing institutions, to provide support
for improvement to institutions not performing very well and closing down the under-performing
institutions) on the basis of the information collected and the annual review (done on the
institutions or branches under the institutions) by the Accreditation Council and its [report of]
evaluation.
5. Establishment of the Office of Chief Education Inspector

The existing institutions for monitoring quality of education as provided by the secondary schools
are unable to perform the task of monitoring effectively due to multifaceted responsibilities
imposed on them.
It is essential to find out whether all secondary schools or institutions are capable of delivering
quality education and whether the fees charged for the students are justified. This is equally
applicable to government and non-government institutions providing health, agriculture and
technical education. Appropriate authority will attest the situations of the institutions.
After annual inspection of secondary schools and assessment of academic performance, schools
will be ranked and recommendations will be made for their improvement.
A high-powered and efficient office of Chief Education Inspector will be established to carry out
the above-mentioned responsibilities and duties.
The Education Ministry or appropriate authority will take administrative measures (as providing
incentives to highly performing institutions, to provide support for improvement to institutions
not performing very well and closing down the under-performing institutions) on the basis of the
information collected by the Chief Education Inspector and annual review (done on the
institutions or branches under the institutions) and its evaluation report.
The report prepared by the Chief Education Inspector will be presented in the National
Parliament, Education Ministry/relevant ministries and will be made public. This report will be
taken into consideration while making institution-wise budgetary allocation.
The establishment of Chief Education Inspectors Office will lead to the reorganization of the
existing DIA office. The restructured DIA office will only be responsible for carrying financial
audit and the office will be run by professionals on deputation or contractual basis.
6. The existing Directorate of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education will be restructured
into two separate directorates: Directorate of Secondary Education and Directorate of Higher
Education and Research.
213
Human and financial resource will be made available to facilitate efficient functioning of all
concerned agencies associated with educational administration. Measures will be taken to ensure
accountability.
7. A separate Directorate for Madrasa education will be established for the management of
Madrasa education.
8. Steps for Development of Education Cadres

In most of the government colleges, the number of teaching position is less than what is required.
Adequate number of teachers will be recruited in colleges to ensure quality education. With this
end in view, uniform human resource structure will be developed according to the needs of the
subjects and levels.
Under the current system, there is not much scope for incentive packages for the professionals in
the education cadre to improve their professional quality. The pay scale for education
professionals having M.Phil and Ph.D degrees is not adequate. Teachers having special
professional performance in their subjects and with M.Phil and Ph.D degrees will be appointed in
colleges offering honors and masters degree with special financial benefits.
Professors from education cadre showing very distinguished performance or earning recognition
in the global context for some innovative activities will be rewarded by special financial benefits
and position.
Modern management system will be in practice for the education cadre. The existing ACR system
for teacher appraisal will be replaced by performance-based appraisal/evaluation. New reporting
format for performance-based evaluation will be developed. To encourage teamwork, the ranking
of the institution in which he/she is working will be taken into consideration while evaluating the
individual. Every teacher and his supervisor will jointly prepare their annual, bi-annual and
quarterly work plans. In the case of promotion, not just seniority but the performance of a teacher
will be taken in to account. For promotion, the seniority of the teacher will be primarily
considered, but it must match properly with her/his performance. The later is a must. A separate
guideline will be developed for performance-based promotion.
Level-based Strategies for education

Primary Education
The primary educational administration and management will be reorganized as per current reality
and needs. Local community will be involved in this process.
Strategies
1. The existing primary education system will be decentralized thoroughly. School Managing
Committees will be further empowered if necessary and made more effective. Increasing
the engagement of female guardians the teacher-parent committees will be formed and the
committees will be more actively functional. The parents will be closely involved in the
various activities of the school. Besides, local community will also be involved in efficient
management and school development activities.
214
2. Quality teacher is essential for ensuring quality education. Quality teachers will therefore be
recruited through the teachers selection commission.
3. The Head teacher will prepare the annual evaluation report of the teachers. Evaluation of
the Head teacher will be strengthened and carried out by the Managing Committee.
4. School monitoring will be strengthened and made more effective. With this end in view, the
system of school inspection and evaluation will be further improved.
Secondary and College Education

Successful expansion and improvement of quality is simply dependent on modern, updated and
realistic educational administration. To achieve this goal, secondary and college educational
administration will be reformed as per necessity. Steps will be taken so that the local communities
can play an effective role in this process.
Strategies
1. The power, responsibilities and authority of secondary educational administration will be
devolved at division, district and upazila levels. The position of District Education Offices
will be graded at par with other District officials.
2. If necessary, the school/college management committees will be strengthened with larger
authority. Measures for supervision will be taken with joint participation of guardians, local
persons interested in education and representatives of local government.
3. The post of school inspectors will be created in proportion to the number of schools to
strengthen academic supervision and monitoring so that at least one school is brought under
close supervision once a month.
4. The EMIS computer cell in the Directorate will be expanded and modernized. To build up
an IT-based Ministry of Education, the computer cell of the Ministry will be expanded and
updated and necessary manpower will be recruited.
5. Educational institutions will be identified through the school-mapping program and these
institutions will be selected for academic approval and coverage of MPO.
6. The existing discrimination of the teachers/officers/staff of government and non-
government educational institutions will be removed. In order to increase the benefits of the
teachers of non-government institutions to the level of the government institutions, the
government will gradually increase the salary and other benefits on the basis of availability
of funds and the academic and training skills of the incumbent.
7. The benefit trust for the teachers of non-government institutions will be strengthened.
Medical expenses of teachers, one-time [financial] assistance on the occasion of pre-mature
death of the teachers/employees, pension and financial benefits on their retirement will be
increased.
8. There must be specific policies to nationalize the non-government educational institutions.
These policies will include the service rules of the teachers/ officials/staff of the
nationalized institutions. The policies will protect the interests of the teachers recruited
through the selection commission. Similar protection will cover the interests of the officials
and staff.
9. Measures will be taken to establish government secondary schools and government colleges
in the upazilas where these do not exist now.
215
10. The number of officials will be increased as per necessity, on the basis of the teachers-
students ratio in the government schools, colleges, TT colleges, madrasas, technical
education institutions as well as in the District Education Office, regional offices and in the
Directorate.
11. Education institutions run by individuals or under the ownership of any non-government
organization will be brought under a structured management. Their accountability must be
ensured and these institution will be run on uniform basis under specific policies.
12. Special public assistance will be offered to develop the infrastructure of non-government
institutions that set high standards of success at the national level.
Higher Educational administration including the universities

1. University Grants Commission will coordinate and lead in matters of higher education in
the country. Steps will be taken to standardize the quality of higher education and research
at a commendable level. One of the responsibilities of this Commission will be to prepare
planning, development and implementation of higher education and research programs of
the universities. All universities will resolve matters about their development programs
related to education, opening of new departments and expansion of the existing ones with
approval from UGC. However, decisions regarding creation of new posts and departments
or establishing new centers or institutes or admitting more students in addition to the seats
fixed, can be taken only as and when supply of funds is ensured. In the interest of better
management of higher education, the inconsistencies of the rules between the universities
and UGC will be identified and accordingly removed. Since the UGC is run by public
funds, it will reflect transparency and accountability in all its activities. The UGC Act will
be revised with this end in view.
2. The University Grants Commission will be in charge monitoring the activities of all public
and private universities including examination and reviewing the scope of their activities
and matters related to quality of education.
3. The UGC, the Education Ministry or in special cases, some appropriate authorities can
reorganize the administrative structure of the universities and higher education institutions
under them to look after that some extra burden of administrative responsibility does not
affect the academic activities of teachers.
National University
1. As an affiliating university and as an institution of training, the National University has
huge and enormous responsibilities that often affect its activities. The decentralization of
this university with the establishment of centers in each divisional headquarters is a must
and this process will start soon. The divisional centers will have power and responsibilities
as per statutory provisions. The government and UGC will jointly take steps immediately.
2. The divisional centers will run under the supervision and guidance of the central campus of
National University situated at Gazipur. The central campus will run as the Dhaka
divisional center too. Later, these centers will be elevated to individual affiliating
universities for the geographical areas concerned.
216
28. Some Special Initiatives to be taken regardless
of Educational Levels
1. It is necessary to take immediate steps to make adjustments between the educational

qualification or technical expertise, acquired during student life with the demand of the job
market so that employment facilities can be ensured for the students after completing
education at any level. To accomplish this, surveys on demand and supply of technical
expertise and educational qualification in the job market have to be undertaken as early as
possible and these are to be continued on a regular basis after a certain period.
2. According to the output obtained through these surveys, short and mid-term extensive
training facilities have to be ensured through the allocation of adequate funds and logistic
support along with employing expert teaching staff, in order to cater to the demands of the
sectors.
3. Expert manpower has to be developed in accordance with the national demand for
manpower on mid and long-term basis. Implementation of all these programs can be
realized through public-private-partnership (PPP). However, opportunities and scopes must
be open for those students belonging to socio-economically backward classes of the society.
4. Gradually, programs have to be implemented at all levels through coordination of demands
of different socio-economic manpower and educational qualification as well as expertise
acquired through education.
5. All educational institutions, regardless of their levels and types, must be registered with
appropriate authority. They will fulfill the pre-requisites (such as administrative and
infrastructural structure, number of students and teachers, students' tuition fees and
teachers salaries, financing, curriculum, extra-curricular activities, education materials etc).
The annual balance sheet of income and expenditures of the registered educational an
external auditor must audit institutions; and a copy of that audited balance sheet has to be
submitted to the authority with which they are registered. Necessary laws will be enacted in
this regard.
6. The government education fund will finance, on the basis of needs and under special
consideration, those non-government educational institutions, which have their own sources
of income and are conducted by missionaries, trust and local or foreign organizations.
However, these educational organizations must be registered with appropriate authority and
will strictly follow identical curriculum, syllabus and other guidelines recommended for
every level of education. Besides, a guideline has to be prepared for the institutions
charging higher tuition fees from the students. The issue of receiving donation has to be
regulated under specific guidelines.
7. At present, private tuition and coaching centers have become rampant in the country due to
various malpractices and incongruities in the traditional education system and the erosion of
moral values of a section of teaching community. Appropriate remedial measures have to
217
be taken to control and discourage as well as to bring an end to these practices that are
detrimental to intellectual growth of the students.
8. Various surveys reveal that some people have been illegally enjoying government financial
aid and other benefits allocated for the teachers of the institutions. They (ab)use the names
of some counterfeit or non-existent institutions at primary, secondary, technical, madrasa
and other levels. Measures are being taken against these counterfeit institutions and corrupt
people by identifying them through investigation. This process will also continue in future
and will be further intensified, if necessary.
9. It is urgently required to free the educational institutions from the influence of party
politics. To realize this objective, guidelines have to be prepared and strictly implemented.
10. It is necessary to prepare some code of conduct for the teachers and the learners at all levels
of education, and they will be made aware of it accordingly. To do this, steps are to be
taken to prepare code of conduct for different levels of education through the formation of
different and appropriate committees. It has to be ensured that students, at any level of
education, do not face any physical or mental tortures.
11. Banks, private enterprises and philanthropist individuals will be encouraged for sponsoring
education scholarships.
12. The number of employees (third and fourth class) in the primary, secondary and college-
level educational institutions has to be determined on the basis of the number of teachers
and students as well as the work-load of respective institutions. A guideline needs to be
prepared for this.
13. Service rules of the employees have to be integrated into statutory regulations. The
employees will be made aware of that accordingly. Newly appointed persons will be
informed about these rules and regulations in a written format along with their appointment
letters. The pay-scale of the employees has to be justifiably updated.
14. Initiatives have to be taken to set up an IT-based rich data-base by compiling all
information regarding education of all levels, so that everyone can use it easily. All these
information have to be updated. To fulfill this target, Bangladesh Bureau of Education
Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) will be further strengthened with support on IT,
networking, finance and manpower. However, it has to be ensured through effective
supervision that the activities of the organization are being conducted with efficiency and
transparency. Setting up of an education-related database under private initiative will also
be encouraged.
15. It is urgently necessary to encourage Bangla Academy to play a more effective role in
developing Bangla language and translating modern books of different foreign languages
into Bangla on a large scale, especially necessary textbooks of various subjects for higher
levels. Necessary assistance of funds and manpower will be made available for this.
16. Necessary steps will be taken to strengthen and make the International Mother Language
Institute more effective in order to facilitate learning in various languages and research
work in these areas.
17. Effective coordination of the levels of education and differential responsibilities for
management of those levels will be in place. There will be an effective inter-ministerial
coordination of work.
218
Annexure-1
Some Directives of Bangladesh Constitution relating to Education
17. The State shall adopt effective measures for the purpose of-
(a) Establishing a uniform, mass-oriented and universal system of education and extending free
and compulsory education to all children to such stage as may be determined by law;
(b) Relating education to the needs of society and producing properly trained and motivated
citizens to serve those needs;
(c) Removing illiteracy within such time as may be determined by law;
28. Discrimination on grounds of religion, etc.

(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race caste,
sex or place of birth.
(2) Women shall have equal rights with men in all spheres of the State and of public life.
(3) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth be subjected
to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to access to any place of
public entertainment or resort, or admission to any educational institution.
41. Freedom of religion

No person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious
instruction, or to take part in or to attend any religious ceremony or worship, if that
instruction, ceremony or worship relates to a religion other than his own.
219
Annexure-2
The Government of Peoples Republic of Bangladesh constituted a committee to formulate a

National Education Policy on 06.04.2009 (23-12-1415 Bengali year) Vide: Education Ministry
memo no. Edu.Ministry/Sha:4/Implementation cell for Education Policy: 2/2004/121
Committee
Chairman Kabir Chowdhury
National Professor
Co-Chairman Dr. Qazi Kholiquzzaman Ahmad
Chairman,Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad (BUP)
President, Bangladesh Economic Association (BEA)
Member Secretary Professor Shaikh Ekramul Kabir
Director (Training & Implementation)
National Academy for Educational Management (NAEM)
Members Professor Dr. Kazi Shahidullah
Vice-Chancellor, National University, Gazipur
Professor R I M Aminur Rashid
Vice-Chancellor, Open University, Gazipur
Professor Dr. Sadeka Halim
Department of Sociology, Dhaka University, Dhaka
Dr. Muhammed Zafar Iqbal
Dean & Professor, Computer Science,
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet
Professor Dr. Fokrul Alam
Department of English, Dhaka University, Dhaka
Professor Siddikur Rahman
Institute of Education & Research (IER)
Dhaka University, Dhaka
Professor Dr. Zarina Rahman Khan
Department of Public Administration, Dhaka University, Dhaka
Professor Nitai Chandra Sutradhar
Director General, Directorate of Technical Education (DTE), Dhaka
Professor Quazi Faruque Ahmed
President, Bangladesh College Teachers Association, Dhaka
Siraj Uddin Ahmed
Additional Secretary (retired)
Md. Abu Hafiz
Additional Secretary (retired)
Maulana ABM Siddikur Rahman
Former Principal, Government Alia Madrasa, Dhaka & Sylhet
Barrister Begum Nihad Kabir
Senior Partner, Syed Istiaq Ahmed and Associates
Principal M A Awal Siddiqui
President, Bangladesh Teachers Association
Professor Shaheen Mahbuba Kabir
Department of English, Jahangirnagar University ,Savar, Dhaka
220
Annexure-3
The Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh constituted a committee to review &
scrutinize carefully the English version of National Education Policy -2010 & submit the accurate
English version to the Ministry of Education vide: Education Ministry Memo No. Edn
Ministry/Sha: 4/Natioinal Education policy/2010/04 dated 03-01-2011.
Committee
Convenor Md. Rafiquzzaman
Joint Secretary
Audit & Law
Member Prof. Shaikh Ekramul Kabir
Secretary Director (Training & Implementation)
National Academy for Educational Management (NAEM), Dhaka
Member Prof. Md. Akbar Hossain
Chairman, Dept. of English
Eden Mohila College, Dhaka
Member Farzana Islam
Associate Prof. of English
Dhaka College, Dhaka
Member Mst. Hasina Akhter
Begum Badrunessa College, Dhaka
Member Dipak Kumar Karmaker
Dhaka College, Dhaka
221
Fundarnentals of educational planning51

Included in the series:*
2. The relation of educational plans to economic and social planning

R. Poignant
4 Planning and the educational administrator C.E. Beeby
5. The social context of educational planning C.A. Anderson
6. The costing of educational plans, J. Vaizey, J. D. Chesswas
7. The problems of rural education, V.L. Criffiths
8. Educational planning; the adviser's role, A. Curle
9. Demographic aspects of educational planning, Ta Ngoc C
10. The analysis of educational costs and expenditure, J. Hallak
11. The professional identity of the educational planner, A. Curle
12. The conditions for success in educational planning, G.C. Ruscoe
13. Cost-benefit analysis in educational planning, M. Woodhall
18. Planning educational assistance for the second development decade,
H.M. Philips
20. Realistic educational planning, K.R. McKinnon
21. Planning education in relation to rural development, C.M. Coverdale
22. Alternatives and decisions in educational planning, J.D. Montgomery
23. Planning the school curriculum, A. Lewy
24. Cost factors in planning educational technological systems, D.T.Jamison
25. The planner and lifelong education, P. Furter
26. Education and employment: a critical appraisal, M. Carnoy
27. Planning teacher demand and supply, P. Williams
28. Planning early childhood care and education in developing countries
A. Heron
29. Communication media in education for low-income countries
E.G. McAnany, J.K Mayo
30. The planning of nonformal education, D.R. Evans
31. Education, training and the traditional sector, J. Hallak, F. Caillods
32. Higher education and employment: the IIEPexperience in five
less-developed countries G. Psacharopoulos, B.C. Sanyal
33. Educational planning as a social process, T. Malan
34. Higher education and social stratification: an international comparative
study, T. Husn
35. A conceptual framework for the development of lifelong education in
the USSR, A. Vladislavlev
36. Education in austerity: options for planners, K Lewin
37. Educational planning in Asia, R. Roy-Singh
38. Education projects: elaboration, financing and management, A. Magnen
39. Increasing teacher effectiveness, L.W. Anderson
40. National and school-based curriculum development, A. Lewy
41. Planning human resources: methods, experiences and pratices,
O. Bertrand
42. Redefining basic education for Latin America: lessons to be learned from the
Colombian Escuela Nueva, E. Schiefelbein
43. The management of distance learning systems,
G. Rumble
44. Educational strategies for small island states, D. Atchoarena
45. Judging educational research based on experiments and surveys, R.M. Wolf
46 Law and educational planning, I. Birch.
47. Utilizing education and human resource sector analyses, F. Kemmerer
48. Cost analysis of educational inclusion of marginalized populations
Mun C. Tsang.
49. An efficiency-based management information system, Walter W. McMahon.
50. National examinations: design, procedures and reporting, John P. Keeves.
* Also published in French. Other titles to appear.

Education policy-planning
process: an applied
framework
Wadi D. Haddad
with the assistance of Terri Demsky
Paris 1995
UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning

The Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) has
provided financial assistance for the publication of this booklet.
This booklet is derived from a study (The dynamics of educatio -
nal policy making: case studies of Peru, Jordan, Thailand and
Burkina Faso - 1994) by the same authors, prepared for and publi-
shed by the Economic Development Institute of the World Bank.
The findings, interpretations, and conclusions of this booklet,
though, are the responsibility of the authors and should not be
attributed to the World Bank or the International Institute for
Educational Planning.
Published in 1995 by the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
7 place de Fontenoy, 75700, Paris
Cover design by Bruno Pfffli

ISBN 92-803- 1 1 55-7
UNESCO 1995 IIEP/ko'f

Fundamentals of educational planning
The booklets in this series are written primarily for two types of clientele: those
engaged in educational planning and administration, in developing as well as
developed countries; and others, less specialized, such as senior government offi-
cials and policy-makers who seek a more general understanding of educational
planning and of how it is related to overall national development. They are inten-
ded to be of use either for private study or in formal training programmes.
Since this series was launched in 1967 practices and concepts of educatio-
nal planning have undergone substantial change. Many of the assumptions
which underlay earlier attempts to rationalize the process of educational deve-
lopment have been criticized or abandoned. Even if rigid mandatory centralized
planning has now clearly proven to be inappropriate, this does not mean that all
forms of planning have been dispensed with. On the contrary, the need for col-
lecting data, evaluating the efficiency of existing programmes, undertaking a
wide range of studies, exploring the future and fostering broad debate on these
bases to guide educational policy and decision making has become even more
acute than before.
The scope of educational planning has been broadened. In addition to the
formal system of education, it is now applied to all other important educational
efforts in nonformal settings. Attention to the growth and expansion of educa-
tional systems is being complemented and sometimes even replaced by a gro-
wing concern for the quality of the entire educational process and for the control
of its results. Finally, planners and administrators have become more and more
aware of the importance of implementation strategies and of the role of diffe-
rent regulatory mechanisms in this respect: the choice of financing methods, the
examination and certification procedures or various other regulation and incen-
tive structures.
tive structures. The
Theconcern of planners
concern is twofold:
of planners to reach atobetter
is twofold: reach

understanding of the validity of education in its own empirically observed

specific dimensions and to help in defining appropriate strategies for
change.
The purpose of these booklets includes monitoring the evolution and change
in educational policies and their effect upon educational planning requirements;
highlighting current issues of educational planning and analyzing them in the
context of their historical and societal setting; and disseminating methodologies
of planning which can be applied in the context of both the developed and the
developing countries.
In order to help the Institute identify the real up-to-date issues in educational
planning and policy making in different parts of the world, an Editorial Board has
been appointed, composed of two general editors and associate editors from dif-
ferent regions, all professionals of high repute in their own field. At the first mee-
ting of this new Editorial Board in January 1990, its members identified key
topics to be covered in the coming issues under the following headings:
1. Education and development

2. Equity considerations
3. Quality of education
4. Structure, administration and management of education
5. Curriculum
6. Cost and financing of education
7. Planning techniques and approaches
8. Information systems, monitoring and evaluation
Each heading is covered by one or two associate editors.
The series has been carefully planned but no attempt has been made to avoid
differences or even contradictions in the views expressed by the authors. The
Institute itself does not wish to impose any official doctrine. Thus, while the
views are the responsibility of the authors and may not always be shared by
UNESCO or the IIEP, they warrant attention in the international forum of ideas.
Indeed, one of the purposes of this series is to reflect a diversity of experience and
opinions by giving different authors from a wide range of backgrounds and dis-
ciplines the opportunity of expressing their views on changing theories and prac-
tices in educational planning.
The present booklet is concerned with educational policy making.
Educational planning and educational policy making are closely intercon-
nected. Planners who do not understand how policies are forrnulated are not
ensured of success; neither can they be of great help to policy-makers.

Indeed, planning entails a variety of processes, from the analysis of the present
situation, the generation and assessment of policy options, to the careful prepara-
tion and monitoring of policy implementation, eventually leading to the redefini-
tion of a new policy cycle. A variety of players intervene in these processes and
if their interests are not carefully assessed and taken care of, then the policy or
the plan will have every chance of failing. Educational history is full of reforms
and plans which were never implemented precisely because the interests of cer-
tain key actors (parents or teachers) had not been taken into consideration, finan-
cial and human resources implications had not been carefully assessed or the sys-
tem's managerial capacity had not systematically been taken into account.
The contents of the present booklet, which was written by Wadi Haddad with
the assistance of Terri Demsky, contain an integrated model of educational deci-
sion making, illustrated by some four critically analyzed country case studies.
The authors draw some lessons for the attention of educational planners. No one
but Wadi Haddad, who was Chief Adviser to the President of Lebanon, the
Executive Secretary of the World Conference on Education for All, and who is
now Deputy Secretary of the World Bank, would have been in a better position to
present this important topic.
Indeed, Aid agencies are now amongst the most powerful players in the deci-
sion-making process in many developing countries. As the case studies in this
booklet illustrate, they have not always exercised their respective influential posi-
tion in the best possible way. This booklet should definitely interest planners,
decision-makers but also those donors who want to see educational change taking
place with the good of the countries in mind.
I would like to thank Douglas M. Windham, Distinguished Service Professor
at the State University of New York at Albany, special editor of this issue, for the
very active role he played in its preparation.
Jacques Hallak
Assistant Director-General, UNESCO
Director, IIEP

Composition of the Editorial Board
Chairrnan: Jacques Hallak

Assistant Director-General, UNESCO
Director, IEP
General Editors: Franoise Caillods

IIEP
T. Neville Postlethwaite
University of Hamburg
Germany
Associate Editors: Arfah A. Aziz

Malaysia
Jean-Claude Eicher
University of Bourgogne
France
Claudio de Moura Castro

Inter-American Development Bank
USA
Kenneth N. Ross
IIEP/
Deakin University
Australia
Richard Sack
International Consultant
France
Douglas M. Windham
State University of New York at Albany
USA

Preface
The last two decades have seen a shift in the balance of interest bet-
ween educational planning (with its emphasis on design, implementa-
tion, and monitoring) and educational policy making (with an empha-
sis on how educational policy alternatives are identified and final
choices made). Increasingly, educational planners realize that both the
constraints and opportunities they face are often traceable to the deci-
sions made by policy-makers, usually before the professional planning
staff has had a role in the discussion.
This shift in interest among planners has occurred simultaneously
with the shift of educational responsibility to regional/local govern-
ment agencies, to non government organizations, and to the private
sector in many countries. This means that the planners' greater atten-
tion to policy-making issues is occurring at the very time that the
policy-making process is increasing dramatically in complexity and
diffusion. Obviously, educational policy making and educational
planning have always been linked. What has not been linked is the
utilization of the insights of the planners by the policy-makers. The
question planners face now is whether the new policy-making envi-
ronment will seriously constrain their attempts to ensure the early
discussion of planning considerations as part of the educational poli-
cy-making process.
The Haddad/Demsky volume, The policy-planning process in
education: an applied framework, is a superb introduction to the
policy-making process for both experienced and new planners (as
well as scholars, researchers, and other administrators who will
benefit from the volume's lucid presentation). As defined, policy

Preface
represents decisions that are designed to guide (including to constrain)

future decisions, or to initiate and guide the implementation of pre-
vious decisions. It is this time-bound nature of policy, and of policy
making, that makes it such a critical concern for the educational plan-
ner. To a large extent, it is the planners' decisions that will be guided
or constrained and it is the planners who will have to follow the imple-
mentation guidelines established by policy. For too long, planners have
played a passive role in the policy-making process and have taken as
given the set of delimitations imposed on them. There is an urgent
need for planners to play a larger role in policy making, not as arbiters
of policy decisions, but as partners in the policy-making process who
can alert the decision-makers, political or administrative, to the costs
and benefits (quantitative and qualitative) of alternative policy options.
The policy-making process, like educational development itself is
not a straightforward, easily understandable process. To help one bet-
ter comprehend the untidiness and overlapping nature of how educa-
tional decisions are made, W.D. Haddad and T. Demsky present a fra-
mework which clarifies without doing violence to the complex reality
of policy making. One of the requirements of their framework is the
need to relax the assumptions of rationality and adequacy of informa-
tion which underlie much of the Traditional literature on planning and
policy making. Rationality is still used in assessing the decisions
made, it simply is not an assumed determinant of the decisions.
A major contribution of the Haddad/Demsky volume is that once
the framework is posited, they proceed to examine its value in four real
world cases - Burkina Faso, Jordan, Peru, and Thailand. In each case,
the framework shows its value in explaining why certain policies were
developed and why they were implemented in the manner they were.
One point which should be emphasized here is the ability of the
Haddad/Demsky framework to deal with the dynamics of the poli-
cy-planning cycle. It stresses the linkages between pre- and post-deci-
sion activities and emphasizes the continuing nature of the process as
implementation by planners of one set of policy decisions establishes
the context for the next cycle of policy and planning activities.
10

Preface
A special comment should be made about the contribution of the

authors to a renewed optimism about what can be achieved in educa-
tional development. The failure of the traditional planning models and
the recognition of the lack of rationality that can occur in policy
making have combined to create an atmosphere of pessimism among
some educationalists. W.D. Haddad and T. Demsky show that this cur-
rent pessimism is as unjustified as was the naive optimism that cha-
racterized much of education in the 1960s and 1970s. W.D. Haddad
and T. Demsky leave us with an improved understanding of the diffi-
culty of our work as planners and policy analysts but with an enhanced
confidence that we can do much more to improve both educational
policy making and its implementation .
Douglas M. Windham
Associate Editor
11

Contents
Preface 9
Introduction 15
Chapter I. Framework for education policy analysis 17
Policy definition and scope 17

Policy making 19
Conceptual framework for policy analysis 23
A. Analysis of the existing situation 24
B. The process of generating policy options 30
C. Evaluation of policy options 32
D. Making the policy decision 34
E. Planning policy implementation 35
F. Policy impact assessment 37
G. Subsequent policy cycles 38
Chapter II. Application of policy analysis in

educational planning activities:
four exemplary cases 40
I. Peru: A case of comprehensive/revolutionary

approach 41
II. Jordan: A case of going from the incremental
to the comprehensive 46
III. Thailand: A case of going from the specific
to the strategic 53
13

Contents
IV. Burkina Faso: A case of externally influenced

comprehensive approach 59
Chapter III. Lessons from the cases 68
Peru 70
Jordan 72
Thailand 73
Burkina Faso 75
Synthesis across cases 77
Analysis of the existing situation 78
The process of generating policy options 78
The process of evaluating policy options 80
Adoption of the policy decision 81
Policy planning and implementation 82
Policy impact assessment and subsequent
policy cycle 85
Chapter IV. Conclusion - summary implications for

planners 88
Selected references and further reading 91
14

Introduction
This booklet analyzes educational policy making as a cornerstone of

(Fundamental) educational planning. The policy analysis framework
and case studies presented here provide planners with both a concep-
tual and an operational guide for understanding the critical linkages in
the policy-planning process for education.
Chapter I offers an integrated model of educational decision
making that emphasizes the role of the formal policy-making process
(and its analytical rationality) within the context of the key policy
actors (from the administrative and political context). To capture the
details of the decision-making process itself, an analytical framework
is presented that goes beyond the initial decision point to examine both
the preceding actions (contextual assessment, technical analysis, and
the generation, valuation, and selection of policy options) and the sub-
sequent activities (planning and conducting implementation, impact
assessment, and, where appropriate, remediation and redesign). Thus,
the framework covers the full policy-planning process but with a focus
on the facilitating and constraining effects that policy decisions (and
how they were derived) can have on the choices available to educatio-
nal planners.
In Chapter 1l, the framework is applied to four exemplary case
studies of the educational policy cycle. The four cases (Peru,
Jordan, Thailand, and Burkina Faso) were selected because suff i-
cient data (and elapsed time) exist on each to allow discussion of
the full policy cycle; also, the geographical, economic, pedagogi-
cal, and political diversity of the examples emphasizes that the
policy framework presented here is generic and not limited in
15

Education policy-planning process:
an applied framework
applicability by any of these factors. Chapter 111 summarizes the les-

sons from and across the case studies, and identifies the elements in the
policy-planning process that appear to have contributed to the success
or failure of policy reforms. Chapter IV summarizes the implications
for planners.
This analysis should be of value to educational planners in two
major ways. First, the methodology of the framework and conclusions
of the case studies should help in the analysis of current educational
policies and decision-making procedures (an analysis of policy).
Second, the framework can be applied to the evaluation of proposed
policies and used to forecast policy outcomes and the probability of
successful implementation, given the country context of fiscal and
managerial capacity, political commitment, etc. (an analysis for poli-
cy). Planning that is not based on a solid understanding of educational
policy making will fail; it will fail not primarily because of any tech-
nical planning errors but because the planners did not understand why
and how these policies evolved and how planning results should lead
to new cycles of policy analysis and formulation.
16

Chapter I. Framework for education policy analysis
The notion of educational planning - making the education sector grow

and function more effectively - may implicitly suggest a well structu-
red field of unambiguous issues, clearly defined objectives, mutually
exclusive choices, undisputed causal relationships, predictable rationa-
lities, and rational decision-makers. Accordingly, sector analysis has
predominantly focused on the content - the 'what' of educational deve-
lopment: issues, policies, strategies, measures, outcomes, etc. In
contrast to this simplistic vision, educational planning is actually a
series of untidy and overlapping episodes in which a variety of people
and organizations with diversified perspectives are actively involved -
technically and politically. It entails the processes through which
issues are analyzed and policies are generated, implemented, assessed
and redesigned. Accordingly, an analysis of the education sector
implies an understanding of the education policy process itself - the
'how' and 'when' of educational development. The purpose of this sec-
tion is to suggest a scheme or series of steps through which sound and
workable policies can be formulated, and then, through effective plan-
ning, put into effect, evaluated and redesigned.
Policy definition and scope
Since the policy process is a crucial element in educational

planning, it is essential to clarify the concepts of 'policy' and
'policy making' before proceeding any further. Understandably,
competing definitions of 'policy' are numerous and varied. For the
17

purposes of this paper, policy is defined functionally to mean: An

explicit or implicit single decision or group of decisions which may set
out directives for guiding future decisions, initiate or retard action, or
guide implementation of previous decisions. Policy making is the first
step in any planning cycle and planners must appreciate the dynamics
of policy formulation before they can design implementation and eva-
luation procedures effectively.
Policies, however, differ in terms of their scope, complexity, deci-
sion environment, range of choices, and decision criteria. This range is
schematically depicted in Figure 1. Issue-specific policies are
short-term decisions involving day-to-day management or, as the term
implies, a particular issue. A programme policy is concerned with the
design of a programme in a particular area, while a multi-programme
policy decision deals with competing programme areas. Finally, stra-
tegic decisions deal with large-scale policies and broad resource allo-
cations. For example:
Strategic: How can we provide basic education at a reasonable cost to
meet equity and efficiency objectives?
Multi-programme: Should resources be allocated to primary education
or to rural training centres?
Programme: How should training centres be designed and provided
across the country?
Issue-specific: Should graduates of rural centres be allowed to go into
intermediate schools?
Another example:
Strategic: Should we or do we need to introduce diversified education?
Multi-programme: How should we allocate resources between general
education, vocational education, and diversified education?
Programme: How and where should we provide diversified education?
Issue-specific: How should practical subjects be taught in diversified
schools?
O b v i o u s l y, the broader the scope of a policy is, the more pro-
blematic it becomes. Methodological and political issues become
more pronounced such as, definition of the problem in conflicti-
ve societies; use of analytical techniques and optimization;
18

Framework for education policy analysis
questions of proper theoretical base, measurement, valuation and

aggregation; hard objective data vs. soft subjective data; and technical
analysis vs. public participation. For a more detailed treatment of this
subject, refer to Michael Carley (1980).
Figure 1. Policy scope
Policy making
The term 'policy making' like 'policy' implies competing conceptions

and assumptions. A study of the theoretical and empirical work of
social scientists reveals the two essential dimensions of policy making:
who does it (the actors) and how (the process). Historically, the actor
in policy making has been considered unitary and rational; more
recently policy analysts have introduced the organizational (public
interest) model and the personalistic (self-interest) model. The process
element has fluctuated between a synoptic (comprehensive) approach
and an incremental approach.
C. Lindblom and D.K. Cohen (1979) laid out the differences bet-
ween the synoptic and incremental methods of policy making.
19

According to him, the synoptic method entails, in its extreme form,

one single central planning authority for the whole of society, combi-
ning economic, political, and social control into one integrated plan-
ning process that makes interaction unnecessary. It assumes: (a) that
the problem at hand does not go beyond man's cognitive capacities and
(b) there exist agreed criteria (rather than social conflict on values) by
which solutions can be judged and (c) that the problem- solvers have
adequate incentives to stay with synoptic analysis until it is completed
(rather than 'regress' to using incremental planning.)
Incremental policy making, on the other hand, relies on interaction
rather than on a complete analysis of the situation to develop a blue-
print for solving problems. The incremental approach to policy making
is built on the following assumptions: (a) Policy options are based on
highly uncertain and fluid knowledge, and are in response to a dyna-
mic situation (everchanging problems, and evolving contexts); (b) No
'correct' solution can therefore be found, or technically derived from a
diagnosis of the situation. Thus, no sweeping or drastic reforms should
be attempted; (c) Only incremental and limited policy adjustments can
be made; and (d) Policy adjustments are expected to remedy an expe-
rienced dissatisfaction with past policies, improving the existing situa-
tion or relieving an urgent problem. Consequently, these adjustments
should be tentative - and in some cases temporary - and must be revi-
sed as the dynamics of the situation evolve.
G.T. Allison (1971) developed two alternative models to the com-
monly assumed model of the unitary rational policy-maker: (a) the
Organizational process model, and (b) the governmental politics model.
The first model assumes a complex government consisting of a conglo-
merate of semi-feudal, loosely allied organizations, each with a substan-
tial life of its own. Decisions are based on the output of the several enti-
ties, functioning independently according to standard patterns of beha-
viour but partially co-ordinated by government leaders. The second
model carries this concept further. While it also assumes an organizatio-
nal approach to decision making, the Governmental Politics model plays
up the part of individuals in the process. Government decisions are not
made by a monolithic state based on rational choice, but rather are
20

negotiated by various leaders who sit on top of the organizations invol-

ved in that particular decision-making process. Each leader is compel-
led by his own conception of the problem as well as by the imperatives
of his organization and his own personal goals.
A consolidated model for policy making. Neither of the two dimen-
sions alone (process and actors) fully captures the dynamics of policy
making. They need to be combined and restructured into a different
configuration, as the topography in Figure 2 illustrates.
Figure 2. Dimensions of policy making
21

The actor in policy making is placed on the horizontal-axis - at one

end of the spectrum is the societal/personalistic mode, wherein decisions
are reached by negotiation among a variety of interest groups (including
government ministries, teachers' unions, etc.), driven by their own
conception of the problem and individual values. On the other end is the
organizational/bureaucratic mode wherein decisions are made within the
organizational entity (i.e. the military, the international community, etc.).
The process of policy making - from the incremental to the synoptic
approach - is placed on the vertical-axis. These two dimensions generate
a new topography.
On the one extreme of this new topography (in quadrant I) is the ratio-
nal model which is a composite of the synoptic method and the organi-
zational/bureaucratic mode. Decision making at this extreme is unitary,
rational, centrally controlled, completely technical and value maximi-
zing. On the other extreme (in quadrant III) is a composite of the incre-
mental method and the societal/personalistic mode. Policy making here is
a political activity characterized by self-interest, political bargaining,
value judgement and multiple rationalities. One can easily argue that
most policy making falls somewhere between these two extremes.
Analytic techniques caried on in ignorance of political, social and bureau-
cratic realities do not go very far. Similarly, a pattern of vague and unsys-
tematic political decisions loaded with self-interest, patronage and value
judgements can lead to breakdown, if not to chaos.
In sum, a balanced perspective of policy making places analytical
rationality within the context of political and institutional aspects of poli-
cy making. This is in line with Douglas North's pioneering work on ins-
titutional economics that gained him the Nobel Prize in 1 993. In addition
to modifying the rationality postulate, he extended the economic theory
by incorporating ideas and ideologies into the analysis and allotted a fun-
damental role to institutions for societal change: they are "the underlying
determinant of the long-run performance of economies". (North 1990).
This balanced view of policy making is most appropriate for edu-
cation. Studies of educational policy making all point to the com-
plexity and multifaceted character of this process due to the nature
of both the educational system and the educational change.
22

One of the more important characteristics of the education system lies in

its salient linkages with the socio-economic structure. Any policy
changes, therefore, are not purely technical but have socio-
political-economic dimensions. For instance, any attempt to modify the
system, which is perceived by one group or another as lowering the
chances of their children to progress socially or economically, will meet
with strong opposition. Therefore, the whole notion of reform for demo-
cratization is essentially a political issue. Another complex set of linkages
exists between the education system and the economy, whereby the
school is seen as the solution to a wide range of economic problems. This
belief is the source of much of the impetus for policy changes.
Internally, the educational system is an intricate network of institutions
interlocking horizontally and vertically. A policy decision in any one
component can have strong repercussions throughout the system.
Externally, education seems to be everyone's business and nearly everyo-
ne feels qualified to have an opinion about it. Policy making, therefore,
involves balancing a number of contradictory demands, and soliciting
support, or at least tolerance, from the many different segments of socie-
ty which have an interest in education.
Conceptual framework for policy analysis
Although decision making is a crucial event in the policy process, clearly

it is preceded by analytical and/or political activities (analysis, generation of
options, bargaining, etc.) and followed by equally important planning activi-
ties (implementation, assessment, and possible redesign). This booklet intro-
duces a framework for education policy analysis that covers the pre-policy
decision activities, the decision process itself, and the post-decision planning
activities. This framework is not a description of actual activities, but rather
a conceptual model to extract and specify those elements that can be detec-
ted and analyzed. It therefore should be broad enough to capture and integrate
the intricate process of any policy making model (Figure 2), yet at the same
time it should disaggregate the process into components to determine how
they work and interact. The resultant framework, summarized
23

schematically in Figure 3 and discussed in detail below, consists of seven

policy-planning processes, the first four of which deal with policy making,
the fifth with planning and sixth and seventh with policy adjustment:
(i) Analysis of the existing situation.

(ii) The generation of policy options.
(iii) Evaluation of policy options.
(iv) Making the policy decision.
(v) Planning of policy implementation.
(vi) Policy impact assessment.
(vii) Subsequent policy cycles.
This framework looks complicated because, inevitably, it is multi-

faceted and covers a wide range of processes. However, any attempt to
restrict policy analysis to certain elements or to disregard one element
results in an incomplete approach to policy analysis, and leads to the
historical controversy of the rational vs. the political, or the bureau-
cratic vs. the organizational approaches in the literature and in public
debate. The above seven elements of the framework will be used to
frame the case studies in Chapter II and the conclusions in Chapter III.
A. Analysis of the existing situation
A policy change is normally a response to a problem or set of pro-

blems in the sector, and must, therefore, start with an appreciation of
the educational sector and its context. In addition to the analysis of the
sector itself, policy analysis should consider a number of aspects of the
social context, including political, economic, demographic, cultural,
and social issues which are likely to affect the decision making and
even implementation processes of the education sector.
Country background
The general character of a country (location, geography,

population, culture, and social stratification patterns) has obvious
24

implications for education policy analysis. This makes the process of

educational policy making more difficult and in a number of ways.
Typically different groups have different values about the role of edu-
cation. Insofar as education represents access to economic and politi-
cal power, then different access or interest in education also means dif-
ferential access to power. Resulting conflicts and struggles are particu-
larly acute in countries where the distribution of access to goods and
services has become increasingly unequal.
Political context
The preceding observation emphasizes that an analysis of the poli-

tical environment is necessary for an understanding of the national
decision-making process, the comparative value of education, and the
role that education must play in the socio-political process. It is worth
distinguishing between the priorities of the national political elite rela-
tive to development and those of the educational elite relative to edu-
cation. It is not only that the head of the ministry of education may
have different plans from those of the political elite which appointed
him but in many countries there is considerable autonomy provided to
the educational sector. It is not at all unusual for the two sets of objec-
tives to be at odds with each other or at least not to be tightly inter-
twined.
The capacity of the state to do planning at the national level is ano-
ther critical variable in the institutional analysis of the political sector.
Moreover, the professional background of the bureaucrats who do the
policy planning and where they have been trained (perhaps in foreign
universities) can also affect the ideology of the elite.
Finally, the institutional structure of the political sector has impli-
cations for educational development. Many developing countries do
not have well developed parties but if they do, their values and prefe-
rences need to be calculated as part of the analysis of the political
context.
25

Figure 3. Conceptual framework for policy analysis
26

Figure 3. (continued)
27

Economic context
In this area, the analyst wants to understand the present macro-econo-

mic situation in general and the human resources situation in particular. It
is, however, more important to estimate the likely trends in the various
sectors in the future and the financial resources of the country in order to
assess what the economy requires from the education sector and what the
sector expects to face from the rest of the economy, particularly in terms
of general infrastructure and financial resources.
First, variables such as demographic shifts, urbanization, and migra-
tion, coupled with the likely growth in various sectors of the economy,
will have a significant impact on labour markets and consequently on
needs for education and skill training. Second, the level of economic
development will set enormous constraints on the capacity of the educa-
tional system to build schools and to expand. It is difficult to build schools
without the necessary economic infra-structure to say nothing of the pre-
sence of firms with the necessary capabilities. The level of economic
development also sets the range of possible taxation by the government,
which in turn will influence educational expenditures. Third, the econo-
mic growth rate is important not only for estimating the likely need for
certain kinds of skills but also for estimating the future amounts of slack
resources. This is necessary because, as the rate of growth increases, more
funds are often made available to education; by the same token, as it
decreases, allocations to education are among the first cut.
Education sector
Sector analysis starts with an identification and understanding

of the major sectoral issues relevant to the country. These issues
may be explored under six categories: (i) access to educational
opportunities; (ii) equity in the distribution of educational services;
(iii) structure of the education system; (iv) internal efficiency; (v)
external efficiency; and (vi) institutional arrangements for the
management of the sector. For a full description of these compo-
nents and the analytic techniques utilized refer to Haddad and
28

Demsky (1994), Kemmerer (1994), Coombs and Hallak (1987),

Mingat and Tan (1988), and Windham (1988a, 1988b).
An analysis of the above issues should take into consideration their evo-
lutionary nature: how have issues in the development of the educational
system changed over time? The meeting of one educational need or solu-
tion of one problem frequently creates another. For example, the expansion
of the system and the provision of new facilities naturally lead to issues
about the quality of the education provided and the capacity of the educa-
tional administration to handle a larger educational system. In addition, the
analysis of education across time can sensitize one to the tendency for the
system to oscillate between objectives which are somewhat incompatible.
A historical and evolutionary perspective on the dynamics of policies
across time allows the analyst a better sense of why a particular policy is
being advocated at the moment. By studying the past, one also learns the
likely speed with which educational policies can be implemented.
Dynamics of change
An assessment of the present situation cannot be complete without eva-

luating the forces for or against change in the event that policy changes
need to be made. Such an assessment has implications for the chances of
success of different types of policies and for strategies that must be
employed to promote and implement such policies. Nobel laureate North
(1994) confesses that "there is no greater challenge facing today's social
scientists than the development of a dynamic theory of social change".
Meanwhile, he asserts that "individuals and organizations with bargaining
power as a result of the institutional framework have a crucial stake in per-
petuating the system". One key socio-political factor to analyze, therefore,
is the presence and relative strength of interest groups.
In developing countries it is impossible to specify what might
be all the relevant interest groups but at minimum one can start
with the providers of education, most notably, teachers, and the
consumers, most notably, parents, students and employers. If the
former are well organized - they often are - they can be a powerful
force in supporting or opposing any educational change. Their
29

interests are likely to be threatened if the educational change results in

some challenge to their status or prerogatives. The consumers can also be
powerful, but are generally fragmented. They may be divided into diffe-
rent cultural or occupational, or socio-economic groups. Frequently, these
will have quite different interests in both the quantity and quality of edu-
cation. Consumer groups most closely connected with either political poli-
cy-makers or decisionmakers within the education system will be able to
exert disproportionate influence. In addition, consumers who can organi-
ze themselves into forceful street demonstrations, as have some universi-
ty students, can effect policy changes very favourable to themselves.
Therefore, policy planners need to identify interest groups and assess their
openness to reform. For those interest groups identified as anti-reform,
planners need to determine how well organized they are, how much power
they have in society, and how willing they are to exercise their power.
A separate interest group comprises the officials who adrninister an
education system. Studies suggest that bureaucrats find it in their
self-interest to maintain a moderate expansion of the educational system.
They tend also to value whatever configuration of education is current and
to resist policies that would alter it. Therefore, one important element in
policy analysis is to understand what the self-interests of the educational
bureaucrats are and to recognize that these are not necessarily identical
with those of the teachers, other educational professionals or consumers.
Finally, the pressure to see change happen can come from individuals or
groups outside the education sector (as in the case of Peru, described in
Chapter II) or from external actors, both individual experts and develop-
ment agencies (as is the case of Burkina Faso).
B.The process of generating policy options
New policies are usually generated when the present situation

of the sector and its context is perturbed by a problem, a political
decision or a reorganization scheme (overall national planning).
Policy options can be generated in several different ways to
accommodate the disequilibrium. For analytical purposes one can
group these processes under the following four modes: systemic,
30

incremental, ad hoc and importation. In concrete situations, though,

several of these modes may be combined.
The systemic mode
The title may suggest that this is the preferred or best method for
generating policy options. This is not necessarily the case because
under certain conditions this mode may prove to be defective or
impractical. The systemic mode is characterized by three operations:
generation of data, formulation and prioritization of options, and refi-
ning options. Data are usually derived from two sources: sector analy-
sis, and the existing body of professional knowledge (conventional
wisdom, research synthesis, comparative indicators, etc.).
Formation of options under this mode is a fairly complicated pro-
cess of induction. If based on data alone, a large number of options can
be generated to fit the different 'givens' of the sector and its context. At
its extreme, intellectual induction seeks to anticipate all possible poli-
cy outcomes by thinking through all possible contingencies. It then
proceeds to identify optimal or at least efficient options. However, a
variety of intellectual, political, social and professional constraints
limit the range of policy options. Moreover, options may be given dif-
ferent weights and priorities depending on the perceived importance of
the sectoral issues, the relative strength of the interest groups, and the
possible combination of different options.
Some of the policy options may be subjected to a microcycle of pro-
blem identification: policy formulation - verification - modification or
retention. This is a blend of induction and sequential interaction. The
experimentation or pilot studies approach adds an input into the data
base and to the 'weighting' of the policy options.
The incremental mode
Once a problem within the educational system is recognized,

then a solution is frequently forced upon the system. This is espe-
cially likely to occur when there is a public debate about a pro-
blem. Given widespread interest and discussion, the educational
31

system is forced to do something to maintain its legitimacy. The sense

of urgency necessitates a quick response. Since the problem is likely to
be located in one particular segment of the system, then the issue is
how to formulate a policy to adapt the system to the response. This is
sometimes called the 'acting out' approach whereby the policymaker
seeks to adjust present difficulties rather than to anticipate future ones,
thereby promoting incremental improvements.
The ad hoc mode
Sometimes the problem is outside the educational system. It may

not even be a problem but instead the emergence of a new elite or a
major political event which requires that the educational system make
some adjustments or changes. Here the policy may have no rational
basis within the education sector.
The importation mode
There are many innovations and fashions in educational systems

around the world. These can be the source of the policy options consi-
dered. Foreign specialists, operating as consultants for international
agencies, can provide the stimulus for this mode.
However, a certain policy adopted elsewhere can be imported suc-
cessfully only if it meets the needs of particular groups in the society,
i.e. if there is an importer.
C. Evaluation of policy options
Policy options can be evaluated only if alternative scenarios are

developed to allow estimations of the likely implications of the options
considered. The 'imaginary' situation that would be created if a policy
option were implemented is compared with the present situation, and
the scenario of transition from the existing to the imaginary case is
evaluated in terms of desirability, affordability, and feasibility.
32

Desirability
This involves three dimensions: (1) The impact of the option on the
various interest groups or stakeholders: who would benefit? who might feel
threatened? how might the potential losers be compensated? what would
make the option desirable to all stakeholders? (2) compatibility with the
dominant ideology and targets of economic growth articulated in national
development plans; and (3) in some cases, the impact of a policy option on
political development and the stability.
Affordability
The fiscal costs of the change as well as the social and political costs
need to be evaluated. The difficulty of making these estimations lies in the
ability to predict future trends, including economic growth. This is espe-
cially important because educational expenditures are more vulnerable to
changes in economic situations and political objectives than some other
kinds of public expenditure. Therefore, alternative economic scenarios
need to be considered. Further, private costs (will a reform require consu-
mers to share the costs, and if so what happens to the poorer groups?),
opportunity costs (are there other measures which might benefit the educa-
tion system, but would have to be foregone to pay for the current proposal?)
and political costs (if an option favours one group over another, is the
government willing to pay the political cost?) should also be weighed..
Feasibility
Another and very different kind of implication is the availability

of human resources for implementing the change. Fiscal resources
are easy to compute. More difficult is the estimate of what level of
training is required of teachers (the more sophisticated the program-
me and/or technology involved, the more highly trained the person-
nel need to be) and whether there are enough personnel to imple-
ment the policy option. In many developing countries, highly trai-
ned personnel may be in short supply. This then raises the
33

question of whether they can be imported or trained and at what cost.

Equally important is the presence of the institutional culture (norms,
procedures, environment) necessary to attract, retain, and effectively
utilize trained personnel in transforming policies into plans and imple-
mented programmes. Another element in the calculus of feasibility is
time. Most studies of education projects indicate that there are frequent
time overruns in implementation. More realistic estimates of time need
to be made and can only be done by the careful assessment of the
implementation capabilities and experiences.
The issue of sustainability should fare prominently when the above
criteria are applied. Education initiatives have to be sustained politi-
cally and financially over a lengthy period of time to reach fruition. To
ensure that, the long-term implications of policy options should be
weighed within an overall sectoral policy, itself embedded in a prudent
macro framework, and consistent with long-term national aspirations.
D. Making the policy decision
Rarely would a policy decision be the considered consequence of the

evaluation and previous stages of the decision process - the culmination
of a process during which all information relevant to the decision was
gathered and carefully analyzed so that a totally optimal policy might
be designed and selected. The variety of conflicting interests and ratio-
nalities requires that the policy which is selected engineers 'trade-offs'
among these interests. The resulting policy may not be optimal for any
single interest group, but such a bargained result is necessary to have
the broad base of political support which will be needed to take the poli-
cy from the drawing board to implementation. In addition, political
pressures, oversights in evaluation, or the simple pressure of time may
short-circuit the process. A minister with a 'pet idea', for instance, may
decide to move directly from his view of the current situation to policy
decision, short-cutting the three stages of the process described above.
Thus, to assess the soundness of the decision process up to this stage, it
is useful to ask questions such as the following:
34

(1) How was the decision made - did it go through all the stages of
policy analysis?
(2) How radical a departure is the decision from current policy?
(3) How consistent is this decision with policies of other sectors?
(4) Is the policy diffusely articulated or is it stated in a manner
which is easily measurable?
(5) Does the policy seem operational or is its implementation
implausible?
E.Planning policy implementation

Once a policy has been chosen, planning for policy implementation
should begin immediately. Although much of the work that must be
carried out during this stage can be based on evaluations performed to
make the policy decision, planning for implementation involves a
concreteness absent in earlier stages of the policy process.
What was abstract during the evaluation stage begins to become
concrete during planning. A schedule for moving people, physical
objects and funds must be drawn up with a clarity and attention to
detail that leaves no doubt as to who will do what, when and how; phy-
sical resources, once the content of hypothetical lists, must be located
and their availability assured; financial resources, once ear-marked for
possible use, must be appropriated so that implementation delays are
minimal; the personnel needed to put plans into action must be freed
from other commitments and made ready to go to work; the technical
knowledge needed to guide the policy implementation must be maste-
red by those who will employ it; and the administrative systems within
which the policy will be directed must be clearly structured and firm-
ly in place.
Ambitious as these tasks are, there is one planning task that is
more difficult (and it is the most often over-looked). This is the
task of mobilizing political support. The mobilization of political
support resonates most clearly when one thinks of the need to
ensure that the providers and consumers of a new educational ini-
tiative embrace it with enthusiasm. Plans must be developed so
35

that students and their families are aware of the objectives of a new initia-
tive, that communities learn of benefits for the collectivity; programmes
for teachers, educational administrators and their representatives must
similarly be developed. Since new initiatives usually mean some form of
job re-definition, it is important that educators see this as beneficial and
that those who object to the changes be isolated. Political mobilization
may also be necessary to ensure that materials for school construction are
available when needed, that needed institutional administrative adjust-
ments are carried out, and, especially, that funding proposals are approved.
One important strategy for mobilizing political support is that of involving
groups affected by the new initiative in the planning process. This will pay
dividends not only in the form of enhanced support, but, more likely, in
terms of an improved policy design.
Asignificant amount of planning and even de facto policy formulation
take place during actual implementation. This is the case because, during
implementation, the following is the rule rather than the exception:
(a) circumstances related to implementation constraints cause poli-
cy modifications to take place;
(b) feedback obtained during implementation causes reassessment
of aspects of the policy decision and subsequent modifications
by policymakers; and
(c) the mere translation of abstract policy intentions into concrete
implementation causes re-assessment and re-design. These
changes occur with great frequency because, unfortunately,
implementation problems are often greatly under-estimated
during the stage of policy planning.
Misjudging ease of implementation is, perhaps, the most fre-
quent error in policy planning. No matter how deeply the various
groups affected by a new initiative have been involved in reviewing
and shaping plans, the concreteness of the first day of a new pro-
gramme, often casts it in a new light. Implementation is the time
when one discovers that schedules are unrealistic and that pro-
grammes are over-ambitious; it is the time when the ravages of
inflation cause the teachers' union to demand a pay increase prior
to using the new texts; it is the time when parents conclude that the
36

certification offered by the new programme may not guarantee their chil-
dren the jobs they hoped for; and it is the time when local politicians deci-
de that they should block the initiative since it will be so successful that it
will prove that the politicians in the capital are better providers than they.
Such problems are often replays of issues raised during the stages of eva-
luating policy options or of planning, and need to be solved by taking a
flexible approach to the stage of policy implementation.
No matter how well anticipated, policy implementation always
brings some surprises. These shape the policy output, sometimes in
crucial ways. One way to use such surprises to improve policy out-
comes is to design the implementation in stages. If unanticipated pro-
blems arise at a given stage, then a re-evaluation of the plans for imple-
mentation, and possibly of the policy decision itself, is in order.
Another way is to conduct well designed pilot studies, before full
implementation of any projects. Problems of going to scale and the
dangers of the 'greenhouse' projects that cannot survive implantation in
the real world are well treated in Kemmerer (1990).
F. Policy impact assessment
Once the policy has been in place long enough to produce results, a
policy assessment check can take place. To carry this out, it is necessary to
have some sense of how long it should take for the policy, once imple-
mented, to take hold. While policy output measurement can be carried out
on a continual basis, premature attempts at assessment can mis-state the
effectiveness of the policy. Furthermore, it is preferable to delay final
assessment until a number of teaching cycles have transpired to separate
the effect of the content of the policy change from the excitement which
often accompanies implementing a new initiative for the first time. On the
other hand, the sooner accurate assessment takes place, the sooner poli-
cy-makers can know if their initiatives are working as anticipated or if
adjustments in policy design or policy implementation are required.
If assessment reveals that the policy outcome is lacking, it is
necessary to determine whether the policy itself is inadequate, or
37

whether poor implementation is at fault. Human capital inadequacies,

under-funding, or inadequate economic stimulus during the implemen-
tation stage are among the many possible causes of failure of a well
designed policy. On the other hand, if assessment reveals deficiencies
in outcomes and if implementation can be shown to have been well
done, then it is necessary to re-examine the policy decision and to
determine what adjustments or what new policies should be substitu-
ted for the original choice. Once this is accomplished, then one moves
again to the planning and implementation stages. Given the rapid pace
of contemporary change and the intimate links between the educatio-
nal system and the rest of society, even successfully conceived and
implemented initiatives require adjustments over time.
Policy impact assessment is carried out using the same criteria
employed during the policy evaluation stage. The assessment process
revolves around the following questions: What have been the actual
impacts of the policies in question? Are these impacts desirable given
the changes that were hoped for? Are the changes affordable? Did
costs prevent their full implementation? Did cost over-runs make it
unthinkable to implement them over a longer term or on a wider basis?
Can the policy be lived with politically and socially? Are the impacts
feasible? Were full impacts accomplished? Would exceptional efforts
be required to replicate thesc impacts in other circumstances?
G. Subsequent policy cycles
If a policy initiative is carried out systematically, the process of poli-

cy design, planning, implementation, impact assessment, and re-design
will become iterative, and, in theory, infinitely so, as Figure 3 suggests.
Unfortunately, long-term policy analysis and planning is not often car-
ried out in such a fashion. Often the results of verification are not plou-
ghed back into policy. Instead, verification is often seen as a stock-taking
exercise, needed in order to close the books on a policy initiative. Later
in the country's history, when policy change is once again needed in the
educational area under discussion, a policy process often begins de novo
and may duplicate much of the analysis, derivation of alternative
38

options, evaluation, and planning carried out earlier. The conclusion,

then, of policy analysis is never to conclude. Ideally, once implemen-
tation has been completed and policy outcomes are forthcoming, a
policy impact assessment stage ensues, leading potentially to a new
policy cycle.
39

Chapter II. Application of policy analysis in
educational planning activities: four
exemplary cases
The above conceptual framework (Chapter I and Figure 3) is applied

in this Chapter to four exemplary case studies to reconstruct the dimen-
sions of policy-making and planning (processes and actors) over time.
Certain specific educational reforms in Peru, Jordan, Thailand and
Burkina Faso were selected because sufficient data (and elapsed time)
exist on each to allow discussion of the full policy cycle (or cycles in
some cases); also, the geographical, economic, pedagogical, and poli-
tical diversity of the cases emphasizes that the policy framework is
generic and not limited in applicability by any of these factors.
Each case study documents the process of policy making and
recreates a real situation. It tries to represent as accurately as possible
the factual background and setting of the event(s) in question, identify
the key issues and players, present the information and actions leading
to a policy decision, and document the events that took place during
implementation. Moreover, case studies simulate the dynamics of deci-
sion-making, which include the process of asking questions, evalua-
ting data, assessing what kinds of policy actions are practicable, nego-
tiating, competing between interest groups, and trading off between
different constraints and benefits.
In all cases, the following questions were posed:
Were the educational issues diagnosed and analyzed within the
appropriate socio-economic and political context?
Were all policy options to deal with these issues identified?
Were the implications of such options properly derived?
40

Application of policy analysis in educational
planning activities: four exemplary cases
Were these implications fully evaluated in terms of their desirabili-

ty, affordability, and implementability?
Was implementation of policy well planned and executed to allow
for feedback and modifications?
Was the impact of the policy properly assessed in order to determi-
ne whether to continue the policy, modify it, or go on to a new poli-
cy cycle?
Were the countries' responses to assessment of the policy cycle
appropriate?
How were subsequent policy cycles similar to, or different from the
initial policy-making cycle?
To answer these questions the policy process was analyzed, step by step,
examining events within the context of the conceptual framework and the ele-
ments laid out in Chapter I. The basis for the analysis was an extensive review
of World Bank and other relevant reports of international and bilateral agencies,
government documents, and research papers. Understandably, the scope of the
information, analysis and conclusions are constrained by the availability, scope
and nature of the data base. In order to make up for these constraints, interviews
were conducted whenever feasible with participants in, or close observers of,
some phases of the policy process. Below are concise summaries of each case;
detailed analyses are in Haddad and Demsky (1994).
I. Peru: a case of comprehensive/revolutionary

approach
Peru provides a case where a government undertook policy reform in the

synoptic, comprehensive model. The reform embraced the entire educa-
tion system, from primary school all the way through to the university.
It aimed at integrating practical and academic subjects in ways that
would provide the country with the intellectual power and the complete
range of skills to achieve sustained economic and social development. It
aimed equally at resolving issues of equity and external efficiency. This
policy was well calculated and comprehensive, and was developed
through a systematic process of diagnosis, response and action within a
41

carefully planned programme. The reform, however, was considered a

failure.
The context of policy formulation (Situation A)
Frustrated for more than a decade with the seeming inefficiency of civi-
lian governments, in 1968, a group of military officers, led by Velasco, had
overthrown the democratically elected government of Fernando Belaunde
Terry. The Peru which had frustrated the officers was a country of deep
income inequality, massive rural-urban migration, exploding birth rates,
poor health care, desperate unemployment, rampant inflation, and a failing
educational system.
The educational system was also chaotic and politicized. The teachers'
union had long been the most militant and best organized national labour
organization. Provision of education was inadequate by any measure:
across social classes it was more unequally distributed than income; most
graduates were trained for non-existent white collar jobs, and few gained
technical skills; enrolment and retention rates were alarmingly low; and
many areas of the country lacked any kind of educational facility.
What was the potential for change? The military regime had the abili-
ty to 'force' a reform and a newly bolstered economy could support it.
However, interest groups, teachers, ministries and parents, while unani-
mously favouring reforms, had their own ideas to advocate. Moreover, the
Ministry of Education, the obvious implementor of policy change, was
considered ill-equipped to carry out an educational reform as well as a
potential obstacle to change.
The generation of policy options
Due to the revolutionary nature of decision making, the real options were
about which objectives were best suited to revolutionary goals, what educa-
tional policies should be adopted, and how best to effect these policies. Policy
options were conceived by a group of military advisors within a carefully
planned and revolutionary programme of action for reforming the whole
national structure known as the 'Inca Plan.' Because the 1968 promise of
42

planning activities: four exemplarycases
an overall educational reform had met with widespread scepticism, the

government established a civilian Educational Reform Commission.
Its report, Reform of Peruvian Education General Report, in 1 970,
epitomized the revolutionary style of generating policy options
through rational deduction: diagnosis, response, action.
The Commission, after diagnosing the education system as inequitable,
inefficient, outmoded and rigid, and lacking a Peruvian spirit, considered
that the response could not be less than an education that aimed to create
'the new Peruvian man in a new Peruvian society.' The only logical option
to meet this objective and address all the defects simultaneously was a tho-
rough restructuring of the system to provide universal diversified secon-
dary schooling (ESEPs) to all. This option was consistent with an emer-
ging educational policy in the international community.
Evaluation of policy options
The policy objectives and elements of the entire reform were eva-
luated at three separate points: (1) when the military seized power with
the promise of 'revolutionary' egalitarian reform; (2) under the
Education Reform Commission; and (3) during a two-year public
review process. At each stage, implications were drawn, although not
systematically, for the impact the proposed policy would have on
Situation A, Figure 3.
The desirability of the reform was driven by the military's ideologi-
cal perspective that the reform was the key to the realization of their
goals of 'the liberation of man' and 'the creation of a new society' based
on Christian humanist values and equitable treatment of all citizens.
Affordability was assumed by the General Report which suggested that
the reform would be self-financing. The Ministry of Finance undertook
a more serious study of affordability, but assumptions regarding reve-
nue to finance the reform continued to be hazy. Likewise, the feasibi-
lity of the reform was inadequately evaluated: a full analysis of how to
provide the necessary human resources was never conducted, and
though a schedule had been established, no one took it seriously.
43

Other groups affected by the proposed policy did not see it as desi-
rable. University officials and students regarded it as a threat to their
power. The poor and uneducated were also, at best, ambivalent to it.
The military, however, thought that any such reluctance to embrace the
reform would evaporate once it was well understood. For two full
years, therefore, the reform document was widely discussed publicly
and privately with all interested groups. Further, a cadre of young men
and women were sent to different parts of the country to sensitize and
mobilize the public.
Making the policy decision
In 1972, the military announced sweeping reform, covering all levels

and types of education, calling for the participation of the community in
the education process, the reorganization of the country' s education
bureaucracy, and the establishment of a curriculum related to Peru's deve-
lopment requirements. More specifically: Centros de Educacin Basica
(CEBs) were to combine the previous primary and secondary education
cycles and reduce them from 11 years to nine; the last two or three years
of basic education were to focus on vocational or practical skills training;
basic education will be followed by Escuelas Superiores de Educacin
Profesional (ESEPs), or higher schools of professional education that
combine obligatory academic and practical elements in a three-year pro-
gramme and are open to all graduates of basic education. ESEPs would be
the only form of public secondary education in Peru, and graduation from
them would be a requirement for admission to universities.
The new strategic policy was largely based on the 1 970 General
Report, though it also incorporated modifications suggested by vociferous
interest groups during the two-year review period. Essentially, these alte-
rations were devised to avoid rejection or opposition, rather than as part of
a systematic policy design effort. Chief characteristics of the decision
include: (I) it was reached through a 'synoptic' approach; the President's
Advisory Committee and later the Educational Reform Commission had
conducted a prolonged and extensive study of the entire system and pre-
sented a diagnosis of its problems, logical responses, and policy action to
44

be taken; (2) it was a radical departure from the existing situation A,

requiring a proportionate reformation of the institutional infrastructure
(expected to take 15-20 years); and (3) it was consistent with other sec-
toral reforms in that they were fashioned around one overall develop-
ment plan.
Planning policy implementation
Plans were drawn for a three-phase implementation schedule. They

included: institutional and administrative changes and mobilization of finan-
cial, human, physical, technical, and political resources. The World Bank
and other entities, including UNESCO, USAID, the Canadian International
Development Agency, and the government of Hungary, all played instru-
mental roles, promising to provide funding and technical assistance for the
reform, especially the diversified secondary school element.
As implementation proceeded, the 1972 policy was continually and
profoundly modified, due to the low administrative capacity of the
Peruvian government, inadequate human resources, and rising domes-
tic dissatisfaction with the military government (reflected in lack of
support for the reform) and lack of financial resources. Schedules and
time lines were severely modified, and in the end, the objective of
immediate overall reform was discarded in favour of setting up an
experimental group of ESEPs (as well as basic education centres).
Policy impact assessment
The impact of the educational reform (which resulted in Situation B as

shown in Figure 3) was never formally evaluated against the expected
consequences envisioned in 1972. If it had been, the results would have
been largely negative. Politically, the reform, and especially the ESEPs,
had been associated with the increasingly unpopular military regime and
widely resisted. With very limited implementation, most students were
opting not to enrol in the ESEPs and other reformed schools (enrolment in
the eleven pilot ESEPs was less than 50 per cent of the available places).
Not only did they consider that the new schools would not provide them
45

with social mobility, but their views were supported by university refusal to
grant admission to ESEP graduates. Further, the quality of teachers in poo-
rer rural (and especially indigenous Quechua-speaking) areas was below
that of urban schools. In addition, ESEP training did not promise to match
Peru's labour market needs. Finally, economically the ESEPs proved to be
considerably more expensive to operate than the traditional schools. In sum,
though not explicitly evaluated against these criteria, the reform was impli-
citly found to be undesirable, unaffordable and infeasible.
The new policy cycle
The newly re-elected Belaunde government (which ousted the military

government in 1980 elections) entered into a new policy cycle, but skipped
directly to the policy decision stage. Despite the lack of formal assessment
of the reform and the lack of any attempt to generate and evaluate alternati-
ve policy options, almost immediately upon assuming office Belaunde deci-
ded to abandon through neglect the 1972 reform, and to reinstate the tradi-
tional education system of his earlier civilian government. Belaunde's choi-
ce of neglect rather than immediate overt rejection was based on relative fea-
sibility - there just seemed to be no need to confront those interest groups
which still supported the reform when the same results could be had through
a less active approach. Implementation seemed easy operationally, because
few ESEPs and other reformed schools had yet been established. In the end,
a Comprehensive Education Law was passed in 1983 which abolished the
concept of a nine-year basic education followed by the ESEP, and reinstated
the six-year primary school followed by a five-year secondary school divi-
ded into a general two-year cycle and a diversified three-year cycle. The
ESEPs became Higher Technical Institutes.
II. Jordan: a case of going from the incremental to the

comprehensive
In the early 1970s, the government of Jordan introduced an

educational policy of secondary school diversification to resolve
46

issues of manpower supply and employment. Fifteen years later,

prompted by a deteriorating economic situation, the government
undertook another reform that included the expansion of diversified
education, but with substantial curricular changes. These aimed to
increase the attractiveness of diversification to consumers and its rele-
vance to changing domestic and international economic demands.
Whereas Peru, reforming education during the same period, had used
the synoptic approach, Jordan initially adopted the incremental path.
The context of policy formulation (Situation A)
Though the late 1950s and early 1960s had been a time of rapid eco-
nomic growth for Jordan, this was disrupted by the 1967 Arab-Israeli
war which resulted in Jordan's loss of the West Bank - its best agricul-
tural land and main source of tourism, a massive migration of over
one-quarter million Palestinians to the East Bank. A recovery of the
economy was prevented in 1970 and 1971 by a Jordanian-Palestinian
struggle for control of the country.
The Jordan of the early 1970s was a country in transition. A shorta-
ge of skilled workers was coupled simultaneously with a surplus of
unskilled workers and academically-educated youth. The education
system was thus considered dysfunctional. Only 10 per cent of secon-
dary school students were in commercial and industrial schools that
were few in number and lacked equipment and adequate curricula, and
academic education and white collar employment were highly valued.
Structurally, the education system had the potential for change
without major obstacles. The highly centralized political power struc-
ture (and education system) could provide the necessary support for
any policy decision. However, various elements of the Jordanian socie-
ty had their own notions of what changes would be in their interests
and consistent with their values. The financial resources of the country
could also place constraints on educational change.
47

Options for policy change were generated on the basis of limited

data and analysis. The government commissioned several studies to
explore the manpower situation and its education and training impli-
cations, which provided an idea of the relative shortages of sub-pro-
fessionals and technicians and surpluses of general secondary school
leavers. Meanwhile, after conducting their own sector work and ana-
lysis, the World Bank and UNESCO faulted the over-theoretical natu-
re of a general education and placed value on offering practical and
occupational subjects at the secondary level.
To address the country's manpower needs noted above, the government
considered four policy options for educational development: (I) conti-
nuing the existing system of general secondary schools predominated with
vocational schools; (II) increasing the number of vocational schools and
reducing the number of general academic schools; (III) modifying the sys-
tem through introducing pre-vocational subjects at the preparatory school
level, introducing a new type of post-preparatory vocational institution
(the trade training centre) and introducing diversified education (combi-
ning academic and vocational courses in one institutional setting) at the
secondary level and (IV) introducing a major structural overhaul of the
system, transforming schools into practice facilities where learners of dif-
ferent age groups would work on real-life situations and in the process
contribute to economic development in the country.
The policy options were evaluated in a fragmented and informal way.

Option I was evaluated and rejected in terms of desirability and affordabi-
lity. The government felt a need to change the existing system and cost pro-
jections showed that maintaining the system would be financially unaffor-
dable. Option 11 was considered and rejected mainly in terms of affordabi-
lity and desirability. Vocational schools were costly and had low status and
small establishments preferred trainable - not fully trained - candidates-
48

Option IV, advanced by UNESCO, was rejected on the grounds that it

was not feasible. Jordanian authorities were not prepared to undertake
such a comprehensive approach (or synoptic, as defined in Chapter I)
calling for a full reorientation of the system that would require an enor-
mous investment in terms of time, funding and personnel. Option III
was evaluated on the basis of affordability, desirability and feasibility,
although a full range of implications for Situation A in Figure 3 was
never derived. The World Bank was largely responsible for evaluating
the cost factor shown to be within government resources (with a Bank
loan to finance the capital expenditure). Jordanian officials found this
option desirable because comprehensive schooling was touted by the
international community (particularly the World Bank) to increase the
prestige of a vocational education by its association with academic
education. Further, it would provide a flexible basis for meeting the
needs of sectors of the economy whose pattern of development and
specific skill requirements could not be forecast in advance. Despite
that, it was to be introduced as a pilot programme. The incremental
(and therefore low-risk) nature of the policy meant that the demand for
such a reform was never addressed. As noted earlier, parents and stu-
dents considered academic education as a means for further education
and upward mobility; the fact that this was not considered would pose
problems when the policy was later adopted.
The government policy to introduce comprehensive education was

multi-programme (earlier described in Chapter I), addressing the ques-
tion of how to allocate resources between general education, vocatio-
nal education, and diversified education. The decision provided for
continuous expansion of a nine-year basic education; introduction of
the concept of comprehensive education; and reorientation of vocatio-
nal and technical streams to strengthen industrial programmes, and
development of new specializations and methods of training.
This decision was chosen largely at the urging of the Wo r l d
Bank and, to a certain extent, upon the advice of UNESCO,
49

supplemented by its own evaluation. Of critical importance to the deci-

sion was the incremental approach to this policy - education authori-
ties were content to introduce the policy on a pilot basis.
Since this was to be an incremental approach to policy change,

long-run plans for the implementation were made in broad terms, leaving
the detailed implementation plans for specific projects. As implementation
progressed, there was concern over the division between academic and
vocational education in the project schools. Consequently, the social and
pedagogical integration expected from comprehensive schools did not
take place. Finally, in keeping with the step-by-step approach to poli-
cy-making, education authorities decided to pilot another type of vocatio-
nal institution, the general vocational secondary school. These were to pro-
vide two or more vocational courses (for example, industry and commer-
ce) in one institution, and were targeted for thinly populated areas which
otherwise would not have access to vocational schooling.
The impact of the diversification policy was not formally and syste-
matically evaluated. However, it was scrutinized within the context of a
movement to reform the entire education system in the mid-1980s dic-
tated by Situation B (Figure 3), characterized by (a) changes in the eco-
nomic situation, and (b) performance of the comprehensive schools.
To begin with, the state of the economy, which had greatly improved
during the regional boom of the mid-1970s through the early 1980s
began to turn around. The economic slow down in the Gulf states resul-
ted in a decline in demand for Jordanian exports, and the unemployment
problem began to re-emerge, as displaced Jordanians returned home.
Further, projections for 1990 by the World Bank continued to anticipate
a net surplus of workers concentrated in white-collar pursuits.
Performance of the comprehensive schools was considered
mixed. Between 1980 and 1987, the percentage of secondary
50

students enrolled in vocational courses increased from 19 per cent to 29 per

cent. However, students and parents continued to look down upon a voca-
tional education for three reasons: (i) because of the low prestige accorded
to blue-collar jobs; (ii) because the vocational streams in comprehensive
schools offered a curriculum that was inferior to the academic curriculum;
and (iii) because the vocational courses were terminal and therefore did not
provide the opportunity for further education and upward mobility. For these
reasons, the government concluded that comprehensive schools, as they
existed, were not adequate to deal with the new economic situation, and the-
refore a change in policy was necessary.
The state of the economy in 1985 provided a great deal of incentive to

bring about change that did not exist in the boom times of the late 1970s
and early 1980s, when reform measures were initially discussed. In 1985,
King Hussein appointed a reform committee, the National Commission to
Assess Educational Policies and appointed his brother, the Crown Prince,
to its head. The Commission set up a Central Task Force, appointed field
committees to collect data, and organized a series of workshops and semi-
nars to examine the education system. This process facilitated the input
into the policy of a broad base of the population.
In generating policy options, the Commission looked closely at the
existing situation (Situation B). It considered the importance of human
capital 'exports', and the government's intentions to change the national
economic structure in favour of the commodity producing sectors in
order to increase their contribution to GDP. Therefore, the Commission
sought to develop a strategic policy (see Chapter I) that would utilize
human capital for both reviving domestic growth and assisting in main-
taining external balances through continued 'exportation' of human
capital. The policy options open to the Commission included: (I) main-
taining the status quo, offering communities the choice of academic
high schools, vocational high schools, comprehensive high schools,
general vocational secondary schools (GVSSs), and trade training
centres; (II) placing even greater emphasis on vocational education,
51

increasing the number of vocational schools, GVSSs, and vocational

tracks in comprehensive schools while decreasing the number of aca-
demic schools; (III) introducing incremental reform as in the past, in
the form of modification of the vocational curriculum, introduction of
more practical applications, etc.; and (IV) introducing major reforms
including restructuring the system; reforming the examination process;
creating different streams in comprehensive schools; and introducing
pre-vocational courses at the preparatory level and strengthening in the
curricula for all other levels.
All four options were never fully and comparatively evaluated. The
Commission was predisposed to more radical change due in large part to
the prevailing economic problems and the unresponsiveness of the curri-
culum. Therefore, Options I, II, and III were not seriously pursued. Option
IV, however, was evaluated fully. Governmental authorities determined
that it would be implementable because there was a political will to see it
happen. It would be affordable because the government would stand
behind it with financial resources and would seek a World Bank loan. The
World Bank also examined the affordability of the reform and determined
that it would rest on two factors: the expansion of external assistance
flows, and implementation of cost recovery and cost saving measures.
Contingency plans were also developed in the event of a funding shortfall.
Finally, it would be desirable to students and parents; it would provide all
students a stronger grounding in basic knowledge and skills through
expansion of the basic schooling cycle, and would also provide vocational
students a better chance of progressing to post-secondary schooling by
strengthening the core curriculum.
There was some institutional opposition as was true in 1980, but
this major reform was passed in 1987 due to a sense of urgency crea-
ted by the economic environment, and a political will to see it happen.
Though the Ministry of Education was entrusted with formulating an
implementation plan, in order to circumvent bureaucratic resistance to
the reform, an independent body, the National Centre for Education
Research and Development was established, which has so far succee-
ded in overseeing implementation.
52

111. Thailand: a case of going from the specific to the

strategic
Around 1966, the government of Thailand introduced a scheme to pilot a new
policy for secondary school diversification. The aim was to resolve a specific
issue: a perceived mismatch between general secondary education and the needs
of a swiftly changing labour market. Initially, the policy was limited to that one
issue and a few schools. About 10 years later, it was expanded on two levels; geo-
graphically, to cover the nation, and politically, to resolve strategic issues of equi-
ty, democratization and national unity. The broadened policy has since been well
received and implemented, and has been relatively successful in meeting its main
objectives.
First Policy Cycle

The context of policy formulation
Thailand, in 1966, was a constitutional monarchy with a fairly stable military

government. It is predominantly rural and multiethnic, which presented some-
thing of a security problem, particularly in the Northeast, exacerbated by securi-
ty concerns in neighbouring countries.
The Thai economy, particularly the industrial sector, grew rapidly in the
1960s, but concentrated in the urban areas. The unemployment rate in the
mid-1960s was only about one percent, but the government believed that manpo-
wer shortages had constrained economic growth. Further, manpower projections
forecast a shortage of middle and high level technical personnel while they
expected increasing unemployment among those educated in the liberal arts and
humanities.
Thailand's educational system was elitist and highly academic. Compulsory
education was being expanded from four to seven years, but secondary education
had major problems: (1) access to educational resources - the focus on basic edu-
cation was at the expense of secondary education; (2) urban/rural equity; (3)
internal efficiency; and (4) external efficiency - the secondary curriculum
53

was highly academic and focused on advancing students to the next

level while the developing Thai economy needed an increasing supply
of skilled workers. Further, vocational secondary schools did not
appear to prepare students for the labour market, according to some
indicative data.
What was the potential for change? The highly-centralized nature of
the system would make it more conducive to change, though the coun-
try had a weak administrative base. However, parents and students
could prove to be a barrier. Culturally, the society prized knowledge as
an end in itself, rather than as a vocational tool. At the same time, Thai
businesses did not value vocational school graduates. Further, teachers
and school administrators preferred the status quo. On the positive
side, funding for reform was available.
The Thai authorities wished to modernize the education system to reme-

dy the above problems. Analysis of the situation came from several fronts.
First, the government of Thailand with the United States Operations
Missions (USOM) formed a Task Force that conducted a number of studies
that focused on the need for middle-level manpower. Also, the Department
of Secondary Education undertook its own study which advocated introdu-
cing comprehensive education on a larger scale. At about the same time, the
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) undertook an exami-
nation of the sector which supported the findings of these studies.
Given the government's concern, then, for future manpower requi-
rements, it considered the following policy options for secondary edu-
cation: (I) continuance of the existing system of college-preparatory
and vocational streaming; (II) reducing the relative importance of col-
lege-preparatory secondary education while greatly increasing voca-
tional secondary schools; and (III) increasing the role of vocational
secondary schools and introducing comprehensive secondary schools.
54

Policy options were examined in an ad hoc manner. Both the Ministry of

Education and CIDAconducted their own evaluations. Option I was conside-
red undesirable - the existing system was not adequately meeting the existing
and projected manpower needs of the changing Thai economy. Option II was
also considered undesirable: vocational education was held in low esteem and
did not properly prepare graduates for the workforce. Option III was evalua-
ted in terms of desirability, feasibility and affordability. It was considered desi-
rable because an earlier pilot programme in two schools had shown promising
results and because it would provide an education better suited to local condi-
tions and thereby make some impact on rural development. In addition, the
prevailing international educational ideology supported such an approach over
a dysfunctional academic model. This option would be implementable becau-
se it could draw upon the experience of the earlier schools. Finally, it would be
more affordable than greatly increasing the places in vocational schools. CIDA
and USAID strongly supported this option, as did a select group of Ministry
of Education authorities and educational experts.
The Thai government chose policy option III to address future manpo-
wer needs and to change the aspirations of secondary school graduates. It
can therefore be considered 'issue-oriented' as described in Chapter I.
Essentially, the decision was to introduce a strong 'practical' curriculum to
the existing college-preparatory and vocational curricula, which would
train large numbers of secondary graduates in mathematics, science and
applied areas, who would be trainable on the job for many different kinds
of positions in trades, sales, skilled and semi-skilled labour, commerce and
minor executive and supervisory positions. The programme would be
flexible, and students would be free to select their own courses.
There were three important characteristics to this decision.
First, government authorities had a laissez-faire attitude about the
policy; they accepted the Canadian position though the latter had a
55

different reason for advocating diversified schooling. Second, though the

policy was a radical change from the existing system, it was a pilot pro-
gramme and would be implemented on a very limited basis. As such, it
faced no opposition because it did not pose an immediate threat to any
major interest groups. Finally, the donor community strongly promoted
the policy: CIDA to prepare people for the demands of modern nation-
hood, and USAID to ensure the political security of the provincial areas.
Planning for implementation was quite extensive, aided by a CIDA

technical assistance project and a USAID 'companion' project in sup-
port of the diversification policy. Education authorities and project
donor agencies closely managed implementation of the policy, and
made several important modifications as the need arose. Architectural,
procurement, and maintenance procedures were developed to reduce
costs and make them more efficient. Course offerings were consolida-
ted, and practical subjects were added to the curriculum of the upper
secondary schools in the CIDA project.
The following events in Situation B (Figure 3) in the early 1970s

provided an impetus for evaluation of the policy: The political situa-
tion had changed dramatically - student demonstrations brought down
the military government and the ranks of the insurgency continued to
grow. The economy had slowed substantially, leading to economic pro-
blems in the rural areas, and large income disparities and urban and
educated unemployment. In general secondary education, concerns
continued to be expressed regarding internal and external efficiency.
The piloted programme of diversified schooling was considered
a success in terms of desirability: enrolments were over target
(partly due to an aggressive recruitment drive), the level of acade-
mic work was high and the schools appeared to be influencing stu-
dents to choose vocational education at the upper secondary
56

level. Further, there was considerable community support. However,

on counts of feasibility and affordability the picture was not as bright.
The system was unable to train sufficient instructors to teach practical
subjects, or provide an adequate supply of curriculum guides and text-
books. Also, the schools were expensive to construct and operate.
Second Policy Cycle
Policy response: generating policy options
Though some experts and educators began meeting in 1971 to discuss

possible changes, the coup in 1973 gave impetus to a reform movement.
This led to the creation of a special committee of prominent and highly res-
pected intellectuals and bureaucrats in 1 974 charged with laying the ground-
work for systematic and system-wide reform. The reform committee com-
missioned its own studies, and also drew upon studies completed by UNES-
CO (highlighting the wide disparities of economic growth rates between the
rural and urban areas, implicating the low educational level of farmers and
other rural workers) and the World Bank. The Committee viewed reform of
secondary education as driven by the following objectives: (1) to address the
demand for secondary education in the rural areas in order to stem insur-
gency; (2) to improve the quality of instruction, and (3) to provide the type
of education that would prepare students for work. The policy options pro-
posed included: (I) Focusing on traditional secondary education while
improving equity, external efficiency, and quality; (II) Continuing to imple-
ment diversified education in a limited way, but maintaining traditional
secondary education as the prominent mode; and (III) Expanding diversified
schooling, making it the prominent mode.
The policy options were not systematically evaluated. At the out-

set, the reform committee felt that meeting the above objectives requi-
red a 'strategic' policy (as described in Chapter I) as compared
57

to one that was 'issue-specific' as the 1966 policy was. Therefore, the
committee rejected option I because it did not meet their philosophical
requirements, and option II because it was too narrow in scope.
Option III, then, was the only policy option seriously considered.
The committee found it desirable because it met the above objectives.
In terms of affordability, capital costs would be about 20 per cent
higher than for general secondary schools, but recurrent costs would be
about equal. The committee determined the desirability outweighed
cost but believed it possible to cut costs further, and increase school
fees to help finance the policy. Finally, the committee felt that imple-
mentation problems encountered in the pilot stage could be avoided.
Policy decision
The committee' s recommendation to introduce diversified education

on a nationwide basis was endorsed by the cabinet and became part of the
National Development Plan. One of the most salient characteristics of this
decision was that it built upon the first policy cycle. Through piloting the
reform first, the authorities were able to gauge demand, and were also able
to anticipate and address problems encountered at that time in the new
reform. Though the original policy was largely inspired and promoted by
the international community and derived from comprehensive schools in
other countries, through the implementation process it had become a 'Thai
product'. Finally, this reform was backed by individuals who had the will
and the political wherewithal to see it through.
Planning implementation
Though the decision-making process itself was synoptic (see

Chapter I), the approach to implementation was incremental, exe-
cuted in a step-by-step manner which enabled lessons learned at
one stage to be incorporated in the next. Planning for the reform
was broadly sketched by the National Education Commission and
the reform committee, but the nitty-gritty details including costing,
etc., were specified by the Department of General Education.
58

Further elements of planning were carried out within the context of

three World Bank-financed projects. Throughout implementation,
local teachers and community leaders were consulted and involved,
and a concerted effort was made to make the objectives of the reform
clear to students and parents.
The policy was evaluated routinely through government assessments,

World Bank project reviews, and University of Alberta (Canada) studies. In
assessing the results of the policy, the various interest groups (the Thai
government, the World Bank and the Canadian government) generally
found that most of their expectations for the policy, as determined during
policy evaluation, had been met. To begin with, there continued to be a high
demand for the schools as attested to by over-target enrolments, and opinion
surveys showed that parents found the schools better than, or as good as,
other secondary schools. Second, the schools were moderately successful in
imparting vocational skills to students. However, the schools were not suc-
cessful in changing students' career aspirations, and the majority of secon-
dary graduates still preferred to continue their education at the tertiary level,
instead of terminating their studies and entering the workforce. Finally, the
policy advanced the national objectives of community development and
contributed to maintaining country security.
IV. Burkina Faso: a case of an externally influenced

comprehensive approach
At independence in 1960, the government of Upper Volta was faced
with the need to expand primary education within the constraints of a
severely limited national budget. The government accepted advice to ins-
titute a system of rural nonformal education to provide primary education
to its rural people, while the small urban populations would continue to
have access to traditional primary schools (first policy cycle). In the early
1970s, the government chose to continue these parallel systems with
some qualitative reforms of rural education (second policy cycle). In
59

1986, the government shifted away from rural education and made for-
mal schooling the dominant mode of primary education (third policy
cycle).
First Policy Cycle
The situation leading to policy formulation in 1960

(Situation A)
Burkina Faso, formerly a French colony and known until 1983 as

Upper Volta, became an independent republic in 1960. It was conside-
red one of the poorest countries of the world due to its: landlocked
location, poor soils, hard climate, water shortages, lack of known
mineral resources, lack of educated and skilled manpower, high infant
death rate, low life expectancy, and low GNP per capita.
Due to its lack of resources, Upper Volta received substantial forei-
gn aid to finance public investment and balancing the national budget.
This left the country very dependent on donor countries which wielded
a great deal of influence on internal decisionmaking.
The Voltaic education system was based on the French model, pro-
viding six years of primary schooling and seven years of secondary
schooling with a highly academic curriculum. Illiteracy was pervasive.
The government was faced with the following constraints: (I) limited
and inequitable access to education; (2) externally inefficient schools,
because the academic nature of general education was more relevant to
the small modern sector, but the quality did not equip students to cope
with its requirements; and (3) internally inefficient schools with high
rates of repetition and drop-out.
What was the potential for change? Parents' and students' expec-
tations for change were heightened by the country's anticipated
independence, but country conditions placed limitations. Economic
constraints would limit adopting a costly and extensive reform; the
educational system was small and little developed; and the govern-
ment was highly centralized and local institutions had not
60

been developed, so that the onus of any reform would rest on

Ouagadougou.
How to provide access to basic education to all children, given the seve-
re economic constraints of the country, was the mission charged to a team of
two French educators, experienced Africanists, who a priori felt that the
French colonial (academic) pattern of schooling was inappropriate to the
kind of development necessary in most of Africa, which was largely based
on an agricultural economy. They visited the country for 45 days and gathe-
red what little data existed on the population, the manpower needs, and the
state of the economy. Due to a lack of data, they were forced to make 'best
guesses' and, as they reported, many of their figures were gross estimations.
They concluded that the high illiteracy rates in the rural areas and the lack of
educational services were the major problems facing Voltaic education.
More specifically, their study highlighted the lack of educational services,
the external and internal inefficiencies, and the coastlines of education. To
respond to this situation, the team determined that the only three options
were: (I) expanding the primary system of education so as to provide access
to all; (II) introducing streaming after the third year of primary education;
and (III) introducing an alternative system of education, a shorter program-
me of study with a more relevant curriculum.
A full evaluation of all three options was never conducted. The

French experts, driven by a distinct philosophy which favoured
non-formal education, dismissed out of hand as undesirable the
option of providing universal access to primary (academic) educa-
tion because the curriculum was irrelevant, and costly. The second
option, to introduce streaming after the third year of primary edu-
cation, was considered affordable, but was also rejected because it
could encourage elitism, divisiveness and social conflict. The only
alternative that was seriously considered, then, was a
61

programme of nonformal rural education which would provide literacy

instruction and training in agricultural skills. This option was never
actually evaluated in terms of its implications on Situation A. Rather, the
decision was reasoned out from linear projections of population growth,
growth of the economy and manpower needs. In comparison to primary
education, rural nonformal education offered several advantages: it was
more desirable (providing a more relevant education that could indirect-
ly raise rural incomes and living standards); it would be more easily
implemented (drawing upon human and natural resources which already
existed in the rural areas) and it would be less costly (three years in com-
parison to six, capital costs would be minimal, and recurrent costs would
be offset by productive activities of the schools). The team did not assess
the reaction of parents but made two assumptions about them: that they
would prefer access to a shortened (three year) education rather than no
education at all, and that they would prefer to be taught by local residents
who better understood them and their customs, rather than by graduates
of the normal schools. Had a proper analysis of the existing situation been
conducted and the appropriate implications been drawn, it would have
been clear that, because formal education was regarded as the key to
moving out of rural poverty, this was a fatal mistake.
In essence, the decision to institute a system of rural nonformal edu-

cation was made a priori. The experts' report was approved by the
Voltaic Legislative Assembly in late 1959, and rural nonformal educa-
tion (a 3-year basic literacy and numeracy programme) was slated to
become the dominant model of education.
The decision was reached through a 'synoptic' approach to policy
making (see Chapter I). The French team had developed what they thought
to be a consistent, comprehensive and 'correct' solution to the problems in
the education sector. This 'imported' policy came attached with funding
from the French government, which greatly influenced the Voltaic govern-
ment's decision. The policy was strategic in nature (as characterized in
Chapter I), represented a radical departure from the existing Situation A
62

(Figure 3), and was made without regard to the need for proper infra-
structure to support it. All of this portended difficulties for implemen-
tation .
Planning for the reform was done mainly by expatriates. A schedu-

le was developed to run through 1969, which set targets for the num-
ber of centres, teachers, etc. Careful attention was also given to how
the reform would be financed: savings from downsizing of primary
education, and substantial aid from the French and the European
Economic Community. The designers of the plan felt confident that
rural education would be welcomed by the peasants and so made no
plans to 'market' it.
The radical nature of the reform made it exceedingly difficult to
implement and the institutions created to administer it proved ineffec-
tive in dealing with problems as they arose. This led to a narrowing of
the scope of the reform, and a de facto shift in support activities from
the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of Agriculture.
In the early 1970s, the government, with the assistance of the World
Bank and UNESCO, evaluated the policy of rural nonformal educa-
tion. Assessment revealed the following conditions in Situation B: (1)
rural education had not had much of an influence on the economy,
which had stagnated since independence, and low agricultural produc-
tivity continued to contribute to out-migration from the rural areas; (2)
the performance of non-formal rural education was mixed - the centres
had been able to keep costs down, but were able to reach only about
one-fifth of the targeted population, achievement levels were
mediocre, and the centres had gradually turned away from teaching
agricultural skills and had become a poor substitute for primary edu-
cation; and (3) primary education continued to suffer from problems of
access, efficiency and cost.
63

Second Policy Cycle
New policy cycle: generating policy options
After evaluation of the reform, the government of Upper Volta found

itself in much the same position as it had been at independence, and faced
with two options: (I) to expand the primary education sector to meet the
educational needs of the country, or (II) to continue with the alternative
of rural nonformal education (with some modifications of the policy).
The mixed results concerning the performance of rural nonformal educa-
tion and the continued inefficiency and coastlines of primary education
would make it a difficult decision. Parents and students were losing faith
in nonformal education which they evidenced through decreasing enrol-
ments. The Ministry of Education (MNE), which had administrative
control over the schools, was giving rural education the lowest possible
priority rating. Despite that, the international and bilateral development
agencies continued to encourage rural non-formal education. In many
ways, they analyzed the situation just as the French experts did 10 years
earlier using population and budget projections without taking account of
popular views of the purposes of education.
The evaluation process greatly resembled the one that took place at
independence. Expanding access to primary education was undesirable
for reasons of external efficiency, and unaffordable based on possible
budget growth. Policy option II was not fully evaluated in terms of its
implications but the international donors strongly supported 'staying the
course' with rural nonformal education for philosophical reasons.
Further, policy-makers concluded that it would be five times less cost-
ly than primary education, was desirable because it would keep the
youth in the rural areas, and most appealing of all, would be imple-
mentable because it would be supported by the international donor
community. Though the Ministry of Education and parents and students
continued to oppose the reform, rural education was entrusted to the
64

Ministry of Agriculture (MAE), with the encouragement of a number

of donor agencies.
Though the MNE was opposed to nonformal education, the decision was
taken at 'the highest level', and based on the financial support proposed. As
a result, the government passed an education reform bill in 1975 which was
basically a programme policy (discussed in Chapter I), addressing the ques-
tions of how and where rural education should be provided. The primary
objective of the programme was to focus on qualitative reform, not expan-
sion, of the existing system, and to help graduates of the system establish
themselves on the land and/or in other revenue-earning enterprises. The
decision had three major characteristics: it was comprehensive (synoptic) as
it would cover all components of the rural education system, it was concei-
ved of by sources outside the country who had not fully considered its fea-
sibility, and it was alien to the population of Upper Volta.
Expressing their enthusiasm for the policy, individual donor orga-

nizations began their own planning and implementation schedules for
the reform even before the bill was passed and without any overar-
ching blueprint for the reform. Furthermore, weaknesses in the com-
prehensive 'synoptic' approach began to show. Since it required com-
plicated and delicate mechanisms and networks schedule, it proved to
be beyond the Voltaic administrative capabilities, and changes at one
step reverberated throughout the reform.
In the early 1980s, the donors undertook a major assessment of

the merits of rural nonformal education. Freed from their earlier phi-
losophical predisposition, they found the outcomes of the policy to
be seriously disappointing for a variety of reasons. First of all,
65

rural nonformal education proved to be undesirable because: (1) it had

not significantly increased literacy; (2) it had not provided a quality alter-
native to the formal system - the rural population continued to reject this
system because the quality was inferior to six years of primary education;
(3) it had not significantly increased access to education in the rural areas;
(4) it had not stemmed the tide of emigration. Further, post-school trai-
ning programmes had not been successful in integrating school leavers
into the agricultural sector. Second, it was judged unaffordable - the cost
of a rural education was much higher than originally projected and, in
fact, was greater than for primary education. Finally, rural education had
made no apparent impact on the agricultural sector.
Third Policy Cycle
The government again confronted the strategic policy question of how to

expand access to education without an increase in resources for education.
The options were the same as before (I) to continue to depend on rural edu-
cation as a means of increasing educational opportunities, or (II) to abandon
rural education in order to expand the formal system.
Analysis of the situation came from several sources. The Ministry of
Education conducted its own research of the population, and held seminars
and conferences to determine what type of reform to pursue. Though both
alternatives were considered undesirable for cost and efficiency reasons,
rural education was the least desirable, as noted above. Finally, Capt.
Thomas Sankara came to power in a populist revolt, and he supported a
more egalitarian form of education than the existing dual system. For these
reasons the government turned its attention back to the formal system to
determine ways in which primary education could be made a viable model
for basic education on a large scale (the synoptic approach).
In order to facilitate the process of evaluating policy option II, a
Computer Simulation Model was used by the major interest groups,
including representatives from the Ministries of A g r i c u l t u r e ,
66

Education and Higher Education, and Finance as well as from teachers'

unions and private school owners, to assess the cost implications of
various scenarios. The group went through a painful iterative process
of evaluations, negotiations, modifications, 'trade-offs' and so on.
Finally, they agreed that Burkina Faso could accelerate the expansion
of primary education most cost-effectively by: (1) lowering unit costs
and (2) increasing resources to primary education through reallocating
resources from other areas of education. Not surprisingly, the new poli-
cy met with some opposition, both from the Ministry of Agriculture,
which was unprepared to give up on the rural education centres, and
from the Ministry of Higher Education and Research, which did not
approve of any attempts to cut back allocations to higher education.
Whatever the final decision regarding non-formal rural education, one
thing is certain: it takes some time to reverse a policy which already
has a bureaucracy with a vested interest in seeing it continue.
The above four case studies illustrate, each in a specific way, the
dynamics of policy formulation and planning over time, highlighting
the interplay among actors and the interaction across processes. In the
next section, the results of these studies are synthesized to draw les-
sons pertaining to potential success or failure of different policy plan-
ning approaches, and to derive specific implications for education
planners.
67

Chapter III. Lessons from the cases
The country case studies in Chapter 1I vividly illustrate the utility of

the two analytical instruments outlined in Chapter I - the model and the
framework - in unravelling the policy-planning process. If we map the
various policy-making cycles of each country on a graph (Figure 4),
we find that most of them fall in quadrant I.
This indicates that much of the decision making was approached
synoptically (i.e. comprehensively), and emanated from an organiza-
tional/bureaucratic source (e.g. the military, the donor community).
Indeed, the organizational/bureaucratic mode (quadrants I and IV) was
the prominent source of decision-making (six of the nine cycles fall
here). Looking more closely, we see that this mode predominated in
the early policy cycles in all four countries. This in part reflects their
stage of development: in all except Peru, it was external parties, in
concert with 'client' government officials, which dominated the pro-
cess, because governments were at a relatively early stage of develo-
ping their national capacity. In Peru, the authoritarian military govern-
ment was able to impose policy.
It was only further along in the process, as country governments
developed their institutional capacity, that the societal/personalistic
mode held sway (quadrant II). To examine the idea of system-wide
reform in Thailand and Jordan, committees were constituted which
represented a variety of interest groups, including teachers' unions,
various members of education ministries, school and university admi-
nistrators, etc. In both case, parents and students were also consulted,
either at the policy formulation or policy implementation stage.
68

Lessons from the cases
Figure 4. Mapping of decision making for policy-planning
In Burkina Faso, the international community brought together the

various interest groups to generate and evaluate policy options. It
seems unlikely that much policy making takes place in quadrant III.
This is because incremental policy making is generally limited in its
effects, and therefore does not incite the same level of political inter-
est; for this reason it does not require the type of interaction and nego-
tiation characterized by the societal/ personalistic mode.
The organizational/bureaucratic mode intersected with the incre-
mental approach in policy making in the first policy cycles of Jordan
and Thailand. In both cases, pilot programmes were instituted by
government officials together with international actors, in order to test
the waters for system-wide reform. One of the major questions both
countries needed to answer was whether or not a demand existed for
the reform, and piloting permitted this. Furthermore, before
broad-based reform could be introduced, negotiations among nume-
rous interest groups had to take place.
69

The rest of this section looks closely at what can be concluded from
applying the conceptual framework described in Chapter I to the different
components of the policy-planning process in the cases of Peru, Thailand,
Jordan, and Burkina Faso. Conclusions are drawn along two dimensions:
(I) lessons derived from each case separately, and (2) lessons derived
across cases in terms of each component of the conceptual framework.
Peru
The Peruvian reform clearly demonstrates a case of a highly calcu-

lated, systematic, internally consistent, and comprehensive mode of
policy making. The case pivoted on a 'unitary, rational' revolutionary
actor, the military government, who through a systematic and techni-
cal process of diagnosis, response and action went about finding the
'correct' solutions to educational problems, and radically reforming the
system. Indeed, educational policies were formulated on the basis of a
serious diagnosis of the economic, social and educational situation.
Moreover, they were conceived within a carefully planned programme
of action for reforming the whole national structure. Plans for the edu-
cation sector itself were characterized by a high degree of internal logi-
cal deduction and comprehensive coverage.
Where was the fatal flaw? It seems that the apparent strength of the
Peruvian approach to policy making was actually its main weakness.
The initial mistake lay in the manner in which policy options had been
generated by the military planners and their civilian advisors. Perhaps
influenced by the top-down discipline of the military hierarchy, the
government acted as if, once it had identified the best option for Peru,
the citizenry would listen and respond to the new orders. To the extent
that this did not happen, they reasoned, public education would surely
convince people that they should support the new plan with enthu-
siasm. Missing was an understanding of the difficulty of rapidly alte-
ring basic cultural values and the profound nexus in the family bet-
ween these values and parents' aspirations for their children. While the
egalitarian revolutionary objectives of the new regime were applauded
in principle by Peru's citizens, they clashed sharply with deeply held
70

individualist aspirations for securing social mobility. Rather than recogni-

zing the importance of these values for its citizens and developing policy
options which took them into account, the military regime concentrated on
plans fitting with their deductively generated view of the needs of Peru as
a collectivity. Despite elaborate efforts at consultation and public education,
the Velasco regime could not convince enough Peruvian citizens that they
and their families should, as individuals, actively participate in the govern-
ment' s revolutionary reform. This reluctance was particularly baffling to
many of the government's military leaders because they noted broad sup-
port, in principle, for their reform.
The process of making the policy decision was, itself, a mixture of
strengths and weaknesses. The strengths largely derived from the
broad based and lengthy attempts at consultation carried out by the
military regime as well as the clarity of the ultimate decision as arti-
culated in the 1972 decree-law. The weakness was in the inability of
the military to see, as a result of the undercurrent of dissatisfaction pre-
sent from the beginning to the end of its consultations, that the reform
was too revolutionary to be accepted by its citizens, at least in the short
run. In addition, to make matters worse, to the extent that the govern-
ment was aware of the improbability of success, it decided on a pro-
cess of staged implementation. This allowed citizens and communities
who preferred Peru' s traditional educational system to the regime's
revolutionary reform to exercise their opposition.
Once the decision had been made and plans for implementation
were drawn up, the process mirrored those of generating and evalua-
ting policy options. Goals were set and committed reformers moved
full steam ahead to make plans to implement them. Reluctantly, they
were slowed down by signs of popular nonsupport and erosion of
foreign support. Foreign help was particularly crucial for the most
experimental aspects of the reform such as the ESEP professional edu-
cation schools. Doubts about the feasibility of the reform' s objectives
slowed down the flow of foreign technical and financial support which
initially had hailed the Peruvian experiment as path breaking for its
plans to implement diversified education full-scale. By the time
71

Fernando Belaunde Terry had returned to power in 1980, only a ghost-

ly skeleton of the 1972 reform had been implemented.
All this points to the vital linkages between the educational system and
the socio-politico-economic structure. Any policy change, therefore, is not
purely technical or unitarily rational. Different interest groups each have
their own legitimate 'rationality' for understanding and responding to an
educational initiative. Rather than perfecting the 'correct' reform to be
implemented by obedient managers, and converting the public to the uni-
tary rationality, it is certainly more productive, in the long run, to seek to
understand the processes through which trade-offs are accomplished
among the interests underlying the various rationalities relevant to a given
policy choice.
Jordan
The Jordanian case illustrates how the policy-planning process itself

(and the actors involved) can change over time. The process evolved from
a limited incremental approach, essentially directed by the international
community, to a comprehensive synoptic approach, with input from all of
the relevant interest groups, domestic and international. These concepts
are elaborated below.
The government took the more conservative incremental approach to
introducing comprehensive education in the 1970s, in large part due to the
murkiness of the prevalent situation. Therefore, it was more sensible to
proceed in a cautious manner. The concept of comprehensive schools was
opted for in a tentative manner and was introduced incrementally, sequen-
tially and in a limited scope.
Certainly this approach to policy development proved advantageous in
many respects: (a) there was no need for long-term and elaborate planning
at the national level - only at the project level; (b) implementation would
be relatively easy because no national or conceptual reform was involved;
(c) no political mobilization or intense bureaucratic negotiations were
necessary; and (d) no major institutional changes were needed to accom-
modate the policy modifications. In addition, little political opposition was
anticipated; because of the limited risks involved, no group felt the need
72

to present its case in terms of comparative advantages and disad-

vantages of the policies under consideration.
On the negative side, there were disadvantages to the incremental
approach: because it was very 'low risk', the government was not as
inclined to invest much in terms of political capital or other resources
to carry it off successfully. This resulted in poor planning which impe-
ded implementation. Further, because it was an 'isolated' response to
the imbalance between the needs of the economy and the output of the
education system, apparently affecting only a sub-sector of the system,
implications for the rest of the system were not drawn.
In comparison, the second cycle demonstrates a more highly calcula-
ted, systematic and comprehensive mode of policy making. Its success
depended on three things: First of all, it was reached after an exhaustive
process of review, assessment, and analysis of the education system that
included high level representatives from both the public and private sec-
tors. Second, even though it was comprehensive and strategic, as in the
earlier cycle it also incorporated a phased implementation plan; expe-
rience in each phase was to be systematically monitored and evaluated
and the results used as feedback for modifications of future phases.
Finally, the process was driven by a combination of strong political will
at the highest levels, and a sophisticated, technical machinery - the
Centre for Research and Development.
Thailand
As in the case of Jordan, the process of introducing diversified educa-

tion into Thailand demonstrates an evolving approach to policy making.
In the mid 1960s, the national objectives were rather narrow (concerning
manpower needs), so the government adopted an 'issue-specific' policy.
The approach at this point was incremental and conservative - the govern-
ment wished to see how diversified education would be accepted, and vie-
wed this as a pilot programme. The policy then evolved over time and
took on more of a Thai character, with wider 'strategic' objectives. During
the second policy cycle, when the government was reviewing whether to
carry on with diversified education or to abandon the effort, it
73

had several objectives to meet: manpower needs, national unity and

educational equity. Therefore, the policy had to be 'strategic' in order
to meet this diversity of objectives. Again as in Jordan, implementation
throughout the two policy cycles was incremental.
Why did the authorities succeed better with diversified education in
Thailand than in other countries where it was tried? To begin with, the
Thais did not make it a second class education, open chiefly for acade-
mic failures. They did not trade access to education for quality. The
diploma of the diversified schools was fully equal to that of the college
preparatory schools. In addition, diversified education was not a termi-
nal programme, liable to be seen as a dead-end. There was a great deal
of flexibility in the new curriculum which required students to take prac-
tical courses, but still enabled them to go on to university, if they chose.
Second, because the policy was initially narrow in scope, or incre-
mental, it did not provoke the type of controversy or violent reaction
that a more comprehensive, synoptic approach might have.
Third, the policy was considered at a national level, that is to say from a
synoptic approach, only after limited pilot projects had proved it to be suc-
cessful. The incremental nature of the first cycle gave the Thais an opportu-
nity to test the acceptance of the policy. The promise of financial support
from the international community which was promoting diversified educa-
tion at this time certainly tipped the balance in favour of this policy, and limi-
ted the way in which other options were evaluated. However, the Thai edu-
cation authorities did not just accept project loan money but experimented
with pilot programmes, to see if they could build a demand for this type of
education. When they achieved acceptance and demand, they built a consen-
sus within the government and within the donor community, and eventually
came up with a policy that had a definitive Thai character.
Fourth, the incremental nature of implementation allowed a 'lear-
ning by doing', and the Thais benefited from the opportunity of
making changes based on feedback as the policy progressed.
Though not necessarily inherent to the incremental implementation
approach, the implementation process in Thailand contributed great-
ly to the success of the policy. The decision to make diversified edu-
cation the predominant mode of secondary schooling was
74

made at the central level, by the reform committee; however, during

implementation local providers and consumers of education were
included in the process.
It is surprising to see how much weight was placed on the criterion
of desirability over the criteria of implementability and affordability in
evaluating policy options, especially in the second cycle. Though a few
schools had successfully adopted the diversified curriculum in the
early 1970s, it had been quite expensive to do so and it was not clear
that the policy would be capable of being implemented universally and
at a lesser cost. The government was certainly taking a risk with this
decision, but behind it lay the belief that it was the right one for secon-
dary education in Thailand. The success of diversified education in
Thailand when it has failed in most other countries, clearly unders-
cores the crucial role of the policy decision making and implementa-
tion process, but does not necessarily attest to the merit of the educa-
tional model itself.
Burkina Faso
The introduction of rural non-formal education into Upper Volta (first and
second policy cycles) clearly demonstrates a case of a synoptic approach to
policy making with a twist: one driven by external forces. The international
actors were working within a mindset which assumed that (I) there are univer-
sal concepts, or an internationally collected wisdom, which applies to any given
situation, and (2) that this wisdom can be transferred into any country. In essen-
ce, they felt that, once one had a clear idea of the problem, the appropriate solu-
tion could simply be taken off the shelf, so to speak. Afterwards, all that was
necessary would be to provide technical assistance and funding - with little
attention paid to the country's demands and constraints.
On the surface, it appeared that such a system of education
would provide a more relevant form of basic education at a cost that
the new government could afford. This policy had all the elements
of success: intemational respectability, financial backing and a
good chance for implementation because of the support of several
l a rge international organizations. In addition, the synoptic
75

approach employed in the policy-making process provided some

advantages. First, the comprehensive nature of the reform helped crea-
te a critical mass which is necessary to any successful policy imple-
mentation. Second, the reform placed special emphasis on institutional
development. With all these advantages, why did the policy fail?
There were several fatal weaknesses in the policy-making process. The
major flaw was that demand factors were totally ignored. The decision
revolved around the experts' detailed examination of the situation. Though
they briefly entertained ideas concerning alternative policy options, their
biases predisposed them to favouring rural non formal education as the 'cor-
rect and only' solution to the problem. Therefore, they assumed that consu-
mers of education would embrace it. In the decision-making process, the
government did not draw the proper implications from this option, over-
looking the fact that it might be rejected by parents and students, because
denying them access to the formal educational system would close off the
only door to escape from their difficult subsistence existence.
There is an important lesson here. Interest groups must be dealt
with in the policy process, otherwise they will use everything within
their power to manipulate the policy to meet their own objectives. In
the case of Burkina Faso, parents used the only means at their dispo-
sal to interfere with the reform - passive resistance. Rural teachers
made up another interest group that was ignored in the
decision-making process. These teachers subsequently demanded that
they be treated like primary teachers, accorded the same status and
salary, which made the reform financially unviable. Neither donors
nor decision-makers in Burkina Faso saw the importance of bringing
interest groups into the original decision-making process. Particularly
after the first policy cycle, when they could see that rural education
was not widely accepted, they identified the 'salesman' as the problem
instead of the 'product': instead of recognizing that rural education
was not being accepted in the countryside, because people did not
want it, the decision-makers identified the Ministry of Education as
the problem. To their way of thinking, the Ministry of Education was
not successful in 'selling' the reform, so they simply switched
76

salesmen (to the Ministry of Agriculture) and continued to attempt to

get the consumers of education to 'buy' the reform.
Second, the introduction and reform of rural non formal education
were led by the international donor community; in this respect, the
government was a 'follower' in the policy-making process. Once the
donors entered the policy-making process, the scales were tilted. In
effect, the international community's intervention in the policy process
stifled it. The Voltaic government did not bother to analyze the impli-
cations of the reform, since aid organizations were going to fund it.
The fact that the policy was a creation of external players meant that
the country itself was not necessarily committed to it - Upper Volta had
no feeling of 'owning' this policy.
Third, the introduction of rural non formal education was so far-rea-
ching that it was beyond the analytical and managerial capabilities of
the Voltaic authorities to design and to implement.
The third cycle demonstrates a departure from the earlier model of
policy making. The government of Burkina Faso came to recognize the
importance of the interaction among different interest groups, the
many dimensions of policy making (the social, political, and financial
aspects), and the importance of both providers and consumers of edu-
cation. The process of the analytical evaluation of the different policy
scenarios was greatly aided by a Computer Simulation Model. It is too
early, however, to assess the degree of sustainability of this approach
in generating a policy that is socially and politically desirable, finan-
cially affordable, and nationally implementable and sustainable.
Synthesis across cases
The rest of this section synthesizes what can be learned from the
four cases, summarized in Chapter II, about how policies originate and
how planning results lead to a new cycle of policy analysis and for-
mulation. The synthesis revolves around the seven elements of the
conceptual framework of policy analysis (Chapter I) as applied across
the cases.
77

Analysis of the existing situation
How are educational problems identified and analyzed, and how does
a policy cycle begin or recommence? In most cases, analysis covered the
education sector, as well as socio-political-economic factors. However, in
spite of its importance, there was very little appraisal of the forces for (or
against) change, to assess the feasibility of success of policy reform. None
of the four countries took full account of interest groups in the first policy
cycle. At independence in Burkina Faso, French experts arrived in the
country and conducted their analysis independently of any local interests,
most importantly students and their parents. Similarly in Peru, the milita-
ry government conducted its own analysis of the education system purpo-
sefully omitting teachers and administrators as they were viewed to be
obstacles to change. In both instances, the reforms ran into implementa-
tion problems and in the end were unsuccessful due in no small measure
to the failure to create demand among those neglected in the process.
Successful policyplanning should take into account the dynamics for
change and the concems of the various interest groups.
Of importance to this discussion is the nature of the state as an ins-
titution - it can be either conducive to, or resistant to, change. For
example, in Peru, the fact that the military government was highly cen-
tralized meant that it could, at least in theory, more easily introduce
system-wide reform. In contrast, more socially and politically conser-
vative societies, such as existed in Thailand and Jordan, were compel-
led to tread more cautiously when it came to educational reform.
The process of generating policy options
This stage involves two issues: first, how thorough was the ana-
lysis that prompted a policy change and second, how were policy
options formulated? Cases consistently demonstrated that policy
options were not derived from a high quality, knowledgebased,
'home grown' analysis. In the case of the first policy cycle in
Jordan, actual data collection and analysis were skimpy due to the
unstable political situation at the time. Policy-makers here
78

depended more on international opinion. Similarly in Thailand, though

data were more readily available, they were viewed through the prism
of international experts. In Peru, a number of reports were commissio-
ned over a period of three years that were all conceived of and execu-
ted within a revolutionary framework. This certainly biased the analy-
sis and the eventual process of generating and evaluating possible poli-
cies to address the country's problems. Finally, in Burkina Faso, the
foreign experts admitted that many of their figures were 'best guesses'.
The government's later move to refocus on primary education was
partly a result of a Ministry of Education nationwide survey, conduc-
ted through conferences and seminars, to determine what kind of edu-
cation was needed and desired by the country.
As far as formulation of policy options is concerned, the case studies
clearly show that, in practice, there is no systemic mode whereby data is
generated, and then a full range of options is formulated, prioritized, and
refined. A limited number of policy options were usually contrived,
determined by the ideologies of the actors. In Peru, the military govern-
ment had devised an overall approach to social reform within whose fra-
mework educational reform had to be fitted, thus significantly narrowing
the range of options. In the first policy cycles in both Burkina Faso and
Peru, policy options other than those promoted by the French in the case
of the former, and the military government in the case of the latter, were
dismissed out of hand. In both countries, these policies met with failure.
There was a wider range of policy options generated in Jordan and
Thailand, and in both countries the reform introduced initially survived
and was expanded in the second cycle.
In the cases analyzed here, the predominant mode was importation,
whereby the policy option or options were introduced by the internatio-
nal donor community. The stage of development a country has reached is
crucial in this regard. For example, in Jordan and Thailand the leverage
of the international actors diminished as their national capacity evolved.
By the second policy cycle in each country it was government officials
who took the lead in policy making. However, in Burkina Faso the inter-
national donor community continued to hold sway. External involvement
such as that introduced by the importation mode can be positive if
79

it is one input to the process, and if the product is allowed to be inter-

nalized; it can serve as a way for international organizations to
'connect' the developing countries to the world system, and to provide
cross-fertilization among countries. If care is not taken, however,
external influence can be a means by which the international commu-
nity imposes its fads and fashions upon less developed countries.
The process of evaluating policy options
Further dispelling the myth of the technical or scientific approach to

policy making in which policy-makers attempt to project and evaluate
objectively the consequences of each possible option, in no case were the
consequences of policy options fully drawn and non-prejudicially wei-
ghed. In fact, such narrow evaluation was heavily influenced by the
values and ideologies of the various interest groups involved. For
example, the military government in Peru did not even allow for a full
evaluation of the one policy option under consideration. In the three other
cases presented (the first policy cycles in Burkina Faso, Thailand and
Jordan), international actors predominated in policy option evaluation. In
the end their particular ideologies prevailed, largely because of the fun-
ding attached. The most extreme example of foreign influence over the
evaluation phase is found in Burkina Faso's second policy cycle. When
the Ministry of Education had decided that rural education was neither
desirable nor feasible, the international actor found another client minis-
try which embraced it, to lend support to the policy.
When policy options are evaluated in terms of their desirability,
the obvious question that needs to be posed is desirable to whom?
In a number of cases policy-makers found a particular option desi-
rable while the consumers of education (students and parents) did
not. Where demand did not exist for a particular policy or was not
generated through the inclusion of the consumers in the process, the
policy was doomed to failure. Such was the case when rural non
formal education was introduced in Burkina Faso, and when diver-
sified secondary schooling was introduced in Peru, as part of sys-
tem-wide reform. In the case of Peru, though the government
80

did allow two years of public and professional informal discussions of

the reform, suggestions made during this time were not integrated into
the policy design. Rather, ad hoc responses were devised with the pur-
pose of avoiding rejection or opposition. It is in the later policy cycles
that governments recognized and sought to address the multiplicity of
interests involved in policy making.
Adoption of the policy decision

Analysis of the policy choice itself brings up issues related to the degree
of radicality and clarity of the decision as well as its implementability. These
studies have shown that incremental policy making in the initial policy cycle
is more successful than radical change. Piloting of projects in Thailand and
Jordan enabled policy-makers to refine policies through implementation that
fed into the subsequent policy cycles. In both cases where the synoptic
approach was taken, the first cycles of Peru and Burkina Faso, the policies
later ended in failure. There is decidedly a relationship between the govern-
mental structure and the approach it chooses in policy making. Authoritative
governments are more inclined to follow a synoptic approach in policy
making, whereas governments whose political power is more disparate are
more likely to opt for the incremental approach.
The extent to which the policy is articulated clearly contributes to its
success, although governments sometimes intentionally opt for ambiguity
to secure political acceptance for policies more easily. Peru's decision to
introduce secondary comprehensive education was overly theoretical -
how goals could realistically be achieved was overlooked, posing pro-
blems for implementation. In contrast, the incremental approach pursued
by Jordan and Thailand made for a better articulated and therefore more
easily implementable policy. Undoubtedly, policies which are conservati-
ve and incremental, and especially those launched as pilot projects, have
the most chance for success.
Finally, the question of whether the policy seems operational or
implausible to implement is certainly in the eye of the beholder.
Objectively, where the reform is comprehensive and synoptic, and the
absorptive capacity of the country is meager, or where there is
81

Education policy-planning process: an applied framework
no demonstrated demand for the policy, the less the likelihood of its suc-
cess. This was made quite clear in Upper Volta. In this case, the introduc-
tion of rural non formal education was so far-reaching that it was beyond
the analytical and managerial capabilities of the newly independent
government to design and to implement. However, as indicated above,
some policy-makers felt that through careful planning, as in Peru, or sim-
ply because they believed the policy to be the correct one, as in Upper
Volta, they could make a particular policy work.
Policy planning and implementation
The true test of a policy comes during planning and implementation.

Two major issues related to planning policy implementation have pre-
sented themselves as critical. The first involves the degree to which poli-
tical support has been mobilized for the reform, and the second is the
complementarity of micro- and macro-planning. In Thailand, even in the
first cycle, policy planners saw the need to involve administrative staff
in the process, and developed a project centre that would allow supervi-
sors the opportunity to pursue research and plan for the development of
the schools, and to assist in the improvement of teaching in the project
schools. In the second policy cycle, the reform committee comprised
representatives from a broad range of interest groups, including teachers'
unions, private schools, universities and the National Economic and
Social Development Board. So, from an early time, those who would be
affected by the reform were brought in to help decide what form it
would take. In addition, planning was to be a continuous process, lea-
ving room for modifications to take place as feedback from the field
came in. At the planning and implementation stages, local teachers were
consulted over curriculum redesign and assessment; business leaders
provided technical and administrative support, and community leaders
helped to disseminate information to the local public on area vocational
centres and their functions. Finally, throughout implementation, a
concerted effort was made to make the objectives of the reform clear to
students and parents. In particular, schools would offer 'training and
awareness' programmes, presenting workshop simulations and the
82

like, which would give people in towns and villages the opportunity to
observe the schools in action. In addition, an important aspect of the
reform was the introduction of a strong guidance component to help
the 'consumers' make best use of the 'product'. After students were tes-
ted and streamed in the vocational or academic track, guidance coun-
sellors were there to explain the results to the students and their
parents, and to help the students choose the best course of study. In the
case of Jordan, no marketing was done in the first stage, the country
profited from this mistake, and in the second policy cycle, a conside-
rable effort was made to involve all - a free exchange of ideas concer-
ning the system was afforded for education authorities, parents and
teachers and members of the reform commission (via workshops and
seminars), and the Crown Prince himself met with local and regional
administrators for this purpose.
However, mobilizing political support does not guarantee acceptance
of the reform - in Peru, before a decision had actually been made regar-
ding educational reform, members of the Reform Commission selected a
group of young men and women to sensitize and mobilize the public to
support the general national reform. When the education reform was being
mapped out, planners clarified the objectives, benefits and roles for tea-
chers, administrators, and community members. Incentives were designed
to motivate teachers to gain additional training and to participate in the
more innovative aspects of the reform, and community members were
canvassed about the new opportunities and responsibilities embodied in
the reform. This was largely done in a top-down manner, which meant that
there was very little opportunity for input from the general population; this
reform, as noted above, subsequently failed.
The second issue regarding complementarity of macro (natio-
nal) planning with micro (project) planning proved to be a problem
for a number of countries. Allowing major planning to take place
at the project (micro) level encourages local participation, but it
does not deal adequately with national (macro) problems. Without
detailed plans at the national level, the Jordanian education system
found itself short of vocational education teachers. In Burkina
Faso's second policy cycle, inadequate overall development
83

Educan'on policy-planning process:
planning on the part of the government resulted in disjointed imple-

mentation .
It is during implementation that the formulation of a policy is put to
the test. As noted in Chapter I, modification of policy inevitably occurs
during the implementation phase. This is due to a number of factors,
including the fact that the attempt to implement encounters unantici-
pated constraints; political, social, or economic circumstances change;
or feedback causes a reassessment of the original policy decision. The
case studies show that implementation carried out on a 'learning by
doing' step-by-step basis which permits modification, has a better
chance of success than a massive, unitary approach. In Peru, policy
implementation was not planned so that policy improvement could
take place; the reform was intended to be implemented in a single
effort, and this approach to planning diminished the flexibility and
learning possibilities in the implementation stages. In addition, a decli-
ning political situation, as well as a declining domestic and internatio-
nal economy and extreme financial problems affected support for and
consequently implementation of the reform in the country. In the end,
the government decided to scratch the idea of system-wide reform in
favour of setting up a limited number of experimental schools.
The cost of building comprehensive schools in Thailand during the first
cycle was found to be much greater than anticipated, which threatened to
derail the reform. For this reason, building plans were changed; later, during
the second cycle, a much less expensive prototype design was developed as
well as an alternative and cheaper means of providing practical instruction.
In Jordan, implementation of comprehensive education met a
snag when the need for vocational teachers was greater than the
supply, as pointed out above. This illustrates the downside of the
incremental approach to policy making - governments do not feel
as committed because they don't have as much invested in the deci-
sion. Therefore, there is a tendency to give the policy inadequate
resources. To remedy this situation, the government had to adopt a
number of incentive measures to attract and retain qualified voca-
tional/technical teachers. Further, as part of its pilot effort the
government introduced another form of comprehensive schooling,
84

the general vocational secondary school, as a way to serve thinly populated

areas. As discovered during the policy impact assessment stage (see below),
this experiment was not successful because it suffered from the same problems
as other comprehensive schools - these schools did not fit the demand by stu-
dents for a solid general education for all. In the subsequent policy cycle the
demand factor was taken very seriously, which contributed to its success.
Finally, what looks good on paper does not necessarily work in the
real world. Such was the case with Peru, as elaborated above. In
Burkina Faso, though non-formal rural education appeared to be
'objectively' the best solution to the country's dilemma, the radical
reform introduced was simply beyond the analytical and managerial
capabilities of the country to implement. Though the international aid
community strongly believed in and promoted this policy, they could
not cover every aspect of implementation. In the subsequent policy
cycle the same problem was multiplied by the expansion of the reform,
the lack of coordination among the even larger number of international
agencies involved in its implementation, and the fact that the govern-
ment itself had not fully developed a reform plan.
Policy impact assessment and subsequent policy cycle
Assessing the impact of a policy is obviously important in order to

determine whether to maintain, modify, or reject it. In general, policy
assessments were not carried out as a 'matter of course' in the poli-
cy-making process. Often no official assessment was made at all, and
the policy was allowed to linger, while new policies are introduced
alongside. Where an assessment was made, however, three issues nee-
ded to be analyzed: what prompted the assessment; how was it conduc-
ted and by whom; and how were the results interpreted- were defi-
ciencies attributed to implementation or policy?
Most assessments that were conducted in the cases studied were
precipitated by events external to the education sector. One of the
strongest examples is the case of Jordan, where educational reform
became a source of concern in the mid-1980s, only after the
85

Education policy-planning process: an applied framework
country began to experience a serious economic slowdown and a gro-

wing unemployment problem. Though the idea for a similar reform
had been broached in the late 1970s, it was economic difficulty that
forced a reassessment of the situation and created a more receptive
environment for the idea. In Peru, Burkina Faso, and Thailand, politi-
cal events brought about policy assessments. In Thailand and the
second policy cycle in Burkina Faso, populist demand for democracy
brought about the toppling of the governments, ushering in new admi-
nistrations. They were forced to assess the existing education system
largely on equity grounds and to respond to popular demand for chan-
ge. In Peru, though no formal evaluation was made, the political situa-
tion (after a forced election) led to the decision to allow the policy of
diversified education to languish. One danger with this external
prompting is that assessment is conducted prematurely and before a
policy has had time to take roots and produce results.
How, when, and by whom the assessment is conducted clearly preju-
dices the findings and the subsequent policy cycle. Political factors
influence who will perform the assessment as well. For example, an
assessment performed at the end of Burkina Faso's first policy cycle was
carried out by the international community, which was predisposed to
continue rural, non-formal education. This biased their results and contri-
buted to the policy's longevity. Though the Ministry of Education had car-
ried out its own evaluation and had determined that the policy was nei-
ther desired by students and their parents, nor affordable, it was interna-
tional aid that held sway with government decision-makers. When the
international ideology began to change, reasserting the importance of uni-
versal primary education, the international community ' s assessment of
rural non formal education in Burkina Faso changed accordingly. Policy
assessment in Jordan was conducted by the National Commission to
Assess Educational Policies, constituted by the Crown Prince, as part of
the educational reform process. In this case, the Crown Prince had alrea-
dy determined that policy change was in order, before an assessment of
existing policy even took place. In Thailand, though the policy of diver-
sified education had been introduced largely because it was promoted by
the international community, the government retrieved control of the
86

policy and adapted it to Thai needs. Its assessment, and the subsequent
policy cycle reflected more closely the demand issues in Thai educa-
tion.
Interpretation of the results of the assessment has a very strong
influence on what comes next. There are three possibilities: first, that
the policy is right on course and should be maintained; second, that the
policy outcome is lacking due to problems of implementation and the-
refore should be modified; and third, that the policy outcome is poor
due to the nature of the policy itself, and therefore it should be rejec-
ted. When the outcome was not what was expected, often
policy-makers did not get to the heart of the matter, mistaking imple-
mentation problems for inadequacies of the policy itself, which led to
a decision to abandon it. As an example, in Peru, the military govern-
ment was ousted eight years after comprehensive education was initia-
ted; the new President interpreted this as a rejection of the policy, even
though the first students had not yet graduated from the ESEPs. Due to
the comprehensive nature of the intended reform, this does not appear
to have been an appropriate time for making such a decision. Of the
four case studies, only in Burkina Faso was a decision made to modi-
fy the implementation of an existing policy, during the second cycle;
even in this case, there was a difference in the interpretation of the
assessment. The Ministry of Education had concluded that the policy
was defective and called for abandoning it, but because the internatio-
nal donor community believed that only implementation was at fault,
they continued to back rural non-formal education.
87

Chapter IV. Conclusion - summary implications
for planners
The conceptual framework for policy analysis and its application to the
four exemplary cases vividly indicate that education planning cannot
be purely technical or linear. It deals with an educational enterprise
that is not characterized by unambiguous issues, clearly defined objec-
tives, undisputed causal relationships, predictable rationalities and
rational decision-makers. Education policy planning, as such, is by
necessity a series of untidy and overlapping episodes in which a varie-
ty of people and organizations with diversified perspectives are active-
ly involved in the processes through which issues are analyzed and
policies are generated, implemented, assessed and adjusted or redesi-
gned. Education planners thus need a methodological approach, simi-
lar to the one presented in Chapter 1, to capture the intricacies of both
policies and processes, to give deliberate attention to every element of
the policy-planning process, and to gauge the evolving dynamics of the
system (flow, procedure, form, and interaction among interest groups).
The above analyses have also made clear that the policyplanning
processes are country-specific (even time bound) and are highly
dependent on sectoral, economic and socio-political conditions and
interactions. Certain recurring factors could, however, be discerned
that have strong implications for effective education planning.
First, education policy development should be based on solid
knowledge along three dimensions: (a) a diagnosis of the sector
itself drawing on data, research, experience and international
knowledge; (b) contextual analysis of the economic, political,
88

Conclusion - summary implications
for planners
demographic, social and cultural conditions and prospects; and (c) an

assessment of the interest groups, their rationalities and roles in education
change, and the processes through which trade-offs are accomplished
among them. This contextual analysis, may be influenced by external
sources, but to be effective should be internalized and locally owned.
Second, before a policy decision is made, different viable policy
options need to be generated. This is the easy part. What is more diffi-
cult is to construct scenarios around each option to determine require-
ments and consequences. Each scenario should be systematically ana-
lyzed and evaluated, not only in terms of the educational merit of the
policy proposal but also in terms of its desirability (taking into consi-
deration the multiplicity of interests involved), financial affordability,
feasibility in terms of the implementation capacity of the country, and
sustainability over a sufficient period of time to show results. The
selection of the optimal option will continue to be ultimately political,
but a rigorous analysis of different scenarios, based on reasonably
good knowledge, enlightens the political decision-making process and
allows the different interest groups to be engaged in consultations in a
meaningful manner.
Third, how radical and comprehensive should a policy choice be? It
is not obvious that an incremental issue-specific approach is always
superior to a comprehensive strategic approach. Certainly, a compre-
hensive strategic reform is unlikely to succeed where the absorptive
capacity of the country is meager or where there is no demonstrated
demand for the policy. A step-by-step approach allows experimenta-
tion and adjustment and does not have high political and institutional
demands. On the other hand, this approach may lead to 'low risk'
quick-fixes, and inadequate investment in terms of political capital and
other resources to carry the reform off successfully. The success stories
of the case studies have shown that to solve sector-wide problems in
the context of political and economic demands, it is prudent to start
with a limited incremental phase, but this should be succeeded in time
by a comprehensive strategic approach. The timing and speed of this
evolution should be gauged to the degree of acceptability of the
89

reform by the stakeholders, and the implementation capacity of the

system.
Fourth, whether a policy reform is incremental or comprehensive,
its true test comes during planning and implementation. Here, three
factors proved to be crucial: (a) Macro planning, to address national
problems and provide an overarching blueprint, must be complemen-
ted (and not substituted) by micro planning at the project and local
level; (b) Mobilization of political and public support should be deli-
berately planned for and sought and, during the planning and imple-
mentation stage, stakeholders should be actively involved; (c)
Planning should be flexible, leaving room for modifications during
implementation.
Fifth, when a policy goes into effect, it is not the end of the poli-
cy-planning process; it is the beginning of a new chapter. Policy
reforms should be systematically assessed, preferably with a built-in
mechanism, in terms of their impact; is it achieving what was expec-
ted of it at the time of its adoption? While implementation mechanisms
need to be reviewed continuously, policies themselves should be allo-
wed to mature before a judgement is passed on their impact. Even then,
implementation problems should not be mistaken for inadequacies of
the policy itself. Even if impact assessment concludes that the desired
changes have been successfully implemented, policy-makers and plan-
ners should maintain vigilance for new changes required, given the
rapid pace of contemporary society and the intimate links between an
educational system and its environment. Finally, if a policy is deter-
mined to be ineffective, it should not be allowed to linger while new
policies are introduced alongside. Instead, a new cycle of rigorous
policy design, formulation and planning must be initiated.
In conclusion, educational development is extraordinarily compli-
cated because it involves and affects a large number of beneficiaries
and providers, as well as political figures, all of whom have a stake in
the process and the outcome. Added to this is the long gestation period
for any policy to realize its objectives. For these reasons, policy chan-
ge should not be introduced lightly, nor should it be abandoned without
careful examination.
90

Selected references and further reading
Allison, G. T. 1971. Essence of decision. Boston: Little, Brown and

Company.
Archer, M. 1979. Social origins of educational systems. Beverley Hills

(Calif): Sage.
Archer, M. (ed). 1982. The sociology of educational expansion:

take-off, growth, and inflation in educational systems. Beverley Hills
(Calif): Sage.
Blaug, M. 1987. The economics of education and the education of an

economist. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Caillods, F. 1991. Educational planning for the year 2000. IIEP

Contributions No. 4. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning.
Carley, M. 1980. Rational techniques in policy analysis. London:

Heinemann Educational Books.
Coombs, P.; Hallak, J. 1987. Cost analysis in education: a tool for poli-
cy and planning. Baltimore, Maryland: World Bank and Johns Hopkins
University Press.
91

References
Crouch, L.A.; Spratt J.E., and Cubeddu L.M. 1992. Examining social
and economic impacts of educational investment and participation in
developing countries: the Educational Impacts Model (EIM) approach.
Cambridge: BRIDGES project.
Friedman, L.S. 1984. Microeconomic policy analysis. New York:

McGraw Hill.
Haddad, W.D. et al 1990. Education and development: evidence for

new priorities. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
Haddad, W.D.; Demsky T. 1994. The dynamics of education policy

making. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
Hage, J.; Finsterbusch K. 1985. Organizational change: a strategy for

Institution Building. Unpublished manuscript, Center for Innovation,
University of Maryland.
Hage, J.; Gargan E. and Hannemen R. 1986. The responsive state vs.
the active state. Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland.
Hallak, J. 1991. Educational planning: reflecting on the past and its

prospects for the future. IEP Contributions No. 2. Paris:
UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning.
Kemmerer, F. 1990. "Going to scale: why successful instructional

development projects fail to be adopted", in D. Chapman and C.
Carrier (Eds.), Improving educational quality: a global perspective.
Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 243-256.
Kemmerer, F. 1994. Utilizing education and human resource sector

analyses. Fundamentals of Educational Planning series, No.47, Paris,
UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning.
92

References
Klees, S.J. 1986. "Planning and policy analysis in education: what can
economists tell us?" Comparative education review (November), pp.
574-607.
Lindblom, C.; Cohen D. K. 1979. Usable knowledge: social science

and social problem solving. New Haven: Yale University.
Mingat, A.; Jee-Peng Tan. 1988. Analytical tools for sector work in
education. Baltimore, Maryland: World Bank and Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Nicholls, A. 1983. Managing educational innovations. London:

George Allen and Unwin.
North, D. C. 1990. Institutions, institutional change and economic per-

formance. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
North, D.C. 1994. "The new institutional economics and develop-

ment", Forum 1 (2) May, 1994: 3-6.
Psacharopoulos, G. (editor). 1987. ECconomics of education: research

and studies. New York: Pergamon Press.
Ross, K.N.; Mahlck L. (editors). 1990. Planning the quality of educa-

tion: the collection and use of Data in informed decisionmaking. Paris:
UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning, Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Stockey, E.; Zeckhauser R. 1978. A primer for policy analysis. New

York: W. W. Norton and Company.
Tsang, M.C. 1993. Methodologies of cost analysis for educational

inclusion of marginalized populations. Paris: UNESCO/ International
Institute for Educational Planning.

References
Verspoor, A.M. 1989. Pathways to change: improving the quality of

education in developing countries. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Wilensky, H. et al. 1985. Comparative social policy. Berkeley:

University of California Press.
Windham, D. 1988a. "Effectiveness indicators in the economic analy-

sis of educational activities", International Journal of educational
research, 12(6): 575-666.
Windham, D. 1988b. Indicators of educational effectiveness and effi-

ciency. Tallahassee, Florida: IEES project.
Windham, D.M. and D.W. Chapman. 1990. The evaluation of educa-

tional efficiency: constraints, issues, and policies. Greenwood, Ct.: JAI
Press, Inc.
94

IIEP publications and documents
More than 750 titles on all aspects of educational planning have been
published by the International Institute for Educational Planning. A
comprehensive catalogue, giving details of their availability, includes
research reports, case studies, seminar documents, training materials,
occasional papers and reference books in the following subject cate-
gories:
Economics of education, costs and financing.
Manpower and employment.
Demographic studies.
The location of schools (school map) and sub-national planning.
Administration and management.
Curriculum development and evaluation.
Educational technology.
Primary, secondary and higher education.
Vocational and technical education.
Non-formal, out-of-school, adult and rural education.
Copies of the catalogue may be obtained from the IIEP Publications Unit on
request.
95

The International Institute for Educational Planning
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centre for advanced training and research in the field of educational planning. It
was established by UNESCO in 1963 and is financed by UNESCO and by volun-
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2 0 0 5
142 / CHAPTER 4
Setting a policy framework choices are the focus of this chapter. It explores
EFA Global Monitoring Report
what governments can do to create greatly

There is every reason to invest further in improved conditions for learning while remaining
improving the quality of education. However, it mindful of budget limitations. Led by the
is not an investment than can be borne easily evidence in Chapter 2 on what determines
by those who stand to benefit most. Poor people quality, and drawing on the experience of
already bear heavy costs for their childrens countries that have made significant progress,
education, the benefits of which may accrue long it examines key policy options at various levels
after the investments have been made. in the education system, with quality as the
Furthermore, because many of the benefits of a objective.
good basic education are broad and general, it is
difficult to mobilize significant private resources Recognizing the importance of contextual
The role of for improving the quality of basic education. circumstances, and employing evidence from
government, as Hence, the role of government, as the actor most earlier chapters, this chapter is guided by a
able to transcend short-term realities and framework for improving the quality of teaching
the actor most
interests and invest in quality, becomes crucial. and learning, presented in Figure 4.1.
able to transcend
short-term It has been argued that governments should This model reorganizes the five dimensions of
realities and invest at least 6% of GNP in education (Delors the heuristic framework in Chapter 1 (context,
interests and et al., 1996). While this level of investment is not learner characteristics, teaching and learning,
invest in quality, itself a guarantor of quality, the idea of a enabling inputs, outcomes) to provide a more
benchmark has considerable political value2 and systemic and holistic structure for analysis.
is crucial
in many countries meeting such a target would While Chapter 2 examines various indicators in
be a boost to the level of available resources.3 terms of what determines quality, this chapter
For each country there is clearly a minimum focuses on what actors at various levels in
level below which government expenditure education systems can do to actually improve
cannot sink without serious consequences for education.
quality. This Report, however, cannot confirm
a more general rule of thumb for investments The policy framework places learners at the
at the macro level. (See Chapter 3, Figure 3.27, heart of the teaching and learning process,
for a macro overview of public expenditure on emphasizing that, from the outset, policy must
education and Figure 3.29 on expenditure and acknowledge their diverse characteristics,
achievement.) As Chapter 2 points out, the circumstances and learning needs. This
relationship between investment and quality emphasis is important in establishing objectives
measured in terms of achievement is not for better quality and defining strategies to
straightforward. Moreover, many factors affect improve education. The central role of learners,
levels of investment, including size of GNP, therefore, is the starting point for this chapter.
1. See the section on national
and international demography and public investments in other It leads to a consideration of the ways in which
assessments of cognitive social sectors. Where measurable economic teaching and learning in the classroom can be
skills in Chapter 3.
production is low and where children are a genuinely responsive to learners through
2. See, for instance, the NGO
Declaration on Education for significant proportion of the population, the share curriculum development and application. This
All, International of GNP devoted to education may need to be ring of Figure 4.1 also covers outcomes (both
Consultation of Non-
Governmental Organizations, higher. In the case of major health deficits, hard skills and values), as envisaged in curriculum
Dakar, 25 April 2000
(www.unesco.org/education/ choices have to be made regarding the allocation goals and realized through the teaching and
efa/wef_2000/cov_ngo_declar
ation.shtml). of resources among social sectors. Such choices learning process. Beyond the classroom, there
should be informed by the knowledge that good are many ways to create an enabling
3. See Chapter 2, Table 2.3:
all the ambitious countries education can help address broader social and environment that is conducive to teaching and
are well below this
benchmark (the share economic challenges, including poor health and learning. Better teachers, better schools and
ranges from 1.3% of GNP in nutrition, conflict and HIV/AIDS. a strong knowledge infrastructure can all make
Sri Lanka to 4.2% in Brazil),
except South Africa (5.8%). a considerable difference to the quality of
Of the high-performing
countries, Cuba (8.7%) and Even at existing levels of investment, including education. Finally in this teaching and learning
Finland (6.4%) exceed the
benchmark, while Canada aid in highly aid-dependent countries, framework comes the umbrella of a coherent
(5.3%) and the Republic of governments and stakeholders can make education sector policy and the reforms that
Korea (3.6%) invest below the
threshold. significant choices to improve quality. Those governments can initiate at the national level.

POLICIES FOR BETTER QUALITY / 143
Thus, this chapter focuses primarily on actors: Figure 4.1: Policy framework for improving the quality of teaching and learning
the learner, the teacher, the school leader or
manager, the specialist and the policy-maker.
Its mode of analysis differs from that of earlier
sec t o r p o
chapters in that it builds partly on lessons of cation licy
Edu
experience, learning from initiatives that have
worked or failed and accepting that causal relations ng en v i r o n m
abli en
are often far less clear-cut than in analysis based En t
more on quantitative data. The chapter does not
Teaching
attempt to be comprehensive. It looks for the
attainable, not the ideal. It looks at making
School
difficult choices about priorities. Its focus is Knowledge The
management
primarily, but not exclusively, on formal schooling. infrastructure learner
and governance
Le arning
Start with learners
The quality of learning is and must be at the
heart of EFA (UNESCO, 2000a). This being so, Human and
learners are central to attempts to improve the physical
quality of education. While this may appear resources
obvious, it is not always reflected in practice. All
learning activities designed to offer meaningful
learning outcomes should start with the clear
understanding that learners are individuals,
with different aptitudes and learning styles of loss and grief and by the stigma and The Dakar
and with personal attributes influenced by their discrimination that AIDS can bring. Framework makes
home and social backgrounds (Lubart, 2004).
clear that an
Estimates suggest that there are 150 million
It follows that strategies to improve quality children with disabilities worldwide and that inclusive learning
should draw on the strengths of learners and fewer than 2% of them are enrolled in school. environment is an
on their knowledge, interests and capacities. This is a diverse category, covering intellectual, essential attribute
As the previous edition of this Report on gender physical, sensory and psychiatric disabilities of high-quality
equality stressed, learners should not be treated (Disability Awareness in Action, 2004). education
as standard units in a uniform process.
Education should be inclusive, responding to the A recent survey of ten countries affected by
diverse needs and circumstances of learners and or emerging from conflict found that more than
giving appropriate weight to the abilities, skills 27 million children and young people, including
and knowledge they bring to the teaching and refugees and internally displaced persons,
learning process. The Dakar Framework makes lacked access to formal education (Womens
clear that an inclusive learning environment is an Commission for Refugee Women and Children,
essential attribute of high-quality education.4 2004). The insecurity to which emergency gives
rise particularly affects girls education 4. See strategy viii: Create safe,
healthy, inclusive and equitably
In this context it is important to restate briefly the (UNESCO, 2003a). Moreover, experience of resourced educational
environments conducive to
circumstances in which millions of children live: violence and the loss of family and friends have excellence in learning, with
a major impact on childrens emotional clearly defined levels of
achievement for all (UNESCO,
In sub-Saharan Africa, more than 11 million development. 2000a: 20).
children under 15 have lost at least one parent 5. The estimates of orphan
to HIV/AIDS, and the number is projected to The International Labour Office estimates populations vary depending
on the methodology.
reach 20 million by 2010 (UNAIDS/UNICEF, that 16% of 5- to 14-year-olds worldwide were
6. These figures exclude children
2003).5 Their access to learning opportunities is engaged in work in 2000, and that 7% of 5- to working at home on household
chores, so the actual number
significantly constrained by the need to care for 9-year-olds and 10% of 10- to 14-year-olds working and attending school is
sick family members and younger siblings, by combined work with schooling (ILO, 2002).6 Work probably much larger,
particularly for girls (UNESCO,
reductions in household income, by the burdens has an adverse impact on attendance, attainment 2003a).

2 0 0 5
144 / CHAPTER 4
and achievement, especially when children work at Dakar, has developed a strategic framework
away from home for long hours (Orazem and to encourage health-promoting schools.9 It has
Gunnarsson, 2003). four main components:
In all these circumstances, disadvantages Health-related school policies: Education

linked to gender, race and ethnicity, culture and policy should address issues of health,
language, religion, social status and migration harassment, violence, inclusion and equity.
are likely to be exacerbated.
Healthy learning environments: Provision of
It follows that schools need to respond to these safe water and adequate sanitation is the first
conditions of severe disadvantage and be step for a healthy learning environment.
There is strong proactive in helping to mitigate their impact on
evidence that poor children. An essential starting point is assuring Skills-based health education: Schools
good health and safety, while recognizing that should promote balanced development of
nutrition and
some problems require particular types of knowledge, attitudes, values and life skills
health in early educational response. covering social behaviours associated with
childhood severely factors such as HIV/AIDS, family life and
affect cognitive Healthy and safe learners reproductive health.
development in
later years The link between health and learning is well School health and nutrition services: School
established (WHO, 1997). Ill health affects meals, deworming and other services are
attendance, retention, cognitive development and delivered effectively through school networks.
academic performance. There is strong evidence
that poor nutrition and health in early childhood The strength of this initiative lies in its integrated
severely affect cognitive development in later approach to health promotion and its broad
years.7 Recent studies also reveal negative definition of a healthy school environment,
relationships between health and nutritional addressing issues of violence, equity and inclusion.
status and learners school achievement.
Tragically, violence is endemic in many schools
This points to the importance of good early worldwide. Such behaviour as bullying, sexual
childhood care and the schools role in harassment, abuse and vandalism increase anxiety
promoting good health and nutrition. School- and adversely affect attendance and performance.
based health programmes can be a cost-effective Violence can lead to serious psychological
7. For details see Pollitt
(1990), Levinger (1994), way to improve the health of learners at school problems (WHO, 1998; Currie et al., 2004).
Rosso and Marek (1996), and the community,8 particularly when good use Dealing effectively with violence requires a strong
Drake et al. (2002), Vince-
Whitman et al. (2001) and is made of local resources and networks, as a commitment to change by the whole school
World Bank (2004h).
Burkina Faso programme illustrates (Box 4.1). community. For example, a strategy developed
8. Miguel and Kremer (2004)
found that a school in Norway for coping with bullying involves
deworming programme in Internationally, the FRESH programme (Focusing intervention by teachers, pupils and parents, clear
Kenya reduced absenteeism
among treated pupils by at Resources on Effective School Health), launched school and classroom rules against bullying and
least 25% and improved
attendance of children in
neighbouring schools as
well. Given the low cost of
mass treatment (US$0.49 per
child in the United Republic
Box 4.1. School health and nutrition in Burkina Faso
of Tanzania, for instance),
they argue that deworming is
highly cost-effective and Many school-aged children in Bazega province suffer A study conducted after the first year in five schools
deserves government
subsidy. For other studies on from health problems. After a situation analysis, found a significant reduction in the prevalence of
the effectiveness of school- Save the Children (USA), in collaboration with the malnutrition, anaemia and parasite infection, as well
based health and nutrition
programmes, see Bennett health and education ministries, launched a school- as a 20% increase in school attendance and
(2003).
based health and nutrition programme in 1999. The improved performance in end-of-year exams.
9. FRESH is a joint initiative programme comprises deworming, vitamin A and The programme has since expanded to cover the
of the World Health
Organization, UNICEF, iodine supplementation, provision of latrines and whole province, reaching nearly 15,000 children
UNESCO and the World safe drinking water and skills-based health education. in 174 schools.
Bank. For details on its four
core components and other
information, see Sources: World Bank (2004i); Save the Children (2004).
www.freshschools.org.

Box 4.2. Inclusive education or special education?
Studies in both OECD and non-OECD countries indicate that teachers,* developing teaching and learning materials, and
students with disabilities achieve better school results in providing transport and accessible facilities that many
inclusive settings. Inclusive education also provides countries may have trouble meeting. A third option is to
opportunities to build social networks, norms of reciprocity, reconcile the inclusive and specialized approaches in a twin
mutual assistance and trustworthiness (Putnam and Feldstein, track approach in which parents and learners decide whether
2003). Special schools tend to perpetuate the segregation of to opt for an inclusive regular school or a special school
disabled people, yet, for students with some types of initially, with inclusive education remaining the ultimate goal.
disabilities, provision of high-quality education in special
*In some countries, specially trained teachers are paid less than other
schools may be more appropriate than inclusion in a regular teachers because they have fewer pupils. This discourages teachers from
school that does not provide meaningful interaction with training for special needs (Nordstrm, 2004).
classmates and professionals. Ensuring that inclusive education Sources: Nordstrm (2004); Richler (2004); Magrab (2004); Wormnaes (2004).
is of good quality entails costs for adapting curricula, training
the establishment of school committees to

handle the problem (Olweus, 2001).10 Box 4.3. Distance learning for disadvantaged learners
The Open School Society in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh was founded in
Responsive and inclusive schools 1991 and now comprises 4,700 centres, reaching over 100,000 learners, many
Proactive measures can also be taken to address of them dropouts, children from scheduled castes and learners with disabilities.
disadvantages afflicting many millions of It offers a condensed curriculum of language, mathematics and environmental
studies in flexible, face-to-face instruction and in regional languages, several
children. Four brief examples make this point.
times a week. The programme provides regular training for teachers and
community members. It has the advantage of being able to provide equivalence
Meeting the needs of learners with disabilities with the formal primary education system while remaining culturally and
is particularly challenging, given the unresolved linguistically relevant to local needs.
debate between proponents of a strong inclusive
approach and those who argue for special needs The Somali Distance Education for Literacy programme teaches literacy,
numeracy and life skills through weekly radio programmes, print materials and
provision (Box 4.2). In large measure this
face-to-face instruction. It has over 10,000 registered learners, 70% of them
controversy reflects the many definitions and
women and girls, in some 350 classes.
types of disability. Each type requires learner-
specific responses, whether in mainstream or Source: IRFOL (2004)
special schools.
As Chapter 2 shows, the cognitive skills required

to make informed choices in respect of HIV/AIDS also help, as they do for children who work or
risk and behavioural change appear to be closely have never attended school (UNICEF, 1999a;
linked to levels of education and literacy. But ILO, 2004). Above all, schools should not expel
schools must also find responsive and flexible children on the grounds of HIV/AIDS status
ways to meet the needs of learners already nor because of race, ethnicity, religion, early 10. For details, see
affected by HIV/AIDS either directly or indirectly, pregnancy or sexual orientation. The school www.colorado.edu/cspv/safescho
ols/bullying/overview.
e.g. through being orphaned and taking on wider environment should be inclusive, safe and html and http://model
programs.samhsa.gov.
family responsibilities.11 For example, peer support welcoming, and should respect human rights
can help address the psychological burden of (World Bank, 2002b; Pigozzi, 2004).13 11. The impact of orphanhood on
enrolment and attendance has
orphanhood and the social stigma and sense of yet to be established. Studies
show lower enrolment and
exclusion it may bring. Measures to reduce the In some circumstances, the inclusion of attendance among orphans in
financial burden for schooling, such as provision disadvantaged learners may require alternatives many countries, but the pattern
varies by country, suggesting
of stipends, will increase retention and completion to formal schools and full-time schooling. differing local responses (World
Bank, 2002b).
among learners affected by HIV/AIDS.12 Distance learning is one such option, especially
12. For a detailed examination of
where it can be made highly flexible and context- these issues, see Pigozzi (2004).
Flexible timetables and enrolment schedules, specific. Examples from India and Somalia
13. Also see the section below on
and special out-of-school learning groups can illustrate the point (Box 4.3). better schools.

2 0 0 5
146 / CHAPTER 4
In situations of conflict and emergency, education programmes. Education that is not inclusive,
tends to be a low priority. Yet it is particularly in the broadest sense of that term, is unlikely
important for children in such situations because to bring or sustain improvements in learning
it can provide stability and hope. Learning quality. The challenge for governments is to
In situations of activities and knowledge that can help children develop teaching and learning strategies that
conflict and cope mentally and physically with stress, while recognize this.
building values and attitudes that promote peace,
emergency,
should be emphasized. Key elements in fostering
education is a sense of safety and personal well-being include Improving teaching and learning
particularly safe play, sport and cultural activities; strong
important for messages on health, nutrition and sanitation; Teaching and learning are what learners
children because mine awareness and other types of safety experience. Together they form a process that
it can provide information; and development of communication takes place in classrooms and other learning
and negotiation skills as a foundation for a settings. It is by this complex process that
stability and hope
peaceful and secure society.14 The Inter-Agency learners acquire the knowledge, skills, values
Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) is and beliefs that constitute a good education.
developing a set of minimum standards designed Consequently, policy decisions on teaching and
to help the international community and other learning are of the utmost importance. This
actors provide education of sufficient quality in section highlights seven major policy areas for
situations of emergency and early reconstruction attention. The first six are directly related to
(Anderson Pillsbury, 2004). teaching and learning: establishing appropriate
goals for the curriculum, developing relevant
content, using time well, ensuring that teaching
Learner readiness
styles are effective, carefully considering the
It is now widely recognized that early childhood language of instruction and developing a sound
care and education (ECCE) substantially assessment policy. The final policy area deals
enhances childrens school readiness,15 yet this with enabling inputs that indirectly support
is not an area of significant investment by quality teaching and learning: the supply,
governments in most countries, despite evidence distribution and use of learning materials and
suggesting that such investment is a cost- a secure, accessible physical environment with
effective way to improve education quality. A appropriate facilities.
cross-country study in sub-Saharan Africa shows
clear relationships between preschool coverage
Appropriate, relevant aims
and repetition and survival rates as well as
childrens physical development (Jaramillo and What happens in classrooms should reflect
Mingat, 2003).16 The study concludes that 87% agreement as to what learners should learn
of investment in preschool will be repaid in the and why. This is a matter of major interest in
form of increased efficiency in primary all societies. Invariably, weight is given to the
education.17 Other individual and social returns knowledge and skills necessary for productive
such as better health, higher income and greater lives and livelihoods. But there is also strong
14. See, for example, social cohesion will most likely offset the concern for social and cultural values, human
Sinclair (2001, 2002).
remaining 13%, and possibly much more. While rights, greater equity and equality, and,
15. See Myers (2004) and formal preschool is the most costly form of increasingly, good citizenship, democracy and
UNESCO (2002a, 2003a).
ECCE, cheaper options exist, such as mobilizing world peace.18 Clarity about the aims of
16. The study cited here
focuses on formal preschool parents (see Chapter 2), and such informal ECCE education strengthens the coherence of the
because too few data on activities may bring no less impressive benefits. education system and helps in itself to improve
other forms of ECCE were
available. Ways to provide affordable ECCE should receive quality.
17. The authors estimate greater attention.
that if African countries Arriving at an appropriate set of educational aims
expand preschool coverage
to 40% by 2015, primary largely involves striking a good balance between
school repetition rates will Conclusion
fall to 15%, from 20% in global or generic and local or more contextual
2000, and survival to grade 5
will rise from 65% to 78%. Understanding learners needs, circumstances, skills and values. In many countries there is likely
strengths and capacities should underpin the to be a need to refine this process by balancing
18. See, for example,
Weva (2003a). development and implementation of all education general educational aims that stress national

Table 4.1: Policy choices in determining national curriculum goals as reflected in the Convention on the Rights of the Child
Generic/global Country/local
Cognitive skills The development of the childs personality, talents [T]he development of the individual childs
development and mental and physical abilities to their fullest personality, talents and abilities, in recognition of the
potential (Article 29.1.a.) fact that every child has unique characteristics,
interests, abilities, and learning needs. Thus, the
The rights to literacy, numeracy and life skills, such curriculum must be of direct relevance to the childs
as the ability to make well-balanced decisions; to social, cultural, environmental and economic context
resolve conflicts in a non-violent manner; and to and to his or her present and future needs and take
develop a healthy lifestyle, good social relationships full account of the childs evolving capacities; teaching
and responsibility, critical thinking, creative talents, methods should be tailored to the different needs of
and other abilities which give children the tools different children1
needed to pursue their options in life1
Values The development of respect for human rights The development of respect for the childs parents,
development (Article 29.1.b.) his or her own cultural identity, language and values,
for the national values of the country in which the child
The preparation of the child for responsible life in a is living, the country from which he or she may
free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, originate, and for civilizations different from his or her
tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all own (Article 29.1.c.)
peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and
persons of indigenous origin (Article 29.1.d.) the right [of the child belonging to minority groups],
in community with other members of his or her group,
The development of respect for the natural to enjoy his or her own culture, to profess and practice
environment (Article 29.1.e.) his or her own religion, or to use his or her own
language. (Article 30)
1. Appendix, para. 9. (CRC/GC/2001/1) Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment 1: The Aims of Education
unity and identity with aims that reflect the needs knowledge. The table also offers some insight
of particular groups. These choices are extremely on the extent to which educational aims and the
important in defining the school curriculum. goals of curricula are designed to address the
social and economic imperatives of life locally,
Table 4.1 draws on the Convention on the nationally and globally. While radical,
19. Some observers identify
Rights of the Child (see Chapter 1) to present transformative changes occasionally occur,20 a strong tendency to adopt
global/generic standards and
important areas for policy debate on curriculum adaptation and reshaping of existing curricula skills, maintaining that
design, classifying them by whether they relate are more usual.21 international accountability
legislation fuels this trend.
to generic/global aims or country/local goals and It is sometimes seen as resulting
in greater uniformity of education
indicating the balance between cognitive skills One way to move towards a relevant, balanced (Ohanian, 1999) and insufficient
attention to local aims related
and values development.19 set of aims is to analyse the curriculum in terms to social change and human
of inclusion. An inclusive approach to curriculum development.
Using data from the national curricula of policy recognizes that while every learner has 20. One example is Paolo Freires
reading method, in which the
108 countries, held by the UNESCO International multiple needs even more so in situations of teaching and learning of literacy
Bureau of Education (IBE), we can gauge shifts vulnerability and disadvantage everyone should centres on words with strong
social and economic
in the weight that countries accord to different benefit from a commonly accepted basic level of implications. Freire claims
reading can be taught more
objectives, from the mid-1980s to the early quality education. In the United Kingdom, a effectively if the words being
years of the new millennium. The right-hand government-supported Index for Inclusion22 learned have important meaning
to the learners and are in
column of Table 4.2 sets out some of the more identifies three dimensions of inclusion: creating themselves empowering.
significant changes. In essence, while basic inclusive cultures, producing inclusive policies 21. Current initiatives tend to be
less radical than those of the
skills retain a strong place in national and evolving inclusive practices (Booth and 1960s and 1970s, such as Julius
curriculum objectives, increased prominence Ainscow, 2000). Nyereres vision of Education for
Self-Reliance (see Chapter 1: 34
is being given to values associated with and Kassam, 1995).
citizenship and democracy, as well as to The debate about the aims of education may 22. The index is an evaluation
education as a human right and education for seem remote from the practice of classroom tool, designed to facilitate a
participatory approach to
sustainable development. teaching and learning. But without an developing inclusive education.
This approach stresses the
educational vision and a sense of direction and importance of examining the
social and cultural purposes of
This evidence suggests that countries do review purpose, it is impossible to arrive at nationally the evaluation before considering
the mix between global and local, and the accepted approaches to content, pedagogy and such areas as schools,
programmes and assessment
balance between values and cognitive skills and assessment. (Lynch, 2000).

2 0 0 5
148 / CHAPTER 4
Table 4.2: Trends in curriculum statements, 1980s1 to 2000s2

Aims of education as set out Trends in objectives of education drawn

in Article 29 of the Convention from curriculum documents of 108 countries, over two periods,
on the Rights of the Child mid-1980s and early 2000s
The development of respect The number of countries emphasizing education as the fulfilment of a human right has increased.
for human rights It is prominent in developing countries but the emphasis has declined in developed countries.
The development of the childs More countries now include development of individuals capabilities, including skills and
personality, talents and mental attitudes for critical thinking and problem-solving. In general, the development of personal
and physical abilities to their capabilities, including emotional, creative and cognitive development, is given more attention
fullest potential at the primary level than in formal education as a whole. All world regions continue to put
high priority on these non-cognitive skills. Attention to cognitive development and intellectual
capacity also increased, with basic skills such as literacy and numeracy emphasized across
all regions and over time.
The development of respect for The number of countries including religions and national identity as educational aims declined
the childs parents, his or her slightly overall, but trends in the regions reflect different social and political situations. Religion
own cultural identity, language is strongly emphasized in the Arab States and in South and West Asia, while more countries in
and values, for the national Central and Eastern Europe place importance on national identity.
values of the country in which
the child is living
The preparation of the child for Greater attention is now being given to values, including democracy, citizenship and equality.
responsible life in a free society,
in the spirit of understanding,
peace, tolerance, equality of
sexes
The development of respect The number of countries including sustainable development as an aim of education tripled
for the natural environment between the 1980s and the 2000s, albeit from a low base. The trend is particularly prominent
in developing countries.
Note: For methodological detail see the source document.

1. Refers to 1980-85.
2. Refers to 1996-2001.
Central to the Source: Amadio et al. (2004)
curriculum is the
teaching and
learning of reading It is also one of the best predictors of longer-
and writing. Relevant content
term learning achievement.24 Literacy must
Literacy is a The goals of the curriculum take shape in the therefore be considered a priority area in efforts
critical tool for subjects taught in schools. This fact gives rise to improve the quality of basic education,
the mastery of to a policy debate regarding the definition of particularly for learners from disadvantaged
subjects, their number and the allocation of time backgrounds (Gauthier and Dembl, 2004).
other subjects
to each. Opinion remains divided over the trade-
offs between a curriculum with broad subject While classroom time allocated to literacy skills
coverage and one defined more narrowly, focusing has generally remained stable worldwide over
on a small set of priority goals and core subjects. the past two decades, the mean percentage of
total instruction time allocated to mathematics
23. Newer refers here to In practice, the mean numbers of subjects or instruction has declined slightly in the upper
subjects other than reading, subject areas listed in official curricula around grades of primary education and increased
writing and mathematics.
the world have changed relatively little over the marginally in lower primary education (Table 4.3).
24. An analysis from North
America reports that if past two decades, for all grade levels (Benavot, By and large, the patterns noted at the global
a student has reading
difficulties at the end of the 2004a). The composition of these subjects does level for mathematics are also apparent in each
first year of formal schooling, appear to be changing, however, especially in EFA region.25 Conversely, the trend of
the probability of this student
having difficulty at the end relation to newer subjects.23 Consequently, a incorporating and assigning greater priority to
of grade 4 and at secondary
level is as high as 90% broad distinction can be made between these other subjects than literacy and mathematics in
(Juel, 1991). additions to the curriculum and subjects that the curriculum is on the increase (Box 4.4 and
25. Some regions saw a very contribute more directly to literacy and numeracy. Table 4.4).
slight increase between
grades 1 and 2, but the
overall trend of decline
between primary (grades Central to the curriculum is the teaching and Overall, the most notable increases are in the
16) and lower secondary learning of reading and writing. Literacy is a time allocated to environmental education and
education (grades 79)
occurred clearly worldwide. critical tool for the mastery of other subjects. technology-related education. Vocational

Table 4.3: Mean percentage of total instructional time allocated to mathematics

in primary and lower secondary education, by grade level and time period
(constant cases within grade levels1)
Time2
EFA Region period Grade 13 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9
Sub-Saharan Africa 1980s 20.8 20.2 19.6 18.6 20.3 20.5 16.6 16.1 16.1
2000s 19.2 19.2 19 18.2 18.1 17.7 16.5 16 17.2
(n) 12 12 12 12 12 11 10 8 5
Arab States 1980s 18.1 17.9 17.4 16.9 15.3 16.3 14.4 14 13.9
2000s 17.6 18.5 17.1 17 16.8 16.6 14.2 14 14.3
(n) 12 13 13 13 12 13 12 12 12
East Asia and the Pacific 1980s 17.5 20.5 19.8 19.6 18.3 15.9 13.8 14.2 14.3
2000s 21 22.5 17.9 17.1 15.5 15.9 13.3 13.2 12
(n) 7 7 7 6 6 5 7 7 7
South and West Asia 1980s 17.8 17.8 16.5 16.4 15.9 15.9 12.4 12.4
2000s 19.1 19.8 15.7 16.4 16.4 12 11 11 10
(n) 4 4 4 4 3 1 2 2 0
Latin America 1980s 17.7 17.7 18 17.5 16.5 17.1 15.4 14.3 14.3
and the Caribbean 2000s 23.4 23.4 23.3 21.8 21.6 21.1 14.6 14.5 13.4
(n) 9 9 9 9 10 10 13 13 12
North America 1980s 18.4 18.2 18 16.6 16 15.1 14 12.8 13.2

and Western Europe 2000s 17.7 17.6 16.8 16.7 15.9 15.4 13.8 13 13
(n) 11 11 11 11 11 11 9 7 6
Central and Eastern 1980s 22.3 21.9 20 20 18.3 16.4 14.5 13.8
Europe 2000s 19.3 19 17.8 17.4 15.2 14.2 13.4 13
(n) 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 0
Global Mean 1980s 19.1 19.2 18.5 17.9 17.3 17 14.8 14.1 14.3
2000s 19.4 19.7 18.4 17.9 17.3 16.9 14.3 13.9 13.9
(n) 64 65 64 63 62 59 61 57 42
Note: For methodological detail see the source document. Data is not available for Central Asia.
1. The calculations are based on the data sets of the number of countries (n) for which the relevant data are available for both periods for a given grade.
For example, nine countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have data on instruction time for grade 1 for both the 1980s and the 2000s.
Countries with data for only one period are excluded from the analysis.
2. 1980s refers to 198085; 2000s refers to 19962001.
3. Grade I is the first year of primary education.
Source: Benavot (2004a)
education is losing currency, while the social and in the Arab States, as well as in the lower
sciences are little changed. Civics and citizenship grades in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia
education has gained ground in Latin America and the Pacific. Trends in the higher grades are
and the Caribbean and in East Asia and the not consistent within regions. North America
Pacific but is less evident in Central and Eastern and Western Europe have increased instruction
Europe, the higher grades in sub-Saharan Africa in health education at all levels (Benavot, 2004a).
and the lower grades in North America and
Western Europe. The time allotted to subjects Although these trends can be mapped, little can
relating to moral values, as opposed to skills- be said about the learning implications of
26. The ways newer subjects
based subjects, increased in sub-Saharan Africa increasing the quantity of subjects within the are actually taught varies. For
and in North America and Western Europe but curriculum, or about the trade-off between example, HIV AIDS prevention
education may be integrated
decreased elsewhere, though countries in East literacy and mathematics versus other subjects into any of several subjects
or infused throughout the
Asia and the Pacific, while experiencing this as manifested in learning outcomes.26 What can curriculum. Many countries
teach HIV/AIDS prevention as
decline, still give weight to these subjects. be stressed is the importance of weighing the part of life skills development
Surprisingly, health education appears to have options carefully, especially as regards available (Panchaud, Pii and Poncet, 2004;
Smith, Kippax and Aggleton,
decreased in Latin America and the Caribbean instructional time. 2000).

2 0 0 5
150 / CHAPTER 4
Box 4.4. The currency of a selection of newer subjects

and subject areas # at global level
Health education or hygiene Citizenship and global citizenship education:

In one-fourth to one-third of countries globally, some educating for democracy and peace
form of health education is required during primary and Civics and citizenship education has increased in almost
(lower) secondary education. Its prevalence in primary all grade levels since the 1980s. Attention given to
school curricula has declined slightly since the 1980s, but citizenship education is particularly apparent in the lower
this trend is less apparent in secondary school curricula. grades of primary education. On average, one-fifth to
The content of health education varies greatly. It can one-third of all countries require the teaching of this
include family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention education, subject in primary school and close to half of all
sex education, drug prevention and personal hygiene. The countries require it to be taught in the (lower) secondary
prevalence of health education in national curricula may grades.
reflect, in part, the broad-based content possible under
this catch-all subject label. Technology
On average, technology-related topics excluding
Human rights education* computer instruction accounted for 5%6% of primary-
Considered an integral part of the right to education, this grade timetables in the 1980s but is now required in
area has gained some recognition as a human right in 16%27% of all primary-level timetables. Its prevalence as
itself. It is designed to increase knowledge of and respect a required subject area has more than doubled in the
for the rights and freedoms of each and every person, lower secondary grades. Overall, in both the early 1980s
including the individual learner. and today, the importance of this subject increases with
grade level. Factoring-in computer instruction would
Multicultural education* heighten this trend.
Multicultural education promotes knowledge and
understanding of the cultures of fellow learners and Development or global education
citizens. It has gained considerable prominence in the Development of global education is largely specific to
past two decades. industrialized countries. Comprising elements from
education for sustainable development, human rights
Environmental subjects and education education, citizenship education, world studies, civics
for sustainable development education, anti-racist education and peace education, it
Pollution, concerns over population and food supplies, encourages learners to critically explore the relationship
depletion of natural resources and the ozone layer, the between North and South, understand global
greenhouse effect and possible solutions for such interdependences and work towards change in attitudes,
environmental concerns are being covered in the primary values and behaviour (DEA, 1996). There is some
school curricula of many industrialized and, to a lesser evidence that development education is contributing to
extent, developing countries. Overall the prevalence of changing attitudes, thereby enhancing public support for
this subject in national curricula has increased notably in development (McDonnell, Lecomte and Wegimont, 2003).
the past fifteen years. While it is given greater #These subjects may also be categorized as life skills and receive
prominence during the first five grades of primary school, attention in the area of non-formal and adult education (UNESCO,
the proportion of countries requiring instruction in 2003a).
environment-related topics has increased in all grades. *No trend data are available for these subjects.
students achievement at both primary and

Using time well
secondary levels. Significantly, this relationship
Instructional time is an aspect of the curriculum appears stronger in developing countries; Fuller
that deserves special attention. The length of and Clarke (1994) report this finding to hold good
time required to achieve educational goals is a in twelve out of fourteen studies. The World Bank
matter of considerable significance and a strong estimates that 850 to 1,000 effective hours (not
indicator of students access to learning necessarily official hours) of schooling per year
opportunities. School effectiveness research is optimal in publicly financed primary schools
(Chapter 2) shows consistent positive (World Bank, 2004a). Increased instructional time
correlations between instructional time and enhances learners exposure to knowledge and

Table 4.4: Mean percentage of countries requiring instruction in selected newer subjects in primary
and lower secondary education, by grade level and time period
Time Number of
EFA Region Period1 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 countries
Hygiene/ 1980s 26.2 29.4 31.8 35.3 31.7 32.9 25.9 24.1 16.7 7285
Health Education 2000s 25.0 25.0 26.4 25.0 27.6 27.2 21.3 23.7 22.3 93127
Environmental 1980s 17.9 17.6 15.3 12.9 9.8 7.6 1.2 1.2 0.0 7285
Science/ Ecology 2000s 24.4 26.0 25.6 23.4 16.5 11.2 7.4 5.1 6.5 93127
Civics/Citizenship 1980s 13.1 14.1 17.6 21.2 26.5 34.1 40.2 45.9 39.7 7385
Education 2000s 21.0 21.8 25.6 28.2 31.5 35.2 39.3 38.7 51.1 93127
Social Studies 1980s 31.3 33.3 40.0 43.5 46.9 43.0 43.5 42.2 40.3 7285
2000s 32.0 31.2 39.7 46.0 42.5 43.7 49.6 46.7 45.3 94127
Moral or Values 1980s 25.0 25.9 23.5 24.7 25.6 20.3 16.7 18.3 13.9 7286
Education 2000s 24.2 25.0 26.4 26.6 27.6 27.2 23.8 21.0 21.3 94127
Technology and 1980s 4.8 5.9 5.9 5.9 6.1 5.1 14.1 15.7 16.7 7286
Related Subjects2 2000s 16.1 16.1 18.4 21.0 25.2 27.2 35.0 35.8 37.9 95127
Vocational 1980s 21.4 21.2 22.4 21.2 22.0 26.6 32.6 38.6 36.1 7286
Education/Skills 2000s 17.1 17.1 17.7 19.5 21.4 23.4 30.6 28.8 25.8 93126
Note: For methodological detail see the source document.
1. 1980s refers to 198085; 2000s refers to 19962001.
2. Excludes computer instruction.
results in correspondingly significant learning Table 4.5: Global average of annual instructional time,1 by grade level and time period
gains (Benavot, 2004b). Recent analysis suggests,
however, that global annual intended Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9
instructional time has not increased since the 1985 710 720 760 791 817 844 896 908 900
2000 705 717 754 780 811 825 900 904 940
mid-1980s and is often well below 1,000 hours
(Table 4.5). In many countries instructional time Number of
79 79 79 79 78 77 71 69 54
countries
has declined. In some cases (e.g. Japan) this may Note: For methodological detail see the source document.
be an outcome of curriculum reform in which the 1. Annual instructional time for each country is estimated, based on national documents submitted to UNESCO and
supplementary sources. As the precision of these documents varies, the data should be interpreted with caution.
number of subjects has been reduced. In others, Source: Benavot (2004a)
particularly developing countries, meeting
demand for increased access under resource
constraints may have resulted in reductions in
instructional time (Benavot, 2004a). on academic tasks (academic learning time).27
The amount of time decreases from the first to
Table 4.6 shows annual instructional time by the fourth of these categories, especially in
region. In all regions, it increases with grade. schools in poor communities. Micro studies have
Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest values in all shown that in developing countries considerable
grades. Latin America and the Caribbean, East amounts of time allocated for instruction are lost
Asia and the Pacific and North America and because of teacher and learner absenteeism,
Western Europe score high as well. classroom shortages and lack of learning
materials, as well as more universal phenomena
Intended instructional time the maximum such as lack of discipline and difficulty in
amount set out in national curriculum maintaining learners attention (Benavot, 2004b). 27. See also Benavot (2004b).
statements is not the same as actual learning Loss of instructional time deserves a high degree 28. Carnoy, Gove and Marshall
time. Studies in developed countries (OECD, of attention, as it is a major constraint on (forthcoming) note remarkable
differences in time use among
1996; Doll, 1996) reveal disparities between improving quality. It can be remedied, however, schools in Brazil, Chile and Cuba
and among different types of
intended instruction time, actual time allocated primarily through better school management school within Chile, and report
in schools, the time learners spend actually and organization and more effective teaching that the differences seem to be
associated with learning
learning (time on task) and the time they spend strategies.28 achievement.

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152 / CHAPTER 4
Table 4.6: Regional average yearly instructional time by grade level in 2000
Number of
EFA Regions Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 countries
Sub-Saharan Africa 755 775 812 847 872 871 951 946 965 16-18
Arab States 725 732 752 792 813 820 862 868 880 17
Central Asia 533 575 620 647 740 754 798 812 830 9
East Asia and the Pacific 704 710 764 784 814 826 911 918 918 14
South and West Asia 646 646 730 769 771 856 885 890 907 7-5
Latin America and the Caribbean 761 764 781 783 792 796 921 928 943 17-18
North America and Western Europe 743 748 790 799 845 847 894 906 933 23
Central and Eastern Europe 549 597 624 658 734 773 811 830 855 20
Total 689 705 742 766 804 819 883 891 908 122-125
3; both cited in Gauthier and Dembl, 2004)

Effective teaching styles
confirms these findings. The immediate and
What goes on in the classroom, and the impact clear implication is that much can be done to
of the teacher and teaching, has been identified significantly improve education by improving
in numerous studies as the crucial variable for teacher effectiveness. This in turn requires
improving learning outcomes. The way teachers attention to pedagogy and the way teachers
teach is of critical concern in any reform teach.
Good teachers designed to improve quality.
appear to be Recent findings on the theme of pedagogical
In an influential study, Coleman et al. (1966; cited renewal and teacher development in sub-
effective with
in Gauthier and Dembl, 2004: 24) identified Saharan Africa29 conclude that:
learners of all the teacher variable as having the most
achievement levels pronounced effect on school achievement among Undesirable teaching practices persist.
no matter how pupils from modest backgrounds and ethnic
heterogeneous minorities. More recent meta-analysis designed They can be described as following a rigid,
their classrooms to assess the factors that are most likely to help chalk-and-talk, teacher centred/dominated,
children learn has confirmed the significance of lecture-driven pedagogy or rote learning.
the teacher effect. In a rigorous study of twenty-
eight such factors, the two most prominent were Such pedagogy places students in a passive
found to be directly related to the teacher (Wang, role, limiting their activity to memorizing facts
Haertel and Walberg, 1994). A synthesis of 134 and reciting them to the teacher. It is also
meta-analyses (Hattie, 1992; cited in Dembl reflected in classroom assessment practices.
and Miaro-II, 2003) reached similar conclusions,
indicating that even when there are significant Such teaching practices are the norm in the
differences in learners backgrounds, teachers vast majority of classrooms in sub-Saharan
can exert a powerful influence, raising levels of Africa and elsewhere, even in the most affluent
achievement (Crahay, 2000). countries (Dembl and Miaro-II, 2003).
Further research, however, indicates a wide Pedagogical renewal across sub-Saharan Africa
variation in effectiveness among teachers. has included many attempts to switch to learner-
Good teachers appear to be effective with centred, activity-oriented pedagogy and away
29. Case studies, background
papers and literature reviews learners of all achievement levels no matter from teacher-dominated instructional practices
by the African education how heterogeneous their classrooms. If the (Anderson, 2002; Kotta, 1986; Tabulawa, 1997;
research networks ERNESA
and ERNWACA, produced for teacher is ineffective, his or her students are Storeng, 2001; van Graan et al., 2003; all cited in
the 2003 Biennial Meeting on
Quality held by the Association more likely to perform at lower levels (Wright, Dembl and Miaro-II, 2003). Such efforts may be
for the Development of
Education in Africa, are Horn and Sanders, 1997; cited in Gauthier and explained in part by the current tendency of some
available at www.adeanet.org/ Dembl, 2004). More recent work (Babu and international agencies to favour such pedagogies.
publications_biennale/en_2003
bienpubs. html. Mendro, 2003; Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain, 2002: In most of the countries concerned, however,

Box 4.5. Open-ended and discovery-based instruction
Open-ended and discovery-based pedagogies involve high- Typically, these programmes have some or all of the
level cognitive skills such as comprehension, the following characteristics:
application of knowledge, divergent thinking and problem
child-centred rather than teacher-driven pedagogy;
solving. Examples of programmes that have adopted these
pedagogies include: active rather than passive learning;
multigrade classrooms with continuously assessed
the Escuela Nueva programme in Colombia;
learning;
the Non-Formal Primary Education programme of the
combinations of fully trained teachers, partly trained
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee;
teachers and community resource people, all of them
the Escuela Nueva Unitaria programme in Guatemala; heavily involved in learning and in school management;
the Fe y Alegria schools in Latin America; peer tutoring among learners;
multigrade programmes in Guinea and Zambia; carefully developed self-guided learning materials;
Convergent Pedagogy in Mali; teacher- and student-constructed learning materials;
the UNICEF-sponsored Community Schools programme active student involvement in school governance and
in Egypt; management;
the MECE programme in Chile; use of radio, correspondence materials, television in
a network of education for production programmes in some cases and computers in a few cases;
Latin America; ongoing and regular in-service training and peer
Namibias Basic Education Teacher Diploma; mentoring for teachers;
the Aga Khan Foundation-supported Dar-es-Salaam ongoing monitoring, evaluation and feedback systems;
Primary Schools Projects; strong links between the school and the community;
Botswanas University-Based Teacher Education Model. attention by the community to childrens nutrition and
health long before they reach school age;
local adaptations of the school day or school year cycle;
a school focus on learning rather than teaching.
Sources: Avalos (1980); Farrell (2002); Anderson (2002);

Craig, Kraft and du Plessis (1998); Hopkin (1997).
attempts to institutionalize child-centred undesirable practice: a teacher-centred Structured teaching

pedagogy in schools and teacher-training pedagogy, which places students in a passive is a combination of
institutions have produced inconclusive results. role. There is also some consensus on the
direct instruction,
One investigation into why this is so, in Botswana desirability of a participatory, interactive, child-
(Tabulawa, 1997), cites deeply engrained centred, active pedagogy that is characterized guided practice and
epistemological assumptions by teachers and by cooperative learning and inquiry and fosters independent
students, as well as social factors inherent in conceptual understanding, critical thinking and learning
Tswana society. The assumptions were found to problem-solving skills (ibid.). These desirable
conflict with the basic tenets of child-centred practices fall under the general category of
pedagogy. If confirmed, this finding would open-ended instruction (Box 4.5).
indicate that, for open-ended pedagogies to be
successful, significant change in the culture of In the spectrum between traditional chalk-and- 30. Evidence from North America
knowledge acquisition may be required. talk teaching and open-ended instruction, some and the United Kingdom
suggests that structured
educators advocate structured teaching, a pedagogies work far better than
open-ended approaches for
A further body of knowledge says that teaching combination of direct instruction, guided practice children from socio-economically
practices are informed by ideas and beliefs that and independent learning (Box 4.6).30 disadvantaged backgrounds and
those excluded on the grounds of
teachers begin to develop long before embracing race or ethnicity, as well as
slower learners, those with
teaching as a career and that traditional teacher Discovery-based pedagogies have proved learning difficulties and
underachievers. The research
preparation does not successfully challenge extremely difficult to implement on a national also indicates that this approach
these beliefs (Dembl and Miaro-II, 2003). scale. Moreover, their success relies heavily on is not prejudicial to high
achievers (Gauthier and
Experts broadly agree on what constitutes appropriate levels of physical resources, strong Dembl, 2004).

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154 / CHAPTER 4
Box 4.6. Structured teaching Pedagogies for non-conventional settings

For people living where there is no school

The concept of structured teaching stems from research
because of geographical isolation or low
identifying the teaching strategies and techniques used by population density, or for those with nomadic
experienced teachers and comparing them with those used by lifestyles, alternative pedagogies are likely to
inexperienced teachers. The research highlights the practices be needed. Distance learning for conflict
that most help learning. Experiments have demonstrated that areas (discussed earlier in this chapter),
when inexperienced teachers are trained to use effective mobile classrooms for nomadic communities
techniques, student achievement improves significantly. and non-formal schools with teachers recruited
Structured and systematic teaching consists of presenting from the community are among the possible
material in small steps, pausing to check for student responses.32
understanding and eliciting active and successful participation
from all students. It is a particularly appropriate method for Where schools do exist but are extremely
learning reading, mathematics, grammar, mother tongue, underpopulated, multigrade teaching is an
sciences, history and, to some extent, foreign languages. option. Although sheer logistical and economic
It can be adapted to young pupils as well as to slow learners factors can make multigrade teaching a
of any age. necessity, it can also be a choice as an effective
Structured instruction has proved most effective for teaching pedagogy for addressing the needs of a diversity
literacy. After a review of 1,056 experimental studies conducted of learners. Box 4.7 summarises the main
over thirty years in the United States on the processes of conditions for effective multigrade teaching.
learning to read, the National Reading Panel recommended
explicit, systematic and intensive teaching of the various
components of reading: phonological awareness and phonemes, Language of instruction matters
grapho-phonetic entry points, guided oral and silent reading,
Most countries in the world are bilingual or
and vocabulary. The panel recommended teaching reading by
modelling, a technique in which the teacher illustrates links
multilingual.33 Hence, national language policy
between new and prior knowledge and demonstrates forms and the selection of languages to be taught in
of reasoning that foster better understanding. This requires school and used as the media of instruction is
providing many occasions for guided practice, during which of considerable importance for the quality of
students should receive feedback, so that later they can read teaching and learning. It is a policy choice with
successfully on their own. implications for curriculum goals, content and
Sources: Brophy and Good (1986); Gage (1986); Good, Biddle and Brophy (1983);
pedagogy. It is also an intensely political matter.
Rosenshine and Stevens (1986); all cited in Gauthier and Dembl (2004). As UNECSO notes (UNESCO, 2003b):
Educational policy makers have difficult

decisions to make with regard to languages,
support and well-motivated, enthusiastic schooling and the curriculum in which the
teachers. This does not mean that the idea of technical and the political overlap. While
open-ended pedagogy should be abandoned there are strong educational arguments in
in resourced-constrained situations, but it does favour of mother tongue (or first language)
31. For a detailed discussion face formidable challenges, even in optimal instruction, a careful balance also needs to
of structured teaching, see
Gauthier and Dembl (2004: conditions. Thus, structured instruction may be made between enabling people to use
2732). be the more pragmatic option for providing local languages in learning and providing
32. For more detail on these satisfactory quality in education in situations of access to global languages of communication
alternative strategies, see
ADEA (2003) and UNESCO severe resource constraints, high pupil/teacher through education.
(2003a).
ratios (which complicate classroom management
33. Some 6,000 to 7,000 and individual learning strategies) and The situation in South-East Asia and China
languages are spoken in
the world (UNESCO, 2003b). underqualified or unmotivated teachers.31 illustrates the diversity of languages and of
About 1.3 billion people, or
20% of the worlds With an approach to structured teaching that patterns of language use in school (Table 4.7).
population, speak a local leaves space for individual discovery, good In this part of the world there is a general trend
vernacular as their first
language (Walter, teachers can create a child-centred environment towards more widespread use of local languages
forthcoming; cited in
Kosonen, 2004). Worldwide, even in adverse circumstances. Child-centred in the first few years of primary education.
twenty countries have more
than one official language. In in this context suggests respect for children
major urban areas, schools and encouraging their involvement in their own There is now a strong body of evidence that
may have children speaking
thirty or forty languages. learning (Croft, 2002). bilingual schooling offers significant benefits in

Box 4.7. Multigrade teaching
Multigrade teaching is found in many parts Curriculum should be specially adapted. Learners should be involved in the
of the world. It is believed to have positive Experimental work has been undertaken general classroom management.
impacts on cognitive achievement and on in Nepal and Sri Lanka to reorganize the Pre-service and in-service training
social and behavioural development, national curricula in relation to core should be designed to prepare teachers.
though these have not been confirmed. concepts and skills.
Regular, frequent formative assessment
While multigrade teaching in wealthier Teachers should develop a range of by teachers is essential.
countries is generally a pedagogic choice, teaching approaches to meet the needs
in resource-constrained situations it is of a multigrade setting, including peer Curriculum, learning materials, teacher
usually a necessity, and teachers may have learning, group learning and self-study. education and assessment are the most
negative attitudes towards teaching in important components of an integrated
Adequate supplies of learning materials
multigrade classes with few resources strategy for quality improvement through
designed for individual and group
available. For multigrade teaching to be multigrade teaching.
learning are essential. Self-study
beneficial for learners, the following
materials cannot be a substitute for Source: Little (2004)
conditions need to be met:
teachers, however; teachers should use
Teachers and policy makers should be the materials as part of an integrated
aware of the special needs involved. teaching strategy.
Table 4.7: Languages used in education in China and South-East Asia
Multiple
Local languages Local
languages in government languages Languages used Access to Total number
used in system used as medium in government system education in L1 of languages
Country education1 of education2 of instruction3 of education4 languages (%)5 spoken6
China Yes Yes Yes Mandarin, LWCs, 69 201

local languages
Brunei No Yes No Malay, English 2 17
Cambodia Yes Yes Yes Khmer, local languages 90 19
Indonesia Yes Yes No Indonesian, LWCs 10 726
Lao PDR No No No Lao <50 82
Malaysia Yes Yes No Malay, English, Mandarin, 45 139

Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi,
local languages
Myanmar Yes No Yes Myanma 61 107
Philippines Yes Yes Yes Filipino, English, LWCs 26 169
Singapore No Yes No English, Mandarin, Malay, Tamil 33 21
Thailand Yes Yes Yes Thai, local languages <50 75
Viet Nam Yes Yes No Vietnamese, local languages 91 93
Notes:
1. Local languages used in education indicates whether local languages or languages of wider communication (LWCs), other than a national or official language, are used in
education practice at any level or in any system of basic education pre-primary, primary, lower secondary, formal or non-formal run by government, local communities, NGOs,
etc. Yes means both instruction and some learning materials are in local languages and/or LWCs. Situations in which teachers use a local language or a LWC orally in addition
to the official language of instruction are not included.
2. Multiple languages in government system of education indicates whether more than one language is used in the government education system (formal or non-formal) at any
level of basic education. Private schools and NGO education projects are not included. Yes in bold means more than one language is used, but no local languages are included.
3. Local languages used as media of instruction shows where local languages are the daily media of instruction at any level or system of basic education. Yes in bold means
local languages are used only in non-formal education by NGOs.
4. Languages used in government system of education lists the languages used in the government system. Details of other languages are given in each country case.
5. Access to education in L1 (%) is the estimated proportion of a countrys population having access to education in the learners first language (L1) i.e. the proportion of the
population having as mother tongue one of the languages used in education (Walter, forthcoming; except Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand estimates by Kosonen using data
from Chaze, 1999; Grimes, 2000; Kingsada, 2003; National Statistical Centre, 1997; Schliesinger, 2000, 2003; Smalley, 1994).
6. Total number of languages spoken in a given country (Grimes, 2000).
Source: Kosonen (2004)

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156 / CHAPTER 4
learning outcomes.34 In the most successful allied to the economic and political value
models, the mother tongue is used in the early accorded to an international language.36 Many
years of schooling so that children can acquire educators lobbied for years to reverse this policy,
and develop the literacy skills that enable fuller arguing that it impeded the acquisition of literacy
participation in learning activities (Benson, 2004). and mastery of the whole curriculum. Poor
In a growing number of countries, after four or learning outcomes were used to support the
Initial literacy is five years (earlier in some cases) there is a argument.37 Box 4.8 shows how Zambia is
acquired more transition to learning and using the second or developing its own bilingual model (Linehan,
foreign language as the medium of instruction. 2004; Sampa, 2003).
easily in the
In this way initial literacy is acquired more easily,
mother tongue facilitating the acquisition of the language that Papua New Guinea (PNG ) has over 830
will become the medium of instruction for the languages, and at least 434 local languages are
rest of the school years.35 used for initial instruction in schools (Litteral,
2004). Popular demand for the use of local
Zambia recently adopted a new policy on initial languages spearheaded a remarkable reform
literacy. English had been its medium of story that has had broader implications for the
instruction for primary education, at the expense primary school system. In the late 1970s and
of all vernacular languages, since 1965, the early 1980s, village vernacular schools were
primary reason being promotion of national unity, introduced in Bougainville province, where
Box 4.8. Initial literacy and the medium of instruction in Zambia

34. Benson (2004)
summarizes this literature,
highlighting the many The implications of the decision to use English in improvement in the teaching of reading at all grade
benefits of becoming literate
in a familiar language. These
1965 were eased slightly in a 1977 policy paper, levels through appropriate training and materials.
include having easier access Educational Reform: Proposals and
to communications and Early assessments and evaluations have been
literacy skills in a second Recommendations, which allowed teachers to use
language, having a language
encouraging.* More broadly, the focus on literacy
one of the seven official local languages to explain
and culture that are valued has helped secure observable success, in that
by schools, feeling good concepts that might not be understood in English,
about school and teachers, parents and communities have responded warmly to
provided a majority of pupils in a class understood
being able to demonstrate the change. It has also raised teachers expectations
knowledge, participating in the vernacular chosen.
learning, having the courage for themselves and their pupils. The PRP integrates
to ask questions and After studies in the early-1990s highlighted low methodology, assessment and classroom
lessening the likelihood of
unfair advantage being taken levels of reading, in 1995, the National Reading management into its courses and training
(a point especially pertinent
for girls).
Committee (NRC) concluded that a compromise was programmes in a way that allows for practical
needed that would separate the medium of demonstration of good practice and facilitates a
35. Bolivia may have the
most advanced development instruction from the language of initial literacy. The process where teachers can theorize from practice
and maintenance model for idea was to allow children to learn to read and write (DFID/Ministry of Education, 2002). There is some
long-term continued study of
the mother tongue and in a familiar language within a system where the evidence that enrolment levels are rising and
Spanish, which, being initially official medium of instruction was English. This absenteeism is on the wane in schools that are
taught as a second language,
moves up to 50/50 status in would meet both educational and political spearheading PRP strategies (Kotze and Higgins,
grade 4. Nigeria follows a
slightly different model: in
requirements, offering pedagogical innovation 1999). The Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of
Yoruba-speaking districts, within a stable linguistic context. Education stated in December 2003 that the PRP
Yoruba is used throughout
the six years of primary was the single most effective change agent for
A 1996 policy statement, Educating Our Future,
education, with English achieving quality education in Zambia.
taught as a subject and agreed with the NRCs conclusions. With external
gradually phased in.
assistance from the United Kingdoms Department * Grade 1 test scores in Zambian Languages improved
36. Linehan (2004), in a paper for International Development (DFID), the Ministry dramatically, from a very low baseline, in districts where initial
commissioned as literacy was taught in the vernacular. In grade 2, scores in
background for this report, of Education initiated the Zambia Primary Reading English resulted, on average, in learners reading above the
outlines the history of Programme (PRP). This programme was a expected level for the grade. In September 2003, grade 4
language policy in Zambia children from forty-five schools in the PRP pilot programme were
since 1927. systematic attempt to improve reading and writing found to be outperforming non-PRP pupils at grade 5 in literacy
in all primary schools, with goals for each grade and numeracy. In all grades, the gender differences in
37. For example, Williams
(1998; cited in Linehan, 2004) level: basic literacy in a familiar language by the end performance found in the non-PRP sample had all but vanished
notes that particular concern (Kanyika, 2004).
arose after test results in
of the first year of primary education, basic literacy
Source: Linehan (2004)
1995 showed that only 3% of in English by the end of the second year and
grade 6 pupils could read at
desirable levels in English.

Box 4.9. Elementary schools in Papua New Guinea
Governance Alphabets were developed for 135 languages. Where there is

Through a successful preschool system, Itok Pies Pri Skul (also no alphabet a lingua franca is used instead of the vernacular.
known as TPPS), vernacular education was already familiar to Most provinces lack trained personnel who can assist in
the population of Papua New Guinea, so introducing vernacular alphabet development.
education at primary level met with no major resistance. The Vernacular materials need to be developed. Early local
main challenge has been to marry the decentralized, non-formal programmes developed separate materials for each language,
TPPS network with the highly centralized national education but, in the 1980s, sets of printed pictures were produced that
system. The pace of implementation varies by province and could be made into simple books by adding text in any
according to capacity. At village level, elementary schools are language. This model is now used widely. The method of
managed by a board designed to empower parents and teaching literacy is interactive, with the integration of phonics
communities in a way that is not possible with English-medium and whole language approaches, which saves on materials
education. The boards vary in their ability to provide direction costs.
and implement policy. Communities select those to be trained as Assessment and monitoring are obviously more complicated
teachers and choose the language to be used for instruction. in multilingual contexts. In elementary schools, teachers are
responsible for their own assessment, taking for granted that
Educational challenges comparability is problematic. For the primary system, a pilot
Personnel at all levels must be competent to operate a project was started to monitor the progress of students in
vernacular education system. In the non-formal system, NGOs grades 3, 5 and 8 in four vernacular languages.
with vernacular education experience provided assistance
from national to village level, focusing on language and Financial challenges
culture. During the TPPS period, each province or language community
Elementary teachers must be prepared. Recruiting teachers was mainly responsible for financing vernacular programmes
with knowledge of local language and culture is most and had its own policy. The introduction of formal elementary
important. Selected teacher trainers with experience in the education put the financial burden on the national government.
English system received short training courses on vernacular AusAID provided grants to cover the costs of training and
education. The courses, while practical and intended to materials from 1997 to 2002; since then, fewer teachers have
emphasize materials production and teaching in the been trained and the expansion and introduction of new schools
vernacular, had disappointing results. has slowed.
Source: Litteral (2004)
parents felt strongly that their language and A large number of languages is not in itself
culture should figure more prominently in an obstacle to vernacular education if language
education to counter evidence of alienation and communities and the government give practical,
social problems among young people. This was political and technical support.
the beginning of a movement that, with the aid
of SIL International, an NGO, led ultimately to Aid agencies and NGOs can make significant 38. This section draws on Litteral
(2004), a paper prepared for this
the national Education Reform Agenda in 1995. contributions of technical skills, local knowledge report. PNGs primary system
has three levels, each of three
The agenda provided for a new level of education and financial resources, though care should be years: elementary (preschool to
in which the language of the community is the taken to avoid dependence. grade 2), using vernacular
languages and a bridge to
language of instruction (vernacular in rural English in the third year; lower
primary, where a bilingual policy
areas, lingua franca in urban areas), with the Long-term commitment is essential. It will be prevails; and upper primary, in
which English is the medium
introduction of oral English at the end of the third sustained by improved student achievement and of instruction but vernacular
year. Box 4.9 shows how the political, educational a strong sense of community responsibility. languages are maintained.
and financial challenges were overcome in PNG. Teachers must be trained for bilingual education. 39. Studies indicate that
decreases in grade repetition and
As in Zambia, this is a relatively young dropout outweigh the extra costs
experience, but already some important lessons Growth should be gradual and planned.38 of vernacular education; see
Benson (2004), who cites work by
have been learned (Litteral, 2004): Chiswick, Patrinos and Tamyo.
(1996), Patrinos and Velez (1996)
It seems clear both from the technical literature and Vawda and Patrinos (1998).
Patrinos and Velez found that
To be sustained, vernacular education must be and experience on the ground that initial first in Guatemala the benefits of
successful in the eyes of communities and the language instruction improves the quality of implementing mother tongue
programmes outweighed the
educational establishment. education cost-effectively,39 at best by building on costs after only two years.

2 0 0 5
158 / CHAPTER 4
Table 4.8: Summative and formative assessment Summative assessment is often used to
determine whether students are promoted to

Summative assessment Formative assessment
a higher grade or education level, or awarded
Purpose To evaluate and record a learners To diagnose how a learner learns certificates or diplomas. This usually relies on
achievement. and to improve learning and
teaching.
one-off examinations. Increasingly, however,
ministries of education are opting for a
Judgement Criterion-referenced or norm- Criterion-referenced and pupil-
referenced; progression in referenced.
continuous assessment, which is a combination
learning against public criteria. of summative and formative assessments.
Method Externally devised tasks or tests. Observing learning activities,
Countries including Sri Lanka, South Africa and
Reviewing written work and other discussing with learners, reviewing Ghana have introduced such systems to
products (portfolio) against criteria written work and other products
applied uniformly for all learners. (portfolio), learner self-
supplement the national examination. The idea is
assessment and peer assessment. to facilitate more holistic judgement of learners
Sources: Harlen and James (1997); Black and Wiliam (2002).
progress and achievement and lessen incentives
to teach to exams.
In practice, however, continuous assessment

the knowledge and experience of students and often amounts to repeated summative
teachers, encouraging understanding through assessment, with teachers filling in record
intercultural education and promoting gender forms, while no specific feedback is given to
and social equality (UNESCO, 2003b). learners. This situation is partly attributable to
lack of understanding on the part of teachers
about formative assessment, but also reflects
Assessment for better practice
the pressure of external summative assessment
Regular, reliable As Chapter 2 indicates, regular, reliable and on teaching and learning. Moreover, effective
and timely timely assessment is key to improving learning formative assessment requires adequate
achievement.40 It is the bedrock of an effective resources, teachers trained in assessment
assessment is key
teaching and learning environment, whether it techniques and relatively small class sizes
to improving takes place at international or regional level (e.g. requirements which do not fit the realities in
learning PISA, SACMEQ), national level (e.g. Key Stage many countries.
achievement tests in England and Wales) or school/classroom
level (e.g. end-of-term tests). Assessment should For governments seeking to improve education
allow those working in the education system to quality, a sound assessment policy is crucial.
diagnose, monitor and assure the quality of the For school-level assessment to be influential,
education they provide. International/regional and it should be consistent, regular and reliable,
national assessment is discussed in Chapter 2. part of an overall school development policy
This section reviews the types of assessment and reconcile both formative and summative
designed to improve education at the classroom assessments with a strong focus on providing
level, which we may characterize as either feedback to the learner and teacher. The actual
formative or summative (Table 4.8). mix of formative and summative assessment will
take into account the constraints in particular
National and international assessments are contexts.
summative in nature. Classroom-level
assessments by teachers can be summative or
Enabling inputs for quality teaching
formative. Formative assessment looks at how
and learning
each learner learns and the problems she or he
encounters, so teachers can adjust their teaching Teaching and learning in the classroom are
to observed learning progress. Evidence shows, supported by a broader enabling environment,
too, that by giving feedback to learners, formative as Figure 4.1 illustrates. It essentially consists
40. It is crucial here to assessment can help improve their learning and of good teachers, strong schools and a coherent
distinguish between the
terms assessment and performance (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Where national support infrastructure (discussed
examination, the latter
being a specific form of practical, it should also draw on learner self- below). Also important is the provision,
summative assessment
mainly used to differentiate assessment, which can empower learners to distribution and delivery of resources (including
among learners for selection assess their own progress and reflect on how textbooks and other materials) and the physical
or certification (Somerset,
1996). they could improve their learning. structure of classrooms and schools.

Learning materials must be there School effectiveness research, including several

Effective teaching and learning require wide and studies in the 1970s and early 1980s, shows the
equitable availability of learning materials. In availability of relevant, good-quality, affordable
many countries this is not the case. This situation textbooks having a positive impact on
calls for urgent attention, including the achievement.41 Later studies indicate that, once
rethinking of policies governing production and schools have an acceptable level of textbooks, it Once schools have
distribution of textbooks and other learning is teacher practice that makes the difference.42 an acceptable level
materials and the training of teachers in how to Studies in Kenya, Ghana and Australia (Glewwe,
of textbooks, it is
use learning materials more effectively, in line Kremer and Moulin, 2000; Okyere et al., 1997;
with good teaching practice. Horsley, 2004; Laws and Horsley, 2004) are teacher practice
instructive in this respect. They demonstrate that, that makes the
For many countries, providing every pupil with a while textbook availability does affect the quality difference
complete set of textbooks is only an ideal target of teaching and learning, the ways teachers use
(Montagnes, 2001). Moreover, accurate data on textbooks vary considerably. This confirms the
textbook availability is often scarce or non- importance of support for teachers on effective
existent. Often the lack of textbooks in use of textbooks.
classrooms is a result of an inefficient
distribution system, not a shortage of resources. Materials other than textbooks are also
A study in Zambia indicated that less than 10% of important. While the use of computers is
books procured had actually reached classrooms spreading rapidly in schools in the industrialized
(Silanda, 2000). A survey in Guinea found wastage world, most classrooms in developing countries
of up to 67% of textbook stock (Sow, Brunswic may barely have a blackboard and a few
and Valrien, 2001). The multiplicity of interests textbooks. Teachers guides are rare. Home-
involved in textbook provision can lead to made teaching aids sometimes supplement
malpractice and corruption, which also meagre classroom resources, often with support
contribute to inefficiency (Legur, 2003). To from teacher resource centres (discussed
address this problem, the worldwide trend is to below). In some countries, libraries are set up to
liberalize textbook production and distribution provide supplementary reading material.43 Such
and decentralize procurement. teaching materials and supplementary books are
often underused, however (Knamiller, 1999;
This opening of the textbook market has helped Rosenberg, 1998). The effectiveness of teaching
increase availability and decrease prices in many and learning materials depends on teachers
41. Findings from later studies
countries. In Uganda, textbook prices have been ability and willingness to use them (Askerud, suggest, however, that the
reported gains were largely due
reduced by 50% as a result of liberalization (Eilor 1997; Rosenberg, 1998). Training in the use of to learners family backgrounds
et al., 2003). Liberalization is not a panacea, newly introduced materials and continuous and other factors. Fuller and
Clarke (1994) review studies on
though. In Russia it has led to regional inequity in support to teachers should be an integral part textbook availability and pupil
achievement. For a recent study
availability and price (Borovikova, 2004). of teaching and learning materials development. on the impact of textbook
availability, see World Bank
Liberalization can also result in replacement of a (2004a).
state monopoly by a few large, often international Good places to learn
42. Fuller and Clarke (1994)
publishing houses, to the detriment of local Attention has already been drawn to the reviewed school effectiveness
research, focusing on
publishers. High import taxation on paper, importance of learner-friendly schools. Good sociological aspects. They argue
printing equipment and the like also hurts local school infrastructure is important to effective that both the minimum level of
inputs and teachers response to
textbook production (Montagnes, 2001). teaching and learning, as a recent World Bank the availability of inputs are
specific to context.
evaluation on Ghana indicates (World Bank, 2004a).
43. Strong political support made
Sustainable and equitable textbook development Achieving UPE will require unprecedented it possible for Brazils
requires strong coordination by the state, development and refurbishment of classrooms government to supply nearly all
its primary schools with library
preferably through a national body for book in many countries. A priority in remote and rural books over 8 million to date
at a cost of US$20 million
development, involving relevant ministries (e.g. areas, it is also important in many cities, to avoid (Gusso, 2004). In South Africa,
those handling trade and finance), the private overcrowding. School buildings should also be classroom libraries have been
set up through READ Trust,
sector and NGOs, as well as the formulation of accessible to disabled people. Clean water and which also provides teacher
training. For an estimated cost of
a national policy on textbooks (Salzano, 2002). sanitation facilities for girls and boys are basic US$18 per learner, the
programme seems to have
Liberalization should be accompanied by the elements of a healthy, safe and secure learning successfully encouraged reading
development of local private publishers in environment, but, as Box 4.10 shows, schools culture and improved reading
and writing abilities (Radebe,
general. often do not meet these needs. 1998).

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160 / CHAPTER 4
The formulation of clear norms and standards the full menu of policy issues discussed here is
regarding the technical specifications and another matter. Through striving for coherence
location of schools should take into account the and consistency among the major components
need for a good physical learning environment of the teaching and learning process, however,
More attention for all pupils and students. However, flexibility significant improvement in education quality is
must be paid to in norms for school location and due attention nonetheless possible. Another key is well-
to such future contingencies as the introduction defined, well-balanced aims for education
maintenance of
of multigrade schooling or the addition of a that give due attention to both cognitive skills
school facilities, lower secondary class are critical. Local school and values development, through traditional
an issue too often mapping is an important tool in this regard. core subjects and, where relevant, new
neglected in aid Finally, more attention must be paid to areas of study. Sufficient learning time is
projects and maintenance of school facilities, an issue too critical: 850-1,000 hours of effective instructional
government often neglected in aid projects and government time is a good target. Much more attention
budgets. Communities with limited resources to teaching styles is needed. Structured
budgets
can perform only basic maintenance tasks. teaching may be the most effective option for
Good maintenance is a cost-effective measure resource-constrained systems, but this does
that expands the lifetime and quality of school not mean the classroom cannot be child
buildings. centred. In multilingual societies, the choice
of language of instruction and language policy
in schools is critical for effective learning. And
Policy choices
assessment is important if lessons are to be
There is enormous potential to increase the learned for good classroom practice. Carefully
quality of teaching and learning in every school considered options for providing and distributing
and classroom. A rich body of knowledge and learning materials, classroom facilities and
experience shows what should be done. Whether physical infrastructure also play their part in
the poorest countries can or even should address better learning.
Box 4.10. Unfriendly schools
Sub-Saharan Africa South Asia Latin America

Historically, school construction projects In 1993, in the Indian state of Uttar School latrines and drinking
rarely included latrines or water supply. Pradesh, 64% of the 73,000 primary water have received more
In Mauritania and Chad, for example, schools lacked latrines and 43% water attention in Latin America.
inclusion of latrines and water in primary supply. By 2001, with the support of three Mexico, for instance, added
school construction projects dates only World Bank-financed projects, more than almost 3,200 latrines to primary
from 2001 and 2002, respectively, with 41,000 toilets had been built not far schools, in four states targeted
the sixth World Bank education project. from the initial need and drinking water by the Primary Education Project
In Chad, one-third of schools have provided to more than 17,000 primary of 199198. The Second Primary
latrines and two-thirds drinking water. schools. For India as a whole, eight Education Project (199499)
In Guinea, latrines and water supply were projects financed by the World Bank built provided ten other states with
required in all new schools by 1989 but 91,000 toilets more than the number latrines.
the retrofitting of older schools 2,000 of new classrooms in the same projects
Source: Theunynck (2003)
lacking latrines and 2,900 without water and equipped 57,000 schools with
was launched only with the ten-year drinking water. In Pakistan, as of 1990,
Education for All Programme of 2001. more than 51% of primary schools in
In Senegal, 39% of classrooms have Sindh province had no sanitation and
sanitation and 33% access to drinking 42% were without water supply. The
water facilities that still are not situation in North-West province, as of
systematically included in school 1995, was even worse: more than 80%
construction projects. of primary schools had no sanitation
and half lacked drinking water.

Better teachers In the On the Job Training programme in Trinidad

and Tobago, people who are considering a career
Teachers are a key enabling factor in improving in teaching are given a chance to practise as a
the quality of education. The evidence of this class assistant, so that a more informed decision
and many other reports is that teachers are can be made (George and Quamina-Aiyejina,
critical to any reforms designed to improve 2003). South Africa also offers an example of
quality. Moreover, teachers represent by far making the training pathways towards the
the most significant investment in public sector teaching profession more flexible: its 2000 Act
budgets. This section addresses ways in which on Adult Basic Education and Training gives
countries with limited means could improve the adult educators the possibility of having relevant
recruitment of teachers, their initial training learning experiences and qualifications
and ongoing support, their earnings and their validated as building stones for formal
deployment and conditions of service. It qualification (UIE, 2004). Both in developing
concludes by addressing a central dilemma: and developed
how to pay for an expanded teaching force.
Improving initial training countries there
Initial teacher training can take a variety of is a temptation
Finding the right recruits to lower teacher
forms. Its duration, curriculum focus, teaching
Preparing teachers begins with the selection practice and other aspects differ strongly from training standards
of those who are to enter teacher training. Most country to country. Table 4.9 illustrates the
governments have set standards that vary with diversity in a framework of four main models.
the kind of schooling for which the training is
designed. Both in developing and developed In models 1 and 2, the training is predominantly
countries there is a temptation to lower these or entirely pre-career, and usually full-time and
standards. In the developing world, it stems residential. This leaves few resources for ongoing
from a need in many countries to attract professional development in particular the
large numbers of teachers, in order to expand crucial support of newly qualified teachers in
44. The literature identifies
access to education quickly and reduce class their first years of teaching. Moreover, it often several cases in which the
size. In the industrialized world, some countries ignores long-term professional development, and expansion of the teaching force
required to staff the policy of
face ageing teaching forces and shortages of teacher training institutions tend to be isolated smaller classes appears to have
led to deterioration in average
people interested in a teaching career, especially from schools. This can be mitigated by extending teacher quality in schools and
in mathematics, foreign languages, sciences, the teaching-practice part of the curriculum. In thereby put at risk the hoped-for
benefits of smaller classes
business studies and the technology fields, the United Kingdom, for instance, trainees spend (OECD, 2004e).
including information and communications two-thirds of their time in schools,46 and in Cuba 45. Examples may be found in
information on the OECD project
technology (OECD, 2004e). The high performing the entire pre-service training is school-based Attracting, Developing and
countries discussed in Chapter 2 have resisted (Gasperini, 2000). Such models require a Retaining Effective Teachers,
which involved twenty-two OECD
the temptation to lower standards, keeping sufficient number of schools with the capacity member states and Chile. The
participants Country Background
access to teacher training selective in to coach and counsel trainees; related costs will reports, describing their policies
order to maintain quality and the esteem in diminish somewhat with the gains made by and innovations in the area of
teacher supply and professional
which the profession is held. But in some reducing the off-the-job part of the curriculum. development, are available via
www.oecd.org.
other countries people with low academic
qualifications do enter teacher training School-based training can be combined with 46. Dbert, Klieme and Sroka
(2004) note that the advantages
(Lewin, 2004).44 distance education, which saves travel and of school-based preparation
should be weighed against the
replacement costs47 and can reduce direct costs risk of reducing the critical edge
that teacher training in colleges
Countries with sufficient means might if part of the training is self-instructional and and universities can provide.
consider publicity campaigns and financial based on print or other low-cost media. However, Immersion in daily practice may
to some extent prevent trainees
incentives to attract trainees. An alternative distance learning also entails problems (Sayed, from seeing failures and seeking
alternatives.
approach to recruiting the right candidates Heystek and Smit, 2002), as observed with
involves rethinking the criteria and procedures primary teachers in rural Africa. The materials 47. This was the case, for
instance, in the Malawi
for admission to teacher training.45 One need to be in the right language and address Integrated In-service Teacher
Education Programme (MITTEP)
possibility is to develop technically sound a wide range of topics, the trainees must be described by Kunje (2002).
aptitude and motivation tests. Another is to supported by both the school and the training 48. See Kunje and Chirembo
make more use of interviews, though this is institution and administrative support must be (2000), Kunje (2002) and Kunje,
Lewin and Stuart (2003) for more
often time consuming. assured.48 detailed discussions.

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162 / CHAPTER 4
Table 4.9: Main models of initial teacher training

Description Duration Entry Curriculum Teaching practice Cost per student
Model 1
College certificate 14 years full- Junior or senior Subject Block practice Relatively high
or diploma time residential secondary school upgrading, 412 weeks in
(e.g. Bachelor leavers with or subject methods, one or more years,
of Education) without experience professional sometimes followed
studies by internships
Model 2
University post- 12 years full- University degree, Subject methods, Block practice Relatively high but
graduate certificate time residential mostly professional 210 weeks, for less time
of education after first degree undergraduates studies sometimes followed
without experience by internships
Model 3
In-service training 15 years part- Junior or senior Subject Teaching in schools High or low
of untrained time residential secondary school upgrading, in normal depending on
teachers based in and/or non- leavers with subject methods, employment duration and
schools, leading to residential experience as professional intensity of contact
initial qualification workshops, etc. untrained teachers studies with tutors
Model 4
Direct entry 04 years Senior secondary, None, or Teaching in schools Low
probation college or supervised in normal
university graduates induction employment
Source: Lewin (2004)
The importance of The curriculum of teacher training usually The curriculum must have the flexibility to take
subject knowledge has four components: knowledge of the subjects the trainees prior experiences into account.
that are to be taught, teaching methods,
tends to be
knowledge about how children learn and Consideration should also be given to the people
underestimated, teaching practice. The time allocated to each who train teachers. They tend to be recruited
given that many varies considerably (Lewin, 2004) and the from the ranks of practising, mid-career
trainees lack basic importance of the first, subject knowledge, teachers, and many stay in teacher training until
knowledge tends to be underestimated, given that many retirement, gradually losing contact with
trainees lack basic knowledge. schools.50 This problem is exacerbated by a
preference for secondary-school teachers, who
Findings from the five-country MUSTER project49 are seldom familiar with the realities of primary
suggest that an improved teacher education education. One solution could be short-term
curriculum should have the following aspects appointments of experienced primary teachers
(Lewin, 2004): as teacher trainers.
It should equip trainees with the necessary

Ongoing professional support
49. For details and language fluency and capability to serve the
discussion papers on needs of the school to which they will be posted. Education policy has long put more priority
MUSTER (Multi-site Teacher
Education Research Project), on initial teacher training than on continuing,
carried out between 1998 and
2000 in Ghana, Lesotho, Training material should be locally written in-service education, but this balance is now
Malawi, Trinidad and Tobago
and South Africa, see and produced if externally produced materials changing (OECD, 2004e: 6), both in industrialized
www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/ are scarce or insufficiently relevant. and developing countries (ADEA, 2003: 19).
muster.
Research shows that newly qualified teachers
50. MUSTER found that
teacher trainers were not The curriculum should challenge the trainee require a great deal of support from experienced
often focused on trainees to reflect on his or her own practice. Learning colleagues and the teacher training institution,
needs, lacked links with
schools, could be better to teach means acquiring not only knowledge especially during their first year of practice
managed to play a useful
role in curriculum and skills but also an understanding of learners (Lewin and Stuart, 2003; Lewin, Samuel and
development and
implementation, and could and how they learn, along with repertoires of Sayed, 2003). Their early experiences also
be more effective in providing strategies for dealing with unique and ever- determine to a large extent whether they remain
continuing professional
development and support. changing circumstances. in teaching.

Box 4.11. Best practice in ongoing professional support
Ongoing professional support may include They need to be part of a systemic many staff lack skills will demotivate
study opportunities for teachers, training process of education reform. new staff and discourage them from
workshops, support from in-service They require an incentive structure engaging in continuous learning.
advisers and inspectors, inter-school visits that rewards individuals and promotes They require government to assure the
and peer consultation in teacher clusters. collective improvements in needed financial and other resources.
Such activities have the following performance. Teachers must see the They should focus on a few
characteristics: need to change their practice, be programmes and targets that can show
They require schools to become rewarded if they do so, and appreciate improvement in small ways and be
learning organizations in which teacher the benefits this brings to the school. diffused to more schools.
development activities are geared They should be based on a holistic
Source: Sayed (2001)
towards improving student learning. change strategy bringing other aspects
This means school leadership of education into harmony with
prioritizes learning and harnesses the changes in teacher training and
different capacities of teachers to support. For example, deploying newly
address common learning difficulties. qualified teachers to schools where
Balancing time and money spent on initial (full-time, part-time, day release, residential,
training and ongoing professional support is distance, etc.) and in a variety of locations (in
a critical policy question. One consideration school, at teacher centres and at colleges and
is that primary school teachers tend to have universities). Box 4.11 outlines best practice with
relatively short careers.51 Ongoing professional regard to ongoing professional support. The
development directs more training resources knowledge infrastructure vital to such support The salaries and
towards those who are on the job and likely is discussed below under Support schools, conditions of
to remain so. It also allows for more inform policy.
service offered to
incremental training via several routes
Teachers career perspectives matter. teachers can have a
Professional development does not work if significant impact on
teachers have few promotion opportunities other the composition of
Box 4.12. New career paths than in school administration or the education the profession and
for teachers in South Africa bureaucracy. In Sri Lanka, teachers can qualify the quality of
as in-service advisers who use their
teaching
In April 2003, South Africa established a new professional skills to benefit other teachers
post and salary structure for teachers. This (Malderez, 2002). Box 4.12 describes a South
involves performance-related salary increases African initiative that gives teachers a choice
and two promotion routes for teachers: one in between promotions in teaching and in
teaching and one in management. In the teaching management.
route, one can become a senior education
specialist in schools while staying active as a
teacher. Another option is to become an adviser Teacher earnings
to the Department of Education. The As in all jobs requiring a qualification that
management route incorporates the more
provides access to multiple career paths, the
traditional forms of promotion, such as
salaries and conditions of service offered to 51. Among the possible
promotion to head teacher or official. The explanations of this trend are
opportunities opened up by the teaching route teachers can have a significant impact on the increased attrition rates in
countries with high HIV/AIDS
are seen as an enrichment of the support composition of the profession and the quality prevalence, a tendency in some
of teaching. Teachers salaries and earnings countries to regard primary
structure, enhancing evidence-based practice school teaching as a stepping
in schools and strengthening links between daily prospects, relative to those in other comparable stone to better opportunities in
the education system, and, where
practice and national policy. jobs, can affect the decision by qualified pay and conditions of service for
primary school teachers are
Source: ELRC (2003)
individuals to enter or to remain in the teaching poor, migration to adjacent
profession. They can also affect how hard people countries with better incentives
or switching to more attractive
work at teaching and how motivated they are. occupations.

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164 / CHAPTER 4
Box 4.13. Primary school teachers in Sierra Leone

The ending of Sierra Leones eleven-year civil war in household. In real terms, teachers pay has fallen
2001, along with major changes in education policy by over half since the mid-1990s, while workloads
(including abolition of tuition fees and introduction have increased appreciably, especially for teachers
of universal school meals), led to a dramatic in the infant classes.
expansion of primary school enrolment. The number
Low pay is compounded by very late payment of
of pupils tripled in fewer than four years, while
salaries. Both urban and rural housing conditions
budget constraints led to the pupil/(payroll) teacher
are quite poor. Many urban teachers have to
ratio increasing to 72:1 by 2003 (it had been 32:1 in
commute long distances. Nevertheless, teachers
1992). One consequence is that around 20% of
want to work in urban areas, where they can earn
primary school teachers at government-funded
additional income through private tuition and other
primary schools are not on the public payroll. Many
work. This practice tends to undermine commitment.
are volunteer or community teachers with little or
It has been suggested that some teachers
no professional training, who are paid very little by
deliberately do not teach the full syllabus, thus
their schools. They often account for over half of
forcing students to attend private classes. Even in
the teachers in government primary schools in
rural primary schools, extension classes after the
remote rural areas. Severe crowding in classrooms,
end of the school day are the norm for grades 5 and
combined with lack of basic equipment and teaching
6. The charges for these classes, which supplement
materials, has resulted in the quality of primary
teachers salaries, are a major burden for poorer
schooling being very low.
households and contribute to high dropout rates
Although teachers salaries compare relatively well from these classes.
with those of equivalent occupations in the public
In rural areas the high incidence of poverty makes
service, most primary school teachers live in
it hard for teachers to increase their income much
poverty. The average salary (plus allowances) for
with private tuition. But teachers commonly sell
government primary school teachers in late 2003
cakes and sweets to their pupils during break times,
was US$50 per month. Community teachers at
and pupils frequently work on teachers farms.
government schools earned much less. Community
In some schools the latter activity is actually part
schools have also been established, but rural
of the school timetable.
parents are too poor to contribute much towards
supporting them. At many of these schools, the Despite the growing demoralization, the overall rate
community pays teachers in kind by working on of teacher absenteeism appears to have fallen in
their farms. Their low and usually irregular recent years: it was around 20% in late 2001, when
remuneration raises major questions about the peace was returning to much of the country, and is
sustainability of community schools. now perhaps half that. No reliable information is
available on levels of and trends in teacher attrition,
Primary school teachers are increasingly
but the EFA National Action Plan notes the high
demoralized. Most would leave the profession if
mobility of teachers. Given limited opportunities for
they could. Teachers typically have to maintain
tertiary education, many students opt for teacher
a household of four or five people on a salary of
training courses with little or no intention of taking
less than US$2 a day. Pay levels, even for qualified
up teaching as a lifelong profession.
teachers, are only about one quarter of the cost
of a minimum-needs wage basket for a four-person Source: Bennell (2004)
Teachers
earnings are
often insufficient
All governments face a balancing act. On the insufficient to provide a reasonable standard
to provide a one hand, expenditure on education is often of living. As Box 4.13 illustrates, with the case
reasonable subject to tight fiscal constraints, and teachers of Sierra Leone, salaries may be too low to
standard of living salaries and allowances already typically enable teachers to concentrate fully on their
account for two-thirds (often much more) professional duties, which may encourage
of current public expenditure on education absenteeism, if teachers supplement their
(see Statistical annex, Table 14). Increases in earnings from other sources (Mehrotra and
teachers salaries may not be possible without Buckland, 1998).
sacrificing other important school resources.
On the other hand, particularly in developing Over time, teacher earnings have tended to
countries, teachers earnings are often decline, relative to those of comparable groups.

This is to some extent a natural result of the Table 4.10: Average primary-school teacher salary (ratio to per capita GDP)
global increase in numbers of educated and by world region, 19752000
trained people: the relative scarcity of people (countries with per capita GDP below US$2,000 in 1993)
potentially able to join the profession has
1975 1985 1992 2000
lessened. Similarly, progress towards
All countries with per capita GDP 6.6 4.6 4.3 3.7
universal provision has limited the ability of below US$2 000
governments to increase real average salary
Africa 8.6 6.3 6.0 4.4
levels regularly. Table 4.10 shows the trend in English speaking 4.4 3.5 3.6 4.2
average primary school teachers salaries in French speaking 11.5 8.0 6.3 4.8
developing countries from 1975 to 2000 in Sahel 17.6 11.8 8.2 6.4
relation to per capita GDP. They began the
Asia 3.7 2.7 2.5 2.9
period more than six times as high as per Latin America 2.7 2.9 2.3 2.3
capita GDP, but by the turn of the century the Middle-East and North Africa 5.6 2.8 3.3 3.3
ratio had been nearly halved. The decline was Source: Mingat (2002)
particularly marked in Africa, especially in the
French-speaking countries and in those of the
Sahel, where the ratio fell to around one-third
of its former level. It is not insignificant that the incomes are similar between these states.
countries where salary ratios are among the It seems, then, that there may be room for
highest are also those where the coverage of manoeuvre, in many societies, concerning the
primary education systems remains low.52 affordability and desirability of improvements
to levels of teachers salaries and conditions
Comparisons with per capita GDP provide of service.
only a rough proxy for the extent to which
teachers feel themselves better off or worse 52. The origins of this differential
Teacher deployment and conditions date back to the colonial period.
off than they were. It is also important to Under Frances colonial policy,
of service the only medium of instruction
establish whether teachers real earnings was French, schools were
secular institutions and teachers
have risen over time. Figure 4.2 indicates that, Practices concerning teacher deployment also were paid the same as their
in a selection of high- and middle-income differ. Some systems are centralized, others metropolitan counterparts. In
countries under British rule,
countries where data is available, teachers devolved to regions, districts or even schools. missionary schools were an
integral part of the education
mainly became better off in real terms over the Certain practices can have a detrimental system and benefited from state
1990s.53 Lower-income countries saw reductions impact on the quality of education. In Ghana, subsidies, and there was no
equivalence between local wages
in real earnings, with falls in excess of 20% in for example, teachers may be posted to rural and those in Britain. Thus British
colonies had more primary
some cases. Data for 19982001 show these schools where they are not fluent in the school coverage at lower cost
than did French colonies (see
patterns continuing, with significant reductions medium of instruction (Hedges, 2002). The Cogneau, 2003).
in real salaries in Indonesia, the Philippines, pull of town and city can distort efforts to
53. In relative terms, however,
Tunisia, Uruguay, Chile, Argentina, Senegal and deploy good teachers to schools in rural areas, teachers salaries declined
between 1994 and 2001 in
the United Republic of Tanzania.54 In much of compounding problems associated with poor fourteen of the nineteen OECD
Africa, teacher earnings were actually lower in living environments and housing shortages in countries where data is available
(see OECD, 2004e: 4).
real terms by 2000 than in 1970; the recent rural areas.
54. The data for the first six
figures are often just the latest manifestation countries are in Siniscalco
of decline.55 To assure equitable allocation of teachers (2004: Figure 7) and those for
Senegal and the United Republic
according to need, a prerequisite is a consistent, of Tanzania, covering the decade
to 2000, are in Lambert
There are also, of course, huge absolute well-defined, honestly executed national (2004: Table 3).
differences in teachers earnings among framework for posting new and experienced 55. See Lambert (2004: Table 3)
countries, due most notably to differences in teachers, to meet the needs of each and every and Colclough (1997, 1991).
standards of living: even after adjustment by school. Deployment cannot be left to individual 56. De Ketele (2004) notes that
a key problem with assuring
purchasing power, real average teacher salaries decisions at local levels.56 In many cases, effective deployment in the
in China are only one-tenth of the average for incentives will be needed to attract teachers developing world is that systems
are often decentralized, with
OECD countries. But even countries at similar to difficult areas. Appropriate incentives can individual districts or schools
making decisions that affect
levels of income pay their teachers differently, as include opportunities for further study, leading national needs. He advocates
centralized systems, though it
can be seen from Figure 4.3. Thus, salaries paid to university degrees or postgraduate studies, may be more appropriate to
in the Philippines are two to three times those and, for remote rural environments, housing develop a national deployment
framework to handle applications
paid in Egypt and Peru, even though per capita or housing subsidies. and appointments.

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166 / CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.2: Real salary index for primary and secondary (language and mathematics) teachers,
selected countries, 1998 or latest available year (1990=100)
200
High-income Upper-middle Lower-middle Low-income
countries income countries income countries countries
175
Real salary index for primary teachers
150
125
100
75
50
25
Austria1
Bermuda2
Cyprus
Finland
Italy2, a
Japan1
Bahrain2
Barbados2
Rep. of Korea
Belize
El Salvador
Thailand
C. A. R.
Honduras
Myanmar
Zambia
200 High-income Upper-middle Lower-middle Low-income
countries income countries income countries countries
175
Real salary index for secondary teachers
150
125
100
75
50
25
Bermuda
Cyprus
Finland3
Italya
Singapore
Barbados
Bahrain
Rep. of Korea
Mauritius
Venezuela
Belize
El Salvador
Philippines
Thailanda
C. A. R.a
Chadb
Honduras3
1. Data are only for pre-primary education Myanmar

2. Data include both pre-primary and primary education
3. Mathematics teachers only
a. Index (1991=100)
b. Index (1992=100)
Source: ILO (2000)
Concern about teachers salaries and condition.57 The survey also noted the scarcity
deployment features crucially in discussions of promotion opportunities, the personal costs
about conditions of service of teachers. In a of furthering professional development through
survey by Voluntary Services Overseas of study, and a lack of transparency and equity in
teachers in Malawi, Zambia and Papua New promotion processes.
57. In some cases, notably in
Guinea (VSO, 2002), three primary concerns
Zambia, female teachers emerged other than low pay. Allowances and Collectively, such conditions help explain why
were adversely affected when
it came to accommodation, incentives were considered insecure, inequitable some teachers leave the profession and many
since the official view was
that they had no need of and often not included in pension plans; payment feel their professional status is undermined.
housing and that their of salaries and allowances was late; and Positive signs are appearing in some countries,
husbands would provide for
them (VSO, 2002). accommodation, where available, was in poor where improved morale and motivation have

Figure 4.3: Mid-career salaries for primary teachers and GDP per capita, 2001
16 000
Thailand2
Malaysia1
14 000
Tunisia2
Chile
12 000
Teachers salaries (PPP US$)
Philipines Argentina
Brazil
10 000
Jamaica Paraguay
8 000
Uruguay3
6 000
Peru1
Egypt
4 000
2 000 Indonesia
0
2 000 4 000 6 000 8 000 10 000 12 000
GNP per capita (PPP US$)
1. Year of reference: 2000

2. Including additional bonuses
3. Salaries for a position of 20 hours per week. Most teachers hold two positions.
Sources: OECD (2003c); OECD/UNESCO database.
resulted from teacher unions having negotiated

with governments for improvements in conditions Box 4.14. Negotiating salaries, careers
of service. As the example in Box 4.14
and professional concerns in Chile
demonstrates, however, it can be a long, time-
consuming process. The emergence of new career structures and a move linking teacher pay to
performance in Chile offers a glimpse of what is possible when dialogue on
education is mature and takes a high road option towards quality objectives.
Developing national teacher policies
Chile adopted a comprehensive career plan, the Estatuto Docente (Teachers
A key challenge for many governments in Statute), following negotiations and broad social dialogue on modifying
meeting the Dakar goals is to assure an teachers salaries and employment conditions. The negotiations took almost
adequate supply of teachers. The magnitude a decade and resulted in three national laws. The first, signed in 1991, regulated
employment conditions and established a common structure for salaries and
of the challenge can be considerable. In sub-
employment stability for teachers employed by local authorities and private
Saharan Africa, for example, ten countries have
schools. In 1995, modifications were made to local educational planning and
net enrolment rates below 60%, fourteen below to labour relations between teachers and employers. In 2001, salary
80% and seven below 95% (see Statistical annex, improvements were agreed and new criteria established that linked progress
Table 5). Many additional teachers will be needed in the teaching profession to assessments and voluntary accreditation.
to achieve UPE, unless dramatic efficiency gains Coupled with these laws is a programme on teacher assessment, featuring
from reduced grade repetition can be achieved. peer assessment, agreed by the Ministry of Education, National Association
Moreover, pupil/teacher ratios exceed 60:1 in of Municipalities and Colegio de Profesores (teachers union). It is part of
several low-enrolment countries and in countries the Teachers Statute. A national teachers network for excellent teaching,
that have seen rapid increases in enrolments called EDUCAR, was also established.
related to EFA programmes. To reduce these Sources: Gajardo and Gmez (2003); Liang (1999); both cited in Ratteree (2004).
ratios requires pro rata increases in the numbers
of teachers. Untrained teachers make up as
much as 40% of the cadre of primary teachers in
some countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Upgrading Faced with this challenge, a number of African
these teachers knowledge and skills creates and South Asian countries have appointed
additional demand for teacher training capacity, parateachers, who are not given full civil-servant
on top of the need for regular initial training. status. Sometimes called volunteers, they are
Box 4.15 shows the extent of this double typically hired for a short-term contract and
challenge in four countries. offered lower wages and other benefits than

2 0 0 5
168 / CHAPTER 4
Box 4.15. Teacher supply and application of the Fast-Track Initiatives Indicative
demand in four African countries Framework59 can be fraught with difficulty.

They may increase the affordability of extending
In Ghana, if the Free Compulsory Universal Basic education to all, yet seriously undermine the
Education programme is to achieve its objectives, quality of schooling by hurting teacher morale.60
the number of additional teachers needed will rise At best, where structural rigidities have
dramatically, to between three and four times the current continued to hold teacher salaries at higher
output of teacher training. In Lesotho, the numbers levels than market principles would otherwise
needed represent as much as five times the historic support, governments need a long-term strategy
output of the conventional initial teacher training system. to tackle them. Sudden shifts in policy are likely
In Malawi, which has adopted a mixed-mode in-service to threaten quality in the short term. Meanwhile,
training system split between colleges and schools in however, many countries can use other means
order to increase output, numbers need to double.
of reducing the burden of salary costs: increases
Projections of teacher demand in South Africa are
in class size, multigrade classes and double
complex, and so is the restructuring of providers.
Nevertheless recent estimates suggest both a shifts can help reduce unit costs if carefully
considerable shortfall in output related to need, and implemented in the right context.
a crisis in supply of willing and qualified applicants.
Sources: Lewin (2002); Akyeampong, Furlong and Lewin (2000);

Lewin et al. (2000); Kunje and Lewin (2000); Sayed (2002); Better schools
Parker (2003); Steele (2003); Crouch and Lewin (2003).
Chapter 2 reviews evidence on what makes a

difference in improving the quality of education in
schools. One important conclusion is that there
The long-term those for which their career-teacher are significant opportunities to improve the ways
sustainability of a counterparts are eligible. In India, as the human and material resources are managed and
discussion of the balskahi teachers in Chapter 2 used in schools, recognizing that the school is
policy maintaining
indicates, a critical feature of success has a complex social institution that operates within
two groups of been the identification and local hiring of well- a wider socio-cultural and political context.
teachers with motivated individuals who are particularly
blatantly unequal suited to their jobs. In the Niger, on the other This section looks at the policy implications
status is hand, where the vast majority of new teachers of approaches to making schools work better.
questionable are now hired on a voluntary basis, teachers It addresses two main issues. First, it examines
unions express outrage over the segmentation how governments can develop policies that place
between civil servants and volunteers. The schools at the forefront of improving education
58. See Lambert (2004) for
further discussion.
long-term sustainability of a policy maintaining quality. Among the countries discussed in
two groups of teachers with blatantly unequal Chapter 2, for example, Egypt defines schools
59. The framework advocates
an optimal ratio between status is questionable. Senegalese experience in terms of being beautiful, clean, developed
average teacher salaries and
per capita GDP of no more suggests that the eventual absorption of and productive, while in Cuba collective
than 3.5. For further volunteer teachers within the civil service ownership of schools is important and in Canada
discussion see Chapter 5 and
UNESCO (2003a: 250). may be difficult to avoid.58 The use of the notion of schools as habitat has gained
60. As noted earlier, low paraprofessionals is not restricted to developing currency. Education policy in these countries
wages drive teachers into countries. In the UK, for example, classroom embodies a sense of what a school should be
higher-status occupations,
and in recent years high levels assistants work alongside experienced and and how it can improve.
of teacher turnover and
absenteeism have become qualified teachers. The UK has begun to
entrenched, particularly in
Africa (UNICEF, 1999c; AfDB, formalize the work of parateachers by offering The second issue is the extent to which
1998). Glewwe, Nauman and training and qualifications for this work. The improving quality requires greater school
Kremer (2003) find that
teachers in Kenya are absent policy challenge that governments face is how autonomy and better leadership. It involves
20% of the time, and even
higher rates are recorded in to support volunteer teachers while ensuring important questions regarding the levels of
Uganda and Madagascar. that the conditions of service of regular teachers authority, responsibility and accountability that
Bernard (1999) notes that
74.2% of the teachers in the are not undermined and that parateachers are should lie with those who work directly in and
PASEC sample in Cameroon
hold a second job. not exploited. with schools. This issue is invariably part of
61. For a broader discussion a wider national debate on decentralization
of decentralization in Moves to reduce average levels of teacher of public services, and so is unlikely to be
education see UNESCO
(2003a). earnings in ways envisaged by a mechanistic resolved within the education sector alone.61

Real improvements require strong group

Promoting better schools
dynamics, teacher empowerment and capacity
As the learner is at the heart of the learning building.
process, so the school is at the centre of the
education system. It is where investments Bottom up processes of education planning
designed to improve the quality of education and curriculum development are most effective.
come together in the teaching and learning
process. Reforms to improve quality should It is clear from the nature of these principles that
give appropriate weight to enabling schools an enabling policy environment is a prerequisite
to improve their own performance. Schools for school-driven school improvement. In many
however, cannot effect meaningful change countries this requires a more proactive way of
without sufficient capacity and considerable looking at schools and at those who work in and As the learner is
ongoing support. The question, then, is how for them. In some industrialized countries, the at the heart of the
to ensure that complex but necessary changes concept of school improvement has been invoked
learning process, so
come about within a well-defined policy as part of reforms designed around nationally
framework designed to develop better schools. agreed student and school performance the school is at
benchmarks. In such circumstances, school the centre of the
The notion of improving a school in its totality, improvement risks being little more than a quick education system
as distinct from strengthening individual inputs fix and expedient response to the demands for
or processes, has gained ground in both the change and the setting of targets by external
industrialized and developing worlds. It finds agencies (Hopkins, 2001). Insufficient attention
expression in many different but related is paid in such cases to the context of the school,
conceptual frameworks. Three examples are to incentives that make a long-term difference
school improvement, which is largely a product and to capacity building.63
of Western discourse and argues that schools
should be significant agents in the management A more authentic form of school improvement
of their own change; whole school development, emphasizes the skills, aspirations and energy
which takes a holistic approach to implementing of those closest to the school, rather than a
systemic changes; and child-friendly schools centrally driven set of prescriptive changes.
a rights-based model that owes much to the It recognizes that teachers and learners can
work of United Nations bodies, especially learn from one another and in so doing improve
UNICEF. All three ideas build on the premise interpersonal relationships and the culture of
that the school should be more central to reform the school. This is a prerequisite for enhancing
and improvement. the nature and quality of learning experiences.64
School improvement Conceived of in this light, school improvement

School improvement has been described as a is a way of designing and providing conditions
branch of the study of educational change.62 that enable teachers, other adults and learners
While school effectiveness research (described to promote and sustain learning among
in Chapter 2) looks at what counts, school themselves within schools. Drawing on the work
improvement considers how to bring about of Hopkins, Table 4.11 shows one school
change. That is its defining characteristic, and improvement framework and the major policy
although there are variations in emphasis and implications derived from it. The implications, 62. See Miles, Saxl and
Lieberman (1998), Hargreaves
focus, a broad set of principles underpins its in the right-hand column, will not be unfamiliar et al. (1998) and Hopkins (2001)
for recent overviews of the
philosophy: to education policy makers: all are objectives literature on school
to which most systems aspire. The particular improvement.
The school should be the focus of education import of the school improvement model is 63. See, for example, work on
performance-based reforms
change strategies. the centrality of learning, learners and learning in the US, New Zealand and
achievement and the focus this gives to school- Australia, which concluded that
no real gains in student
The processes of education change are driven change strategies. performance resulted from
major reforms that neglected to
important. focus on instruction and capacity
building (Leithwood, Jantzi and
Some critics ask whether such an all- Steinbach, 1999).
Schools should be part of, and own attempts encompassing model can be applied systemically
64. See, for example, Barth
at, education reform. where resource constraints exist. Even in more (1990) and Hopkins (2001).

2 0 0 5
170 / CHAPTER 4
Table 4.11: School improvement: policy implications systems can benefit. Perhaps the key message
of the concept for some of the worlds poorest

Strategies Policy implications
countries is that this framework helps people
Focus on student achievement, Keep an unrelenting focus on student think through the actions that are required to
learning and empowerment achievement and learning
Develop curriculum and teaching programmes
make schools part of the process of change.
that are based on what is known about learning How comprehensively it can be applied may be
Develop curriculum and teaching Pay attention to context develop knowledge
unclear, but it provides a basis for analyzing
programmes that are based on about what works and where whether schools can make a significant
what is known about learning Build capacity and strengthen known capacity-
creating components
difference when they are placed at the centre
of a reform model.
Create the conditions and Nurture professional learning communities and
capacity for school improvement provide incentives for teacher and school enquiry
Improve research and dissemination of its Whole school development
results and make it relevant to practitioners
In some developing countries, the approach
Implement focused change Make a commitment to, and allow time for, being adopted for comprehensive projects or
strategies effective implementation
Link pressure and support at all levels of the
national reforms is whole school development
system or reform, which draws on insights generated
Build policy context and external Establish local infrastructure and networks,
by work on the school improvement concept.
support networks supported by good external facilitation Examples include Aga Khan-supported projects
Assure policy coherence
in East African countries and in South Africa, Sri
Source: Hopkins (2001)
Lanka and Ghana (Akyeampong, 2004; and Sayed,
Akyeampong and Ampiah, 2000).
Ghanas Whole School Development Programme

developed countries it has been suggested that is geared to meet the objectives of the
emphasis on school-level change strategies is governments Free Compulsory Universal Basic
65. This is based on Hopkins too time consuming and expensive and is most Education reforms. Increased authority and
(2001), drawing on Dalin
(1994). likely to be effective for schools that already have responsibility are being given to schools,
66. See Akyeampong (2004),
a strong capacity or propensity for change communities and district authorities to improve
World Bank (2004f), (Slavin, 1998). The model has also been criticised the quality of teaching and learning, with a focus
Akyeampong et al. (2000) and
Sayed, Akyeampong and for a lack of attention to broader policy on:
Ampiah (2000). World Bank
(2004f) suggests that school frameworks and the contexts in which they are
participation in whole school developed. As a recent overview of school child-centred practice in the acquisition
development has enhanced
English and mathematics improvement notes, however, although national of literacy, numeracy and problem-solving;
scores.
contexts differ it is unlikely that those concerned community participation in the delivery
67. Sayed, Akyeampong and with education reform in developing countries of education;
Ampiah (2000) found that head
teachers who tried to organize would disagree with all or most of the following school-based in-service teacher training;
on-site teacher development
often lacked resources and/or propositions: participatory planning and resource
had trouble motivating
teachers in the absence of management;
rewards and incentives. Education reform has to work at the level greater efficiency in resource management.
Moreover, although structures
for supporting and training of the school.
teachers, such as district
teacher support teams and A multi-agency approach should support These objectives (Ghana Education Service, 2004)
clusters, had been schools. underpin the strategies shown in Box 4.16.
established, they had not
necessarily developed a set of System linkages should be wide and deep.
activities. Akyeampong (2004)
also discusses challenges Reform itself is a learning process. The programme has given rise to a range of
facing the programme.
A strong vision of reform is needed. positive intermediate developments and shows
68. World Bank (2004f) found A strong focus on classroom practice some signs of affecting the quality of student
that about one-third of
teachers use a student- is needed. learning in Ghana.66 But it is not without its
centred learning approach
and use simulations on a Teachers are learners. challenges. For example, the cascade approach
regular basis, though about Commitment comes from empowerment. to training is not proving as effective as
a fifth of the latter could not
explain them properly. And Both local and central initiatives can work. expected,67 and some doubts have been raised
about one fifth use cues to
help explain difficult words. Parents and communities make a difference.65 about the extent to which there has been a real
In summary, modern methods
are far from unknown, but change in pedagogy in the classroom.68
their use cannot be described If these propositions are accepted, school
as widespread, being utilized
by a minority of teachers. improvement does have insights from which all

Box 4.16. Whole school development in Ghana
Among the strategies in the Whole School To improve the partnership between head
Development Programme in Ghana, three key teachers, teachers and the community, workshops
strategies involve teacher professional development, teach participants how to develop a Whole
school-based action plans and the formation of School Action Plan emphasizing the importance
school clusters.* of this tripartite partnership in addressing
The programme provides support to head teaching and learning needs. Action plans set
teachers and teachers. In-service training follows targets, guide preparation of school budgets and
a cascade model: head teachers and district include plans for ways to involve the community.
school circuit supervisors receive training, then To foster in-service training, the programme
are required to provide training at district and organizes schools in clusters of five to eight
school levels. The training emphasizes child- institutions. The cluster has become the primary
centred pedagogy, effective use of appropriate unit of change for school improvement. Cluster
teaching and learning materials and use of the in-service workshops are intended to provide the
local environment as a learning resource. focus for school improvement activities.
*For details of training and other activities

see Ghana Education Service (1999).
Source: Ghana Education Service (1999)
Nevertheless, the Ghana experience underlines

the value of a long-term school-focused Box 4.17. Child-seeking, child-centred schools
approach to reform that recognizes the
importance of continual capacity building. Roles Rights-based or child-friendly schools not only help children enjoy their
have to be defined clearly and responsibilities right to a good basic education, they also help children learn what they
need to know to face the challenges of the new century; enhance childrens
agreed and accepted. Strong partnerships are
health and well-being; guarantee them safe, protective spaces for learning,
essential: within schools, between the head
free from violence and abuse; raise teacher morale and motivation and
teacher and classroom teachers and between mobilize community support for education.
the school and the local community, with
proactive support from district education A rights-based, child-friendly school has two basic characteristics:
authorities. It is child-seeking, actively identifying excluded children and working
to get them enrolled in school and included in learning. It treats children
Child-friendly schools as subjects with rights and treats the state as under obligation to fulfil
The child-friendly school is a rights-based model these rights. It demonstrates, promotes and helps monitor the rights and
well-being of all children in the community.
that draws its authority from the Convention on
the Rights of the Child. It promotes the view that It is child-centred, acting in childrens best interests so that they may
realize their full potential, and it is concerned both about the whole
good schools should be child-seeking and child-
child (including health, nutritional status and well-being) and about what
centred (Box 4.17).
happens to children in their families and communities before they enter
school and after they leave.
In terms of national policies and programmes,
child-friendly schooling can be a normative goal Source: www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index
and thus a framework for programming and

resource allocation, including for training. For
individual schools and communities it can be
both a goal and a tool for improving quality that is inclusive and protective, is sensitive to
through self-assessment, school planning and gender equity and equality and involves the
management, as well as a way of mobilizing the participation of students, families and
community around education and child rights. communities (Chabbott, 2004). These ideas are
given expression in the Child-Friendly School
The model emphasizes the school as a place Framework (Table 4.12), which is a matrix
providing learning opportunities relevant to life juxtaposing quality-related issues with child-
and livelihood, in a healthy, safe environment related concerns.

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172 / CHAPTER 4
Table 4.12: Child-Friendly School Framework

Child-friendly
issues Inclusive/ Healthy/safe/ Involved with
Quality issues gender-sensitive protective Effective the community
Learners
Content
Teaching/learning processes
Environments
Outcomes
Source: Chabbott (2004)
Several projects around the world are using the strategies as distinct from an analytical tool
framework. A recent overview suggests it is too that sharpens understanding of whether children
early to assess the results; most of the projects are genuinely at the heart of learning processes
are relatively small and baseline data on learning remains to be tested fully. At present, as with
levels and outcomes are insufficient. EFA more generally, it is not surprising if
Nevertheless, some initial evidence suggests governments embrace the concept as a general
that the framework is proving to be valuable in principle but do not as yet apply it in organizing
enabling some policy makers to work through school development and management. Still, its
the implications of decentralization and school- close attention to inclusion, diversity, security,
School-based based management (Chabbott, 2004). health and gender equality make it an important
management framework for overcoming disadvantage and
A study of child-friendly school initiatives in encouraging more effective learning
undoubtedly has
East Asia and the Pacific69 draws four main environments.
an impact on conclusions (Bernard, 2004):
quality, regardless
School autonomy: challenges for
of whether that is The focus on learners, content, teaching and
management and leadership
its ultimate goal learning processes, environments and outcomes
remains fundamental to the definition and One implication of reforms driven by school
realization of child-friendly schools, but flexibility improvement, however interpreted and applied,
is the key to implementation. is greater school autonomy. Such reforms are
usually associated with decentralization. School-
The concept of the child-friendly school may based management and leadership are crucial
be desirable in principle but it is difficult to aspects of any reform strategy in which control
maintain in practice. and responsibility are devolved.
Single initiatives cannot be sustained in isolation. School-based management70

They must build on existing systems and work In school-based management, responsibilities
with like-minded activities and partners. are transferred from central level to
69. The countries involved
are Cambodia, China, professionals within the school (generally the
Indonesia, Mongolia, The concept has the potential to offer an entry head teacher and senior teachers) and greater
Myanmar, the Philippines,
Thailand, Vanuatu and point for addressing school level and systemic authority is given to elected school boards
Viet Nam.
issues, but it requires a proactive, creative representing parents and the wider community.
70. This sub-section mainly approach. The concept is of increasing significance
draws on de Grauwe (2004)
a background paper worldwide and undoubtedly has an impact on
prepared for this report.
School-based management This study seems to suggest that the extent to quality, regardless of whether that is its ultimate
is often used interchangeably
with the terms school based which the concept of child-friendly schools goal (Caldwell, 1998).
governance, school self- provides an overarching framework for
management and school site
management. implementation of national policies and

Box 4.18. School-based management and better learning
In Israel, greater school autonomy has had a positive impact The results of the OECDs Programme for International
on teachers motivation and sense of commitment and on Student Assessment (PISA) in 2000 suggests that in those
schools achievement orientation, but only 4% of the countries in which principals report, on average, a higher
variance in the effectiveness between autonomous and less degree of school autonomy with regard to choice of courses,
autonomous schools could be explained by school-based the average performance in reading literacy tends to be
management. significantly higher. The picture is similar, though less
pronounced, for other aspects of school autonomy, including
Autonomous schools in Nicaragua, most of which serve
the relationship between mean performance and the degree
deprived areas, have results as good as other schools. This
of school autonomy in budget allocation. The OECD warns,
positive finding is related to their relative autonomy in staff
however, against a cause-effect interpretation, since, for
selection and staff monitoring.
example, school autonomy and performance could well be
El Salvadors Community Managed Schools Programme, or mutually reinforcing or influenced by other factors.
EDUCO, gives communities significant authority over schools,
Studies in New Zealand and in several countries of West
including in finance and staffing. An early evaluation found
Africa found that, in general, school-based management
that enhanced community and parental involvement
led to few changes in pedagogical practices.
improved students language skills and diminished
absenteeism, which could have long-term effects on Sources: Israel: Gaziel (1998); Nicaragua: King and Ozler (1998);
achievement. El Salvador: Jiminez and Sawada (1998); PISA: OECD (2004c);
New Zealand and West Africa: de Grauwe (2004).
Some commentators see it as a means of In themselves, these benefits do not lead to better Schools need
improving quality even when that is not the quality. A recent macro study of school-based information on
primary focus.71 Others72 express concern that management, drawing on eighty-three empirical
their performance
introducing school-based management nationally studies, concludes: There is virtually no firm,
can hurt the performance of weak schools where research-based knowledge about the direct or so as to identify
resource management capacity is most limited. indirect effects of school based management on their strengths,
Most, however, say there is simply not enough students[T]he little research-based evidence weaknesses and
evidence-based knowledge about the direct or that does exist suggest[s] that the effects on priorities, in
indirect impact of school-based management students are just as likely to be negative as motivating rather
on learning outcomes.73 positive (Leithwood and Menzies, 1998).74
than demotivating
Studies from several countries give some, if not
The main arguments made for greater school total, support to this conclusion (Box 4.18). ways
autonomy are compelling and include the ideas
that it is: These potentially dispiriting findings lead
naturally to the question of what strategies and
more democratic, allowing teachers and actions need to accompany the introduction of
parents to take school-based decisions; school-based management for quality to be
improved, or at least not threatened. The
more relevant, since decision-making powers literature to date has identified at least six main
are closer to where problems are experienced, requirements:
leading to more appropriate and relevant policies; 71. See, for instance, Gaziel
(1998), Williams et al. (1997), King
School-based management must be and Ozler (1998), Jimenez and
Sawada (1998) and OECD (2004c).
less bureaucratic, since decisions are taken accompanied by strategies to strengthen
more quickly; capacities and leadership (see below). 72. For example, Odden and
Busch (1998), Asian Network
of Research and Training
Institutions in Educational
more accountable, as allowing schools and Schools need information on their performance Planning (forthcoming) and
teachers a greater say in decisions implies so as to identify their strengths, weaknesses and de Grauwe (2004).
greater responsibility for their performance; priorities, in motivating rather than demotivating 73. See, for instance, Leithwood
and Menzies (1998), Fullan and
ways. This requires capacity building on basic Watson (2000) and Caldwell
(1998).
more likely to yield additional resources, data analysis and support on school
especially where giving parents a say in school improvement strategies. The role of local and 74. Caldwell (1998) and Fullan
(1993) arrive at similar
management encourages them to contribute to it. district offices is key. conclusions.

2 0 0 5
174 / CHAPTER 4
Schools need professional, well-managed capacities, the impact of school autonomy on the
structures offering constant support. quality of education may be limited. Where the
capacity of schools and governments alike is
Central authorities must continue to play a extremely weak, the main priority may be for
critical role, especially in monitoring school central government to ensure that all schools
performance for any patterns of low quality have a minimum level of key resources
and inequality. teachers, learning materials and infrastructure.
Giving schools freedom to develop some of their
Schools need control over resources. own solutions may nevertheless be appropriate
where communities are strong and NGOs active,
School-based management must be but whether it is a long-term, sustainable grass-
transparent. roots option is more doubtful. As the examples of
countries cited in Chapter 2 suggest, greater
Also required are strong accountability autonomy may work best when education
mechanisms. At the national level, these are systems have basic infrastructure and capacities
likely to include curriculum guidelines, regular in place. Otherwise the absence of an efficient,
national examinations and audits to assure supportive state structure is risky, not only for
propriety in expenditure. At the local level, too, individual schools but also for the system as a
the effectiveness of school-based management whole, with a threat of increasing disparities in
depends strongly on the accountability the school performance. For real benefits to accrue, greater
feels towards the community, as well as the school autonomy must be accompanied by
Evidence from influence the community can exercise on the strategies to build the capacities of schools, head
New Zealand and school through knowledge and skills, power, teachers and communities, inspired by a focus
information and rewards (Lawler, 1986). More on quality improvement and concern for equity.
Australia
concretely, the community generally exercises
shows under- its influence through involvement in the school School leadership76
representation of board or council. The precise powers of such The preceding sections on school improvement,
minority groups in bodies vary. In Australia and the USA, for and the school effectiveness literature cited in
the composition of instance, boards can play a positive role in Chapter 2, point clearly to the importance of
school boards recruitment of principals/head teachers, in some strong educational leadership in improving
budgetary decisions and in extra-curricular learning outcomes and creating a culture of
matters. But constructive engagement is not school development. In both cases, leadership
always present; at worst, boards provide is seen in terms of transformation rather than
opportunities for misuse of community control or maintenance. Thus, the ability of
resources, and transparency may be lacking schools to improve teaching and learning can
especially in the use of funds.75 In addition, depend significantly on the quality of the
communities are far from homogeneous. Elites professional leadership provided by senior school
can manipulate boards to reinforce their power. staff and, to a certain extent, by people from
Evidence from New Zealand and Australia shows outside of day-to-day school operations.
under-representation of minority groups in the
composition of school boards (de Grauwe, 2004). In many industrialized countries, recognition of
the importance of developing leadership skills is
75. Research by UNESCOs Tensions may exist within schools, too. Putting reflected in specialized institutions and research
International Institute for
Educational Planning (IIEP) school budgets in the hands of communities programmes such as the National College for
on school functioning in a
context of decentralization in can be unpopular with teachers, as was the case, School Leadership in the United Kingdom, the
West Africa shows that for instance, in some districts of India and with proposed National Institute for Quality Teaching
parents and teachers have
scarcely any knowledge or EDUCO schools in El Salvador (Jimenez and and School Leadership in Australia and the
control of the use of the
money paid for childrens Sawada, 1998). And while head teachers may international research project on Successful
schooling. Thus, where support in-school supervision, teachers may be School Leadership at the Ontario Institute for
accountability at local and
central level is weak, school- more antagonistic. Studies in Education at the University of Toronto,
based management is
unlikely to lead to better use Canada.
of funds (de Grauwe, 2004).
These significant challenges suggest that without
76. This sub-section draws major government undertakings for systemic Building capacity for school leadership
largely on the background
paper by de Grauwe (2004). reform to strengthen individual and institutional systemically and sustainably is much more

difficult in education systems with limited teachers that are linked to a wider reform
resources available for professional agenda, even where major programmes of
development.77 Few senior staff members in decentralization and delegation of authority to
such systems can be classified as well-trained schools are under way. And few ministries of
professionals. They are often classroom teachers education have one of the chief prerequisites for
who have been promoted near the end of their drawing up a professional development strategy:
teaching careers. Selection and recruitment a national or district profile of head teachers,
practices may favour long service, convey a deputies, and teachers with school leadership
gender bias and take account of factors potential.
extraneous to the demands of school leadership.
Professional development opportunities are often At a minimum, clarity on the following issues
limited in coverage, and in highly aid-dependent is needed:
countries they may be associated with donor-
supported projects whose methods may not what is expected and required of existing
mesh well with the practice of national systems. head teachers; what their areas of autonomy
and levels of accountability are and what the
The trend towards greater school autonomy roles and responsibilities are of decision-makers Good school
and school-based management has significant in the school and community; leadership is about
implications for head teachers in terms of their
transforming
workload, the nature of their responsibilities and what head teachers, especially those newly
the skills and knowledge required to fulfil new appointed and/or isolated, can rightfully expect feelings, attitudes
and more complex roles. Good school leadership from local and national support structures; and beliefs, as well
is about transforming feelings, attitudes and as practice, to
beliefs, as well as practice, to improve the recruitment and selection procedures, improve the culture
culture of the school (Hopkins, 2001); promoting including mechanisms for early identification of of the school
teacher behaviour that focuses on a broad potential head teachers and, preferably, a system
spectrum of learning outcomes (Leithwood, of mentoring by practising head teachers;
Jantzi and Steinbach, 1999) and building close
working relationships with all stakeholders career paths through regular professional
parents, teachers, learners. But for head development opportunities and in-service
teachers working in relatively isolated, poorly training;
supported schools with resource constraints, the
motivation and incentive to become an innovative the importance of learning from one another
pedagogical leader and a proactive, participatory in school- and cluster-based activities, through
manager may be severely limited. Indeed, mutual support systems, including shared use
pressure to fulfil new roles without support may of self-learning modules and materials.
be a disincentive to becoming or remaining a
head teacher. Some countries have elements of this menu in
place. In the Republic of Korea, recruitment
In both developing and developed countries, the patterns have been changed to attract younger
demands that reforms place on senior school candidates and some school communities have
staff may limit the time and the energy they can been given a say in the selection of head
give for quality improvement (Leithwood and teachers. In Sri Lanka, a school-based
Menzies, 1998). Many new management tasks, management policy has redesigned areas of
especially those concerning financing and responsibility at different management levels,
staffing, are complex. Studies covering four including that of head teacher. In Malaysia, a
OECD countries found that administrators were system of early identification of promising future
troubled by ethical dilemmasand some head teachers includes training and mentoring
reported an increase in the frequency with which by practising head teachers. In Senegal, which
they were confronted with difficult decisions in has no nationally organised support systems,
recent years (Dempster, 2000). school directors on their own initiative have set
77. Some significant
up groups to share experience and advice developments in this regard,
What can be done? Few countries have explicit through visits and seminars to which they all such as the PRISM project in
Kenya (discussed later), are
policies on the professional development of head contribute. emerging, however.

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176 / CHAPTER 4
A recent overview of seventeen school Multi-shift schooling is an option in such

improvement programmes in sub-Saharan situations. It is a way of increasing the supply

Africa found twelve with school leadership of school places by using existing resources
components (ADEA, 2003). The Primary School efficiently. Double or even triple shifts make it
Management Programme in Kenya, known as possible for a single set of buildings, facilities,
PRISM, has undertaken school management books and teachers to serve many more pupils
competency development activities for and thus meet increased demand for schooling
16,700 primary school head teachers. Drawing and for greater equity in the provision of primary
on local resources and communities, it came education. Multi-shift schooling may also provide
up with a sustainable approach to school opportunities for disadvantaged children to go
improvement. Head teacher support groups, led to school. For example, children in work may be
by zone inspectors, were the key development able to attend only in the morning or afternoon
mechanism. Evaluations of PRISM reveal that and still follow a complete curriculum.
these groups have a positive impact on several
indicatorsincluding school governance; student Multi-shift schooling places enormous pressure
participation and achievement; admission and on those charged with managing and leading
retention rates; parent and community schools, and this has significant implications
participation in school life and activities; for the quality of education. However, it can bring
gender equity in access; parental financial benefits. For example, in areas where access
contributions; instructional leadership by school is not a major issue, multi-shifting may help
Multi-shift headsand the design and implementation improve quality by significantly reducing class
schooling of teacher development activities by school size and thereby alleviating pressure on school
heads (Weva, 2003b). facilities. On the other hand, quality is clearly
may provide
threatened if instruction time is severely
opportunities for School-based leadership is unlikely to be curtailed and/or condensed. And, depending on
disadvantaged achieved by formal training alone, although how they are deployed, teachers may be
children to go acquisition of new skills and knowledge is overworked and tired. These drawbacks are not
to school clearly important. South Africa has begun always serious, however; indeed, some research
introducing a policy framework for Education has indicated that academic achievement in
Management and Leadership Development to double-shift schools may be just as high as in
develop national and provincial institutional single-shift schools, and administrators with
focal points for management development, imagination may find ways to get round the
build strong networks of professional and problems of shorter school days and congested
community associations, establish quality school compounds.78
assurance practices, use existing resources
as much as possible and develop more cost- Like many strategies for reconciling tensions
effective training methodologies (South Africa between access and quality in education, multi-
Department of Education, 2004). This broad- shifting is most effective when tailored to a
based approach suggests that effective school specific context. Variations on the concept range
leadership flourishes where there are positive from choices between overlapping and end-on
working conditions, incentives for change, a shifts to changes in the length of the school week
collegial environment and strong partnerships and rotation systems in which classes might
between schools and communities. alternate by day, week or month. The brief
examples in Box 4.19 illustrate this variety.
Multi-shift schooling
Nevertheless, school managers and supervisors
The previous sections draw on analyses of and local authorities cannot simply assume that
schools that conform to a broadly standard multi-shift systems will operate cost-effectively.
model. In many resource-constrained countries, Efficient operation requires attention to the
however, organizing schooling means making model that is to be used and the management
difficult decisions about how to maximize scarce structures that are needed (as well as their
78. For an extended
examination of shift resources, especially where primary school implications for recruitment and training), along
schooling and its enrolment has risen rapidly but new funding with meticulous scheduling to assure efficient
implications for quality,
see Bray (2000). has not. use of the school day. Learning at home and

Box 4.19. Organizing the school day in multi-shift systems
Sabelas Maret is a secondary school in Indonesia. In Bangladesh, grades 1 and 2 are taught in the
With overlapping shifts and efficient scheduling, the morning and grades 3, 4 and 5 in the afternoon.
school expanded its enrolment by 25% without
In Puerto Rico, elementary-level pupils are
major changes to the learning process.
accommodated in the morning and intermediate-
In Hong Kong, different teachers teach morning level pupils in the afternoon. Some schools are used
and afternoon sessions. by children during the day and by adults at night.
In Senegal, which is short of qualified teachers, Source: Bray (2000)

the same teachers are used for multiple shifts.
Some teachers welcome this, as it enables them to
increase their earnings.
better use of community facilities can also benefit from knowledge drawn from local National, regional
support multi-shift schooling. experiences and innovations, using it to inform and global policy
their understanding of the strategies needed to
networks can
improve teaching and learning.
Conclusion benefit from local
Making schools work better is not easy, but is at There is merit in seeing the institutions and experiences and
the heart of the educational enterprise. It is bodies involved in these two functions innovations, to
important to have a vision of what a good school supporting schools and informing policy as part inform their
is. Greater autonomy can make a difference if of a knowledge infrastructure79 (Hoppers, 2004) strategies
schools are well supported. Leadership is that contributes to the production and use of
critical, whether in the context of greater school professional knowledge (Hargreaves, 2000).
autonomy or not. This view stresses the generation, mediation
and dissemination of educational knowledge in
such a way that it is useful for teachers, school
Support schools, inform policy managers and policy makers.
Better teachers and better schools are essential The elements of this infrastructure can be
ingredients of the enabling environment that conceptualized in two ways. First, they can be
contributes to improving the quality of teaching seen as a set of institutions and bodies established
and learning (Figure 4.1). A third enabling specifically to provide direct professional support
component is professional support for teachers to schools. They include school advisory services,
and schools, and, more broadly, the circulation of teacher resource centres, school clusters,
knowledge and experience among all major counsellors and school inspectors (in their
education stakeholders. advisory and reporting functions). The second
understanding is broader and concerns upward
Like any other learning organization, schools and downward flows of knowledge, mediated by
need to reflect constantly on their activities and those who generate and disseminate outcomes
improve their performance. To do so, they must of research on how to improve teaching and
have regular access to evidence-based, practical learning, whether for application in schools or to
knowledge about what works best in classrooms. inform policy development. These actors include
Professional support to schools and teachers is universities, research institutes, teacher training
therefore vital. Services that offer advice, colleges and curriculum development centres.
promote developmental activity and manage in- They may also include teachers unions, head 79. In this context, this term
is preferred to the somewhat
service training have to be responsive to issues teachers associations and community-based narrower concept educational
research and development used
that are specific to schools, especially in organizations providing professional support by the OECD (2004b). In addition
to research and development,
resource-constrained systems where the need or generating knowledge. International the notion of knowledge
for support is often most critical. National, organizations and networks may also make infrastructure includes training,
advisory work and quality
regional and global policy networks can also important contributions. assurance.

2 0 0 5
178 / CHAPTER 4
In reality, these two dimensions are interlinked. Box 4.20. Teacher resource centres
A well-functioning knowledge infrastructure will

support the development of a culture that Teacher resource centres (TRCs) offer in-service
encourages cooperation, sharing of knowledge training, develop and provide resources for
and experience and, eventually, evidence-based teaching and enhance the exchange of ideas
classroom practice, school management and among teachers. They are often integrated in
policy development. Common understandings at school cluster systems and linked to institutions
Common various levels of the education system enhance responsible for supervision or teacher education.
mutual learning and strengthen the coherence In-service training is often provided through the
understandings at cascade model in which, for instance, head
between national policy and local practice.
various levels of teachers are trained and then train teachers.
the education Keeping in mind the interplay between The primary aim is improving pedagogy. Studies
system enhance in some countries, however, show only a limited
institutions of professional support and less
impact on classroom practice from this type of
mutual learning tangible knowledge processes, this section in-service training, raising questions about how
and strengthen the addresses five major components of the appropriate one-way knowledge transfer is as a
coherence knowledge infrastructure: advisory work, mode of professional development. The
training, developmental activities, research experience of early forms of TRCs in African
between national
and quality assurance. Understanding the countries indicates that such centres may be
policy and local interrelations between these functions and more successful when they are given greater
practice assuring some consistency and coherence pedagogical autonomy. TRCs can be effective
throughout is a key step in strengthening the when they facilitate knowledge development at
capacity of the education knowledge the classroom level and encourage knowledge
sharing among teachers, managers, advisors and
infrastructure and increasing the benefits that
inspectors.
flow from it.
Sources: De Grauwe (2001); Knamiller (1999); Hoppers (1998);
de Grauwe and Carron (undated).
Advising teachers
Advising teachers and schools is an essential
activity of professional support and guidance.
Advisers should be able to translate the teachers and administrators at local level
knowledge available from research, local (Hoppers, 2004). Training and formal recognition
experience, ministry directives and the like into a may be as important as material rewards in
form that will benefit schools and their teachers. promoting this form of pedagogical leadership
Increasing school autonomy makes this function (Chelu and Mbulwe, 1994).
even more important, since more autonomous
schools will need more customized knowledge.
In-service training
Such outreach to schools, where it exists, is
usually in the hands of advisors and managers Earlier sections of this chapter discuss the
operating at regional or district level or even professional development of teachers and school
closer to schools, with NGOs and for-profit leaders, both pre-service and in-service. Here we
organizations increasingly becoming active in take another look at in-service training, focusing
the field (Hoppers, 2004). In addition, teachers on its importance as a vehicle for the
centres or teacher resource centres (Box 4.20), transmission of knowledge regarding good
operating at intermediate and/or local levels, practice and on its synergies with other functions
have become important elements of the teachers of the support structure.
support infrastructure in many countries.
Here, too, one can see a transition from a more
A more informal type of advisory work is carried traditional institutional model to a variety of
out by selected teachers, usually referred to as arrangements involving several stakeholders,
resource or staff development coordinators, including schools themselves. An emerging view
change agents or leader teachers. Often is of the school as a professional learning
informally appointed by school administrators or community where staff development involves not
80. See also Aspland and local authorities, they advise schools or networks only formal off-the-job training but also peer
Brown (1993) and ERNWACA
(2003). of schools, thus enhancing cooperation between coaching and action research (Hopkins, 2001).80

As noted earlier, pre-service training increasingly

Developing curricula
tends to involve new pathways into teaching.
Partly inspired by pedagogical insights but also In most developing countries, ministries take
influenced by teacher shortage and limited direct responsibility for the development of
resources, low-income and industrialized countries curricula, content and assessment instruments,
alike are showing a growing interest in work- sometimes supported by ministerial committees,
based learning for teachers and in appointing as in South Africa (Hoppers, 2004). This model
trainee teachers or apprentices as classroom reflects a relatively high degree of centralization.
assistants.81 Their further development into In some circumstances it is susceptible to
professionals then takes place partly on the job, political influence on content. Ministries in
with training institutions playing an important countries with more decentralized systems have In South Africa,
supportive role and the trainees learning from outsourced these functions and in some cases schools link up with
closer contact with teachers workplaces. partly privatized them82 (Kloprogge et al., 1995),
universities, NGOs
with schools free to choose the types of support
Experience in Cuba demonstrates that such they want. and provincial
arrangements are by no means limited to rich Departments of
countries (Box 4.21). The costs of freeing up the In Finland, greater school autonomy has led to Education
time of teachers, principals and consultants can the development of horizontal networks of
be offset by the benefits of greater synergies schools, combined with assistance from
between schools and supporting institutions. specialized experts (Hopkins, 2001, citing Fullan,
Moreover, collaborating with schools rather than 2000; UNESCO, 2003a).83 The Senegalese
individual teachers makes it possible to look at Collectifs des Directeurs work on a similar
school development in its totality (Hopkins, principle (Niane, 2004), while Cuba is noteworthy
Ainscow and West, 1994). This is also the for the concerted way in which actors at all levels
background to the whole school movement are engaged in continuous school improvement 81. For instance, the Bangladesh
Rural Advancement Committee
(see Better schools, above) in South Africa, as Box 4.21 already illustrated. (BRAC) carries out initial training
of teachers in as little as 12 days
where schools link up with universities, NGOs but provides well-organized
and provincial Departments of Education. Participatory curriculum development (PCD) is a ongoing support and weekly
supervision. The level of pupil
further example of developmental work involving achievement in BRAC schools is
generally better than in schools
local stakeholders. It suggests that, since in the formal system (Latif, 2004).
Systems in industrialized
successful use of the national curriculum in countries may use teacher
Box 4.21. Cuba: school improvement schools depends on the capacity, motivation and shortages as an argument for
shorter, more flexible pre-service
as a collective effort commitment of those who teach and directly training but pedagogical
considerations also play a role
support schools, the participation of these actors (see, for instance, OECD, 2003b).
in curriculum development can reap learning Citing studies in developing
Cubas national curriculum continually undergoes countries, ADEA (2003) advises
reform and adaptation to respond to local dividends (McLaughlin, 1987; cited in Weva, against lengthy pre-service
training; it recommends
realities. Teachers and students take an active 2003a). An example from the Gambia illustrates continuous professional
development in close interaction
role and support the school in producing learning PCD at work (Box 4.22). with teacher resource centres
materials. Teachers exchange experience on (for example) and making good
use of information and
teaching methods and materials in colectivos PCD has its critics. As the example from communications technology.
pedaggicos, which are organized by subject; the Gambia suggests, it is not without costs, 82. Privatization does not
each collective is supported by an expert in especially if there is a significant initial necessarily exclude sustained
subsidization, either direct or
methodology. Every teacher is expected to carry investment in establishing networks, systems via schools. In the latter case,
out applied research, and the best results are schools receive funds to buy
and structures. Proponents argue, however, developmental services on a
shared at municipal education conferences. more or less free market.
that the long-term benefits outweigh the costs
Specialized institutes guide the research. Strong
links with the community are assured through and that the latter gradually decrease as the 83. The Finnish approach is
based on the idea that it is
home visits by teachers, homework sessions by pool of skilled people grows and learning possible for the school with its
support networks to create
students (three times per week) and mass materials are put to use (Taylor, 2004; Helvetas, visions of the future, (and to)
2002). Perhaps the critical point for most reinforce (the) morals and (the)
gatherings and other participatory activities. know how, which man (sic) needs
Both pre- and in-service training (lasting five and resource-constrained systems is that this as a member of society. (Finland
National Board of Education,
six years, respectively) are school-based, assuring approach has benefits where there is already 1996). Accordingly, Finland has
links between schools and training institutions. opted for curriculum planning
a clear, well-defined national core curriculum and implementation at the school
Source: Gasperini (2000) on which to build. level, which has important
implications for the support
structure (ibid.).

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180 / CHAPTER 4
Box 4.22. English-language curriculum development in the Gambia

A participatory curriculum development approach was teacher participation in writers workshops, where they
applied in the Gambia in the development of English- produced pupils books and teachers guides.
language teaching in primary schools. The following steps
The engagement of stakeholders throughout the process
were critical:
resulted in a high degree of interest, especially from
a small awareness raising workshop on the PCD teachers, in the development of the curriculum. Those
approach, involving key stakeholders and resulting in involved agreed and followed a work plan. The main
an action plan for the curriculum development process; challenges included:
stakeholder analysis, followed by individual meetings dealing with regular turnover of staff;
with key individuals, focusing on their roles and their
getting people together for key events;
views on the current curriculum;
a need to build educational and pedagogical abilities and
a wider survey of stakeholders (teachers, parents,
capacities, and reluctance by some participants to admit
employers) from schools around the country;
to this need;
development of a thematic, child-centred approach to
belated recognition of the need to engage more with
the new curriculum, integrating appropriate teaching
learners and parents;
and learning methods and materials into the content,
and elaboration of a general outline through a difficulty in processing the large needs survey; a smaller
departmental workshop, after which panels of serving sample survey would have been equally effective.
teachers worked to develop the detailed curriculum; Source: Taylor (2004)
At subregional level, member states of the

Research
Southern African Development Community
A radical approach Generating knowledge about education has (SADC) have started the Education Policy Support
to addressing the traditionally been the mission of universities and Initiative to review one anothers educational
national institutes for education research. Such knowledge bases, in order to inform future
issue of relevance
institutions traditionally investigate the practice research (Hoppers, 2004).84 Another international
and applicability of of teaching and learning on the ground, combine mechanism is the OECD Education Committee,
research involves the findings with existing bodies of knowledge where member states negotiate a common
changing the very and disseminate the results to the academic agenda of activities in the areas of research,
nature of research world, policy makers and, more rarely, directly policy review and indicator development.
to schools, teachers and/or intermediate
organizations. A fundamental problem in this A more radical approach to addressing the issue
paradigm is that knowledge generated in one of relevance and applicability of research involves
context may have limited application elsewhere. changing the very nature of research.
The problem exists both within developing Increasingly, practitioners recognize the value
84. For further information, countries (Hoppers, 2001) and within of reflecting on their own work and exchanging
see www.sadceducation.com
industrialized countries (OECD, 2004b), but experiences in circles of peers that operate in
85. Gibbons et al. (1994) it is exacerbated when the existence of an comparable circumstances.85 Action research
conceptualize such forms of
interaction as Mode 2 international state of practice is suggested is a more specific form of knowledge creation
knowledge production
knowledge that is generated (Samoff, 1993) and is transferred by researchers at grass-roots level, serving both to improve
in the context of its
application, possibly and consultants from a Northern context to education directly and to feed outcomes upward
unintentionally and often countries in the South. To enhance the relevance in the national policy process (Van Graan et al.,
by practitioners themselves.
As traditional research of education research, some countries have 2003). Central to these approaches is the aim of
institutions become aware of
the more experiential forms established bodies bringing together a variety of bridging theory and practice in efforts to enhance
of knowledge production, stakeholders e.g. policy makers, practitioners, the value of education research.
they may develop ways of
interacting with practitioners academics, NGOs and funding agencies.
on the ground to bridge the
gap between traditional and Examples include the Commission on Values
alternative methods. See, Quality assurance
for instance, Taylor and in Education in South Africa and the Primary
Fransman (2004) on Education Development Programme in the Strictly speaking, quality assurance is not an
participatory methods for
effective learning. United Republic of Tanzania (Hoppers, 2004). aspect of providing professional support to

schools or generating knowledge to inform Building support

policy. It is about measuring quality ex post and for systemic reform
holding schools accountable not about
increasing quality ex ante. In practice, however, Starting with the learner, this chapter has looked
it is difficult, if not undesirable, to separate the at how the quality of education can be enhanced
functions of advising schools and informing policy in an operational sense: in the classroom, in and
from the function of controlling them, the more around the school, through professional advice
so because tight inspection and control are and support and through wider application of
essential for success in school improvement evidenced-based knowledge. But as was made
(Hopkins, 2001, citing Dalin, 1994). The advice to clear at the outset (Figure 4.1), any intervention
link pressure and support at all levels in the should be set very firmly within the context of
system (Hopkins, 2001) is supported by various wider education sector policies and frameworks.
authors,86 while Fullan (2000) notes that such Innovation at local level will not in itself give rise
linkage works best when systems of pressure to more improvement in education. Raising the
and support are integrated. quality of education requires a broad, systemic
approach sustained by political support and
For instance, benchmarked school performance backed by sufficient investment to sustain key
indicators not only help inspectors hold schools policy interventions, even if allocations to specific
accountable but should also serve as vital, more improvements are modest.
direct feedback to teachers, helping them identify
their strengths and weaknesses (Hopkins, 2001). However, even assuming that policies and
This scenario gives the inspector something of a budgets are in place, national governments face
hybrid role, sometimes referred to as that of the other significant challenges in implementing 86. Barber (2000), for instance,
promotes the principle of
critical friend. On the one hand, the inspector reforms aimed at improving the quality of maximum challenge, maximum
uses information about school performance to education. Politically, such reforms seem more support in relation to the English
education system.
make comparisons with other schools, to point difficult to pursue than policies to enhance
87. In the United Kingdom,
at good practice and thus to truly support the access (Corrales, 1999: 5). Parents, for instance, Australia and New Zealand, the
school; on the other hand, the inspector needs will immediately note and enjoy a capacity initiative in supervision lies with
schools (self-evaluation). They
to report any failure. Some countries accept or expansion at a nearby school and the abolition must establish School
Development Plans, which
mitigate the resulting tension,87 while others of fees. Improving education takes more time, inform subsequent school-based
reviews by external actors
e.g. Botswana and Namibia avoid it by and although the benefits are considerable (as (Hargreaves and Hopkins, 1994).
allocating the reporting function to a separate Chapter 2 shows), they are also more general, The reviews serve both to provide
feedback to schools and to make
cadre (de Grauwe, 2001). involving effects such as the long-term impact them accountable to the
government and the general
on economic growth, fertility and health and public. There is debate about the
changes in values. Consequently it is often more disclosure of information on
A good investment school performance. Full
difficult to build a strong national alliance of transparency could raise the
pressure on weaker schools to
The development of infrastructure that provides interest groups around quality. But the examples improve but could also lead
parents to avoid these schools,
professional support and generates and of countries where progress is being made resulting in a downward spiral.
mediates knowledge for better learning is suggest that such alliance building is important. Cubas emulation principle
anticipated Barbers maximum
resulting in a general trend towards much challenge, maximum support: it
integrates both extreme pressure
greater interaction at all levels among
Reform strategies (in the form of competition) and
peer support. Cuban teachers
practitioners, experts, inspectors, policy makers seem to receive all the help they
and researchers, accompanied by increased Successful education reforms have been need, yet their careers and even
their salaries may be influenced
mutual learning in networks and a higher level of achieved in rich and poor countries, in by pupils achievement
(Gasperini, 2000).
engagement. Investment in such infrastructure democratic and non-democratic states and
remains low, however. Some commentators under political parties with very different 88. The level of investment in
educational R&D a narrower
attribute this to a certain resistance in the ideologies. Some reforms have been part of concept than the whole
educational knowledge
education field to evidence-based practice broader national reform strategies, while others infrastructure is known for
(Hargreaves, 1999).88 Everything that has been are very specific (Corrales, 1999: 1516). National seven industrialized countries
(Australia, Canada, Finland,
said in this chapter nevertheless indicates that experiences point to a set of promising Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden
and the United Kingdom). The
improving schools and the teaching and learning strategies, summarized in Box 4.23. average for these countries is
0.3% of total educational
that goes on within them requires a culture of expenditure, which is far less
working on the basis of knowledge and evidence Drawing on these broad ideas about reform, this than the comparable figure for
other knowledge intensive
(Hopkins, 2001). section looks at three issues with a direct impact sectors (CERI, 2002).

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182 / CHAPTER 4
Box 4.23. Nine ways to make changes happen

Change requires political initiative, Demand for change needs to be Opposition to change needs to be addressed:
followed by continuous political strengthened:
Incremental implementation may ease the
support through:
Information campaigns can help tensions raised by change, though reform
formation of independent advisory make parents and employers aware then runs a risk of losing momentum.
councils that can sustain the that reform is in their interest. Opponents need to be turned into allies
impetus for reform despite any Stakeholders can be actively through early consultation and adaptation
eventual political change; involved, e.g. teachers, through of plans to address their concerns.
work towards consensus agreement participation in policy development, In some cases, salary increases or other
with opposition political parties; and parents, through participation incentives may need to be given to
linkage of education reform with in school boards. teachers, and the role of their unions
other issues, such as economic As a further step, actors at local better acknowledged.
competitiveness, social cohesion level can be given financial
Sources: Corrales (1999); Chapter 2 (see What determines
and nation building. autonomy. quality? Lessons from eleven countries).
The situation of on whether reforms designed to improve quality shows signs of improving in sub-Saharan Africa,
teachers has will make a difference: partnerships with Central and Eastern Europe, Central Asia and the
teachers, strengthening of accountability and Pacific. It seems to have furthest to go in the
improved
the need to combat corruption. As Box 4.23 Arab States and some Asian countries, despite
considerably in makes clear, this not an exhaustive list, but it significant improvements in particular cases
Latin America illustrates the equilibrium needed in the politics (Ratteree, 2004: 16). But even in the more
with the advent of and practice of education if quality is to have a positive circumstances a shift is needed, from a
more democratic chance. bargaining positioning towards more of a
government proactive partnership that gives more attention
Partnerships with teachers to professional ethics and mutual accountability.
Given the central role of teachers in improving
quality, their involvement as a profession, Nevertheless, there are other ways of motivating
particularly through their unions and and enabling teachers to participate in dialogue
professional associations, is important. We have on reform. Decentralization of authority
already seen how teachers can participate in regarding curricula and pedagogies can broaden
non-teaching activities through work for school the scope for stronger, more direct involvement
councils and governing bodies.89 This type of of teachers at district or local level, although, as
local activity is more common than consultation the experience of Indonesia in the 1990s
at national level on the curriculum, pedagogical revealed, this in itself is not sufficient (Ratteree,
practice or other professional responsibilities. 2004: 11). Box 4.24 shows how stakeholders in
the United Republic of Tanzania discovered that
The extent to which teachers unions or additional measures needed to be taken.
associations can and do negotiate their
employment terms and working conditions varies A key lesson from the Tanzanian experience is
enormously by region and country, as noted that formal communication channels, while
89. Such contributions are
less prominent when earlier in the section on teacher deployment and important, are not enough to incorporate
teachers work in small and conditions of service. Yet, like any other category teachers voices in educational decision making.
isolated rural schools
(Ratteree, 2004). of workers, teachers should benefit from the Extra steps are needed to overcome
90. International Labour minimum international labour standards misunderstandings and bring in the views of local
Office Conventions: Freedom (freedom of association, right to organize and and district union leaders. The capacity of
of Association and Protection
of the Right to Organize, 1948 right to bargain collectively on conditions of teachers organizations for research and for
(No. 87); the Right to
Organize and Collective employment).90 Overall, the situation is most development and defence of policy positions
Bargaining, 1949 (No. 98);
Labour Relations (Public positive in North America and Western Europe. It must be strengthened. A legal and institutional
Service), 1978 (No. 151); the has improved considerably in Latin America with framework to make dialogue predictable and to
Collective Bargaining
Convention, 1981 (No. 154). the advent of more democratic government, and settle any disputes is also needed.

Box 4.24. Involving the Tanzanian Teachers Union in basic education planning
When the United Republic of Tanzania developed its the table its own vision of how the PEDP could be
comprehensive Education Sector Development Plan and implemented. A series of policy dialogue seminars,
Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP), the supported by the ILO and UNESCO, brought together key
government and donors initially thought the Tanzanian government officials and the TTUs top national and
Teachers Union (TTU) was sufficiently involved in the district leadership. The union then changed its approach
process. But the TTU insisted that it was not fully to policy analysis, created a focal point for the poverty
involved in all the technical committees and district-level reduction strategy, expanded its research capacity,
decision making. This difference in perception had to do reflected on its position regarding education and poverty
with the unions limited capacity for response to all the issues, and strengthened its coordination in these areas.
invitations to participate in the process and to bring to
Source: Ratteree (2004)
Countries that are strengthening democracy, as

in Eastern Europe and during the 1990s in South Box 4.25. Bargaining and social dialogue
Africa, face the additional challenge of building a
in South African education
culture of dialogue. Box 4.25 shows how South
Africa set about this task. When its first democratically elected government came to power in 1994,
South Africa began to regularize public sector labour relations and
established the Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council. The
International organizations also have a role to
councils aim is to enhance workers well-being and build sound
play, whether from an international base or
relationships between the state, as an employer, and its employees.
locally, in supporting national bodies. This is far It also provides a forum for negotiations and collective bargaining.
from a universal trend, but change is in the air To accommodate the specific service needs and employment conditions
in the form of a fragile but promising dialogue of various categories in the public service, sector-specific bargaining
involving international financial institutions, frameworks were established, among them the Education Labour Relations
bilateral donors, international teachers Council (ELRC). Teachers unions are represented on a proportional basis
organizations and NGOs. Since 2002, the World corresponding to the percentage of education sector workers they
Bank has stepped up its dialogue with trade represent. Wages and conditions of service are the main bargaining topics
unions. A reflection of these efforts is the review but the parties also discuss the longer-term development of the education
of trade union participation in the Poverty system. They can involve external stakeholders in these discussions in
order to achieve their common goals.
Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) processes
in twenty-three countries (Egulu, 2004). Gaps Source: Ratteree (2004)
in union participation were identified and
suggestions put forward on how to improve not
only the World Bank/International Monetary Fund
partnership with unions but also participation in broadly, by formulating a set of recognized
PRSP development more generally. ethical standards to which everyone should
adhere;
Codes of conduct91
The concept of mutual accountability and the provide self-disciplinary guidelines by
responsibilities that lie with everyone charged establishing norms of professional conduct;
with enabling good-quality education is implicit
in much of the preceding analysis. In some gain community confidence in and support for
countries this concern has resulted in the the teaching profession by emphasizing social
development of professional codes of conduct in responsibilities towards the community.
education. Some deal with the whole education
system while others focus on teachers, but in The codes usually cover issues such as school
general their aims are to: admission policies, management of teachers,
91. This section mainly draws
service conditions of teachers and staff, on Hallak and Poisson (2004a),
a background paper prepared
enhance commitments, dedication and examinations, evaluation and certification for this report. For more
efficiency of service among members of the procedures, and the mobilization and allocation information, see
www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/focus/
teaching profession, and in education more of financial and other resources. etico

2 0 0 5
184 / CHAPTER 4
Usually, ministries of education are responsible It is important to distinguish between graft and
for enforcing the code. Special bodies may have corruption. Graft is a relatively minor form of rule
an advisory role an example is the Ontario breaking, often stemming from force majeur:
Teachers Federation or play a more far- teachers who are sometimes absent because
reaching part, as in the case of the Council of their salaries are so low and irregular that they
Professional Conduct in Education, in Hong needs additional income are not being thoroughly
Kong, which is responsible for ensuring that corrupt. Graft cannot be eliminated by
Several studies teachers comply with professional codes of enforcement alone; better policy and, more
conducted in the practice. Another example is Scotlands General generally, poverty alleviation are required.
Teaching Council a self-regulatory body with
1990s emphasize
the power to cancel a teachers registration. Corruption is not only more severe, it also has a
the negative bigger impact on the quality of learning. Several
influence of Such codes can contribute significantly to the studies conducted in the 1990s emphasize the
corruption on quality of the school environment and hence the negative influence of corruption on economic,
economic, political quality of learning. Moreover, for teaching of political and social development.94 Corruption
and social norms and values to be credible, the school itself increases transaction costs, reduces the
must be a place where honesty is the rule. efficiency and quality of services, distorts the
development
decision-making process and undermines social
In Bangladesh, India and Nepal, codes of conduct values. In education, bribes in teacher
are seen to have a significant positive impact on recruitment and promotion tend to lower the
the commitment, professional behaviour and quality of teachers, and illegal payments
performance of teachers and staff, and to demanded for school entrance, along with other
contribute to a reduction in teacher absenteeism. hidden costs, contribute to low enrolment and
high dropout rates.95 Since such practices affect
Codes of conduct function less well when staff do the poorest most, equity in education is at stake,
not know about or understand them, and where and so is public confidence in the education
complaint procedures are not well known or system.
enforcement capacity is lacking. Some of these
problems can be addressed by simplifying codes While poverty and low salaries are at the roots of
and making them more relevant, by involving graft, the causes of corruption seem less overt.
teachers in their design and implementation They are likely to include monopoly and
so as to assure ownership, by making sure they discretionary power, poor supervision at all
are widely disseminated, by strengthening levels, poor public information on government
mechanisms for dealing with complaints and by decisions and lack of transparency with regard
integrating issues related to professional conduct to foreign aid. The increasingly complex nature
into pre-service and in-service teacher training. of the education sector due to decentralization,
privatization and outsourcing has opened new
Teachers organizations play an active role in opportunities for corrupt behaviour. Corruption
promoting professional ethics. Education Inter- can takes many forms and affect both access
national and its member organizations adopted and quality, as Table 4.13 shows.
92. The Education a declaration on professional ethics in 2001.92
International Declaration on
Professional Ethics was
Its stated objectives are to raise consciousness The most successful three strategies in combating
adopted at the third World about the norms and ethics of the profession, to corruption in education are setting up and
Congress of Education
International in Jomtien, help increase job satisfaction in education, to maintaining regulatory systems, strengthening
Thailand (2529 July 2001).
enhance status and self-esteem and to increase management capacities and increasing
93. See Legur (2003). respect for the profession in communities. ownership of the management process.
94. This section draws
heavily on documents and
discussions from the IIEP Preventing and combating corruption Establishing and maintaining regulatory systems
Expert Workshop on Ethics Implementing policies to improve education is involves adapting legal frameworks to focus
and Corruption in Education
(Paris, 289 November 2001); one thing, assuring compliance is another. If fees them more on corruption (via rewards and
see Hallak and Poisson
(2002). are abolished but other payment is demanded, if penalties), designing clear norms and criteria
95. For further discussion textbooks are supposed to be free but in fact are for procedures (regarding, for instance, fund
on corruption and education, sold at high costs, the learners interests are not allocation or procurement), developing codes of
see Bray (2003), Eckstein
(2003) and Legur (2003). served.93 conduct (discussed above) and defining well-

targeted measures, particularly for fund Table 4.13: The main forms of corruption in the education sector
allocation.
Areas of planning/management involved Corrupt practices
Strengthening management capacities entails Building of schools Fraud in public tendering

Embezzlement
setting up effective control mechanisms against School mapping
fraud, ensuring that regulations are enforced by
Equipment, textbooks, food Fraud in public tendering
increasing institutional capacities, and promoting Embezzlement
ethical behaviour. Circumvention of criteria
Teacher appointment/management Favouritism

Enhancing ownership involves developing Nepotism
Bribes
decentralized, participatory mechanisms,
increasing access to information (particularly Teacher behaviour Ghost teachers
Bribes (for school entrance, assessment, exams, etc.)
via information and communications technology)
and empowering communities to exert stronger Finances Distortion of rules and procedures
Inflation of costs and activities
social control. Opacity of financial flows
Allowances Favouritism
(e.g. fellowships, subsidies) Nepotism
Conclusions Bribes
Circumvention of criteria
The essential conclusions of this chapter are Examinations and diplomas Information selling
Favouritism
largely straightforward. They reflect the Nepotism
framework for improving quality shown in Bribes
Academic fraud
Figure 4.1:96
Information systems Data manipulation
Data selection/censorship
Understand the diverse need of learners,
especially multiple disadvantaged learners. Source: Hallak and Poisson (2004b)
Give priority to where teaching and learning

actually takes place the classroom.
While the list may be straightforward, giving
Support reforms that focus on teaching and it effect is not. Yet, none of these proposals,
learning outcomes: appropriate goals and suggestions or strategies is a purely abstract
relevant content; values as well as skills; idea. All reflect practice in many countries
sufficient and effective instructional time; around the world. Their interpretation,
structured teaching in child-centred classrooms; sequencing and prioritization may vary, but even
assessment for learning improvement. the relatively small store of recorded evidence on
which this Report has drawn demonstrates that
96. A regional exercise along
Get the enabling environment right, with good everything is possible. The scope for improving similar lines is reflected in the
learning materials that are used well by the quality of education is vast and the technical Havana Declaration by Ministers
of Education from Latin America
teachers; a safe, healthy infrastructure; understanding is there. Urgently needed now are and the Caribbean on the Follow-
up Model of the Regional Project
professional, motivated teachers; and well- the political will and the resources to make it for Latin America and the
organised, well-led schools the central happen. Caribbean (PRELAC) Support
Monitoring and Assessment. It
institutions for improving quality. identified five strategic focuses:
education content and practice
enabling construction of
meanings in regard to ourselves,
Build strong professional support systems and others and the world in which we
knowledge infrastructures. live; teachers and strengthening
their participation in education
change so they may better satisfy
student learning needs; culture
Develop and maintain sound, coherent, long- of schools, converting them into
term education sector policies and a nationally participatory learning
communities; management of
owned, financially realistic framework for quality- education systems, making them
more flexible and offering
related reforms. effective lifelong opportunities;
and social responsibility for
education, generating
Address barriers to reform: build partnerships; commitment to its development
and results (UNESCO-Santiago,
develop accountability and combat corruption. 2003).

Public Disclosure Authorized
Document of
The World Bank
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Report No: 60321-BD

PROJECT APPRAISAL DOCUMENT
ON A
PROPOSED CREDIT
IN THE AMOUNT OF
SDR 187.5 MILLION
(US$300 MILLION EQUIVALENT)
TO THE
PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH
FOR A
THIRD PRIMARY EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
June 11, 2011

Human Development Sector

South Asia Region
This document is being made publicly available prior to Board consideration. This does not
imply a presumed outcome. This document may be updated following Board consideration and
the updated document will be made publicly available in accordance with the Banks Policy on
Access to Information.

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS
(Exchange Rate Effective as of May 31, 2010)
Currency Unit = Bangladesh Taka

Tk 73.47 = US$1
US$1.60077 = SDR 1
FISCAL YEAR
July 1 June 30
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ADB Asian Development Bank DPHE Department of Public Health

ADP Annual Development Program Engineering
AFR Annual Fiduciary Review DSM Design, Supervision and Management
AIEC Access and Inclusive Education consultant
Cell/DPE EC European Commission
ASPR Annual Sector Performance Report EETC Expanding Education of Tribal Children
AOP Annual Operational Plan EFA Education for All
AUEO Assistant Upazila Education Officer EHS Education Household Survey
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics ELCG Education Local Consultative sub
BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Education Group
Information System EMF Environmental Management
B. Ed. Bachelor of Education Framework
BNFE Bureau of Non-formal Education EMIS Education Management Information
CAMPE Campaign for Popular Education System
CAS Country Assistance Strategy FPD Finance and Procurement Division
CF Governments Consolidated Fund FY Fiscal Year
CGA Controller General of Accounts GDP Gross Domestic Product
C-in-Ed Certificate in Education GER Gross Enrollment Rate
CIDA Canadian International Development GOB Government of Bangladesh
Agency GPS Government Primary School
CPEIMU Compulsory Primary Education GWG Governance Working Group
Implementation and Monitoring Unit HIES Household Income and Expenditures
Survey
CPTU Central Procurement Technical Unit
HRD Human Resources Development
DEO District Education Officer HSC High School Certificate
Dip-in-Ed Diploma in Education IA Implementation Agency
DFID Department for International iBAS Integrated Budgeting and Accounting
Development (of the United Kingdom) System
DDO Drawing and Disbursement Officer ICB International Competitive Bidding
DG Director General IDA International Development Association
DP Development Partner IFR Interim Financial Report
DPC Development partners Consortium IMSC Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee
DPP Development Proforma Proposal IPP Indigenous Peoples Plan
DPE Directorate of Primary Education IRR Internal Rate of Return
DPEO District Primary Education Office JARM Joint Annual Review Mission
JFA Joint Financing Arrangement

JICA Japan International Cooperation PEFA Public Expenditure and Financial
Agency Accountability
KPI Key Performance Indicators PFM Public Financial Management
LGED Local Government Engineering PLU Program Liaison Unit
Department PMU Program Management Unit
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation PPR Public Procurement Regulations
MDG Millennium Development Goals PRMP Procurement Risk Mitigation Plan
MOPME Ministry of Primary and Mass PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
Education PSC Public Service Commission
MOE Ministry of Education PSQL Primary School Quality Level
MOF Ministry of Finance Indicators
MOHFW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare PTA Parent-Teacher Association
MOPA Ministry of Public Administration PTI Primary Teacher Training Institute
MoU Memorandum of Understanding PTR Pupil/Teacher Ratio
MTBF Medium Term Budgetary Framework R&D Research and Development
MDTF Multi-Donor Trust Fund (for PFM RBM Results- based Management
improvement) RMS Risk Mitigation System
NAPE National Academy of Primary RNGPS Registered non-Government Primary
Education School
NCTB National Curriculum and Textbook ROSC Reaching Out- of- School Children
Board Project
NER Net Enrollment Rate RP Resettlement Plan
NFE Non-Formal Education SBM School-based Management
NGO Non-Government Organization SIDA Swedish International Development
NPRS National Poverty Reduction Strategy Agency
NPV Net Present Value SLIP School Level Improvement Plan
ODCB Organizational Development and SMC School Management Committee
Capacity-Building SMF Social Management Framework
OICR Organizational and Institutional SSC Secondary School Certificate
Capacity Review SWAp Sector/sub-sector-Wide Approach
PAD Project Appraisal Document SPEMP Strengthening Public Expenditure
PBH Program Budget Head Management Program
PCE Primary (Grade 5) Completion Exam TOR Terms of Reference
PCR Primary Completion Rate TST Technical Support Teams
PEC Primary Education Cadre UEO Upazila Education Officer
PECW Primary Education Curriculum UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific
Wing/NCTB and Cultural Organization
PEDP Primary Education Development UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund
Project UPEP Upazila Primary Education Plan
PEDPII Second Primary Education URC Upazila Resource Center
Development Program WFP World Food Program
Vice President: Isabel M. Guerrero

Country Director: Ellen A. Goldstein
Sector Director: Michal Rutkowski
Sector Manager: Amit Dar
Task Team Leader: Susan Opper & Ayesha Vawda

Table of Contents
I. Strategic Context ..................................................................................................................... 1
A. Country Context .................................................................................................................. 1
B. Sectoral and Institutional Context ....................................................................................... 2
C. Higher Level Objectives to which the Project Contributes ................................................ 5
II. Project Development Objectives............................................................................................. 5
A. PDO..................................................................................................................................... 5
B. Program Beneficiaries ......................................................................................................... 5
C. PDO Level Results Indicators ............................................................................................. 5
III. Program Description ............................................................................................................ 6
A. Project Component.............................................................................................................. 6
B. Program Financing .............................................................................................................. 9
C. Lessons Learned and Reflected in the Program Design ................................................... 11
IV. Implementation .................................................................................................................. 12
A. Institutional and Implementation Arrangements .............................................................. 12
B. Results Monitoring and Evaluation .................................................................................. 13
C. Sustainability..................................................................................................................... 14
V. Key Risks and Mitigation Measures ..................................................................................... 14
VI. Appraisal Summary ........................................................................................................... 15
A. Economic and Financial Analysis ..................................................................................... 15
B. Technical ........................................................................................................................... 17
C. Financial Management ...................................................................................................... 18
D. Procurement ...................................................................................................................... 19
E. Social (including Safeguards) ........................................................................................... 20
F. Environment (including Safeguards) ................................................................................ 22
Annex 1: Results Framework and Monitoring.............................................................................. 23
Annex 2: Detailed Program Description ...................................................................................... 31
Annex 3: Implementation Arrangements ..................................................................................... 44
Annex 4 Operational Risk Assessment Framework (ORAF) ....................................................... 67
Annex 5: Implementation Support Plan........................................................................................ 70
Annex 6: Team Composition ........................................................................................................ 77
Annex 7: Governance and Accountability Action Plan (GAAP) ................................................. 78

PAD DATA SHEET
BANGLADESH
Third Primary Education Development Program
PROJECT APPRAISAL DOCUMENT
South Asia
Human Development
Date: June 11, 2011 Sector(s): Primary Education (90%);

Country Director: Ellen A. Goldstein Government Administration (10%)
Sector Director: Michal Rutkowski
Sector Manager: Amit Dar Theme(s): Education for All (P); Public
Team Leader: Susan Opper & Ayesha Vawda expenditure, financial management and
Project ID: P113435 procurement (S), Administrative and civil service
Lending Instrument: Specific Investment Credit reform (S)
Environmental Assessment
Screening Category: B
Project Financing Data:
Proposed terms:
[ ] Loan [x ] Credit [ ] Grant [ ] Guarantee [ ] Other:
Source Total Amount (US$M)
Total Project Cost: 5860
Cofinancing: 609.4
ADB 320
DFID 110
EU 55
CIDA 48
AUSAID 28
SIDA 24
JICA 24
UNICEF .4
Borrower: 4950.6
Total Bank Financing:
IDA 300
Borrower: Peoples Republic of Bangladesh
Responsible Agency: Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME)
Address: Bhaban 6, Room 609
Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka
Contact Person: Mr. AKM Abdul Awal Mazumder, Secretary, MOPME
Telephone No.: 7162484
Fax No.: 7168871
Email: scymopme@gmail.com

Estimated Disbursements (Bank FY/US$ m)
FY 2012 2013 2014 2015
Annual 75 75 75 75
Cumulative 75 150 225 300
Project Implementation Period: Start July 31, 2011 End: January 31, 2015
Expected effectiveness date: July 31, 2011

Expected closing date: December 31, 2015
Does the project depart from the CAS in content or other significant Yes x No
respects?
If yes, please explain:
Does the project require any exceptions from Bank policies? x Yes No
Have these been approved/endorsed (as appropriate) by Bank x Yes No
management?
Is approval for any policy exception sought from the Board? x Yes No
If yes, please explain: A waiver is sought for an expansion of the exception to open eligibility under
paragraph 1.8(d) of IDAs Procurement Guidelines to allow IDA, in the case of contracts jointly
financed with the Asian Development Bank (ADB), to recognize the ineligibility of firms and
individuals debarred by the ADB.
Does the project meet the Regional criteria for readiness for x Yes No
implementation?
If no, please explain:

Project Development objectives are to (i) increase participation and reduce social disparities in primary
education, (ii) increase the number of children completing primary education and improve the quality of
the learning environment and measurement of student learning, and (iii) improve effectiveness of
resource use for primary education.
Project description: The proposed operation uses a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) to support
implementation of the Government of Bangladeshs primary education program (PEDPIII). The Credit
will finance recurrent and development expenditures, up to capped amounts, covering the entire primary
education sub-sector, and which fall under agreed program budget heads (PBHs). Disbursement is
conditioned on the achievement of pre-specified results, referred to as Disbursement-linked indicators
(DLIs), which are a subset of the Governments results framework for PEDPIII.
The activities to be financed will fall under the following categories: (i) improving the quality of the
learning environment and the measurement of student learning; (ii) increasing participation and reducing
social disparities; and (iii) improving program planning and management, and strengthening institutions.
ii

Safeguard policies triggered?
Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01)
x Yes No
Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04)
Yes x No
Forests (OP/BP 4.36)
Yes x No
Pest Management (OP 4.09)
Yes x No
Physical Cultural Resources (OP/BP 4.11)
Yes x No
Indigenous Peoples (OP/BP 4.10)
x Yes No
Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12)
x Yes No
Safety of Dams (OP/BP 4.37)
Yes x No
Projects on International Waters (OP/BP 7.50)
Yes x No
Projects in Disputed Areas (OP/BP 7.60)
Yes x No
Conditions and Legal Covenants
Financing Agreement Description of Condition/Covenant Date Due
Reference
Implementation Covenants The Recipient shall, not later than three months Three months after
Schedule 2, Section I. A.1. after the Effective Date, establish and thereafter the Effective Date
(a) maintain throughout the period of the Project
implementation, an Inter-Ministerial Steering
Committee, headed by the Secretary, MOPME,
and having as members representatives of key
ministries and agencies, including, inter alia: the
Finance Division and Economic Relations
Division of the Ministry of Finance; the
Ministry of Public Administration; the Planning
Commission; the Implementation Monitoring
and Evaluation Division of the Ministry of
Planning; and the Directorate of Primary
Education of the MOPME; and representatives
of Non-Government Organizations.
Schedule 2, Section I. A.3. The Recipient shall, not later than three months Three months after
(a) after the Effective Date, establish and thereafter the Effective Date
maintain throughout the period of Project
Implementation, a Technical Committee headed
by the Director General (Program Director),
DPE, and having as members inter alia, the
Additional Director General, all DPE directors;
representatives from MOPME, the National
Academy of Primary Education, National
Curriculum and Textbook Board, Compulsory
Primary Education Implementation and
Monitoring Unit, Bureau of Non-formal
Education, and the Bangladesh Bureau of
Education Information and Statistics; and a
representative from a Non-Governmental
Organization.
iii

Financing Agreement Description of Condition/Covenant Date Due
Reference
Schedule 2, Section I. A. The Recipient shall: (a) ensure that all budgetary
4. allocations related to the Project are timely
released to the appropriate directorates and
agencies of the Recipient, as shall be required
for the effective implementation of the Project;
and (b) apply suitable internal controls to ensure
that payments of budgetary expenditures,
including monthly reconciliations thereof, shall
be made in a timely manner, together with an
appropriate accounting of budgetary advances, if
any, with a view to keeping said advances
separate from budgetary expenditures.
Schedule 2, Section I. B. The Recipient shall, not later than May 1 of each May 1, 2012 and
year, commencing May 1, 2012, prepare and May 1 of each of the
furnish to the Association, for its endorsement, following years of the
the Annual Plan for the following fiscal year. Project.
Schedule 2, Section I. C. The Recipient shall, not later than May 31 of May 31, 2012 and
(a) each year commencing May 31, 2012 carry out May 31 of each of the
joint reviews of the Project and the Program following years of the
with the Association and the Cofinanciers, to, Project.
inter alia, assess the progress of implementation
and achievement of the agreed results, and
identify obstacles or impediments, if any.
Schedule 2, Section I. C. By not later than thirty (30) months after the Thirty months after
(c) Effective Date, the Recipient shall review with the Effective Date
the Association the progress made in the
implementation of the Project, particularly
progress made in the Recipients compliance
with the DLIs, and Recipients proposals, if any,
to substitute DLIs not complied with by their
due date with other DLIs that are conducive to
the achievement of the Projects objectives
(Mid-term Review).
Schedule 2, Section I. E.1. The Recipient shall carry out the Project in
and Schedule 2, Section accordance with the Environmental
I.E. 2. Management Framework (EMF), the Social
Management Framework (SMF) and the Tribal
Peoples Plan, and when applicable, prepare and
carry out appropriate mitigating measures
pursuant to the EMF and SMF.
iv

I. Strategic Context
A. Country Context
1. Bangladesh has made striking progress in the last thirty years of economic growth and
social transformation, accompanied by significant poverty reduction and a curbing of population
growth. Sustained macro-economic measures, which notably increased the market orientation of
the economy and eased trade and exchange restrictions, have underpinned an average GDP
growth of 5.8 percent per annum over FY01-10, up by a percentage point compared to the
previous decade. Recent indicators show that Bangladesh has weathered the global economic
crisis, staying on track with a still healthy 5.7 5.8 percent annual growth rate in FY09 FY10
and an expected 6 percent plus growth rate in FY11. This performance is noteworthy, given the
slow global recovery and severe power shortages in Bangladesh. Sustained growth has led to
reduction in the incidence of poverty from 57 percent at the beginning of the 1990s, to 49 percent
in 2000, and 40 percent in 2005. These gains were achieved despite fragile institutions, political
volatility and poor governance exacerbated by frequent, large-scale natural disasters whose
consequences can be most devastating for the poor. Per capita income is US$640 (2010), but
close to 30 percent of the countrys 164 million population remain below the poverty line
earning less than US$1 a day. Prospects for progress over the medium-term will depend upon
continued macroeconomic stability, a deepening of structural reforms to address severe
infrastructure deficits (energy, transport, extreme urban congestion) as well as steps to improve
governance and strengthen institutions to provide better quality services and bring marginalized
groups more securely into the development process.
2. Education is one of the most powerful instruments for reducing poverty. The effect is
compounded when there are linkages for education and health to work together to ensure that
children are well nourished, healthy and ready to learn. The effect is self-perpetuating across
generations. Educated parents are more likely to have reduced family size and provide schooling
to their children. Bangladesh is a good example of this phenomenon. Increased access to primary
education, particularly the rapid influx of girls over the past thirty years, have been powerful
enabling conditions for social mobility as young people have entered the labor market and are
attaining higher earnings. Workers have been moving away from low productivity jobs in
agriculture to more productive jobs in the nonfarm private sector, particularly in urban areas and
overseas. Widespread entry of women has been a leading factor in the rapid expansion of the
garment industry, a driver of the Bangladesh economy. All these factors contributed to declining
fertility rates which were halved in the 1990s as well as the high rates of poverty reduction.
3. Despite laudable progress on many fronts, development needs remain large and pressing.
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated and poor countries in South Asia. Its GDP per
capita is half that of India. Chronic malnutrition pervades all socioeconomic strata in
Bangladesh, affecting 56 percent of children among the poorest and 32 percent among the
wealthiest quintiles. Yet, in some areas of human development, the country has outstripped
progress elsewhere in South Asia; for example, in infant and child mortality, which declined by
around half in Bangladesh over the last two decades. Continued investment in human capital is
essential to improve livelihoods for all. Bangladesh is projected to have an estimated 220 million

inhabitants by 2040. This poses a daunting development challenge in a setting that is vulnerable
to natural disasters, and the latter is amplified by the effects of climate change.
B. Sectoral and Institutional Context
4. The outstanding accomplishment of the last three decades is the increased access to
education and the achievement of gender parity. In the space of 30 years, the number of young
people completing primary education has more than doubled, and the participation of girls has so
accelerated in the past 15 years that more girls than boys now complete primary school. Gross
enrollment rates (GER) in primary education rose from 76 percent in 1991 to 107.8 percent in
2010 (MOPME data), and net enrollment (measured by household data1) reached 84.7 percent in
2010. In secondary education, the GER of 57 percent in 2008 is three times higher than in 1980.
Greatly contributing to this gain was a seven-fold increase in girls enrollment; there is now
gender parity in secondary education as well as in primary. For progress in all these areas, it has
been critical that, since the 1990s, demand-side interventions including primary school feeding,
cash transfer programs, and a gender-targeted secondary school stipend program have been met
with expanded supply in the public and non-government (NGO) sectors. Today, over 16 million
students are enrolled in about 78,000 primary schools. These include ten types of schools, the
vast majority of which are Government Primary Schools (GPS) and Registered Non-Government
Primary Schools (RNGPS; privately operated but heavily government subsidized). In addition,
over 1.5 million children are enrolled in NGO schools. Despite these achievements, access
challenges remain: notably marked disparities in participation rates for children in pockets of
poor and disadvantaged communities compared to the national average (the 2005 NER of the
poorest economic quintile is 58 percent, compared to NER of 80 percent for the richest quintile).
The stipend program for primary school aged children, insufficiently targeted to the poor, has not
been effective in reducing these disparities. Overcrowded and deteriorated classrooms,
insufficient availability of sanitary facilities and drinking water still constrain access in parts of
the country and for some population groups.
5. Through a sustained injection of public resources into education, Bangladesh has reached
some international benchmarks, including one of the education Millennium Development goals
(gender parity). From 1999/00, government spending on education increased significantly owing
to the countrys high rates of economic growth. Specifically, although the share of GDP devoted
to education remained around 2.3 percent over this period, real spending increased by 50 percent
as a function of the overall growth in real government spending. The per annum commitment of
approximately 15 percent of government resources allocated to education over the past decade
also appears comparable to developing and regional country averages. However, when measured
in terms of public current expenditure on primary education per pupil, the US$99 (in constant
2006 US$) spent in Bangladesh is the lowest in South Asia (UNESCO). Considering as well that
personnel costs take the largest share of the education revenue budget in Bangladesh, with some
98 percent of revenue spending in primary education devoted to salaries, expenditures on non-
personnel items are well below recommended norms. This has an impact on learning
achievement and system efficiency both of which remain low.
1
Administrative data provide higher estimates of enrollments than household survey data, but trends are similar.

6. There is a collective recognition that improving the quality of primary education is one of
Bangladeshs highest priorities. Learning outcomes and primary cycle completion rates must
improve substantially. Only 60 percent of primary school children complete the primary cycle
(Grades 1-5) in 5 years, and of these, only about 44 percent go on to lower secondary school.
The primary cycle completion l rate (PCR) varies by geographic locality and family income
level. The PCR is exceptionally low in the seasonal poverty-prone areas of the Padma-Jamuna-
Brahmaputra basin. In addition, of the primary graduates who do go to secondary school, less
than half complete their education; the problem of drop-outs is more acute among girls. As for
learning outcomes, although there is not yet an assessment system in place providing reliable and
regular monitoring, there is wide recognition that learning levels are low and that excessive
emphasis is put on rote learning. One study conducted in 20082 showed that it is still not until the
end of grade 9 in the secondary cycle that 80-90 percent of students attain competencies in the
basic skill areas (reading, writing, mathematics) which they should have achieved by the end of
grade five. Evidence suggests this is not predominantly attributable to changes in the
demographics of the in-school population; that is, even those children from more advantaged
families are not mastering learning outcomes to acceptable levels.
7. Teachers, textbooks and curricula are the main supply-side factors contributing to the
poor learning outcomes and weak systems efficiency in the primary sector. The situation is
aggravated by the nature of the examination system and the overall weak institutional capacity
for monitoring and evaluation. There are approximately 340,000 primary teachers in the public
sector, and their qualifications are relatively low. Regulations stipulate that female and male
primary teacher recruits are to have a tenth grade (SSC) and a twelfth grade (HSC) education,
respectively, to be followed by a one-year Certificate-in-Education (C-in-Ed) training course
within two years after recruitment. Around 85 percent of GPS and RNGPS teachers have met
this requirement. The Government recognizes that it must raise the bar on teacher qualifications,
and it intends to pilot a new Diploma in Education program that will be rolled out over the
course of PEDPIII (see Annexes 1 and 2). Analysis has shown that prerequisites for success also
include the professional development of teacher trainers at the Primary Teacher Training
Institutes and improving the ability of school heads to provide support to teachers at school level
on an ongoing basis. Equally critical is to maintain a competitive and transparent recruitment
process that ensures that the jobs are given to the most qualified applicants.
8. The above reasons help to explain why the Governments overall objective for primary
education is to improve its quality. The main issues surround the need to usher in major reform
toward a competency-based approach (rather than rote learning), in order to be more supportive
of each childs learning. Textbook development remains a major challenge, as do the related
issues of the nature and quality of examinations (Grade 5 Completion Exam (PCE) and national
student assessments in grades 3 and 5). Notwithstanding the commendable achievement in 2009
of the first time ever administration of the PCE on a national basis, it is generally recognized that
the exam has low reliability, the test items measure rote learning rather than the actual
competencies children possess at the end of the primary cycle, and exam results are not fed back
to teachers and teacher trainers to improve teaching.
2
See School Choice and Cognitive Achievement in Rural Bangladesh by M.N. Asadullah, N. Chaudhury, and A.
Dar, World Bank 2008.

9. More broadly, the range of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms in the primary sector
are ad hoc and insufficiently networked, as a system, for early reporting to inform improvements
in service delivery, and to fortify the evidence base for policy making and strategic planning.
Management of the sector is constrained by certain capacity limitations, in particular, lack of
specialized staff (see Annex 4). The regulatory framework for working across the sector with all
providers government, non-government, private remains in nascent stages of development.
Currently, the Government only controls and regulates four types of schools, although it intends
gradually to extend its monitoring capacity to all primary education providers. Decentralized
planning and management is also one of the Governments aims, but implementation has so far
been constrained by lack of funding. In addition, the accountability relationships between levels
of government (central, District, Upazila) and between government and schools and communities
still require clarification and reinforcement through regular monitoring for quality assurance.
10. The Government of Bangladesh has been heavily engaged with external development
partners in investing in primary education through two successive operations: PEDPI and
PEDPII. The advent of PEDPII in 2004 was instrumental in primary education receiving even
greater importance within the education sector, as a function of an increasing development
budget allocated to primary. A great deal of non-salary recurrent spending occurred on the
development side of the budget, e.g. production and distribution of (free) primary school
textbooks. PEDPII was an important step towards better coordination of development partner
support and the corresponding reduction in transaction costs for Government, with the adoption
of a sectorwide approach. Results from PEDPI and PEDPII show positive trends, on average, in
enrollment and completion rates, achievement of gender parity in access, classroom construction
(30,000 new classrooms) as well as improvements in quality with preparatory steps for a revised
curriculum and teachers professional development (e.g. development of the Diploma-in-
Education), extension of the Grade 5 Completion Exam to all primary school students, and a
round of learning assessments. PEDPII furthermore increased the scope for local school-based
management by initiating school level improvement plans (SLIPs) and initiated an annual sector
performance reporting as a major achievement in monitoring and evaluation systemwide.
11. The Third Primary Education Development Program (PEDPIII) is intended to build on
the momentum generated in the areas of access and quality, while it distinctly promotes
accountability through a results-based program approach. A determined effort will be made to
fast track actions which can bring immediate, measurable impact on classroom learning and
primary cycle completion. Focus is on the use rather than simply the supply of inputs at the
school and classroom level to improve learning outcomes for individual children enrolled in GPS
and RNGPS schools. By following a Disbursement Linked Indicator approach (described
elsewhere in this document), the Development Partners and Government are broadly aligning
financial incentives with critical actions for which there is strong evidence nationally and
internationally that they will be capable of boosting progress toward more equitable participation
in higher quality primary education.

C. Higher Level Objectives to which the Project Contributes
12. The proposed Project which supports the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) Third
Primary Education Development Program (PEDPIII) that covers the primary education sub-
sector contributes to Bangladeshs long-term objective of human capital development for
sustaining economic growth and poverty reduction. The PEDPIII objectives are well aligned
with the Second National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (NSAPR-II) for FY2009-
20113, the Perspective Plan 20214, the National Education Policy 2010, and the Banks Country
Assistance Strategy (CAS)5. The NSAPR-II, which represents the first phase in implementation
of the Governments vision for 2021, lays out the education sector strategy for Bangladesh
highlighting in particular the quality of education as one of the major strategic issues to be
addressed and also encouraging progress toward equitable access and more efficient delivery of
public services. The comprehensive National Education Policy provides more specific direction
for operational objectives and expected results across the entire spectrum of the education sector.
The CAS advocates improving the delivery of social services to bring marginalized groups and
rural communities more firmly into the development process. The CAS also identifies
strengthening the accountability at central and local levels as part of a strong governance agenda
leading to faster and more inclusive growth. PEDPIII can thus play an important role in
effectively operationalizing GOBs strategy for the education sector.
II. Project Development Objectives
A. PDO
13. The development objectives of the proposed Project are to (i) increase participation and
reduce social disparities in primary education, (ii) increase the number of children completing
primary education and improve the quality of the learning environment and measurement of
student learning, and (iii) improve effectiveness of resource use for primary education.
B. Program Beneficiaries
14. The direct beneficiaries are the 16.5 million students who attend pre-primary and primary
school in any given year, the 340,000 teachers in government schools who receive training, as
well as the younger cohorts of about 3 million children who will most likely enter primary school
each year over the course of the Project.
C. PDO Level Results Indicators
15. Success in meeting the Project objectives will be measured by using the following
outcome indicators and targets:
3
National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction II, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh,
2009. The Strategy lays out an ambitious agenda and commitment to systemic reforms. To generate growth and
reduce poverty, it focuses on five strategic blocks: (a) macroeconomic environment; (b) pro-poor growth; (c)
essential infrastructure; (d) social protection for the vulnerable; and (e) human resources development.
4
Outline Perspective Plan of Bangladesh: Making Vision 2021 a Reality, Government of Bangladesh, Planning
Commission (March 2010)
5
Bangladesh Country Assistance Strategy 2011-2014, The World Bank, August 2010.

Outcome indicator Latest available baseline Target, 2014/15
Primary Net Enrollment Rate (NER, in %) 84.7 (2010) 98.00
Primary cycle Completion Rate to Grade 5, 52.2 (boys) 62.0 (boys)
as % of cohort 57.5 (girls) (2009) 67.0 (girls)
Decreased disparity in access to schooling between .72 (2005) .77
poorest 20% and richest 20% (1)
Learning levels regularly monitored through learning Grade 5 exam introduced Grade 5 exam with at
assessment system (2) in 2009, testing memory least 25% items
more than ability to use competency-based
subject knowledge
Percentage of schools/SMCs preparing School 27.0 (2010) 75.0
Improvement Plans and receiving funds
(1) Measured by ratio of NER of poorest 20% and NER of richest 20%
(2) As measured by conduct of Grade 5 completion exam every year
III. Program Description
A. Project Component
Financing of the GOB Third Primary Education Development Program (PEDPIII)

Total: US$5800 million; IDA: US$300 million
16. The proposed Project finances civil works, goods, non-consulting services and recurrent
costs through a Sector Wide approach (SWAp) with eight other Development Partners, to co-
finance with the Government of Bangladesh the implementation of the GOBs primary education
program (PEDPIII). The Project finances recurrent and development expenditures from both the
development and the revenue budgets to support the carrying out of interventions as approved for
inclusion in the annual plans (see below) for improving the quality of the learning environment
and measurement of learning; increasing participation and reducing social disparities; and
improving program planning and management, and strengthening institutions. The detailed
interventions are described in Annex 2 of the PAD.
17. The GOB and the Development Partners used a strategic planning process to identify key
expected results and the operational framework through which to achieve these to attain the
development outcomes for primary education. The Government has a results framework with
expected results in the areas of access, equity, quality and effectiveness. The scope of
interventions and resource requirements vary across Districts and sub-Districts, and also from
year to year, so the Project is unlike a traditional Investment Credit with predefined components.
The Project would induce greater incentives in the system to facilitate achievement, while
affording the Government greater flexibility in the choice of inputs to reach the agreed results.
The Project will finance against the governments annual plan for the primary education sub-
sector (which will list the development activities to be undertaken in the Annual Operational
Plan, and the total budget allocation ceiling for agreed-upon program budget heads (PBHs)), and
the annual procurement plan. IDA will finance the identified PBHs, up to maximum amounts as
explained in Annex 3. Disbursement is conditioned on the achievement of pre-specified results,
i.e. Disbursement Linked Indicators (DLIs), which are a subset of the Governments results
framework and have been agreed between the GOB and Development Partners as the milestones

which reflect the priority elements in PEDPIII. The DLIs build incrementally and include
institutional changes, implementation steps, and output/outcome indicators which are critical for
demonstrable progress of the sub-sector toward its overall development outcomes. DLIs will
generate improved efficiency and effectiveness during the period of the Credit, and will have an
impact and sustain results beyond the life of the Project. All DLIs are weighted equally. The
activities financed are described below; Annex 1 provides details on the DLIs. The full range of
Project interventions is detailed in Annex 2.
18. The following activities, included in the Annual Plans, will be supported. Other activities
may be supported during program implementation if jointly agreed between MOPME and the
Development Partners:
Improving quality of the learning environment and measurement of student learning
(a) Improvement of the timely delivery of free textbooks to all eligible schools and the quality of
textbook content through the provision of quality learning materials;
(b) Improvement of the effectiveness of teacher training through the carrying out of a
comprehensive teacher education and development plan, including the development and
piloting of a new Diploma-in Education and progressively increasing the number of Primary
Teacher Training Institutes implementing the Diploma-in Education program;
(c) Recruitment of teachers and head-teachers, and application of the competitive, merit-based
recruitment, as well as taking account of vacancies to be filled as a result of new classrooms
constructed through the needs-based infrastructure approach;
(d) Improvement of the quality, transparency and effectiveness of the primary completion
examination through the carrying out of an action plan to improve the Grade 5 completion
examination;
(e) Improvement of the national assessment program, including its organizational management;
(f) Development of techniques to determine pupils current knowledge and skill level, including
through the training of teachers to identify students learning strengths and weaknesses;
(g) Improvement of the curricula for grades one to five, including the carrying out of a regional
comparative study on competencies, curriculum substance and revision practices, and
capacity building of staff for curriculum development;
(h) Implementation of a pilot initiative Shikhbe Protiti Shishu (Each Child Learns) to improve
learning of basic skills in Bangla and mathematics, and dissemination of good practices and
lessons learned to a progressively larger number of schools; and
(i) Provision of equipment and materials for the setting-up of multi-media classrooms.
19. DLI milestones in this area focus on the improvement of the quality, transparency and
effectiveness of the Grade 5 exam; more effective textbook distribution; teacher education
development; and merit-based teacher recruitment.

Increasing Participation and Reducing Social Disparities
(a) Provision of one year of free pre-primary education (PPE) for five-year olds through a new
school-based approach to reach coverage of all children in government primary schools
through: (i) the development and implementation of a plan for the scaling up of participation
in pre-primary education; and (ii) the expansion of pre-primary education coverage;
(b) Initiating a needs-based approach to improve physical facilities (reconstruction of schools,

additional classrooms, toilets and safe water source) through the preparation and
implementation of an action plan for infrastructure development;
(c) Development and implementation of a public relations and communications strategy to

inform and encourage enrollment and retention of children in school for the full primary
cycle;
(d) Implementation of a revamped stipend program to support participation of children in

primary education;
(e) Coordination and implementation of a school health and nutrition program, including
curriculum development on health and nutrition practices and health screenings in selected
areas, and nutritional interventions such as school feeding;
(f) Implementation of an inclusive primary education plan at the upazila level, with support
from a block grant, to provide resources to schools accommodating previously excluded
children, develop supplementary learning materials, and strengthen the capacity of teachers
to identify and teach children with special needs; and
(g) Coordinating alternative primary education opportunities with education service delivery in
the formal, public sector, including the development of an equivalency framework aligned
with the revised national curriculum, inclusion of non-formal education in upazila primary
education plans, participation of non-formal education learners in the Grade 5 completion
examination, and reporting on non-formal education outputs in the PEDP III reporting.
20. In this thrust area, DLIs will be milestones related to the implementation of the PPE
program; and the needs-based infrastructure plan.
Improving Program Planning and Management, and Strengthening Institutions
(a) Improvement of the efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery at central and
decentralized levels through the provision of grants to schools based on their school-level
improvement plans;
(b) Enhancement of the primary education subsector budget preparation process by improving
the linkage between the budgetary process and the medium-term primary education subsector
strategy, and the consistency between annually approved primary education subsector
budgets and the PEDPIII results framework and medium term budgetary framework
(MTBF);

(c) Improvement of the timeliness, quality and coverage of the Recipients Annual School
Census (ACS) through: (i) the development and implementation of an improved
administration plan for the monitoring and evaluation/education management information
system; and (ii) the revising of the Annual School Census;
(d) Development and implementation of a human resource management plan to strengthen the
Directorate of Primary Education and improve delivery of teacher education programs; and
(e) Carrying out of analyses and stakeholder consultations to clarify issues and potential actions
to develop an integrated, comprehensive framework to include school standards for all
categories of primary schools in the country.
21. The DLIs in this area focus on setting targets for progressively larger percentages of
SMCs preparing plans and receiving and using the block grant financing; ensuring consistency
between annually approved primary education budgets and the PEDPIII results framework and
MTBF; and improvements expected in the timeliness and quality of the ASC.
B. Program Financing
Lending Instrument
22. The proposed operation is a US$300 million Specific Investment Credit to support the
first phase (four years) of implementation of the Government's program for primary education
(PEDPIII). The commitments from the additional Development Partners are summarized in the
following section. The IDA Credit disbursements will be made against identified program budget
heads (PBHs) contingent upon achievement of the agreed set of DLIs. The total amount that can
be claimed from the IDA commitments is defined by the total number of DLIs to be achieved
(9), and the costing of DLIs for each year. The proposed schedule of IDA disbursements is
shown in Annex 3 (Table A3.1) which sets out the total disbursement amount of US$300 million
as a function of the costing of DLIs for each year. The total estimated amount for each annual
disbursement would be subject to any deduction equivalent to the price of any unmet DLIs. DLIs
are priced, so that missing one does not hold back disbursement of others which are met.
23. Over the financing period of the Project, there are four scheduled disbursement cycles: in
July for each of the years 2011 to 2014. If fewer than the nine DLIs are achieved by a July cycle,
withheld amounts against unmet DLIs will be available for disbursement in January, subject to
confirmation that the said DLIs have been satisfied, and on condition that DLIs are achieved no
later than 18 months after the initially specified DLI achievement deadline.
24. IDA will disburse against PBHs to reimburse against expenditures incurred. The PBHs to
be supported by the Project account for the bulk of GOB's program expenditures for primary
education. The PBHs are part of the Government's own economic heads of account which are
used to track expenditure on non-development as well as development sides of the budget. The
PBHs are described in Annex 3.

Development Partner Co-Financing
25. All Development Partners committing funds for the SWAp to support PEDPIII will
finance the identified PBHs of the GOB primary education sector program. All Partners,
including the World Bank, would be signatories to a Joint Financing Arrangement (JFA) with the
Government. The JFA will govern the working arrangements for the SWAp. The indicative total
contribution under the JFA for the first four years of PEDPIII is US$909.4 million, of which the
total contribution of the Development Partners other than IDA is US$609.4 million (see table
below). The defined disbursement intervals are the same for all the Development Partners. All
(except UNICEF) are planning to condition their disbursements on the achievement of the DLIs.
In addition, some Partners (not including IDA) have indicated they will condition part of their
disbursement to financial and other reporting on PEDPIII, as defined in the JFA, to be reviewed
by all Partners and the GOB at the Annual Joint Reviews. PEDPIII represents an important move
toward using the country system of fund flow in that the Development Partner financing will be
disbursed using the Government system without Development Partners requesting use of
project-specific designated accounts. Under certain conditions, there will be separate tracking of
the IDA and ADB disbursements, respectively (see Section VI. D, below). ADB is expected to
present the project to their Board in early July 2011 to be effective shortly thereafter. The
remaining Development Partners are planning to begin disbursing within the following twelve
month period.
Program Financing Table (first 4 years of the program)6

Component and/or Activity Total
(US $million)
IDA , of which 300
- Textbooks and other goods procured through ICB (financed with
other Development Partners (not ADB) ) 24
- Goods, works, non-consulting services, recurrent costs, stipends 276
ADB. of which 320
- Consultancies financed by ADB (with other Development Partners
excluding IDA) 24
- Goods, works, non-consulting services, recurrent costs, stipends 296
DFID 110
EU 55
CIDA 48
AUSAID 28
SIDA 24
JICA 24
UNICEF .4
GOB Financing 4950.6
TOTAL 5860
6
The proportionate allocations for IDA (ICB compared with other financing) and for ADB (Consultancies compared
with other financing) are approximate. Development Partners (other than the ADB) have indicated their commitment
to provide an additional approximately US$95 million for the fifth year of the program.
10

C. Lessons Learned and Reflected in the Program Design
26. Based on the experience of previous projects in Bangladesh, as well as international

experience, key lessons incorporated in the PEDPIII program design include:
(a) Usefulness of an Education Sub-Sector Approach. Under PEDPII, the Government took
increased ownership and activities began to be somewhat mainstreamed and integrated into
the regular system activities. Harmonization of management, planning, procurement,
accounting and reporting arrangements helped to reduce GOB transaction costs. PEDPIII will
further consolidate those gains, enabling the Government to work towards management of
improvements across the whole primary education sector in a phased approach
commensurate with capacity of the implementing agency and use of technical assistance.
(b) Need for a Robust M&E: During PEDP II, it was difficult to obtain sufficient focus on
results and timely reporting. Much of the information available centered around progress of
activities instead of key implementation reforms and outcomes. System development for
sound data collection, and analysis and dissemination of data to improve planning were
limited. Through the DLIs, stronger emphasis will be placed on bolstering the technical
capacity of the M&E system and its ability to monitor program interventions. This will be
complemented by technical assistance aimed at improving data quality for timely planning.
(c) Leveraging Reform through Result-Based Financing: Many of the planned reforms under
PEDPII could not be implemented because they were not in the jurisdiction of DPE and/ or
MOPME. For example, DPE had no control over approval of the plan to devolve planning
and management responsibilities to districts, Upazilas and schools. In this regard, experience
from other countries shows that result-based disbursement linked to the use of country
systems for flow of funds can help to provide incentives and ensure greater support from
other ministries; in particular, the Ministry of Finance.
(d) Experience with Results-Based Financing and Disbursement Linked Indicators in other
countries: Some insights from the World Bank collaboration under Pakistan operations (in
Punjab and Sindh) are being incorporated into PEDPIII, where possible, and include: (i) the
DLIs, coupled with regular dialogue and engagement with the client, promote the focus on
results and their achievement. This is particularly important in securing government
commitment to politically difficult but potentially beneficial governance initiatives supported
by reform-minded stakeholders; (ii) the verification of DLIs can be leveraged to support
improvements in monitoring and evaluation practices; this is conducive for undertaking more
third party validations and impact evaluations to enhance the reliability of assessments and
measurement of sector performance; (iii) the DLIs help keep program implementation rolling
and consistent with the program designs; (iv) keeping the number of DLIs to a small number
is important to ease the administrative and supervision burden on the government and task
teams; (v) there need to be sufficient internal flexibility to adjust results and the DLIs
linked to those results in the event of unanticipated developments, while preserving the
high-powered incentives to achieve results via the DLIs; and (vi) as a consequence of the
continuous engagement with authorities at all levels, supervision intensity for the Project will
be high.
11

(e) Development Partner Coordination: Use of the results-based financing approach, the
pooling of Development Partners funding, and use of the Governments systems for PEDPIII
will result in the nine Development Partners having more harmonized implementation
arrangements and joint planning towards key program results. Parallel financing will be
greatly reduced, except for pre-existing projects and technical assistance. Because
Government has driven the design and preparation of the program, there will be no need for a
single lead agency during implementation, as was the case in PEDP II. Suitable arrangements
for donor coordination and program management have been agreed and will be articulated in
a Joint Financing Arrangement (JFA). All participating Development Partners will be
signatories to the JFA. This will also facilitate other partners who may wish to support the
Governments program at a later stage in a more coordinated program approach, something
which was not possible earlier.
IV. Implementation
A. Institutional and Implementation Arrangements
27. Overall policy guidance, program oversight and coordination will be provided by an
Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee chaired by the Secretary, MOPME, and comprising
representatives of key ministries as well as representatives of NGOs. Besides reviewing program
progress and approving the annual operational plans, the Steering Committee would be
responsible for resolving any critical inter-ministerial implementation issues.
28. The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) headed by a Director General (Program
Director) will be responsible for day-to-day program implementation under the guidance of the
Steering Committee. DPE will be assisted by a Technical Committee, chaired and coordinated
by the Director General, assisted by an Additional Director General. The Technical Committee
will comprise all DPE directors and representatives from all agencies involved in the
implementation of PEDPIII.7 The main functions of the Technical Committee will be to: (i)
provide support to line directors to resolve implementation problems; (ii) devise strategies for the
gradual integration of different streams of formal and non-formal education in terms of
curriculum and service delivery structure; (iii) support the establishment of an integrated data
system and plan for results-based management; and (iv) support policy revision based on
implementation experience.
29. DPE line directors will be given responsibility for implementation of key areas of
PEDPIII. Although the implementation capacity of DPE has improved significantly during the
PEDPII phase, implementation of the new program will pose additional challenges: the size of
the program is significantly larger, and it has the ambition gradually to encompass the full sub-
sector (within a framework that eventually will incorporate the non-government service
providers as well). The intention is to develop long-term capacity of the regular staff of DPE and
7
These include: the National Academy of Primary Education (NAPE), National Curriculum and Textbook Board
(NCTB), Compulsory Primary Education Implementation and Monitoring Unit (CPEIMU), Bureau of Nonformal
Education, Bangladesh Bureau of Education Information and Statistics (BANBEIS), and anon-government
organization (NGO).
12

strengthen the interface between the central level personnel and decentralized levels (Upazila,
District and Division officers) as well as the outreach to teachers and head teachers at school
level. The DPE line directors will thus be supported, when required, with technical assistance
that will either be provided by Development Partners or recruited by GOB.
30. The financial management arrangements of the Program would be based on the country
financial management systems for budget execution, accounting, internal controls, financial
reporting and auditing). A comprehensive risk assessment and review of alternative funding
arrangements conducted during program preparations concluded that this arrangement represents
the least fiduciary risk (see Annex 3). Accordingly contingent upon meeting a set of DLIs for
each of the fiscal years Development Partner funds will be directly disbursed to the
Governments Consolidated Fund on a reimbursement basis. DPE would access funds according
to the normal government budgeting process. Via the Governments integrated budgeting and
accounting system (iBAS terminal), DPE will monitor the monthly/quarterly budget execution
reports and quarterly financial reports for the entire program to ensure that budget execution is in
line, and keeps pace, with the approved budget.
B. Results Monitoring and Evaluation
31. A robust M&E system is key to the success of the result-focused approach. Monitoring
and Evaluation are systematically integrated into the PEDPIII program design through DLIs and
a clearly established results framework against which to evaluate operational performance of the
program, including risk mitigation, and progress toward the PEDPIII development objectives.
Undertaking the program monitoring activities will be the responsibility of the M&E Division of
DPE. The main tasks are described in Annex 3. The Government aims to strengthen the existing
unit and to correct the weaknesses that a recent stock-taking exercise identified.
32. Over the course of PEDPIII implementation, the M&E Division will improve the data
quality through regular validation, expand the coverage of the Annual School Census to all types
of primary schools, and establish closer links with the Bangladesh Bureau of Education
Information and Statistics (BANBEIS), Local Government and Engineering Department
(LGED), National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) and the Ministry of Education
(MOE) to gain access to other sources of data and thereby improve DPE capacity to monitor
interventions; for example, construction and textbook delivery. Closer collaboration with the
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) will also give access to large-scale household surveys
(including commissioning new surveys) and permit triangulating findings on outcomes and
improving the validity of core sector indicators such as disparities in net enrollment rates by
family income levels.
33. Monitoring that is specific to the fiduciary and procurement functions, and environmental
and social safeguards, is described elsewhere in the respective sections of the PAD.
34. The Government and Development Partners participating in the SWAp have a good
understanding of the constraints to achieving the results outlined for the program, as well as
reporting in a timely manner through robust and credible mechanisms. A Technical Assistance
(TA) strategy and plan are in advanced stages of development and will be reviewed before
13

Effectiveness. The TA needs have been identified to develop a culture of results monitoring by
strengthening the systems which provide the information and incentivizing the use of more
credible information. The TA plan, building on lessons learnt of past practices, aims to ensure in-
time implementation support on a rolling basis, to respond to emerging needs. While coordinated
through a single, global plan, the TA would partly be managed by Government and partly
contracted directly by one or more of the Development Partners. The DPE and other agents
implementing PEDPIII would draw upon technical assistance as they faced challenges in
evidence-based planning and management, including: (i) developing enhanced monitoring
instruments, (ii) independent validation of information; (iii) analysis of information from
administrative data to report on DLI achievement, where required, (iv) more in-depth analysis
and information dissemination to support policy making, (v) steps to mitigate risks in
procurement, and (vi) impact evaluations and cost effectiveness of various interventions. In
addition, the TA can help to advance in specific technical areas especially, although not
exclusively where PEDPIII introduces significant change. These include: (a) the needs-based
approach to provision of quality infrastructure, (b) pre-primary education (for which the GOB
has no prior experience delivering through primary schools in the formal sector), (c) stipend
programs (for targeting issues); (d) learning assessment and examinations, and (e) curriculum
and teacher professional development.
C. Sustainability
35. The sustainability of PEDPIII is shaped by several factors. First, the political
commitment to basic education which has remained stable since the countrys independence is
reaffirmed in the Governments vision 2021, the Second National Strategy for Accelerated
Poverty Reduction (FY2009-2011), and the National Education Policy (2010). Second,
Bangladesh has a track record of meeting milestones for access and equity in basic education.
The Government has accomplished in 20 years what it took many developed countries more than
60 years to achieve. Third, the sectors institutional capacity to manage national scale programs
has been consolidated over decades of implementing four major primary education programs,
nine large scale projects, and numerous smaller ventures under the National Plan of Action for
Education for all. The PEDP II (2004-2011) particularly strengthened DPE and MoPME
management functions in planning, financing, monitoring and evaluation, and coordination of
simultaneous production and distribution of different types of inputs. Fourth, Governments
financial commitment to primary and mass education is nested in the countrys broader Medium-
Term Budgetary Framework (MTBF). Sustainability considerations are built directly into the
PEDPIII design through improvements in budgetary processes to refocus program
implementation under a results-based management model; furthermore, the economic analysis
conducted for PEDPIII indicates parameters for fiscal sustainability (see below). Fifth, the
countrys growth prospects make it possible to envisage an increasing allocation of resources to
education.
V. Key Risks and Mitigation Measures
36. Potential risks are summarized in the Operational Risk Assessment Framework (ORAF)
(Annex 4). The proposed overall risk rating for the Project for implementation is Medium
driven by impact (MI). The following key risks identified in the ORAF have contributed greatly
to the choice of the overall risk rating of PEDPIII:
14

(a) Capacity: Despite ongoing capacity building efforts, staff vacancies and turn over, civil
administration issues and lack of accountability cut across the sector. Weak capacity at
planning, implementing and monitoring stage, as well as low fiduciary capacity, could
jeopardize program achievement. To mitigate this risk, the program ramps up technical
assistance in various aspects of educational management as well as on fiduciary issues to
assist the GOB in achieving results. Local capacity and accountability are being enhanced
through scaling up school-based management under School Level Improvement Plans
(SLIP). Increased focus is placed on developing quality monitoring and evaluation systems.
(b) Fraud and corruption: Certain systemic weaknesses in some aspects of the program, such
as delivery of stipends, contracts for books, hiring of teachers, and civil works expose the
Project to a risk of corruption and non-transparent or inefficient practices. Furthermore,
enforcement of GOBs procurement regulatory system may not meet the needed level of
governance and accountability. These risks are mitigated through several measures. The
program design incorporates expenditure monitoring; external validation exercises, and an
Annual Fiduciary Review. A PFM action plan is being implemented to ensure timely and
reliable financial reports and to enhance monitoring for follow-up of audit observations. The
Bank's own intensive supervision of technical and fiduciary aspects will also mitigate this
risk. On procurement, GoBs regulatory system will be strengthened in line with
internationally accepted procedures, and procurement capacity will be enhanced as needed,
including through recruitment of procurement (and financial management) consultants. There
will be transparency in disclosure of procurement activities, mainly through DPEs website.
(c) Focus on inputs: The current focus of DPE is on inputs. Given that results-based
interventions are fairly new, it will take some time to change from a culture based on inputs
to focus on outcomes and results. Hence, if adequate emphasis is not placed on monitoring
and evaluating effectiveness of programs/DLIs, the effectiveness of the program is likely to
be reduced. There has been a systemic effort to reduce this risk. Significant dissemination
regarding the change in approach has taken place through the system, and will continue.
MOPME, through DPE, has already initiated a results-based management system which will
be strengthened during PEDPIII. Further, capacity support in strengthening monitoring and
evaluation will be pronounced feature of PEDPIII. Finally, the adoption of DLIs builds an
incentive mechanism into the program design.
VI. Appraisal Summary
A. Economic and Financial Analysis
37. The economic analysis for the prospective PEDPIII presents an assessment of benefits
and costs associated with the program using a counterfactual identification approach whereby
PEDPIII investment is the estimated additional cost over and above the projected spending for
primary education in the absence of this program. Similarly, the benefits are taken to be those
changes in the quantity, quality and reduction in internal inefficiency of education produced over
the period as a result of PEDPIII. Benefits come from three sources: (i) increased number of
primary school completers who earn higher wages (relative to non-completers); (ii) increased
quality of education resulting in higher wage-premium for all primary school completers; and
15

(iii) decreased wastage of public and private resources as a result of reduced dropout and
repetition. Costs include additional program costs (from GOB and Development Partner sources)
and private costs which comprise direct household outlays as well as opportunity costs. While
GOB has presented to Development Partners a five-year program, IDA will support the first four
years (with a possible additional financing at a later stage). The economic analysis provided here
focuses on the costs and benefits of this first four-year phase.
38. Underlying the analysis is the projection of the 6-year-old cohort population, gross-intake
ratio into grade 1, and repetition and dropout rates (and thus promotion/completion) for each of
primary grades 1-5. Under PEDPIII, dropout and repetition rates are estimated to decline faster
than if there were no PEDPIII. This allows calculation of student-flow numbers with and without
PEDPIII, and thus the difference between the two cases is the impact of the new program on the
completers, repeaters and dropouts. The additional number of primary completers will earn the
wage-premium (wage levels for primary completers and non-completers is estimated from HIES
2005 and then projected to account for inflation for future years). Quality premium (due to
increased skills and relevance through PEDPIII), however, applies to all primary completers. For
this, a conservative two percent of the wage level of the primary completer is assumed. The
benefit stream accruing from life-time earnings for the five cohorts is assumed to continue for 20
years (even though a typical primary completer will earn beyond 20 years, discounting will
make the values insignificant beyond this time). Finally, the impact of improved internal
efficiency will reduce the number of student years to complete the primary cycle per each
completer. Student-cohort analysis indicates that PEDPIII will save 0.7 student-years per
completer (from 7.4 years to 6.7 in four years), and savings apply to both program/public unit
costs as well as private household expenditure and opportunity costs.
39. Additional program investment is derived from the difference between the proposed
PEDPIII cost estimates and the projected spending on primary education had there been no
PEDPIII (projected using trends from the former PEDPII program spending). For the four-year
period 2011-2014, the differential investment is expected to be about US$1.7 billion (in the
range of US$400 million each year). Household outlays and opportunity costs are also accounted
for additional enrollees.
40. Based on a discount rate of 12 percent for the benefit and cost streams described above,
the present discounted value of benefits for the base-case scenario is estimated to be US$2,062
million while the present discounted value of costs is estimated to be US$1,327 million, and
therefore the net present value (NPV) of program benefits is US$735 million. The Internal Rate
of Return (IRR) associated with this NPV is 21 percent. The sensitivity analysis under varying
scenarios for progress in internal efficiency and external efficiency gains indicate that the IRR
ranges from 13 percent to 21 percent. These results suggest that PEDPIII is expected to be a very
sound investment. In fact these are conservative lower-bound estimates, given that they do not
yet account for externality benefits arising from a healthier, more educated and a more equitable/
inclusive society. Nor has the above analysis assigned additional benefits to those primary level
completers who would have gone on to complete even higher levels of education and receive
higher wage-premiums.
16

41. The fiscal sustainability of PEDPIII over the medium-term will be dependent on the
budget availability to meet the additional recurrent costs that will result from the program.
Current macroeconomic prospects suggest that fiscal space will be available to accommodate
substantial increases in spending on education. The robust GDP growth witnessed over the past
decade is expected to continue given the countrys strengths a vibrant private sector, a large
pool of inexpensive labor, and the emergence of several promising exports sectors. Real GDP
growth is expected to rise over 7 percent by FY 2013, tax revenues to increase by about 2
percent of GDP and Government expenditures to increase from 14.6 percent of GDP in FY10 to
17.6 percent in FY14. These figures indicate that, even with a constant share of the budget spent
on primary education, the Government would be able to absorb a 20 percent increase in real
spending on primary education which would be sufficient to cover the expected additional
recurrent costs resulting from the program.
B. Technical
42. It was agreed that the next phase of Governments primary education program would
build on the PEDPII experience, keeping a sector-wide approach but, this time, encompassing
the whole primary sub-sector (not only development but also revenue budget), and with
Government taking the lead for the program. A key technical consideration was to design a
project that would place a greater emphasis on (i) achieving specific key results; and (ii)
providing incentives in the system to facilitate this achievement while giving greater flexibility
to the Government in the choice of inputs to achieve agreed results.
43. The program aims at simultaneously raising school participation and retention, as well as
student learning, through a set of focused interventions. This rests on the well-known
complementarities between both objectives: school quality and attainment. Simply attempting to
expand access could be self-defeating, whereas when coupled with actions which improve
quality, this can yield a bonus in terms of meeting goals for attainment. The choice of DLIs rests
on predictions of links between the selected interventions and the programs development
outcomes, which are derived from lessons learned in Bangladesh and other parts of the world as
well as from research. For example, world-wide research has shown that the quality of teachers
is the key to student performance. Thus, interventions (and related DLIs) which attempt to raise
the quality of the teacher training system, ensure a fair recruitment process and the availability of
teachers, as well as the reliability and timeliness of textbooks (particularly critical to learning
outcomes in resource-poor environments), are likely to raise student attendance and learning. It
is also expected that changes in the content of exams, increasingly focused on competencies
(rather than rote learning), will have powerful feedback effects on teaching methods. Similarly,
improving the quality of school infrastructure in underserved areas, providing wider access to
pre-primary education and giving stipends to children from poor households (compensating
families for foregone child labor earnings) are expected to induce parents to send their children
to school and to encourage their regular attendance.
44. The design of interventions supported by the Project also takes into account that
achieving the expected development outcomes, in particular improving school quality, is a
gradual process and a lengthy endeavor. The target levels set for improvement (indicators in
Annex 1) are based on past projections as well as an analysis of improvement in indicators as a
17

result of effective implementation of programs (PEDPII). The analysis relied heavily on the
Household Income and Expenditure Survey, third party evaluation of the M&E system, and
reports from the Annual School Census. In the first years of PEDPIII, there is a greater emphasis
(reflected in the DLIs) on putting into place critical policy related actions and meeting important
implementation milestones to build stronger foundations in key areas of the system including
M&E, and measuring student learning. These steps build incrementally over the life of the
program with the later years of PEDPIII then focusing more toward program outcomes. The shift
of emphasis from inputs to meeting implementation milestones and outcomes, as well as more
use of the countrys financial systems, is better to address Governments own focus on results,
and its desire for program flexibility and more harmonized procedures with and between all
Development Partners.
C. Financial Management
45. The public financial management systems of Bangladesh can meet World Bank
requirements under OP/BP 10.02, and there would be sufficient basis to place reliance on the
country financial management systems for all financial management aspects of PEDP III subject
to satisfactory implementation of the agreed public financial management (PFM) action plan
which is well underway prior to Effectiveness. While the use of country financial management
systems was assessed as a lower fiduciary risk than the use of a parallel financial management
system as under PEDP II, it was recognized that there would be considerable challenges in
shifting from parallel systems to mainstream funds flow through the country systems. Certain
necessary actions were therefore identified to be accomplished prior to the start of project
implementation. Two of these tasks have been completed, i.e. agreement by the Comptroller and
Auditor General (CAG) on the Statement of Audit Needs for annual audit of PEDPIII and
agreement by MOPME on Terms of Reference for the Annual Fiduciary Review. The Controller
General of Accounts confirmed at negotiations that the remaining necessary actions would be
taken by July 2011, ie: (a) the Payment Process Times Compliance report will be generated on a
monthly basis for transactions under the Program; (b) a monthly report on the status of
reconciliation of expenditures between the DDO (Drawing and Disbursement Officers) and their
respective accounting officers will be generated from the Integrated Budgeting and Accounting
System (iBAS) and provided to the MOPME secretary; (c) iBAS will capture the PEDPIII
Component/Sub-Component wise expenditures; and (d) CGA will revise the procedure and
iBAS to enable an appropriate accounting for advances so that advances are not shown as final
expenditures.
46. No separate designated account will be established for the IDA contribution to PEDPIII.
Instead, the Credit proceeds will be disbursed directly to the Consolidated Fund Account (CF) of
the Government of Bangladesh as indicated in the withdrawal applications. The resources to be
transferred at each disbursement cycle will be linked to the Governments achieving the DLIs.
The estimated expenditure levels that IDA will finance for each disbursement cycle are set out in
the disbursement schedule (Table A3.1). Availability of funds for PEDPIII activities would be
secured through government approved budget, and payments for the program activities across
the country would be made by the accounts offices on the basis of approval of expenditures by
the DDOs in accordance with Governments own internal control procedures. IDA (OP 10.02)
requires that the financial statements for the PBHs be audited annually and provided to it no later
18

than six months after the end of the reporting period. The financial statements of PEDPIII will be
audited by the CAG under the agreed statement of audit needs.
47. While upfront strengthening of government systems under the PFM action plan is critical
for smooth transition to the Governments financial system, the PFM capacity building at
sectoral level would primarily be carried out under the Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF) for
SPEMP. In addition, PEDPIII would ensure the timely follow-up of audit observations and
conduct of Annual Fiduciary Review as specific risk-mitigation measures. The Joint Financing
Arrangements will document the requirements in terms of broad financial management
arrangements including PBHs, key internal controls, disbursement, financial reporting, and
auditing.
D. Procurement
48. IDA will finance civil works, goods, non-consulting services and recurrent costs under
the identified PBHs through a SWAp with eight other Development Partners, to co-finance the
implementation of the PEDPIII of Government. It is estimated that approximately 20 percent of
the overall expenditures for PEDPIII will be for procurable. The majority of procurement will
comprise small value contracts (constituting 80 percent of total procurement expenditure of
US$1.6 billion), for which essentially only local bidders will compete. These contracts would be
jointly financed by the Development Partners, and procured in accordance with the
requirements set forth or referred to in Section 1 of IDAs Guidelines Procurement under IBRD
Loans and IDA Credits, Published May 2004 as revised in October 2006 and May 2010
through National Competitive Bidding methods of the GOB Procurement Rules 2008 (as
amended in August 2009) and the GOB Public Procurement Act (1st Amendment 2009) with six
modifications as required by IDA (see Annex 3) and deemed acceptable by ADB and the other
Development partners, subject also to proposed waivers (see following paragraph). Goods and
civil works procured through International Competitive Bidding (ICB) method would be
financed by IDA, other Development Partners (except ADB) and GoB, following IDAs
Guidelines. The IDA Credit will not finance expenditures against Consultant Services since the
selection of consultant services will follow the Asian Development Banks Guidelines on the
Use of Consultants by the Asian Development Bank and its Borrowers (April 2010, as amended
from time to time).
49. In the context of NCB contracts for civil works, goods, and non-consulting services
jointly financed by IDA and the Development Partners, including ADB, Section 1 of IDAs
Guidelines will apply, with the six modifications, and subject to approval of waivers with the
objective of harmonization between the procurement and anti-corruption guidelines of IDA and
ADB. A waiver is being requested from the World Bank Board to extend IDAs rights under
paragraph 1.8(d) of the IDA Guidelines to provide additionally for the ineligibility of firms and
individuals debarred by ADB. ADB management intends to obtain a waiver to open up eligibility
to individuals and firms from all World Bank member countries.
50. All eligible procurement will be carried out by the implementing agencies (IAs):
Directorate of Primary Education (DPE), Local Government Engineering Department (LGED),
National Academy of Primary Education (NAPE), and the National Curriculum and Textbook
19

Board (NCTB) (hereinafter referred to as implementing Agencies, IAs). The procurement
assessment conducted during program preparation verified that, through experience gained in the
execution of IDA funded projects, the IAs have developed reasonable procurement capacity to
carry out the procurement activities of the primary education budget. Various audit reports
during the initial years of PEDPII showed substantial deviations, for which there were a few
incidents of misprocurement. These concerns were subsequently mitigated by implementing a
Risk Mitigation System (RMS). For PEDPIII, risk mitigation and monitoring measures are also
being incorporated for procurement managed by the IAs (see Annex 3). To enhance their
procurement capacity and safeguard against risks of fraud and corruption, the Borrower will
implement a Procurement Risk Mitigation Plan (PRMP) that calls for monitoring procurement
performance against key indicators and submitting quarterly reports to IDA. The key indicators
include: timeliness of bid evaluation and contract award, strengthening complaint handling
mechanisms, and disclosure of contract award information. In addition, a needs-based technical
assistance strategy is being developed (see Annex 5) and will be updated during Project
implementation to ensure adequate support. The Governance and Accountability Action Plan
(GAAP), developed in conjunction with this PAD, further incorporates relevant actions
(highlighted in Annex 4: ORAF) to mitigate fraud and corruption risks.
51. The Project design mandates that Governments annual procurement plan for PEDPIII
shall be the Projects procurement plan. The first Procurement plan, which DPE has prepared for
12 months covering FY 2011-2012, was reviewed at Project negotiations and will be part of the
Annual Operational Plan for the primary education sub-sector.
E. Social (including Safeguards)
52. One of the principal concerns in preparing PEDPIII has been to identify more effective
means of reducing disparities in access to quality schooling. The PEDPIII aims to achieve this
through a particular focus on children of the most marginalized groups who remain out of formal
schooling. The actions will include, inter alia, the stipend program, criteria guiding
implementation of the needs-based infrastructure program, and reinforcement of decentralized
planning and management through support to SMCs and the Upazila education offices. For
culturally appropriate provision of benefits to Indigenous Peoples, the Indigenous Peoples Plan
for Expanding Education of Tribal Children (July 14, 2003), developed for PEDPII and publicly
disclosed, is also the instrument being used for PEDPIII. This and a specific Gender Action Plan
have been endorsed by all the Development Partners participating in the PEDPIII SWAp. To
ensure targets are achieved, the EMIS will closely monitor disparities in enrollments, learning
achievement, and primary school completion across diverse social groups. The DLIs as well as
the implementation support to be provided by the Development Partners systematically focus on
strengthening the use of EMIS for planning and management.
53. The Environmental Management Framework (EMF) and Social Management Framework
(SMF) have been developed through extensive consultation with stakeholders, and specifically
with indigenous peoples groups. Both EMF and SMF provide for participatory approach,
community accountability, and grievance mechanisms. The documents conform to World Bank
safeguard policies and apply to the entire SWAp.
20

54. The process of preparing the PEDPIII has included all stakeholders e.g. teachers and
head-teachers, community leaders and parents, madrasha representatives, non-formal education
representatives, and nongovernmental organizations. These groups have been active in
consultation workshops, translating needs into program design, articulating implementation
challenges, and identifying how to build upon achievements of PEDPII.
55. Social Safeguards: As a function of the needs-based criteria for the PEDPIII
infrastructure program, expansion and renovation of existing schools, where required, will
involve construction of additional classrooms, provision of separate toilets for girls and boys,
safe drinking water supply, and repair/renovation of the buildings for overall improvement of the
learning environment. Construction of additional classrooms and toilets will be carried out on the
existing school premises. Most of these schools are likely to be located in the relatively densely
population areas. New building construction is mostly foreseen for the disaster-prone coastal
regions. The new schools in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), which have the largest
concentration of the countrys indigenous population, will have dormitories to offset travel
difficulties and risks encountered by children from highly dispersed settlements. The new
schools will be built on khas and other public lands (including those owned by MOPME) which
are free of private users including squatters; lands would be transferred from one government
agency to the other. Where public lands are not available, they will be sought on voluntary
private donation by local individuals and communities. Beyond these possible options, DPE has
also decided that, unlike the case for PEDPII, it will not rule out the remote possibility of land
acquisition during PEDPIII as it steps up efforts to assure physical facilities are available for full
enrolment of all school-aged children. Hence, OP 4.12 on Involuntary Resettlement has been
triggered. With its program in the CHT, PEDPII triggered OP 4.10 on Indigenous Peoples, and
this will remain applicable under PEDPIII.
56. Consistent with the World Banks OP 4.10, OP 4.12 and the safeguards requirements of
the other Development Partners, DPE prepared a Social Management Framework (SMF) that
was publicly disclosed before appraisal. DPE carried out consultations with indigenous peoples
groups whose views and recommendations were incorporated into the SMF.
57. The SMF sets out the principles, policies, guidelines and procedures to prepare the
Indigenous Peoples Plans (IPPs) and Resettlement Plans (RPs) as and when required for the
individual schools in the event that physical works are identified to cause any adverse impacts on
indigenous peoples, private landowners, or public land users. Regarding OP 4.12, it has been
assessed as highly unlikely that there will be any potential squatters displaced, but the SMF has
been prepared keeping the option of land acquisition as a last resort for procuring required lands;
Annex 3 provides additional detail. As executing agency, DPE will be responsible for
supervision, monitoring and evaluation of compliance with the SMF. A Social specialist with
expertise in resettlement, indigenous peoples, and gender issues will be appointed by DPE.
District and Upazila offices will perform all process tasks specified in the SMF; the District
Education Officers will report to DPE, which will monitor and report on the entire Project.
Jointly with DPE, the World Bank and the other Development Partners will evaluate the years
compliance with the social and environmental safeguards (e.g. during the Joint Annual Review).
Post reviews of RPs and IPPs on a sample basis are further envisaged to ensure safeguards
compliance.
21

F. Environment (including Safeguards)
58. The PEDPIII infrastructure program, to be implemented throughout Bangladesh, does not
envisage any large scale, significant or irreversible environmental impact since the interventions
foreseen are all relatively small scale. The program was reviewed during preparation and
designated as environmental Category B which is appropriate and consistent with the provisions
of OP/BP 4.01. The program requires partial environmental assessment of subprojects before
their implementation.
59. PEDPIII will support mainly four types of subprojects: (i) maintenance and minor
renovation of buildings; (ii) expansion or major renovation of existing classrooms/buildings; (iii)
new building construction; and (iv) provision of water supply and sanitation facilities. Particular
attention will be placed on infrastructure in vulnerable geographic locations, e.g. coastal areas,
hilly areas, and floodplains. Many of the schools are likely to be in the disaster-prone coastal
regions where they will also serve as shelters during cyclone and natural calamities. The
Environmental Management Framework (EMF) prepared and publicly disclosed by DPE before
appraisal is the framework on which they will prepare Environmental Management Plans
comprising the mitigating measures, where required, to eliminate adverse environmental impacts
or reduce them to acceptable limits.
60. Following the practice as in PEDPII, DPE will delegate implementation of the
infrastructure program for PEDPIII to the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED).
The LGED has reinforced its Environmental Unit with a head engineer. This Unit will also have
a full time Environmental Specialist responsible for supervising (including ensuring program
activities do not infringe upon natural ecosystems during the design stage) and reporting on
compliance with the EMF. DPE will sign a Memorandum of Understanding with the Department
of Public Health Engineering for annual arsenic testing of tube-wells and data analysis.
22

Annex 1: Results Framework and Monitoring
BANGLADESH
Third Primary Education Development Program (PEDPIII)
Results Framework
Project Development Objective (PDO): (i) increase participation and reduce social disparities in primary education, (ii) increase the number of children completing primary education and
improve the quality of the learning environment and measurement of student learning, and (iii) improve effectiveness of resource use for primary education.
Cumulative Target Values** Responsibility Description
Core
PDO Level Results Data Source/

Unit of Measure Baseline Frequency for Data (indicator definition
Indicators* 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 Methodology
Collection etc.)
Indicator One: Net enrollment 84.7% (overall) Every 3 HIES (2010), BBS, DPE Proportion of
Increase in the number rate by gender (HIES, 2010) years EHS children aged 6-10
of children enrolled in (HIES) (2012/13), enrolled in primary
primary education 98%(overall) HIES (2015) education
93.9% (overall) 97%(boys)
89.1% (boys) 100%(girls)
99.1% (girls) Annual ASC (2009)
(ASC,2009) (ASC)
Indicator Two: %, disaggregated 52.2%(boys) 58% (boys) 59% (boys) 60% (boys) 62% Annual ASC DPE Primary cycle
Primary cycle by gender 57.5%(girls) 63% (girls) 64%(girls) 65% (girls) (boys)67% completion rate
Completion Rate (PCR) (2009) (girls) (PCR) as % of
cohort; gender parity
index
Indicator Three: NER of 20% NER of 20% NER of 20% Every 3 HIES BBS, DPE Decrease in disparity
Decreased disparity in poorest relative to poorest: poorest: years (2010)EHS in NER by: poor/non-
access to schooling NER 20% richest 58% 66% 2012/13, HIES poor; and compared
measured by family (2015) MICS, to national average
X
income levels NER of 20% NER of 20% WFP Poverty NER
richest: 80% richest: 85% Profiles
(2005) Ratio:.77
Ratio: .72
Indicator Four: Frequency and Grade 5 a 5-yr Action 2011 Grade 5 2012 Grade 5 2013 Annual a) Exam and DPE, NAPE a) Quality defined as
Learning levels quality of completion plan for completion completion Grade 5 assessment competency-based
regularly monitored assessment of exam quality exam based exam with at completion result exam items
through learning learning of implemented improvement on pilot least 10% exam with databases; b) Grade 5 is the last
assessment system primary for first time in in Grade 5 results competency at least 25% b) test items grade of primary
education 2009 to all completion based test competency schooling
X
completers students: exam items based test
(Grade 5 testing memory developed and items
completion more than adopted with
exam) ability to use new test items
subject piloted
knowledge
23

Core
Collection etc.)
Indicator Five: Proportion of 27% (2010) Guidelines 50% 60% 75% Annual Budget reports DPE
Expanded coverage of schools revised budget Director of
decentralized planning preparing reporting Finance
and management at SLIPs &
school levels receiving funds
INTERMEDIATE RESULTS
Intermediate Result 1: Improved quality of the learning environment
Intermediate Result % schools 32.7% (2010) 75% 80% 85% 90% Annual Reports based DPE, NCTB % of schools
indicator One: receiving on receipts following NCTB
Adequate learning textbooks signed in the curriculum having
resources within first field. received Grades 1 to
month of Monitoring to V textbooks
X academic year be gradually The types of schools
improved receiving free
textbooks is
increasing from 4 to
6 types compared to
baseline
Intermediate Result Share of 17% (2009) 18% 25% 35% 50% Annual ASC DPE PSQL (Primary School
indicator Two: schools that Quality Level Package
Classroom environment met minimum of minimum standards
more conducive to quality measuring physical,
learning levelsPSQL teaching/learning
(%) environment e.g. PTR,
student classroom
ratio, access to safe
water, available toilets
for girls.
Indicator measures the
proportion of schools
that meet at least 3 out
the 4 standards
Intermediate Result % teachers % teachers % teachers %teachers % teachers C-in-Ed and % teachers in GPS and
Indicator Three: % of who have C-in- who have C- who have C- who have who have C- Dip-in-Ed RNGPS
qualified primary Ed : 85% in-Ed: 86 % in-Ed: 87% C-in-Ed: in-Ed: 88% databases
teachers 88% (information
X from PTIs
% teachers % teachers % teachers % teachers % teachers consolidated at
who have Dip- who have who have who have who have DPE level)
in-Ed: 0% Dip-in-Ed Dip-in-Ed Dip-in-Ed: Dip-in-Ed:
(2010) 0% 0% 2% 6%
24

Core
Collection etc.)
Intermediate Result 2: Improved infrastructure and financial support provided to the disadvantaged
Intermediate Result % of Program not 65% 75% Twice BBS, DPE Monitors impact of
indicator One: beneficiaries well during 2010 HIES change in targeting
Providing financial belonging to targeted:52.5% PEDPIII 2011 study modalities for the
support to 40 % poorest of beneficiaries lifetime 2012 EHS stipends by
disadvantaged students households belong to 40% measuring (increase
poorest in) proportion of
households beneficiaries
(2005) belonging to the
poorest households
Intermediate Result Number of 32,000 new 3,200 9,600 17,600 Annual LGED data LGED Prioritized classroom
indicator Two: classrooms built classrooms is defined in DPE-
Adequate infrastructure or rehabilitated required to approved list.
and facilities (from prioritized reduce Stipulated design and
list) according to overcrowding quality standards are
agreed approved and
X construction supervised by LGED.
standards
including
adequate
sanitary
facilities.
Intermediate Result 3: Improved program planning and management, and strengthened institutions
Intermediate Result Proportion of Revision of Revised Annual Budget reports DPE
indicator One: Upazilas having guidelines for guidelines 10% 25% budget Director of
Strengthening Upazilas prepared UPEPs UPEPs under issued reporting Finance
for supporting school and receiving preparation to
management funds include
identification
of block grants
Intermediate Result a)Number of 12 11 10 9 8 ASC DPE Increased coverage of

indicator Two: M&E months for census ASC defined as types
systems strengthened to administration and of schools providing
improve monitoring and dissemination data
data utilization for b)Increased
program performance coverage of ASC
and planning (types of schools) 4 4 4 6 6
*Please indicate whether the indicator is a Core Sector Indicator (see further http://coreindicators)
**Target values should be entered for the years data will be available, not necessarily annually.
25

Disbursement Linked Indicators (DLIs)
I Improving Quality of the Learning Environment and Measurement of Student Learning
DLI Baseline Year 0 Year 1 (April/May Year 2 (April/May Year 3 Protocol
(May-June 2011) 2012) 2013) (April/May 2014)
1. Textbooks/ Textbook At least 75% of all At least 80% of all At least 85% of all At least Grade 1 Definition: Grades 1 to 5 textbooks approved by NCTB
Curriculum: distribution to eligible schools eligible schools eligible schools textbook revised, are to be made available to all eligible schools (through
schools spread receive all approved receive all approved receive all approved based on new the UEOs) and delivered to all schools under the
Improving the over several textbooks (Grades 1 to textbooks (Grades 1 to textbooks (Grades 1 to competency-based purview of MOPME and MOE. Eligible schools are all
timeliness of months 5) within one month of 5) within one month of 5) within one month of curriculum developed those mentioned in the Book distribution guidelines and
textbook school opening day school opening day school opening day by NCTB following NCTB curriculum.
distribution and Textbook content
quality of still based on Third party validation Monitoring system of At least 90% of all Source: DPEs Administration Divisions reconciled
textbook content current of monitoring textbook distribution eligible schools reports based on receipts signed by head masters and
curriculum mechanism completed improved with actions receive all approved compiled by UEOs and DPEOs, and (ii) reports of
agreed by MOPME textbooks (incl. textbooks delivery at Upazila levels submitted by
and MOE based on revised Grade 1 NCTB; third party validation reports.
validation results textbook) within one
month of school
opening day
2. Teacher Low standards Comprehensive TED All preparatory steps Dip-in-Ed diploma Dip-in-Ed diploma Definition: The plan and strategy for primary teacher
Education and and competencies plan prepared and for introduction of piloted in at least 7 rolled out in 57 PTIs education and development (TED plan) defines the
Development guiding teacher adopted by MOPME Dip-in-Ed completed PTIs with number of with number of professional standards/competencies of teachers, head
(TED) : training (in- in accordance with the instructors according instructors according teachers and AUEOs and the strategy for improving
service) Plan to the Plan to the Plan pre-service (with the introduction of a new Dip-in-
Improving Ed), in-service (CPD), teacher supervision,
teacher training networking and mentoring.
effectiveness and
teacher quality Preparatory steps for introduction of the Dip-
in- Ed include sufficient instructors in each
PTI, curriculum, training materials &
assessment tools development, and training of
instructors as specified in the TED plan.
Source: TED plan as approved by MOPME

Secretary; reports from training division and
NAPE, curriculum and training materials and
administrative data.
26

3. Grade 5 Grade 5 A 5 -year Action plan Revised 2011 Grade 5 Action plan Action plan Definition: The Grade 5 Action Plan specifies the
Completion completion exam for improvements in Completion Exam, implemented with at implemented with at number of new competency-based items to be
Exam: implemented for Grade 5 Completion based on action plan least 10% of items least 25% of items introduced each year, with the aim of achieving a fully
all primary school Exam developed by and pilot results competency-based competency-based competency-based exam by end- 2016.
Improving the students in 2009. NAPE and approved implemented, incl. introduced in the 2012 introduced in the 2013
quality of primary by MOPME and guidelines developed Grade 5 exam and an grade 5 exam and an Analysis of results includes: (i) analysis of pass rates
completion exam Content focused including revising test for markers and additional 15% of additional 25% of by gender, subjects, Upazilas conducted by DPE; and
and the regular on testing items to gradually training of markers competency-based competency-based (ii) analysis of NAPE of marking and scoring of a
measurement of students memory transform exam into items piloted items piloted sample of answered scripts in selected Upazilas.
learning more than ability competency-based test Analysis of 2011
to use subject Grade 5 completion Source: Action plan as approved by DG, NAPE and
New test items
knowledge exam results and Analysis of 2012 Analysis of 2013 MOPME; sample of test items and questionnaire of
developed by NAPE
content completed by Grade 5 completion Grade 5 completion grade 5 exam; test analysis reports by DPE and
on selected
DPE and NAPE and exam results and exam results and NAPE.
competencies and
results disseminated content completed by content completed by
piloted with
DPE and NAPE and DPE and NAPE and
accompanying
results disseminated results disseminated
guidelines for pilot test
administration and
training of test
administrators
4. Teacher and Approximately, Assessment of yearly All teachers and head All teachers and head All teachers and head Definition: Needs-based analysis (conducted by DPE)
Head Teacher 5,000 to 6,000 needs for new teachers teachers positions teachers positions teachers positions require a detailed review of EMIS and teacher database
recruitment: vacancies to be and head teachers (regular vacancies and (regular vacancies and (regular vacancies and to identify schools below minimum standards for STR
filled every year. based on verification newly created newly created newly created (1:56) followed by site verification by UEOs and
Ensuring quality In addition, new of current teaching positions) filled positions) filled positions) filled AUEOs.
of new teachers positions needed force, and on needs- according to merit- according to merit- according to merit-
hired to reduce based infrastructure based recruitment based recruitment based recruitment The competitive, merit-based teacher recruitment rules
classroom development plan procedures and on procedures and on procedures and on currently in place would be applied to all recruitment.
overcrowding. completed and needs basis. needs basis. needs basis. They include: (i) applications screened by committee
approved by MOPME (or on-line): (ii) anonymous exam; (iii) weight given to
Teacher And at least 90% of And at least 90% of And at least 90% of exam (80), academic record (5) and viva voce (15).
recruitment new teachers and head new teachers and head new teachers and head
procedures in teachers positions to teachers positions to teachers positions to Source: Needs-based analysis of new teacher
place are be created for current be created for current be created for current positions approved by MOPME; administrative data,
competitive and year in accordance year in accordance year in accordance sample of exams, implementation plans and schedules
merit-based with needs assessment with needs assessment with needs assessment for recruitment cycles; career paths, recruitment and
filled. filled. filled. promotion rules for teachers, head teachers and DPE
officers as approved by Government of Bangladesh
Revised final proposal Recruitment rules with through a Government order issued by the Ministry of
for career paths for career paths for Public Administration (status of approval process to
teachers and head teachers and head be communicated annually).
teachers, career paths, teachers; career paths,
27

recruitment and recruitment and
promotion rules for promotion rules for
DPE officers (field DPE officers field and
and headquarters) headquarters)
submitted by MOPME approved by
to the committee of the Government of
Joint Secretary, Bangladesh
Regulations, Ministry
of Public
Administration
II Increasing Participation and Reducing Social Disparities

Sub-Program Baseline Year 0 (May-June Year 1 (April/May Year 2 (April/May Year 3 (April/May Protocol
2011) 2012) 2013) 2014)
5. Pre-Primary: About 1.4 million Guidelines prepared Integrated database At least 15,000 PPE At least 60% of PPE Definition: 1 year PPE program organized for children
children entering and endorsed by of PPE provision by teachers placed and teachers in GPS trained aged 5.
Strengthening Grade1 with some MOPME on the role of type of provider trained in areas of in using new pre-
Guidelines define the role of NGOs in the delivery of
childrens PPE prior NGOs in pre-primary completed greatest need primary curriculum and
PPE and specify the types of partnerships that can
readiness for experience education. materials
exist with the Government, in particular, in setting up
learning Plan for PPE Curriculum,
new school-based PPE, training and coaching
PPE provision in expansion approved standards and PPE provision in at
teachers, preparing materials, and providing services
43% of GPS by MOPME materials for PPE and least 75% of GPS
if required in the catchment area.
mostly through teacher training schools
non-government approved by The integrated database of providers would include
providers MOPME the location of services and, combined with the child
survey data, would provide a map of areas of greatest
need for PPE.
The expansion plan, based on needs identified through
the database, standards for PPE and the role of
NGOs/private sector, defines the pace of recruitment
and training, the type and duration of training, timing
of classes, and expansion pace.
PPE teachers will be recruited through a transparent
process; they can be regular primary teachers, or
contract teachers hired by schools with n the local
communities.
Source: Letter of endorsement of guidelines by
MOPME; provider database, expansion plan approved
by MOPME; curriculum, standards and materials,
ASC, CAMPE reports and administrative data.
28

Sub-Program Baseline Year 0 (May-June Year 1 (April/May Year 2 (April/May Year 3 (April/May Protocol
2011) 2012) 2013) 2014)
6. Infrastructure 53% of GPS, 49% Infrastructure needs At least 10% of At least 30% of At least 55% of planned Definition: The plan for prioritized needs-based
of RNGPS and assessment completed planned needs-based planned needs-based needs-based infrastructure specifies criteria and standards used for
Reducing 31% of community and 5 year plan for infrastructure infrastructure infrastructure estimates of needs. Based on these criteria, the plan
classroom schools prioritized needs-based development development development completed provides estimates of needs to be covered over 5 years
overcrowding and overcrowded infrastructure finalized completed according completed according according to agreed for: (i) additional classrooms and teachers rooms:
improving school and approved by to agreed criteria and to agreed criteria and criteria and technical (ii)additional toilets, urinals for students and teachers;
Need for about
environment MOPME technical standards technical standard standards (iii) repair of existing toilets; (iv) drinking water; (v)
32,000 new
school maintenance and repair.
classrooms,
Third party validation Third party validation
120,000 new
of compliance of of compliance of Building specifications and technical standards are those
toilets for teachers
infrastructure infrastructure designed and approved by LGED.
and students,
development with development with
repair of about
criteria and technical criteria and technical Source: Needs-based infrastructure plan approved by
18,000 existing
standards standards completed MOPME Secretary; construction contracts; construction
ones, drinking
supervision reports by LGED engineers; third party
water supply.
supervision reports.
III Improving Program Planning and Management, and Strengthening Institutions

Sub-Program Baseline Year 0 (March Year 1 (April/May Year 2 (April/May Year 3 (April/May Protocol
2011) 2012) 2013) 2014)
7.School Limited Circular/ Guidelines SMC guidelines ( in At least 60% of schools At least 75% of schools Definition: A SLIP is a school level improvement
governance: involvement of for SLIPs revised, accordance with SLIP having prepared SLIPs having prepared SLIPs plan prepared by the SMC, and the school
SMCs in school (including guidelines) revised and and received funds and received funds community.
Strengthening management and monitoring approved by MOPME according to SMC according to SMC
SMCs and improvement arrangements), guidelines(1) XX% of guidelines validated by A UPEP is a planning instrument setting out ways to
Upazilas for approved by 50% of schools having schools having received expenditure tracking support schools and the quality agenda.
supporting school Low capacity of MOPME and prepared SLIPs and guidelines and prepared survey (at least 25% of
management Upazila offices to distributed to all received funds SLIPs Upazilas having Revised guidelines for SLIPs/UPEPs specify how
provide support to schools according to the SMC received funds based on improvement plans should be prepared, what are
schools guidelines At least 10% of UPEPS guidelines and expenditures eligible for block grants as well as the
Upazilas having validated by fund flow mechanism, tracking and training. They
Revised guidelines for prepared UPEPs and expenditure tracking will allow for differential support to schools.
UPEPs, including received funds survey
identification of according to UPEP SMC guidelines specify membership, roles and
expenditures for block guidelines. responsibilities of SMC members (including
grants, approved by fiduciary).
MOPME and
distributed to all Source: SLIPs, UPEPs, and SMCs guidelines as
Upazilas approved by MOPME; MOFs approval of advances
to schools; administrative data; sample analysis of
SLIPs and UPEPs.
29

Sub-Program Baseline Year 0 (March Year 1 (April/May Year 2 (April/May Year 3 (April/May Protocol
2011) 2012) 2013) 2014)
8. Education Links between FY11 Primary FY12 Primary FY13 Primary FY14 Primary Definition: Subsector financing has to be adequate to
sector financing: budgetary process education program education program education program education program implement GoBs PEDPIII and cannot be less than
and medium-term approved with approved with financing approved with financing approved with financing 1.03% of GDP in any period.
Ensuring education sector financing levels levels consistent with levels consistent with levels consistent with
adequate strategy still weak consistent with agreed program results agreed program results agreed program results Source: budget circulars 1 & 2, Detailed budget
financing of agreed program framework and FY12- framework and FY13- framework and FY14- framework and expenditure forecast. Financial
primary Low level of results framework 17 MTBF 18 MTBF 19 MTBF reports. Draft budget (May), expenditure statement
education public financing of and FY11-16 until April/May, approved budget (July); simplified
program and primary education MTBF Actual primary Actual primary Actual primary AOP and IFR (June).
improving education expenditures education expenditures education expenditures
medium-term in FY11 within 15% in FY12 within 15% in FY13 within 15%
budgeting deviation of the deviation of the deviation of the
originally approved originally approved originally approved
budget budget budget
.
9. M&E: M&E and EMIS ASC questionnaire New ASC questionnaire 2013 Census 2014 Census Definition: the current census questionnaire collects
insufficiently and software fully implemented in administration, report administration, report information on enrollment, repetition, teachers
Improving the staffed adjusted to meet 2012 census. preparation and preparation and qualification and training, physical infrastructure,
quality of the PEDPIII dissemination complete dissemination complete furniture and availability of teaching-learning
Annual School IT support requirements Plan developed and within the academic within the academic materials. To adjust to PEDPIII needs, new
Census (ASC) functions approved by DPE for year ; expanding year ; covering at least information is required on pre-primary education,
data and the preventing expanding coverage of coverage to at least 6 6 types s of primary textbook distribution and stipend beneficiaries.
effectiveness of adequate and monitoring system (to types of schools schools
the M&E unit timely data all primary schools) Internal data validation mechanisms include
analysis and with periodic Internal data validation Third party validation background checks during data entry and data
effective M&E validations mechanisms in place of census data cleaning rules.
and validation of data completed
Census data IT function separated accuracy completed Source: EMIS, M&E units
covering only 4 from EMIS function;
types of primary EMIS and M&E staffed
schools with at least 2
statisticians each
30

Annex 2: Detailed Program Description
I. Project development objectives
1. The Project development objectives (PDO) are to (i) increase participation and reduce
social disparities in primary education, (ii) increase the number of children completing primary
education and improve the quality of the learning environment and measurement of student
learning, and (iii) improve effectiveness of resource use for primary education. The main basis
for these objectives is the National Education Policy (2010) for which PEDPIII implements the
first phase with respect to pre-primary and primary education. PEDPIII also aims more broadly,
to improve public finance management and effectiveness of public expenditures and service
delivery in the primary education sector. PEDPIII interventions are integrated within the GOB
organizational and operational systems. All programs and activities supported by the
Development Partners in the SWAp are coordinated within this framework.
2. The precursor, sector-wide program (PEDPII) jointly financed by the Bank and ten
Development Partners was implemented through a mix of pooled and parallel funding. The
operation was managed by a dedicated unit within DPE. Results show positive trends, as
described earlier in this PAD, but there is also the recognition that marked disparities still need to
be bridged in participation rates of children from different socio-cultural groups. Learning
outcomes and primary cycle completion must improve substantially across the system.
Management at all levels needs to overcome various capacity limitations, and the regulatory
framework for working across the primary education sector with all providers government,
non-government, private is only in early stages of development. PEDPIII is intended to build
on the momentum generated by its precursor in areas of access, quality, and effectiveness but
with a distinctly concerted emphasis on accountability. The focus is on the use rather than
simply the supply of inputs to achieve expected results.
3. The Government and Development Partners have agreed on a set of Key Performance
Indicators (KPIs) which cover the entire scope of the primary sector, to assess performance and
results on an annual basis. The Project incorporates a selected number of these KPIs into the
PDO level Results Indicators of Annex 1 (net enrollment rate, decreased disparity in access to
schooling, and learning levels regularly monitored). Additional KPIs are incorporated into the
Intermediate Results Indicators (Annex 1) and the DLI matrix (e.g. DLIs on textbooks, physical
infrastructure, strengthening of M&E systems). Annex 2 presents a detailed description of
PEDPIII program interventions grouped by the three thrust areas of the DLIs. By way of
introduction, Figure A2.1 explains the results chain in terms of how it is expected that
achievement of the DLI actions, as well as other activities supported by PEDPIII, will contribute
to development outcomes described in the PDO. For example, the four DLIs in the thrust area
(textbooks, Dip-in-Ed, Grade 5 exam, and teacher recruitment per merit and quality criteria)
track upward to directly corresponding targets in the first category of Intermediate Results
Indicators (IR1: Improved quality of learning environment) and, further, to the PDO level
indicators (including completion rate, as this is expected to rise as a function of improving
quality of the learning environment). Additional program areas in PEDPIII which amplify the
effects of the DLI actions are shown in the last row of Figure A2.1.
31

Figure A2.1 Results Chain Linkages between PDO, Intermediate Results and DLIs
PDO Increase participation and reduce social Increase the number of children completing primary Improve effectiveness of resource use for
statement disparities in primary education education and improve the quality of the learning primary education
environment & measurement of student learning
PDO level Net enrollment by gender Completion rate to grade 5 (end of Increasing use of results based
indicators- primary education) framework measured by %
NER ratio of 20% poorest to 20% richest
Results Frequency and quality of assessment schools preparing results-based
Framework of learning SLIPs & receiving funds
IR 2: Improved infrastructure and financial IR 1: Improved quality of learning

IR3: Improved program planning &
Intermediate support provided to the disadvantaged environment
management, and strengthened
Results (IR) Financial support provided to disadvantaged Schools receiving textbooks
institutions
(stipends targeted to higher proportion of Classroom environment conducive to
% of Upazilas having prepared UPEPS
children in poorest geographical areas) learning (PSQL)
Improving quality, timeliness &
Number classrooms built/rehabilitated % qualified teachers
(needs-based for which there are targets coverage of ASC
regarding access for disadvantaged groups)
Improving quality of learning environment & Improving Program Planning &

Increasing participation & reducing measurement of student learning Management, Strengthening Institutions
DLIs
social disparities Schools receiving textbooks on time and % schools preparing SLIPs/receiving
PPE: expansion in areas of greatest need better quality textbooks funds
Infrastructure : % needs-based plan completed Dip-in-Ed (improving teacher training and Ensuring adequate sector financing and
and implemented effectiveness) stronger links between budgetary process
Improving quality Grade 5 exam & regular and results framework
assessment of learning Improving timeliness & quality of ASC;
Ensuring quality new teachers hired and improving effectiveness of the M&E
adequate number of teachers: % recruitment Unit
per the conditions specified in DLI
Communication and social mobilization School and classroom-based assessment Human Resource Development through
Additional campaigns National Assessment needs and merit-based approach
Program School health and nutrition programs
areas for Active learning methods and Teacher support
Second chance and inclusive education ICT in education
PEDPIII programs for disadvantaged and dropouts
32

II. Program Description
Financing of the GOB Third Primary Education Development Program (PEDPIII)

Total: US$5800 million; IDA: US$300 million
A. Sector Wide Approach (SWAp)
4. The proposed Project finances civil works, goods, non-consulting services and recurrent
costs through a Sector Wide approach (SWAp) with eight other Development Partners, to co-
finance with the Government of Bangladesh the implementation of the GOBs Third Primary
Education Program. The Project finances both recurrent and development expenditures to
support the carrying out of interventions for improving the measurement of student learning and
the quality of the learning environment; increasing participation and reducing social and regional
disparities in primary education; and improving program planning and management, and
strengthening institutions. The Government has a results framework for PEDPIII with expected
results in the areas of quality, access, equity, and effectiveness. The scope of interventions and
resource requirements will vary across Districts and sub-Districts, and also from year to year, so
the Project is unlike a traditional investment credit with predefined components. The Project
would induce greater incentives in the system to facilitate achievement, while affording the
Government greater flexibility in the choice of inputs to reach the agreed results.
5. The Project will finance against the governments annual plan for the primary education
sub-sector (which will list the activities to be undertaken, and which fall under agreed upon
program budget heads (PBHs)), and the procurement plan. IDA will finance the identified PBHs,
up to maximum amounts as explained in Annex 3. Disbursement is conditioned on the
achievement of indicators, i.e. Disbursement Linked Indicators (DLIs), which are embedded in
the results monitoring framework for the Governments program. The DLIs, determined in
partnership with the GOB and Development Partners, reflect priority elements in PEDPIII,
primarily to generate significant impact in the medium term (4-5 years) toward longer term
sector objectives. The DLIs build incrementally and represent results which are largely under the
control of the government (central, District and Upazila levels) and achievable, although
representing a challenge to the government authorities. The DLIs include institutional changes,
essential steps to implement policies and/or regulations and/or to scale up coverage of programs
and initiatives for realizing the access and quality objectives, and similar outputs/outcomes. All
DLIs are weighted equally. The DLIs will be reviewed at the Project midterm review, and
revisions will be made if needed.
B. PEDPIII Program Areas and Strategic Interventions
6. The program interventions and corresponding DLIs are grouped in three categories: (i)
improving quality of the learning environment and measurement of student learning, (ii)
increasing participation and reducing social disparities, and (iii) improving program planning and
management, and strengthening institutions.
33

7. Context: The Governments ultimate objective is to ensure that each child learns, and that
learning competencies are relevant and incrementally build on appropriate skills each year. There
are disparities in learning outcomes which detract from otherwise notable achievements in
gender parity. For example, in some Districts, girls show higher rates of enrollment and
retention, yet lower achievement than boys in learning outcomes.8 PEDPIII continues systemic
reforms introduced under PEDPII to ensure enabling learning conditions and the regular
measurement of student learning. The major interventions are both at student/school level and
center level, and they recognize the critical inter-relationship between textbooks, teacher
training, and assessment of learning for improving internal efficiency and quality of learning.
8. Strategic Interventions (DLIs): The DLIs focus on improving the timely delivery of free
textbooks to all schools and the quality of textbook content (DLI 1), improving the effectiveness
of teacher training (DLI 2), and the quality, transparency and effectiveness of the primary
completion exam (Grade 5 terminal exam) for measuring student learning (DLI 3). PEDPIII aims
at a phased implementation of the GOBs National Education Policy to revise student learning
competencies (discouraging rote learning), which will guide quality improvements in textbook
content and the Grade 5 exam, as well as teacher education and performance standards. The
improvement process includes training teachers through constant linkage of theory and practice.
Country-wide, there is also a major shift under PEDPIII to a demand-based deployment of
resources for staffing (DLI 4). The deployment of new teachers and head teachers is to be
governed by clear, merit-based criteria as well as filling vacancies which are determined on the
basis of needs for new teachers and head teachers, in part, as a function of progress in creating
more classrooms under the needs-based infrastructure program. The deployment of teachers on a
needs basis is further guided by the objective to achieve pupil-teacher ratios more conducive to
learning. In operation, this calls for review of EMIS and teacher databases to identify schools
below the minimum standard student-teacher ratio. The DLIs are key elements of a broader
agenda in the PEDPIII, for which additional program areas are also described below.
9. Textbooks and other instructional materials: PEDPIII will continue to promote the
availability of textbooks for all grades and will add an emphasis on the utilization of textbooks
and other materials for learning. Textbooks for all grades will be printed and distributed
annually. Matching teacher guides will be prepared once every five years. The premium that
PEDPIII places on impacts at school level is highlighted in the DLI for textbook distribution as
the priority is to establish reliable proof that the books arrive and are received by all schools on
time, across all the different types of schools which follow the NCTB curriculum. To enhance
the quality of learning materials, quality standards (for content which matches the competencies
and age appropriateness, pedagogical layout, and physical specifications) will be defined and
adopted. Capacity building of staff for learning material development will be included in the
program.
10. Examinations and Assessments: MOPME/DPE successfully completed the first Grade 5
Completion Examination in December 2009. The examination serves the functions of: (i)
providing school leavers with a certificate of completion and proficiency and (ii) identifying
8
Education Watch 2008; 2008 National Assessment at Grades 3 and 5.
34

pupils who are eligible for receiving scholarships for entry into Grade 6. In PEDPIII, based on an
action plan, improvements to the completion exam will focus on progressively moving away
from all knowledge/rote recall questions to competencies with more application and problem
solving for real life situations. An action plan has been developed by NAPE during PEDPIII
preparations is geared to improve the Grade 5 completion exam by (i) successively transforming
it into a competency-based test (the 2013 Grade 5 exam is to comprise at least 25 percent
competency-based items and to pilot an additional 25 percent of competency-based items), (ii)
implementing the test, and (iii) analyzing the Grade 5 results on an annual basis and revising test
items accordingly. Analyses of successive completion examination results and content will be
used to inform and guide changes in further test-item design, curriculum development and
teacher training, sharpening the focus of the curriculum/ competencies and changing the way
teachers teach. Skill development for improving the examination, including training markers and
test-items developers, will be an equally important part of this work.
11. Teacher Education and Professional Development: One principal difference under
PEDPIII compared with PEDPII is the emphasis on learning in the classroom that is activity
based, competency-oriented and individually-paced. This profound change in practice will
require on-site professional supervision of teachers and follow-up, as well as peer support. A
second reform under PEDPIII is the Diploma in Primary Education (Dip-in-Ed) which is to raise
the bar for in-service training, aiming to prepare stronger quality future teachers. Under PEDPIII,
four types of professional programs are included in a comprehensive teacher education and
development plan, with the first of these the Dip-in-Ed being the strategic area targeted in the
DLI: (i) A new 18-month Dip-in-Ed is an initial pre-service teacher education program being
adopted to provide foundation training for all future primary school teachers in Bangladesh. The
course will be piloted in a select number of Primary Teacher Training Institutes (PTIs) and then
progressively rolled out as staffing, capacity and resources allow until it is offered in all 55
PTIs (see details in DLI on teacher training; the DLI focuses on pre-service and institutional
changes in lieu of ambitious quantitative targets for number of teachers trained). The curriculum
framework has already been designed and is awaiting MoPMEs approval. (ii) Orientation
Training is planned as a three-week residential training for new teachers. The training will be
conducted by PTI instructors or an outreach trainer trained at the PTIs. (iii) Sub-Cluster Training
is for one day six times a year for all teachers, as part of the in-service program; the Assistant
Upazila Education Officer conducts the training. (iv)Teacher Support Networks will be
strengthened to provide peer support for new teaching approaches. These networks will be
initiated in Upazilas in a phased manner and linked to the needs-based teacher training. An
assessment of utilization and impact of teacher support networks is envisaged, to guide
improvements in this large reform area.
12. Teacher and Head teacher Recruitment: This sub-area is linked to having sufficient
trained teachers working with students for an improved learning environment. Approximately
5,000 to 6,000 vacancies need to be filled every year. In addition, new positions are needed to
reduce classroom overcrowding. DPEs objective is gradually to decrease class size to around 40
children to one teacher as an important element in improving quality of the learning
environment. Ideally, this ratio would also facilitate the use of activity based learning approaches
and better enable each child to learn at her or his own pace. Prior to the onset of PEDPIII, the
norm used to calculate the need for additional classrooms is a teacher-pupil ratio of 1:56. In
order to reach a ratio of 40 students per teacher, about 46,597 new teachers will be needed in
35

GPS. The competitive, merit-based recruitment per the GOBs existing rules would continue
under PEDPIII and be applied to all recruitment. Among others, the rules require applicants to
pass an entrance exam (see details in the DLI on teacher and head teacher recruitment). Transfers
would be made according to need; to receive transferred teachers, schools must have a student-
teacher ratio greater than 50 to 1. During PEDPIII, DPE will also seek revisions in the rules for
recruitment, promotion and career path to encourage the highest standards of professional
performance within the primary education sub-sector.
13. Additional Program Areas: In addition to the strategic interventions, the Government also
intends for PEDPIII to finance: (i) continued development of the National Student Assessment;
(ii) instruments and training for extending the use of Continuous Pupil Assessment in
classrooms; (iii) revision of the curricula for Grades 1-5 to center it around student learning
competencies; (v) establishment and piloting of active learning methods and teacher support
networks in selected Upazilas; and (vi) piloting various initiatives to expand the use of
information and communications technology in primary schools.
14. National Student Assessment: This sub-area is focused on establishing better

measurement of trends in learning achievement at the system level. PEDPIII will refine the
current national assessment program in terms of its organizational management (i.e. entity to
deliver the program its staffing, functions and relation to other key bodies within the education
enterprise); methodology, and data dissemination and utility for results-based management. The
Government aims to conduct the National Assessment every two years in Grade 3 for Bangla
literacy and numeracy. Decisions on whether the next grade for testing will be Grade 5 (Bangla
literacy and numeracy, and English), or Grade 6 and/or Grade 8 will be taken in the first year of
PEDPIII in discussion with the Ministry of Education. It is important to ensure that there will be
consistent measurement techniques throughout the system, to be able to discern trends over time.
Learning achievement in English language may be added at Grade 5 if this is to be maintained as
a testing year. Establishing a semi-autonomous national center/ authority for assessment and
evaluation is being considered.
15. Classroom assessment: In PEDPIII, with the emphasis on classroom learning support,
techniques will be developed to determine pupils current levels of knowledge, skills and
understandings, to diagnose problems they may be having, identify how to enable children to
overcome the problems, and then evaluate whether learning takes place. The National
Curriculum Framework prescribes that teachers should make regular use of Continuous Pupil
Assessment (CPA) and record results at the completion of definite lessons. Teachers will be
trained to identify particular learning strengths and difficulties. Tools will be developed to help
teachers better diagnose and help students overcome learning difficulties.
16. Curriculum: The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) will continue with a
10-year cycle of ongoing curriculum development for Grades 1-5. A regional comparative study
on competencies, curriculum substance and revision practices will be undertaken to help in the
revision of terminal and subject-wise competencies for Grades 1-5. The subject content of
learning materials will be revised based on these updated competences, beginning with Grades 1
by year 4 of the program (see DLI on quality of textbook). NCTB and the National Academy for
Primary Education (NAPE) will coordinate with pedagogical strategies, classroom assessments,
and in-service training programs for teachers on the revised materials. The practice of providing
36

positive representations of women, girls, minority groups and children with disabilities in
learning materials (i.e. textbooks, teacher guides and learning materials) will continue in
PEDPIII. In line with this, while there will be a focus on the development of Bangla as the
national language, multi-lingual education will also be incorporated in the new curriculum
framework. Capacity building of staff for curriculum development will be included in the
program.
17. Active learning methods and teacher support for classroom learning: With its objective
to focus on improving quality learning at the school/classroom level, PEDPIII will seek to shift
the emphasis from teaching the syllabus to enabling each child to learn basic skills and
competencies at her/his own pace. The Government is piloting a new flagship initiative entitled
Shikhbe Protiti Shishu (Each Child Learns), through which school clusters in seven
divisions will participate in a model building exercise to improve learning of basic skills in
Bangla and mathematics, relying on available resources. Good practices and lessons learned will
be disseminated immediately to all schools, with the expectation that more effective models for
improving childrens learning outcomes will propagate rapidly, driven by the capacity of each
school to use available inputs. As noted in previous sections of this document, one key feature of
PEDPIII is institutionalizing feedback loops between learning in the classroom and central level
institutions responsible for developing inputs such as: school standards, curriculum, materials,
assessment, or teacher training. This will be accomplished by enabling school clusters in seven
divisions to serve as listening posts to provide information in real-time to apex institutions for
policy formulation, and training.
18. Information and Communications Technology (ICT): This is a component of the

National Education Policy that supports the priorities of the Digital Bangladesh program.
MOPME envisages provision of equipment and materials for setting up multi-media classrooms,
Increasing participation and reducing social disparities
19. Context: Although Bangladesh has been successful in steadily improving access to
education at all levels, social and regional disparities persist. Prior to PEDPII, there was limited
effort to reach out to marginalized population groups through the formal primary education
sector, relying instead to a large extent on the informal sector to provide services through the
work of NGOs. PEDPII embraced a policy of inclusive education for the formal sector, but at
the time PEDPIII was prepared, there were remaining pockets of poor and disadvantaged
communities as well as significant disparities in the availability and quality of schooling
facilities. Even the stipend program, in principle targeted to the 40 percent poorest, was not
effective in reaching all its intended beneficiaries. Children who are particularly disadvantaged
in terms of access to primary education are in remote areas, among poor and minority ethnic
groups, as well as working children and those in urban slums.
20. Strategic Interventions (DLIs): To promote participation to primary education, PEDPIII

will finance both demand and supply side interventions, employing specific provisions for
targeting children from disadvantaged groups. The DLIs focus on supply side interventions
including provision in the regular public budget of one year of free pre-primary education
(PPE) for five-year-olds through a new school-based approach to reach coverage of all children
in GPS in the country (DLI 5), and initiating a needs-based approach to improve physical
37

facilities (additional classrooms, toilets, arsenic free/safe water) to (i) reduce disparities in
geographic access to primary school and (ii) reduce classroom overcrowding (DLI 6).
21. Pre-primary education (PPE): Through scaling up participation in pre-primary, the GOB
aims to strengthen childrens readiness for school and thereby induce increased enrollment and
retention rates in primary education. In line with the National Education Policy 2010, the
investment strategy for PEDPIII is to introduce and scale up one year of pre-primary education
for five-year-old children through publicly financed provision. It is estimated that 1.4 million
children entering grade 1 have had some form of pre-primary education, mostly provided
through the NGO sector9. More than 150 NGOs conduct pre-primary education throughout the
country, notably in poor and disadvantaged areas. In many instances these operations are at or
near Government Primary Schools (GPS). However, coverage by such NGOs is subject to
availability of funding, and this has varied significantly in the past. To scale up coverage of pre-
primary education and build upon gains in access, GOB aims to provide a pre-primary class in
each GPS, financed by the public budget. The aim is that by the fourth year of PEDPIII, pre-
primary will be provided in at least 75 percent of GPS. Preparatory actions under PEDPIII,
include Governments updating a mapping of PPE providers (government and nongovernment)
and establishing a database of the target population so that planning priorities can be based both
on needs analysis of demand and the potential for increasing supply. The Governments long
term objective is to build out PPE capacity at all GPS.
22. The new school-based approach to PPE requires that additional teachers be hired and
trained, additional classrooms constructed, and materials produced and disseminated. At the
outset, DPE has sought to leverage expansion of PPE coverage through partnerships with the
NGO sector. The guidelines for engaging into such partnerships, and the roles of NGOs in
service delivery under PEDPIII, are being finalized by MOPME. Under the plan for PPE
expansion, the first element is to expand access to PPE classes at GPS. The second element is to
standardize the curriculum, teaching and learning materials, entry requirements (for students and
teachers), learning competencies and teacher competencies across the various providers (public,
NGO, private) as well as integrate PPE within the formal primary education system. During the
preparation period for PEDPIII, interim packages of teaching and learning materials developed
by the NCTB were distributed to a selected number of GPS in each district to initiate some
service delivery directly by public primary schools. While the NGO-run pre-primary classes may
continue to use their teaching and learning materials known to be of reasonably good quality
NGOs are also being engaged with the government to develop a set of standardized teaching and
learning materials, which will be expected to be utilized by all pre-primary providers, once they
are developed.
23. Infrastructure, including improved school facilities: This sub-area seeks to facilitate
progress towards universal enrolment through a needs-based approach to building out
infrastructure that adopts a prioritized list of standards, including for toilets and water supply,
and disability/accessibility so that more children will have access to quality schools without
overcrowding. Following field surveys and consultations with local communities, DPE is
preparing a five-year action plan for infrastructure development, with targets, taking account of
disparities within and across Upazilas. Given the extent of overcrowding, the Government
9
BANBEIS data, 2008.
38

decided to set 56 students per classroom as the target. With such a norm, at the outset of
PEDPIII, half of all GPS and RNGPS, and a third of the community schools, are reported to have
overcrowded classrooms, as well as needs for safe drinking water, toilets and school furniture (to
conform to DPE standards). Guided by the criteria (see also Environmental Safeguards section of
Annex 3), the estimated needs are to construct 32,000 new classrooms, 120,000 new toilets for
students and teachers and repair 18,000 existing sanitation facilities, and supply safe drinking
water (55% of those needs would be met within 4 years) In addition, the school grants (to
SMCs) will include a sum for maintenance and repair of school buildings.
24. Additional Program Areas: In addition to the above strategic interventions, the
Government intends for PEDPIII to finance a number of demand side and supply side
interventions. On the demand side, PEDPIII will finance (i) social mobilization and
communications activities to inform and encourage all families and communities to enroll and
keep their children in school for the full primary cycle, and (ii) implementation of a revamped
stipend program, to compensate families for the opportunity costs of primary school and
encourage the poorest families to enroll and keep their children in school.
25. Communications and Social Mobilization: DPE will develop and implement a public
relations and communications strategy targeted for different groups of stakeholders and utilizing
multiple media. Face-to-face workshops and seminars will engage educationists and opinion
leaders; broadcast media will be used for wide market penetration on core themes, and print
media for longer and more nuanced communications.
26. Stipends: The Primary Education Stipend Program (PESP) has been recently modified
for better poverty targeting across schools and Upazilas, and to encourage more children,
especially the disadvantaged, to enroll and complete their primary education. While in the past,
stipends were given to the 40 percent poorest children in each school, changes introduced in
2010 now result in provision of stipends to a greater share of students in high poverty areas as
identified by the World Food Program poverty mapping (geographical targeting). The
administrative processes, including monitoring, remained unchanged. Future studies to evaluate
the effectiveness of the revised program will be made, to guide any further revisions. Multiple
options for strengthening the program monitoring and evaluation include third party validation,
expenditure tracking (to track flow of funds to the beneficiaries), and digitalizing the beneficiary
database to track students through the system over time.
27. On the supply side, PEDPIII also envisages to finance: (i) coordination and
implementation of a school health and nutrition program, including school feeding and health
screenings in select areas; (ii) development and implementation of action plans for
mainstreaming disadvantaged children, as well as (iii) coordinating second chance and
alternative primary education opportunities more closely with education service delivery in the
formal, public sector.
28. School Health and Nutrition: The PEDPIII school health and nutrition sub-area aims at
improving the day-to-day health and nutritional status of school children, thereby reducing
absenteeism and foster improved learning. Setting out from the previous engagement for school
health and nutrition, a new framework has been established for PEDPIII as an operating structure
to coordinate activities between Ministries, specifically MOPME and MOHFW. This framework
39

is built around the following package of interventions: (i) hardware arsenic free tube well and
safe water supplies, adequate latrines/toilets respecting the cultural gender dimensions to foster
attendance by girls, and other physical elements which support good health and nutrition; (ii)
curriculum development around healthy living, including nutrition, hand washing, hygiene
practices, good pregnancies and safe motherhood, well baby care etc.; these activities are to
avoid fostering existing gender stereotypes; (iii) school health days - envisaged to operate in
every District twice a year; and (iv) school feeding and deworming.
29. Inclusive education program to mainstream disadvantaged children: The organizing

principle of PEDPIII is to decentralize administration and decision making on inclusive
education to the Upazilas. Each Upazila is to have a Primary Education Plan (UPEP) to be
implemented with support from a block grant. The grant might be used to provide disabled
children with a small monthly fund, or to provide resources to schools accommodating
previously excluded children. All teacher training will contain modules on working with
differently-abled children. Affirming messages about people with disabilities will be included in
textbooks and supplementary learning materials; modules on special needs children will be
included in training for Assistant Upazila Education Officers (AUEO and Upazila Education
Officers (UEOs), to allow them to provide classroom teachers with professional supervision.
Leadership training programs will include modules on the value of inclusive education. A focal
person in each school is to be designated to assist other teachers to identify children with
learning disabilities and provide them specialized teaching.
30. Second Chance and Alternative Education: This area is linked to the objective of
universal enrolment and addresses the needs of two types of primary school age children: those
who never enrolled in school and those who dropped out. These matters will be under the
auspices of Bureau for Non-formal Education (BNFE), and its capacity will be strengthened.
PEDPIII will finance the development of an equivalency framework aligned with the revised
national curriculum, inclusion of NFE activities in UPEPs, participation of NFE learners in the
Grade 5 terminal examination, and reporting on NFE outputs in the PEDPIII reporting including
the ASPR.
Improving program planning and management, and strengthening institutions
31. Context: PEDPIII builds on capacities developed under PEDPII and brings these more
sharply into a results-based model, viz. performance based planning, client (stakeholder) focus,
improved financial management, human resources development, and outcome level reporting. A
key dimension is to enhance decentralized planning at District, Upazila and school levels.
Functions and responsibilities are being redefined and, in some cases, expanded, with a view to
prepare and implement needs-based Annual Operational Plans (AOP). The process calls for
substantially more field level capacity for planning, management and monitoring. School
Management Committees (SMCs) are a cornerstone. The aim is for SMCs to continue their
involvement in minor public works but additionally to address factors which contribute to
learning outcomes and primary school completion in order to make a greater contribution to
improving indicators in their respective Upazilas. Improvements are also being sought in the
fiscal sustainability and effectiveness of public expenditures as well as in monitoring and
evaluation systems to improve data use for evidence-based planning.
40

32. Strategic Interventions (DLIs): The DLIs in this area focus on improving efficiency and
effectiveness of service delivery at central and decentralized levels: targets are set for the SMCs
to prepare plans and deploy block grants accordingly (DLI 7); education budget preparation is to
achieve tighter links between the budgetary process and medium-term education sector strategy,
and consistency between annually approved primary education budgets and the PEDPIII results
framework and MTBF (DLI 8); and among efforts to strengthen and build out M&E systems, the
focus is on improving the timeliness, quality and coverage of the Annual School Census (ASC)
the main source of information on inputs, process, outputs and outcomes at school level (DLI 9).
33. Decentralized School-Based Management: PEDPIII seeks to improve the effectiveness

of school level management and governance by focusing especially on accountability and
institutional capacity at school and Upazila levels in support of school improvement plans. Under
PEDPII, DPE piloted School Level Improvement Plans (SLIP) prepared by SMCs and
Upazila Primary Education Plans (UPEP). Evaluation pointed to a need to provide consolidated
grants directly to schools, based on their SLIPs, and to strengthen the capacity of Upazila offices
to facilitate this process. Guidelines for school level SLIPs, and Upazila level UPEPs will be
updated, and district level DPEPs established. This sub-area specifically aims to strengthen the
role of school management committees (SMCs): encouraging stronger participation of parents,
teachers and local community members, building their capacity for school improvement planning
and local governance through further training; and empowering the process through a more
streamlined transfer of grants to schools to realize the plans. The receipt of funds will be
validated through a Public Expenditure Tracking System. The Government recognizes that this
will take sustained effort over time and that it must be backed by strong Upazila (and district)
management. Longer term, DPE is planning to incorporate leadership development, including
School Management Committee development, with measures for head teacher recruitment,
career path and incentives.
34. Fiscal sustainability and effectiveness of public expenditure: This priority area is
intended to assist Government to ensure adequate allocations to PEDPIII by aligning the primary
education budget with the PEDPIII framework, while improving fiscal and budget management
and consistency with the rolling Medium Term Budgetary Framework. This will assist the
Government to implement their National Education Policy according to an approved, costed
implementation plan which phases in interventions according to capacity and resources available.
35. Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E): The objective is to establish a robust system for
improved decisions about program targets, procedures and achievement on the basis of a reliable
and efficient system for collecting and exploiting data. Key activities include strengthening the
functioning of the M&E/EMIS system through the development and implementation of an
improved administration plan; revising the Annual School Census; conducting periodic internal
and external validation studies of the census data, and making commensurate revisions and
adjustments to the census mechanism. PEDPIII would finance requirements for adequate
staffing, organizational management arrangements, office equipment, and training. In addition,
PEDPIII would finance work to use results of large scale household sample surveys (HIES) and
other current studies to monitor and triangulate findings on outcomes. PEDPIII will continue to
mainstream the results based management approach for sector monitoring, among others,
through Upazila level training workshops.
41

36. Additional Program Areas: The additional areas include (i) strengthened institutional
capability to manage education service delivery through by developing and carrying out a human
resource management plan to define career paths, fill staff vacancies, strengthen DPE
particularly through capacity building at the Upazila level, and improve delivery of teacher
education programs by filling staff vacancies at PTIs and establishing instructor career paths; (ii)
moving towards an integrated comprehensive framework to include school standards for all
categories of primary schools in the country; and (iii) financing public-private partnerships to
deliver educational services.
37. Human Resource Development to manage education service delivery: The Government
recognizes that strengthening human resources and leadership capabilities are critical to ensure
effective institutional capacity for managing the primary education sector, and in particular to
achieve the PEDPIII development objectives and to sustain gains over time. To address the
serious weaknesses in education management capacity identified in Annex 4, PEDPIII will
finance actions intended to have a relatively rapid effect, as well as initiatives which will need to
be phased in over time. The short term measures include filling staff vacancies through a needs-
based and merit-based approach, and in addition providing several types of training which is
targeted for the respective responsibilities of government officers from the Upazilas to the
central levels. The content of the training will focus on management, administration and
financing. PEDPIII will also support the establishment and gradual implementation of a human
resource management plan. The plan will set out the framework and principles for
institutionalizing merit-based progression along career paths, including for teachers, head
teachers, PTI instructors and Upazila Education officers.
38. Institutional changes for unifying and developing the primary education system: The
Government envisages, longer term, to move toward a single framework and governance
structure for all primary education providers to improve sector management for reaching all
students with quality education. In view of such a prospect, it is envisaged under PEDPIII to
carry out analyses and stakeholder consultations to clarify issues and actions which could be
taken to develop such a comprehensive framework, including studies on aspects such as: unified
curriculum, equivalence of formal and non-formal provision, infrastructure standards,
performance standards, harmonized teacher career paths, and changes to the legal and regulatory
structures for an expanded system.
C. Technical Assistance
39. IDA will not finance technical assistance directly through this Project. Technical
assistance from several of the other development partners is envisaged to support the M&E
system as well as analytical work and feasibility studies to feed into policy development and
plans, and to pilot initiatives in areas identified in the Governments results framework and DLI
matrix, where comparatively limited technical or strategic work has been undertaken to date.
40. The Government and all the development partners participating in the SWAp have a good
understanding of the constraints to achieving the results outlined for the program, as well as
reporting in a timely manner through robust and credible mechanisms. A Technical Assistance
(TA) strategy and plan are in advanced stages of development, building on the lessons learnt of
past practices, i.e. ensuring high levels of coordination among TA providers and adequacy of
42

planning and government ownership. The current plan aims to provide implementation support
on a rolling basis, and on plan as prepared by the Government in consultation with the
development partners. MOPME and DPE would coordinate and manage most of the TA, which
should aim at building system capacity and be used for short term tasks and not to substitute for
staff functions. International TA should be partnered with Government counterparts and/or local
experts to build national capacity.
41. An initial needs assessment was conducted and several technical areas have already been
identified as particularly in need of implementation support. These are: (i) management and
evidenced-based planning; (ii) monitoring & evaluation; (iii) human resource management; (iv)
needs-based approach to the supply of quality infrastructure; (v) pre-primary education, for
which the Government has no prior experience delivering directly through primary schools in the
formal sector; (vi) stipend programs (for targeting issues); (vii) learning assessment and
examinations; (viii) curriculum and teacher professional development. This initial needs
assessment will be further refined and completed before PEDPIII effectiveness.
42. The TA needs have been identified to develop a culture of results monitoring by
strengthening the systems which provide the information and incentivizing the use of more
credible information through DLIs. TA to strengthen monitoring and evaluation systems is
expected to support: (i) development of enhanced monitoring instruments (through greater
coverage of the annual school census, systematic validation of the census data, triangulating
census data through the use of other information sources, including the Household Income and
Expenditure Survey as well as an Interim household survey specifically for the education sector);
(ii) independent validation of information (third party validations of textbook monitoring
mechanisms, infrastructure quality, census information, as well as expenditure tracking surveys);
(iii) greater analysis and dissemination of information to support policy making (annual analysis
of Grade V exam results and national assessment results linking student performance and system
wide performance with critical policy levers), and (iv) analysis of information from
administrative data to report on DLI achievement, where required (analysis of teacher
recruitment norms to determine if in fact teacher recruitment is as per the agreed policy,
synthesis of information from administrative data to determine textbook delivery), and (v)
impact evaluations and cost effectiveness of various interventions.
43

Annex 3: Implementation Arrangements
I. Program Administration Mechanisms
1. The organizational and management structure for PEDPIII (see Figure 3.1) is designed
along two dimensions: (i) policy and oversight; and (ii) implementation. Overall policy guidance,
program oversight and coordination will be provided by an Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee
(IMSC), chaired by the Secretary of MoPME, and comprising representatives of key ministries
and agencies inter alia: the Finance Division and Economic Relations Division of the Ministry of
Finance; the Ministry of Public Administration; the Planning Commission; the Implementation
Monitoring and Evaluation Division of the Ministry of Planning; the Directorate of Primary
Education of MoPME; and representatives of NGOs. As such, the Steering Committee should
play a key role in resolving critical inter-ministerial implementation issues. The IMSC will also
review and endorse the budget allocations, and approve the Annual Operational Plans.
2. The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) headed by a Director General will be

responsible for day-to-day program implementation under the guidance of the Steering
Committee. DPE will be assisted by a Technical Committee, chaired and coordinated by the
Director General (Program Director). The Technical Committee will comprise inter alia the
Additional Director General, all DPE directors; representatives from MOPME, the National
Academy of Primary Education (NAPE), National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB),
Compulsory Primary Education Implementation and Monitoring Unit (CPEIMU), Bureau of
Non-formal Education, the Bangladesh Bureau of Education Information and Statistics
(BANBEIS), and a representative from the NGOs.
3. The main functions of the Technical Committee are to: (i) provide support to line
directors and other agencies to resolve implementation problems; (ii) devise strategies for the
gradual integration of different streams of formal and non-formal primary education in terms of
curriculum and service delivery structure; (iii) support the establishment of an integrated data
system and plan for results-based management; and (iv) support policy revision based on
implementation experience.
4. DPE line directors will be given responsibility for implementation of key areas of
PEDPIII. Although the implementation capacity of DPE has improved significantly during the
PEDPII phase, implementation of PEDPIII will pose additional challenges: the size of the
program is larger and it has the ambition gradually to encompass the full sub-sector (within a
framework that eventually will incorporate the non-government providers). The intention is to
develop long-term capacity of the regular staff of DPE and strengthen the interface between the
personnel in their respective functions at central level in DPE with decentralized levels (Upazila,
District and Division officers) as well as teachers and head teachers at school level. It is possible
that new divisions will be established, should the Government extend primary education
vertically up to grade 8. The DPE line directors will thus be supported, when required, with
technical assistance that will either be provided by DPs or recruited by GOB.
44

Figure A3.1: Proposed Organization & Management Structure - PEDPIII Implementation
PROPOSED ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE FOR PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

3
Interministerial Steering Committee Secretary

POLICY & OVERSIGHT MoPME to coordinate (GOB + MOPME
NGO + DP Representative group)1
Development Partners
Program Support3
Program
Support
Office5
Technical Committee4 Director- DPE Coordination

PROGRAM DPE to coordinate (DPE/NAPE/ General of existing DP/NGO
IMPLEMENTATION CPEIMU/NCTB/BANBEIS) Madrasha DPE/ADG2 funded projects
NGO
BNFE etc
Note: 1. GoB includes key ministries and agencies: MoPME,(Secretary, Chair of the committee) Line Consultants
Finance, Public Administration, Planning, ERD, IMED, MOE Directors and
2. Proposed position: Additional Director General, DPE. He will be the contact person TA Support
between DPs & program.
3. DPs will keep close contact with MoPME and DPE as necessary
4. Relevant agencies will be added in phases as program evolves Field
5. A lean Program Support Office (PSO) to expedite coordination and clearances Operations
II. Financial Management, Disbursements and Procurement
Financial Management
5. Following the last PEFA assessment (2005), many improvements in the PFM systems of
the country have been registered: roll-out of the Medium-Term Budgeting Framework (MTBF),
application of improved accounting principles and standards, and scaling up out to the District
Accounts Offices the use of a government-wide financial management information system
(Integrated Budgeting and Accounting system, iBAS). In addition, a comprehensive reform
strategy is being implemented and supported by a Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF)10. The
MDTF supports three discrete projects in the PFM arena, namely: (i) deepening the medium-
term budget framework (MTBF) and strengthening financial accountability; (ii) strengthening
10
The MDTF (SPEMP) grant for PFM reforms (US$84 million) is being administered by the World Bank on behalf
of other Development Partners
45

the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General; and (iii) strengthening legislative and public
oversight.
6. A comprehensive Fiduciary Risk Assessment and Study of PEDPIII were completed to

assess the risks and challenges of alternative financial arrangements. The diagnostic work
validated the accuracy of numbers in the iBAS system and the capacity of the system to capture
the real-time data at each stage, and checked the robustness of current accounting business
processes. The study recommends that PEDPIII leverage and facilitate the above-mentioned
PFM reforms from the demand side by proactive participation of the spending agencies in the
primary education sector while at the same time relying on third party validation and monitoring
for results to help mitigate the fiduciary risks. The assessment concludes that mainstreaming of
the program fund flow and expenditure management with the government financial management
system would be the least risk fiduciary option for PEDPIII. Finally, a PEFA study for primary
education has been conducted as a subset of a broader PEFA assessment with a view to
improving the sector PFM reforms over the medium term, under the MDTF (SPEMP).
7. As one of the key line ministries for FM capacity development under the SPEMP Project
A, component 3 (US$ 10.9 million), MOPME would receive ample support for: (a) use of
Budget System Development module; (b) development of the budget management function
better linkage between policy and budget allocation, budget allocation and performance, and
monitoring and evaluation of budget implementation; (c) phased strengthening of the internal
audit function; (d) strengthening the Planning Cell in MOPME to support resource allocation
decision making processes in achieving policy objectives; (e) strengthening budget execution
and reporting and devolved financial management; and (e) integrating procurement planning
with budget formulation.
8. To address remaining challenges identified by the risk assessment study and allow a
smooth and complete transition towards the treasury system, a comprehensive PFM action plan
was developed and agreed. It aims, in particular, at: (i) improving compliance with payment
processing standards; (ii) monitoring for regular reconciliations between spending and
accounting offices; (iii) ensuring timely and reliable financial reports for the program; and (iv)
encouraging enhanced monitoring for executive follow-up of audit observations. Substantial
progress has been made in implementing the PFM action plan by negotiations of the Project. The
measures in the PFM action plan are to be complemented by an Annual Fiduciary Review
(AFR)) conducted each year of PEDPIII implementation. The AFR will provide an opportunity
to drill-down in the areas of fiduciary concern in order to generate concrete recommendations for
improvement of systems, processes, and internal controls. For essential financial management
tasks, the DPE and LGED being the key implementing agencies for PEDPIII would require a
read-only access to iBAS. This is in the process of being established, so that it will enable
effective budget monitoring and timely financial reporting. The overall PFM arrangements and
disbursement modalities are documented in the Joint Financing Arrangement to be signed
between Development Partners and the Government of Bangladesh. The Comptroller and
Auditor General (CAG) has agreed to the Statement of Audit Needs for annual audit of PEDPIII,
and MOPME has agreed to the Terms of Reference of the Annual Fiduciary Review as proposed
by the Development Partners. At negotiations, the Controller General of Accounts confirmed that
the following financial management arrangements of the program to be based on the countrys
46

financial management systems for budget execution, accounting, internal controls, financial
reporting and auditing would be in place as of July 1, 2011:
a) the Payment Process Times Compliance report will be generated on a monthly basis for
transactions under the Program;
b) a monthly report on the status of reconciliation of expenditures between the DDO
(Drawing and Disbursement Officers) and their respective accounting officers will be
generated from the Integrated Budgeting and Accounting System (iBAS) and provided to
the MOPME secretary;
c) iBAS will capture the PEDPIII Component/Sub-Component wise expenditures; and
d) CGA will revise the procedure and iBAS to enable an appropriate accounting for
advances so that advances are not shown as final expenditures.
9. The financial management risk at entry is assessed as high overall, given the risk
factors of the wide range of activities which are being carried out by various government
agencies across the country. To a great extent, these risks are mitigated by the availability of the
iBAS system up to the district accounts office level (including Upazilas). The expected residual
risk at program effectiveness would therefore be ML due to the implementation of the agreed
PFM action plan.
Budgeting and counterpart funding arrangements
10. The budgeting of all PEDPIII expenditures will be part of the government budgeting
process. Development Partners would finance both development and non-development
expenditures. The detailed annual budget for PEDPIII would ensure that appropriate allocation is
provided for all critical activities in accordance with government Delegation of Financial Powers
and released to the spending units within the first two weeks of the fiscal year. There is a need to
improve the integration of budgeting and accounting modules under iBAS for better budgetary
control and timely booking of in-year re-appropriations. This is included in the PFM reform
initiative through the SPEMP project. DPE via the iBAS terminal will monitor the
monthly/quarterly/semi-annual budget execution through respective l financial reports for the
entire primary education sector to ensure that budget execution keeps pace with the approved
budget.
Flow of funds
11. Annual scheduled disbursements will ensure a consistent flow of funds throughout the
life of the program (see disbursements section below). Every disbursement will be contingent
upon meeting of DLIs. The first disbursement for PEDPIII upon meeting the Year 0 DLIs (see
Annex 1) will be on the basis of reimbursement of expenditures for the previous six months
actual expenditures (from January-June 2011) against employee related expenditures on the
recurrent side (PBHs - 4500 Pay of Officers, 4600 Pay of Establishment, and 4700 Allowances -
excluding PEDPII). The amount of the first disbursement cannot exceed the maximum
proportion (20 percent) of the Projects total Credit which is allowed under the World Banks
policy to finance expenses incurred prior to signing. If this amount will be less than the total
47

value of all Year 0 DLIs met (by Effectiveness), the remaining amount can be disbursed at
midyear, after the November Consultation meeting of GOB and the Development Partners (see
Tables A3.1 and A3.3). Thereafter, the annual disbursement process would be repeated every
July over the life of the Project. In this way, the GoB would pre-finance the government
expenditures of the program (PEDPIII). Amounts claimed would depend on the indications given
in the disbursement schedule as well as timely achievement of DLIs.
12. The World Bank will finance up to 20 percent of the total program expenditures,
including procurable, and inclusive of taxes. Nevertheless, amounts claimed for withdrawal in a
year could not exceed the total value of the DLIs met in that year. If all 9 DLIs were achieved
consistently each year for the four years, the total annual disbursements would be as shown in
Table A.3.1 (disbursement schedule). An ex post reconciliation will be performed each year to
confirm that the amount of eligible expenditures made by the GOB was higher than the
maximum amount (20 percent) of total expenditure agreed ex ante as the proportion of total
expenditures eligible for World Bank financing (for reimbursement of PBHs). This reconciliation
would be based on a consolidated financial management report and accompanying reports.11
Figure A3.2: Funds Flow - PEDPIII Implementation
13. A few program activities such as training may need advance funds to be at the disposal of
DDOs/cost centers, rather than the suppliers/vendors being directly paid through the accounting
offices. Those activities will be carefully identified and selected, and MOPME would issue
Government Orders (GOs) in favor of respective DDOs/cost centers to enable them to draw cash
11
Fiduciary Arrangements for Sectorwide Approaches (Swaps): Interim Guidelines to Staff , The World Bank,
2002.
48

advance from treasury/accounts offices for implementation of such activities. The DDOs/cost
centers would be responsible for submitting the adjustment claims against such advances in a
timely manner. The advances will be adjusted within the due dates, and the outstanding advances
will not be included in the program expenditure statements to be submitted for the purpose of
reimbursement.
Accounting and maintenance of accounting records
14. Accounting records under PEDPIII will be maintained within the Government-wide
integrated financial management information system iBAS and in accordance with the
country accounting procedures and policies. These policies and procedures have progressively
improved over time. Nonetheless, advances to DDOs need to be separately booked under a new
economic code (XXXX) outside PBHs in order to be distinctly identified. In addition, a separate
back-end data table will be configured in iBAS to capture expenditure transactions pertaining to
DPP (on the development side of PEDPIII) by components and sub-components. The back-end
table for components and sub-components will be populated through a pop-up facility linked
with the operational unit code of DPP, and the information on component and sub-component (to
be charged) will be written on the bill/voucher submitted by the respective DDOs.
Internal controls
15. As with other government expenditures, payments under PEDPIII will be subject to the
normal pre-audit verification at accounting offices before payments from the Treasury are
approved. The 2005 Bangladesh PEFA assessment identified the absence of internal auditing in
Government as one of the major weaknesses in the PFM system. Given that the establishment of
a sector-wide internal audit function usually takes a long time, an Annual Fiduciary Review
would be conducted every year as a mitigation measure. This review would include the post-
procurement review of transactions, among other verification, and validations from a systemic
perspective (see next section on procurement). The TORs for the first years review have been
agreed upon with the Government. For subsequent years, these TORs would be reviewed and
improved depending upon evolving knowledge of fiduciary risks. In addition, separate support
for sectoral PFM reforms would be available from the MDTF grant for PFM reforms, to cater for
activities such as improving budget management in the primary education sector, capacity
building of DDOs, and similar activities.
Financial Reporting
16. The system-generated accounting records will be the basis for preparation of in-year and
year-end financial reports for PEDPIII.
17. In-year reports would include semi-annual Interim Unaudited Financial Reports. These
could include the sources of project funds and their uses together with adequate notes and
disclosures. Disbursements will be made against Interim Unaudited Financial Reports (IFRs) to
be submitted by the Bangladesh Government to IDA and other Development Partners within 45
days after end June/December each year. These submissions would also include the detailed
budget execution reports by detailed heads of accounts for the entire primary education sector,
49

for continuous expenditure monitoring. The template for IFRs has been agreed with the GOB.
DPE will have primary responsibility for preparing these statements.
18. The DPE, with the assistance of the Chief Accounts Officer (CAO), MOPME, would also
prepare and submit the year-end annual financial statements of PEDPIII by drawing data from
the Government accounting system. Adequate notes and disclosures in accordance with the
International Public Sector Accounting Standard Cash Basis shall be provided.
External audits
19. The annual financial statements of PEDP III will be audited by the Comptroller and
Auditor-General (CAG) of Bangladesh. These audited financial statements, along with the
management letter, would be submitted to IDA and other Development Partners within six
months after the close of the fiscal year. In this connection, a statement of audit needs has been
agreed with the CAG to ensure minimum coverage and extent of audit activity for PEDPIII.
20. All spending agencies within the primary education sector will provide the auditors with
full access to the related documents and records. The Development Partners will monitor
compliance with the audit requirements as per the table below:
Audit Report Due Date

PEDPIII Annual Financial Statements for the year ending June 30 December 31 each year
21. The normal country systems for resolution and settlement of audit observations will be
equally applicable to PEDPIII. The GOB will provide evidence to the World Bank (and the other
Development Partners) of the course of action to resolve financial irregularities within six
months after the date of the audit report. The Bank will closely monitor the timely resolution of
any irregularities identified in financial audit reports of the Project and rigorously follow up on
the Governments compliance on audit observations. The Bank will reserve the right to
commission financial and compliance audits as well as special purpose audits. As far as possible,
the scope of these audits will be agreed upon by all the Development Partners. Following SWAp
principles, the use of Development Partners funds would not be separately tracked.
Nevertheless, the financial reports will disclose the respective contributions from Development
Partners to PEDPIII as well as the Governments own contribution on the receipt side. Any
irregular expenditure would be followed up through the Governments own accountability
procedures, which will be further strengthened over time. There are no outstanding audits or
ineligible expenditures under Bank projects currently being implemented by MOPME/DPE.
Disbursements
22. IDA disbursements under PEDPIII will be in USD and made against identified PBHs
contingent upon DLI achievement. The disbursements will be based upon the submission of
Interim Unaudited Financial Reports (IFRs) (report-based disbursements). The DPE will prepare
quarterly IFRs from the government accounting system, and these must be endorsed by the Chief
Accounts Officer before finally being approved by the Secretary, MOPME. The authorized
signatory will sign the Withdrawal Applications based on the IFRs, and IDA will disburse funds
to the government in the Account indicated in the Withdrawal Application.
50

23. While a complete disbursement table for all Development Partners is included in the Joint
Financing Arrangement, Table A3.1 below presents the schedule for IDA disbursements. The
total estimated amount for each annual disbursement would be subject to any deduction
equivalent to the value of any unmet DLIs. DLIs are priced, so that missing one does not hold
back disbursement of others which are met. If fewer than the nine DLIs are achieved by a July
cycle, withheld amounts against unmet DLIs will be available for disbursement in January or a
following July or January cycle, subject to confirmation that the said DLIs have been satisfied
and the applicable IUFR has been submitted to IDA. If DLIs are achieved after the originally
specified disbursement deadline, achievement would need to be claimed no later than 18 months
after the initial deadline.
Table A3.1: Schedule for IDA Disbursements and Value of DLIs
Number Estimated Date12 Type of Amount of the Value per DLI Basis for
Disbursement Financing Disbursement
Allocated
(US$M)
1 Effectiveness(on or Reimbursement of 60 Based on nine Yr0 Conditioned on
about July 31, 2011) expenditures for DLIs; DLI value is meeting Yr0 DLIs
selected PBHs13 for US$8,333,333per DLI;
Jan-June 2011 total US$75M is split
into two disbursements
2 On or about January Reimbursement of 15

31, 2012 actual expenditures for
July-Dec 2011
3 On or about July 31, Reimbursement of 75 Based on nine Yr1 Conditioned on

2012 actual expenditures for DLIs; DLI value is meeting Yr1 DLIs
Jan-June 2012 US$8,333,333per DLI
4 On or about July 31, Reimbursement of 75 Yr2 DLIs; DLI value is Conditioned on

2013 actual expenditures for US$8,333,333per DLI meeting Yr2 DLIs
July-Dec 2012 & Jan-
June 2013
5 On or about July 31, Reimbursement of 75 Based on nine Yr3 Conditioned on

2014 actual expenditures for DLIs; DLI value is meeting Yr3 DLIs
July-Dec 2013 & Jan- US$8,333,333per DLI
June 2014
December 2015 Could cater for

DLIs met with
delays
Total 300
12
These dates assume that the assessment of achievement of the nine DLIs in May (Joint Annual Reviews) verifies
that all the DLIs have been met.
13
The disbursement for Year 0 DLIs will be on the basis of reimbursement of expenditures for the previous six
months actual expenditures (from January June 2011) against employee related expenditures on the recurrent side
(PBHs 4500, 4600, and 4700) excluding PEDPII expenditures.
51

24. The PBHs are part of the governments own economic heads of account which are used
to track expenditure on non-development as well as development sides of the budget. The
consultancy 4874 would specifically be deducted from the PBH 4800 for the purposes of IDA
financing to reflect use of ADB Consultants Selection guidelines, making it ineligible for IDA
funding. On the development side, PBHs pertaining to all development projects of MOPME will
be eligible for financing, unless these have specific external funding under prior-existing
agreements with GOB (discrete projects). While the existing, externally financed projects
would phase out over some time, all new projects are expected to be prepared within the ambit of
PEDPIII. Given the above explanation, the following major economic codes within all function
heads of MOPME (2400) and all operation unit codes (except 5150, 5460, & 5960) will
represent the Program Budget Heads for PEDPIII:
4500 Pay of Officers

4600 Pay of Establishment
4700 Allowances
4800 Supplies and Services (minus 4874 for Consultancy)
4900 Repairs & Maintenance
5900 Grants in Aid
6700 Revenue General (Contingencies)
6800 Capital Expenditure
7000 Civil Works
7900 Customs Duty and VAT
25. This expenditure mechanism satisfies the World Bank policy and, in particular, the three
pillars of OP 6.0, viz: (i) expenditures are productive; (ii) they contribute to solutions within a
fiscally sustainable framework; and (iii) acceptable oversight arrangements are in place. Table
A3.2 below presents the IDA financing allocated to a single catch-all disbursement category, and
the allocated amount represents the 100 percent capped expenditure limits from IDA.
52

Table A3.2: Disbursement Categories
Percentage of
Category Amount of the Expenditures to be
Financing Allocated Financed
(expressed in SDR) (inclusive of Taxes)
(1) ICB Goods, Works and Non-Consultant

Services and Project Eligible
Expenditures 14 for:
(a) First scheduled disbursement 37,500,000 100%

(Effectiveness: on or about July 31,
2011)
(b) Second scheduled disbursement 9,375,000 100%

(on or about January 31, 2012)
(c) Third scheduled disbursement 46,875,000 100%

(on or about July 31, 2012)
(d) Fourth scheduled disbursement 46,875,000 100%

(e) Fifth scheduled disbursement 46,875,000 100%

TOTAL AMOUNT 187,500,000
Procurement
26. Country Procurement Environment: Bangladesh has a nodal procurement policy agency
and a Public Procurement Act (PPA) 2006 with associated Public Procurement Rules 2008
(PPR) and bidding documents. The agency has created a critical mass of about 25 procurement
professionals and, to date, provided training to over 3200 staff of about 300 public sector entities.
To sustain a country procurement environment following good international practices, the
Government has been implementing a second procurement reform project, with assistance from
the World Bank, since late 2007. The reform focuses largely on the implementation and
monitoring of the PPA including introduction of e-government procurement at key sectoral
agencies. Notwithstanding the above progress over the past years, the Government recently made
a few amendments to the PPA, part of which were found not to be consistent with World Bank
Guidelines. For this reason, for projects financed by the Bank, the use of the PPA/PPR is allowed
for local procurement provided that specific modifications (listed elsewhere in this section) are
implemented
14
ICB Goods, Works and Non-Consultant Service and Project Eligible Expenditures are collectively referred to as
PBHs.
53

Summary of procurement assessment for PEDPIII
27. For PEDPIII, the total value of procurement is about US$1.6 billion of which civil works
contracts constitute an estimated USD1.2 billion (about 80 percent of procurement under
PEDPIII), followed by goods (textbooks, computers, vehicles) of about USD75million, and the
remaining approximately USD30 million for consultancy services. The World Bank conducted a
procurement capacity assessment using the web-based Procurement Risk Assessment and
Management System (P-RAMS)) of the implementing agencies (IAs) expected to be responsible
for procurement under PEDPIII. These include: DPE, local government representatives of the
LGED, and the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB). Due to their specific
procurement experience in the respective areas, Civil Works contracts will be managed by the
LGED, and procurement of textbooks will be carried out by NCTB.
28. The procurement capacity assessment covered the legislative framework, procurement
planning, procurement processing, organizational functions and staffing, internal control and
support systems, record keeping, and contract administration. The detailed capacity assessment is
available in the program files. The key finding of the assessment is that, while there is no
evidence of widespread fraud or corruption, the IAs have a significant lack of capacity in
managing procurement processes. In particular, they are unaware of specific risk areas in bidding
related fraud and corruption. Other weaknesses include the lack of sufficient detail in bid
evaluation reports and omissions in seeking clarification from the lowest quote bidders in cases
where this would be required. None of the IAs assessed maintains a database to monitor
procurement performance. The assessment also identified that the IAs complaint handling
mechanism is yet to reach satisfactory standards. Whereas a system is in place, its effectiveness
is weak because existing complaint procedures are not disseminated to the bidding community.
The IAs do not maintain data or report on the volume and nature of complaints. Specific to the
LGED field level, the procurement capacity assessment noted the need to improve record
keeping in terms of: adequacy and electronic handling of documentation, and protection of
documents against loss and unauthorized access. Other issues highlighted in the assessment
were: absence of trained senior level staff at DPE with knowledge of international procurement
practices, lack of procurement capacity among Upazila education offices (UEO), and limited
awareness within the bidder community about procurement processes and bidders rights
29. Considering the findings of the assessment and the volume of small value contracts
expected under national competitive bidding, the project is rated as MI for procurement
operation and contract administration. Several measures to mitigate the risks are either in place
or are being put in place, and are described in following section.
Measures to mitigate risks
30. The IAs have identified the person(s) designated in their respective agencies who are
responsible for handling procurement, including the regular reporting on performance. In this
connection, the Government has also agreed (at negotiations) to develop the format for a
procurement database containing information on NCB contract packages, in order to facilitate
the regular monitoring and reporting on performance.
54

31. The principal measures which are to mitigate risks during PEDPIII implementation are
the following: (i) establishment of a website for proactive disclosure of information; (ii)
submission of quarterly consolidated monitoring reports from the respective IAs, using a set of
commonly agreed indicators suggested by the Procurement and Finance Working Group
(PFWG) of the Development Partners; (iii) recruitment of an independent procurement
consultant for the duration of PEDPIII, to follow up on procurement capacity development-
related actions as they are suggested by the PFWG, and to report back to the PFWG; (iv) training
as and when required to enhance procurement capacity of IAs; and (v) updating the procurement
plan at least annually. In addition, the following procurement practices will apply for the
duration of PEDPIII: (a) agencies officials / staff to be alerted about any fraud and corruption
issues; (b) bidders to be alerted about any fraud and corruption issues; (c) strict enforcement of
the six modifications as required by IDA in regard to NCB procedures (see below); (d) award of
contracts within the initial bid validity period, and close monitoring of the timeliness; (e) taking
action against any corrupt bidder in accordance with PPA and IDA Guidelines; (f) preservation
of records and all documents regarding public procurement, in accordance with the PPA
provisions; (g) publishing contract award information in dgMarket/ UNDB online, CPTUs
website and agencies websites within two weeks of contract award; (h) ensuring timely
payments to the suppliers/contractors/ consultants and imposing liquidated damages for delayed
completion; and (i) setting up an effective complaint handling mechanism within all IAs,
including their field offices.
Procurement arrangements and review thresholds
32. IDA will finance civil works, goods, non-consulting services and recurrent costs under
the identified PBHs through a SWAp with eight other Development Partners, to co-finance the
implementation of the PEDPIII of Government. It is estimated that approximately 20 percent of
the overall expenditures for PEDPIII will be for procurable. The majority of procurement will
comprise small value contracts (constituting 80 percent of total procurement expenditure of
US$1.6 billion), for which essentially only local bidders will compete. These contracts would be
jointly financed by the Development Partners, and procured in accordance with the
requirements set forth or referred to in Section 1 of IDAs Guidelines Procurement under IBRD
Loans and IDA Credits, Published May 2004 as revised in October 2006 and May 2010
through National Competitive Bidding methods of the GOB Procurement Rules 2008 (as
amended in August 2009) and the GOB Public Procurement Act (1st Amendment 2009) with six
modifications as required by IDA (see para. 36) and deemed acceptable by IDA, ADB and the
other Development partners, subject also to proposed waivers (see following paragraph). Goods
and civil works procured through International Competitive Bidding (ICB) method would be
financed by IDA, other Development Partners (except ADB) and GoB, following IDAs
Guidelines. The IDA Credit will not finance expenditures against Consultant Services since the
selection of consultant services will follow the Asian Development Banks Guidelines on the
Use of Consultants by the Asian Development Bank and its Borrowers (April 2010, as amended
from time to time).
33. Waiver: In the context of NCB contracts for civil works, goods and non-consulting
services jointly financed by IDA and the Development Partners, including ADB, Section 1 of
IDAs Guidelines will apply, with the six modifications, subject to approval of waivers with the
objective of harmonization between the procurement and anti-corruption guidelines of IDA and
55

ADB. A waiver is being requested from the World Bank Board to extend IDAs rights under
paragraph 1.8(d) of the IDA Guidelines to additionally provide for the ineligibility of firms and
individuals debarred by ADB. ADB management intends to obtain a waiver to open up eligibility
to individuals and firms from all World Bank member countries.
34. Procurement plan: The PEDPIII design mandates that the Governments annual
procurement plan shall be the Projects procurement plan. The first Procurement plan, which
DPE is preparing for 12 months covering FY 2011-2012, will be part of the annual plan for the
primary education sub-sector. For each contract to be financed under PEDPIII, the different
procurement methods or consultant selection methods, estimated costs, prior review
requirements and time frame are agreed among the GOB, IDA and ADB in the Procurement
Plan. The Procurement Plan will be updated at least annually or as required to reflect the actual
implementation needs and improvements in institutional capacity. All procurement plans, their
updates or modifications shall be subject to IDA and ADBs prior review and no objection
before implementation (see details below in the Fiduciary Oversight Arrangements).
35. Procurement of Goods contracts estimated to cost less than USD600,000 and contracts
for works estimated to cost less than USD2,000,000 per contract may be procured in accordance
with the National Competitive Bidding (NCB) procedures of the Peoples Republic of
Bangladesh (Public Procurement Act 2006, Public Procurement Act (1st Amendment) 2009, and
Public Procurement Rules 2008 (as amended in August 2009) collectively referenced as PPA,
with: (i) modifications as outlined in the paragraph below; (ii) the provisions of Section 1 of
IDAs Procurement Guidelines, including the proposed waiver in order for IDA to recognize the
firms and individuals which are debarred by ADB; and (iii) the provisions of Section 1 of ADBs
Procurement Guidelines dated April 2010, including the proposed waiver to permit bidders from
non-ADB member countries. Given that the provisions of Section 1 of ADBs Procurement
Guidelines are substantially identical to those of Section 1 of IDAs, and that ADB and IDA
intend to arrange the respective waivers to iron out these two differences, the NCB procurement
would be consistent with ADBs and IDAs Procurement Guidelines, respectively, provided the
modifications in the paragraph below are also implemented. The NCB contracts will be carried
out using standard bidding documents satisfactory to the Development Partners. All bidding
documents will specifically state the IDA Guidelines will apply to the contracts jointly financed
with the other Development Partners.
36. For the purpose of National Competitive Bidding (Goods and Works), the following shall
apply:
(i) Post bidding negotiations shall not be allowed with the lowest evaluated or any other
bidder;
(ii) Bids should be submitted and opened in public in one location immediately after the
deadline for submission;
(iii) Lottery in award of contracts shall not be allowed
(iv) Bidders qualification/ experience requirement shall be mandatory;
(v) Bids shall not be invited on the basis of percentage above or below the estimated
cost, and contract award shall be based on the lowest evaluated bid price of compliant
bids form eligible and qualified bidders;
(vi) Single stage, two-envelope procurement system is not allowed.
56

37. Works contracts estimated to cost less than USD30,000 and Goods contracts estimated to
cost less than USD20,000 may be procured through Shopping. The Request for Quotation
under PPA is acceptable as a form of Shopping.
38. Selection of Consultants for services not financed by the credit - will follow the Asian
Development Banks Guidelines on the Use of Consultants by the Asian Development Bank and
its Borrowers (April 2010, as amended from time to time).
39. All International Competitive Bidding procurement for contracts for Goods, Works and
Non-consulting Services will be carried out in accordance with IDAs Guidelines -- Procurement
under IBRD Loans and IDA Credits, Published May 2004 as revised in October 2006 and May
2010.
40. All International Competitive Bidding procurement for contracts for Goods, Works and
Non-consulting Services will be prior reviewed by IDA. All selection of consultants for services
will be prior-reviewed by ADB. All other procurement not prior reviewed by IDA and ADB,
respectively, will be post reviewed through the Annual Fiduciary Review (AFR). The AFR
would include the post procurement review of transactions, among other verification and
validations from a systemic perspective.
41. Misprocurement: IDA would assess and shall declare misprocurement in accordance with
IDA Guidelines) where alleged misprocurement involves ICB of Goods, Works and Non-
consulting services. Similarly, based on findings from the prior reviews and/or complaints
arising from other documented sources relating to consultancy services, ADB would assess
probable cases of misprocurement, and ADB would transmit the formal letter to inform
Government (with a copy to all the Development Partners). In the case of misprocurement in all
other NCBs, this would be jointly assessed by IDA and ADB, who would jointly transmit a letter
to Government on the findings, after consultation with the other Development Partners. As and
when any misprocurement is confirmed, each of the Development Partners would decide on
remedial action to be taken as dictated by their respective bilateral agreements with GOB.
42. The Joint Financing Arrangements will set forth the understandings between GOB and
the Development Partners on procurement supervision, including post-reviews and
misprocurement decisions.
Fiduciary Oversight Arrangements under the SWAp
43. To ensure fiduciary oversight of all eligible expenditures undertaken through PEDPIII, a
matrix of oversight arrangements has been established. The principal instruments for fiduciary
oversight of PEDPIII expenditures are as follows, and the tentative schedule is outlined in Table
A3.3, below: (i) Annual Fiduciary Review (AFR); (ii) Quarterly Fiduciary Review (QFR); (iii)
review of and no-objection on the Procurement Plan (annual); (iv) prior review of ICB goods and
works; prior review of all consultancies; (v) other regular fiduciary oversight activities including
review and follow-up of the Interim Unaudited Financial Reports (IFR), Annual Audit Report,
quarterly reporting on the procurement risk mitigation plan.
57

44. For all Development Partner co-financed eligible expenditures (excluding procurement
carried out in accordance with ICB method and all consulting services), ADB and IDA will
jointly manage the Annual Fiduciary Review (AFR) and the Quarterly Fiduciary Review (QFR).
Both ADB and IDA will provide joint technical supervision of the work of the consultants and
therefore both will be accountable for the quality of the report. Both ADB and IDA will make
best efforts to take joint decisions. However, in the event that a joint decision cannot be
achieved, ADB and IDA will take decisions based on their respective bi-lateral loan/credit
agreements. The fiduciary oversight managed by IDA and ADB is summarized in Table A3.4.
Table A3.3: Tentative schedule of fiduciary oversight activities over the year
Review of
Interim Review
Unaudited of Annual
Financial Annual Fiduciary Joint GOB
Report Quarterly Fiduciary Audit Review + DP
(IFR) Review (QFR) Report (AFR) Reviews
July IFR
QFR including
August Procurement Review
September
October QFR
Consultation
November Meeting
December
AFR
including
Annual full Post
Audit Procurement
January IFR replaced with AFR Report Review
February
March
April QFR
May JARM
June
58

Table A3.4: Fiduciary Oversight Arrangements
Activity Role of ADB and IDA Role of Other Development

Partners
Annual ADB will initiate TORs Procurement and Finance
Fiduciary ADB and IDA will finalize TORs Working Group (PFWG) to
Review incorporating comments from PFWG review and provide comments
(AFR) members on TORs
ADB and IDA will agree on selection process PFWG to review draft AFR
of the consultants report and provide comments
ADB will initiate short listing of consultants, PFWG to provide input to
organize a joint consultant evaluation proposed recommendations by
committee, including IDA, finalize consultant ADB and IDA on findings of
selection, finance (or co-finance) consultant AFR
contract, recruit consultants, administer the
contracts
ADB and IDA will provide technical oversight
on the work of the consultants
ADB will share draft reports of the
consultancies with the PFWG.
ADB and IDA will consolidate comments
received on report from PFWG
ADB and IDA will make joint
recommendations on findings of the report and
next steps. These decisions will be discussed
with the PFWG before finalization.
Once finalized, ADB and IDA will send a
joint letter (co-signed by the team leaders of
both ADB and IDA) addressed to the GOB
(details are provided in the misprocurement
section of this table in cases where major
irregularities are found)
ADB will draft reports (as required), together
with IDA for information sharing for the
Donor Consortium or the Government
Quarterly ADB will initiate TORs Procurement and Finance
Fiduciary ADB and IDA will finalize TORs Working Group (PFWG) to
Assessment incorporating comments from PFWG review and provide comments
(to be members on TORs
undertaken ADB and IDA will agree on selection process PFWG to review draft AFR
jointly by of the consultants report and provide comments
ADB and ADB and IDA (as appropriate) will finalize PFWG to provide input to
IDA staff and consultant selection, finance (or co-finance) proposed recommendations by
individual consultant contracts, recruit consultants and ADB and IDA on findings of
consultants administer the contracts that they finance/co- AFR
finance
ADB and IDA will provide technical oversight
on the work of the consultants
ADB will share draft reports of the
consultancies
59

Partners
ADB and IDA will consolidate comments
received on reports from PFWG
ADB and IDA will make joint
recommendations on findings of the reports
and next steps. These decisions will be
discussed with the PFWG before finalization.
Once finalized, ADB and IDA will send a
joint letter (co-signed by the team leaders of
both ADB and IDA) addressed to the GOB
(details are provided in the misprocurement
section of this table in cases where major
irregularities are found)
ADB will draft reports (as required), together
with IDA for information for the Donor
Consortium and/or the Government
Procurement ADB and IDA roles: Other DPs may also review the
Plan ADB review Consultancies Procurement Plan or delegate
(there will be IDA reviews ICBs to the 2 Banks (ADB, IDA)
one single ADB & IDA jointly review the remaining
Procurement NCBs
Plan, updated All assessments/comments from the reviews
annually by above are incorporated into a single (no-
the GOB. The objection) letter on behalf of all DPs. The
GOB will letter is co-signed by the ADB and WB team
submit the leaders, and transmitted by either ADB or IDA
Procurement to GOB. The letter will state that ICB has been
Plan to ADB reviewed by IDA, Consultancies by ADB, and
and IDA for the remaining NCBs reviewed by both ADB
no-objection) & IDA.
Prior Review No joint responsibility
Respective ADB and IDA procurement
specialists review documents (for
Consultancies and ICB goods and works,
respectively), and letter signed by respective
team leaders
Mis- Where misprocurement involves Selected DPs to participate in
procurement consultancies, ADB assesses. ADB signs any procurement review sub-
misprocurement letter to inform GOB, and committee of PFWG
transmits directly to government with a copy Misprocurement decisions by
to all DPs. ADB team leader gets input from the 2 Banks, to be finalized in
ADB procurement specialists before finalizing consultation with the PFWG
the letter.
Where misprocurement involves ICBs, IDA
assesses. IDA signs any misprocurement letter
to inform GOB, and transmits directly to GOB
with a copy to all DPs. IDA team leader gets
input from IDA procurement specialists before
finalizing the letter.
60

Partners
Misprocurement identified by the AFR
involving all other NCBs is assessed jointly by
ADB & IDA, with possible inputs from other
DPs. The two Banks (ADB, IDA) will form a
working committee including selected PFWG
members, finalize decision (e.g., declare mis-
procurement) in consultation with the PFWG,
and present their joint decision for
endorsement by the Donor Consortium where
possible. ADB and IDA will make every
effort to agree on their assessment so that one
single letter on the findings of the AFR can be
sent (co-signed by the ADB & IDA team
leaders, and additional DPs (as appropriate) to
inform government about the findings of the
assessments. ADB and IDA team leaders get
input from their respective procurement
specialists before finalizing the letter.
Communication with government on the
preliminary findings of the AFR report will be
jointly drafted and jointly signed by the team
leaders of the ADB and IDA on behalf of all
DPs.
Bilateral agreements prevail for any remedial
action after misprocurement is declared. That
is, the respective DPs would send their own
letter to government to request reimbursement
of funds/announce cancellation of part of their
financing and/or other actions.
III. Environment and Social (including safeguards)
45. Environment. The PEDPIII infrastructure program will be implemented throughout

Bangladesh. Infrastructure activities will be small scale, and any potential environmental impact
is likely to be short-term, site-specific, non-sensitive or reversible. Mitigation measures can be
designed to overcome or reduce any negative environmental impacts. The Project was reviewed
during preparation and designated as environmental Category B, which is appropriate and
consistent with the provisions of OP/BP 4.01.
46. The needs-based approach adopted for PEDPIII means that the full extent and exact
location of works to be carried out cannot be known at the time of Project preparations. In
conformity with World Bank procedures, limited environmental analysis/screening of each sub-
project will be carried out prior to its implementation. The analysis/screening will be conducted
through government systems, under responsibility of DPE, using procedures specified in the
Environmental Management Framework (EMF) prepared and publically disclosed before Project
appraisal. The EMF also sets out supervision, mitigation measures and monitoring procedures.
DPE prepared the EMF in consultation with the Local Government Engineering Department
61

(LGED), relevant stakeholders including government agencies, local government bodies, local
communities, School Management committees, NGOs and the other Development Partners
involved in PEDPII and PEDPIII.
47. PEDPIII will support mainly four types of subprojects: (i) new building construction, (ii)
expansion or major renovation of existing buildings; (iii) maintenance and minor renovation of
buildings, and (iv) provision of water supply and sanitation facilities. Particular attention will be
placed on infrastructure in vulnerable geographic locations, e.g. coastal areas, hilly areas,
floodplains. DPE is developing a five-year action plan for the needs-based infrastructure
program (see Yr0 DLI, Annex 1), with targets, taking account of disparities within and across
Upazilas. The actual locations of the new schools and those to be expanded or renovated are
being identified and prioritized, according to certain parameters derived from field surveys and
broad consultations. Many of the schools are likely to be in the disaster-prone coastal regions,
where they will also serve as shelters during cyclones and other natural calamities. The following
criteria have been agreed, to roll out subprojects through a transparent system of priority-setting:
(i) Classroom gap (required rooms for day shift/(2x existing rooms) x 100
(ii) Teacher gap (required teachers for day shift/(2 x existing teachers) x 100
(iii) Condition index of the existing classrooms (percentage of buildings assessed to be
in poor condition)
(iv) Percentage of kacha15 rooms
(v) Enrolment gap: out-of-school children in the school catchment area
(vi) Trend in student population in the school for last 3 years
(vii) Special/underprivileged areas: Char, Haor, Coastal areas, Hilly area, schools in
remote and unserved areas (of an Upazila) to be given priority
(viii) Toilet gap (required/existing x 100)
(ix) Drinking water gap (required/existing x 100).
48. During PEDPIII preparations, DPE reviewed conditions of existing schools, water supply
and sanitation facilities with relevant stakeholders to distil recommendations for improving
environmental stewardship and sustainability of the structures to be built under PEDPIII.
Standards have been proposed, as follows:
(i) Girls toilets: 1:50

(ii) Boys toilets: 1:75; boys urinals 1:60 (twice the number in national and
international standards)
(iii) Teachers toilets: at least 1 per school (2 if there are more than 30 teachers)
(iv) Water supply: each school to have at least one safe drinking water source, either a
tube-well or piped water supply
49. Elevated levels of arsenic in groundwater have emerged as a major health issue in
Bangladesh. Good construction practices can enhance use of sanitary latrines and associated
drainage facilities. Safeguarding against arsenic contaminated drinking water can be ensured
through (i) careful site selection based on available data and arsenic testing just after installation
of tube-wells (if arsenic is found in installed tube-well water, tube-well would be withdrawn);
15
Building made with earthen materials
62

(ii) providing alternative water supply option in case of arsenic contamination in tube-well water;
(iii) annual monitoring of water (arsenic for tube-wells and fecal coliform for water supply based
on dug-well, rainwater harvesting and surface water); (iv) maintaining/consulting central
database on tube-well and alternative water supply (quality, depth, location etc.).
50. All construction must give due consideration to the use of environmentally friendly
construction materials. Alternative solutions and final designs are to be subject to public and
community consultation, with special emphasis on students and teachers; their preferences will
be given priority in decisions on infrastructure design. In cases of new construction, PEDPIII
will use khas (administered by the Ministry of Land) and other public lands to the extent
possible. Land needs will be determined on a case-by-case basis according to school location and
the land presently available under schools ownership. A check list will be utilized to determine
whether land is procured through voluntary donation, direct purchase, or acquisition.
51. DPE will delegate responsibility to LGED to manage the civil works, as was done under
PEDPII. The LGED has reinforced its Environmental Unit with an additional engineer (to head
the unit), and it will also have a full time Environmental Specialist which will build up LGEDs
capacity to monitor safeguards compliance and regularly report on status. Safeguard monitoring
will include compliance checking, facilitation and coordination related to environmental
analysis/screening, ensuring that environmental management costs have been properly reflected
in the bidding documents for civil works, and for other measures as relevant. Additionally, DPE
will sign a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Department of Public Health
Engineering (DPHE) for annual water quality monitoring to ensure arsenic-free safe drinking
water. DPHE/LGED will ensure that schools have provision of septic tanks and infiltration
gallery (soak pit), and that, during the design stage, infrastructure activities do not infringe upon
natural ecosystems. DPE will provide all the tube-well information and field test kits to the
DPHE Research and Development (R&D) Division. DPHE will coordinate and implement the
testing through its field office and prepare the analytical reports. DPHE will also carry out a five
percent quality check in their zonal laboratories. Finally, DPE will set up an Engineering Unit
during PEDPIII. This unit will hire the consultant services to monitor at least ten percent of the
infrastructure implemented by the LGED. The monitoring will include environmental
performance of the subprojects.
52. Social Safeguards: As a function of the needs-based criteria which pertain to the PEDPIII
infrastructure program, expansion and renovation of the existing schools, wherever required, will
involve construction of additional classrooms, provision of separate toilets for girls and boys,
safe drinking water supply, and repair/renovation of the buildings for overall improvement of the
learning environment. Construction of additional classrooms and toilets will be carried out in the
existing premises, either adjacent to or on top of the existing buildings. Most of these schools are
likely to be located in the relatively densely populated areas. New building construction is
mostly foreseen for the disaster-prone coastal regions. The new schools in the Chittagong Hill
Tracts, location for the largest concentration of the countrys indigenous population, will have
dormitories to offset travel difficulties and risks encountered by children from highly dispersed
settlements. The new schools will be built on khas and other public lands (including those owned
by MOPME) which are free of private users including squatters; lands would be transferred from
one government agency to the other. Where public lands are not available, they will be sought on
63

voluntary private donation by local individuals and communities. Beyond these possible options,
DPE has also decided that, unlike the case for PEDPII, it will not rule out the remote possibility
of land acquisition during PEDPIII, since it steps up efforts to assure the physical facilities
required for full enrolment of all school-aged children. Hence, OP 4.12 on Involuntary
Resettlement has been triggered. With its program in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, PEDPII
triggered OP 4.10 on Indigenous Peoples, and this will remain applicable under PEDPIII.
53. Consistent with the World Banks OP 4.10 and OP 4.12, DPE has addressed the possible
social risks and concerns relative to involuntary displacement from private and public lands and
to indigenous peoples, and prepared a Social Management Framework (SMF). This applies to
PEDPIII as a whole. The SMF also incorporates the safeguards requirements of the other
Development Partners and has been reviewed and endorsed by them The document builds on the
plan developed under PEDPII for Expanding Education of Tribal Children (EETC) which
remains valid for PEDPIII and aims to enhance effectiveness of actions for extension and
rehabilitation of existing government schools for better coverage of out-of-school children, as
well as capacity building of tribal institutions and social mobilization to motivate tribal parents to
send their children to school. Before the SMF was finalized, DPE undertook further
consultations with indigenous peoples groups to ensure their views and recommendations were
incorporated into the document. In regard to OP 4.12, the assessments undertaken show that it is
highly unlikely there will be squatters who might be displaced. The SMF has nonetheless been
prepared keeping the option of acquisition as a last resort for procuring land. The SMF sets out
the principles, policies, guidelines and procedures to identify and address impact issues and
implementation arrangements for Indigenous Peoples Plans (IPPs) and Resettlement Plans (RPs)
as and when they may be required. In the remote possibility that DPE would need to acquire land
in a way that would involve adverse impacts, compensation for land and all replaceable losses
would be paid at replacement/ market prices, and all irreplaceable items at market prices.
54. As executing agency, DPE will be responsible for supervision, monitoring and evaluation
of SMF implementation. Given present capacity levels at DPE, specialized assistance will be
required for managing the social safeguards assessment and mitigation issues. A Social specialist
with expertise in resettlement, IP and gender issues will be appointed by DPE. District and
Upazila level offices will perform all process tasks, especially those related to obtaining lands
from private and public ownership. As to monitoring, Upazila Education Offices will provide the
up-to-date monthly information on all activities undertaken. The District Education Offices will
collate the information and forward to DPE. With the assistance of a consultant, DPE will set up
computerized databases which will include district-wise information on planned civil works,
community consultations, options used to obtain lands, purchase and acquisition and
compensation payment, as well as others needed to implement the SMF. DPE will report on the
entire program. The Upazila and district level DPE staff as well as the relevant personnel from
the central ministry who will be directly involved in implementation, will be trained to ensure
compliance with the Environmental Management Framework (EMF) and the Social Management
Framework (SMF). The cost of monitoring, training and other expenses to carry out provisions
of the EMF and SMF is budgeted under the appropriate PBHs. The MOPMEs annual plan for
implementing PEDPIII each year will also include the scope of application of any applicable
Environmental Management Plans, Indigenous Peoples Plans, and/or Resettlement Plans
required per the EMF and SMF to implement activities for the respective years.
64

55. Because there is no lead Development Partner providing oversight of the program,
oversight of safeguards compliance will be ensured through joint reviews, led primarily by the
World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, as is the case for fiduciary oversight. To the
extent possible, joint decisions will be sought on safeguards compliance and in the case of
disagreement, bi-lateral agreements shall prevail. If the need for an in-depth review arises, the
World Bank may contract (finance or co-finance) the consultant/firm to undertake the review on
behalf of all Development Partners.
IV. Program Monitoring and Evaluation
56. Undertaking the monitoring activities of the program will be the responsibility of the
M&E unit of DPE. The main task of this unit will be to monitor the implementation of the
programs main interventions and document the results achieved at each stage. The unit will also
be responsible for regular updating of the key performance indicators, preparing and
disseminating detailed progress reports and conducting specific studies. At the moment, the main
source of data used by DPE is the Annual School Census (ASC) which collects information on
school enrollment, teachers, school performance and other indicators in government schools and
other registered schools. As PEDPIII is implemented, the amount of information collected
through the ASC will have to expand to cover new or not previously monitored interventions as
well as to include non-government schools and madrasas. Currently, MOPME is only able to
monitor certain types of schools and does not have the full picture of the primary education sub-
sector. The M&E unit will establish closer links with the Bangladesh Bureau of Education
Information and Statistics (BANBEIS), Local Government and Engineering Department
(LGED), National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) and the Ministry of Education
(MOE) to gain access to other sources of data and improve its capacity to monitor interventions
such as construction, textbook delivery or indicators such as transition rate to secondary
education. Closer collaboration with the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) will also give
access to large scale household surveys (including commissioning additional surveys)) and
permit triangulating findings on outcomes and improve the validity of core sector indicators.
57. A robust M&E system is key to the success of the result-focused approach. The
Government thus aims at strengthening the existing unit and at correcting the weaknesses
identified by a stocktaking exercise (financed by the World Bank) in 2010. First, there will be a
reorganization of the M&E unit, separating the IT functions from M&E. Second, staff with
specific M&E skills will be added, and roles and responsibilities will be clearly defined. Third, a
strong emphasis will be placed on improving the data collection and validation processes to
ensure better data quality and reliability. Fourth, there will be greater emphasis on timely and
quality reporting and dissemination. Finally, the program will build in and be informed by
impact evaluations of specific interventions.
V. Role of Partners
58. IDAs support to the Government of Bangladesh will be supplemented by funding from
interested Development Partners. Ten of them have participated in PEDPIII preparation and
nine16 have expressed their commitment to fund the program. Although each of the Development
16
The Netherlands have not yet indicated the amount of funding available.
65

Partners will provide support to the primary education program under separate bilateral
agreements, all have agreed to support the same program framework. They have also all agreed
to adopt the use of country systems to the extent possible for both financial management and
procurement. A few Development Partners, however, may still keep some parallel funding for
the purpose of technical assistance (e.g. JICA, UNICEF). In addition to bilateral agreements, a
Joint Financing Arrangement (JFA) will be signed between the Government and the
Development Partners supporting the program, to document the harmonized funding modality,
agreed program framework, and common reporting and auditing requirements as well as
procurement procedures and fiduciary oversight arrangements. The technical assistance
arrangements will also be coordinated among Development Partners. All participating
Development Partners will be signatories to the JFA.
66

Annex 4
Operational Risk Assessment Framework (ORAF)
Negotiations and Board Package Version
Project Development Objective(s)
Description:
The development objectives of the proposed program are to (i) increase participation and reduce social disparities in primary education, (ii) increase the
number of children completing primary education and improve the quality of the learning environment and measurement of student learning, and (iii)
improve effectiveness of resource use for primary education.
PDO Level Results 1. Increase in the number of children enrolled (net enrollment rate (NER)) in primary education
Indicators:
2. Primary cycle Completion Rate to Grade 5, as % of cohort (disaggregated by gender)
3. Decreased disparity in access to schooling measured by family income levels (NER of 20% poorest relative to NER 20%
richest)
4. Learning levels regularly monitored through learning assessment system (frequency and quality of assessment of learning
of primary education completers (Grade 5 Completion Exam)
5. Percentage of schools/SMCs preparing School Improvement Plans and receiving funds
Risk Category Risk Rating Risk Description

Proposed Mitigation Measure
Community ability and possibly commitment 1. Continue community awareness and mobilization
to school-level management and programs
improvement plans may diminish due to 2. Simplify transfer mechanism for implementation of
Project Stakeholder Risks
MI complex arrangements for accessing funds School Level Improvement Plans
and inadequate community mobilization, thus
adversely affecting local level
implementation.
Achievement of program objectives may be 1. Capacity building is at the forefront of the program. It
significantly affected by weak capacity in is being supported through technical assistance,
planning, management, and monitoring strengthening of school-based management, the
Implementing Agency Risks
MI program results, financial management, development of a robust M&E system and independent
procurement and compliance with program evaluation.
environmental safeguards at all levels. 2. A PFM action plan is being implemented as part of
program preparation. Program design also incorporates
67

Institutional arrangements for effective expenditure monitoring, external validation exercises,
implementation not yet finalized: regulatory and an Annual Fiduciary Review, including a
framework and mechanisms for working procurement post review. IDA and ADB have taken
across the sector with all providers remains in joint responsibility for ensuring fiduciary oversight and
early stages of development detailed their roles (as well as those of other DPs) in the
Joint Financing Arrangement. The objective is to ensure
high quality fiduciary oversight and harmonized
decision-making to the extent possible.
3. The preparation of the education budget will adopt a
results based approach, well integrated with the MTBF.
Strengthening Public Expenditure Management Project
(SPEMP) will provide support for strengthening the
MTBF and financial accountability.
4. The program will support the capacity development of
the DPE on environmental and social issues through
technical assistance.
5. Technical assistance for international training on
procurement principles and best practices shall be
incorporated in the annual training plan.
6. Use of country FM systems (treasury model) will
reduce transaction costs and help focus the capacity
building efforts.
Project Risks
The approach of linking disbursements to key 1. MOPME, through DPE, has already initiated a results-
results may be subject to risks associated with based management system which will be strengthened
the capacity to implement, monitor and during the project.
evaluate program activities effectively and in 2. Capacity support in strengthening monitoring and
a timely manner. evaluation will be a strong feature of PEDP III.
3. The adoption of DLIs builds an incentive mechanism
into the program design.
Design Risk MI 4. DLIs do not hold GOB accountable for delivery
outcome-related targets which may be beyond its reach
within the program period. DLIs include a combination
of policy, implementation output and outcome level
targets which aim to strengthen reforms in the key
selected areas. These can be reviewed at midterm to
allow for contingencies.
Social and Environmental Safeguards Risk: 1. An Environmental Management Framework (EMF)
Limited capacity within MOPME may lead to and Social Management Framework (SMF) and
deficiencies in implementing the agreed plans arrangements for its implementation have been prepared
Social & Environmental L (including the Environmental Management in consultation with communities and stakeholders.
Plan, EMP), consistent with agreed 2. Institutional and Organizational arrangements include
guidelines. clearly specified responsibilities for managing
environmental and social safeguards. This will be further
68

strengthened through the recruitment of additional
expertise as explained earlier.
3. The Project will include a strong mechanism for
supervision and monitoring physical facilities and
provision of safe drinking water (i.e. without arsenic
contamination) including a qualified official assigned to
oversee these and other environmental and social
safeguards.
1.The variety of requirements by various DPs 1. All DPs adopt the same program and results
can create some confusion and add framework, and use the same set of DLIs, and joint
complexity with additional transaction costs review process, and common financial reporting.
for the GOB 2. The Joint Financing Arrangement will spell out the
2. The capacity of DPs to supervise such a harmonized requirements/rules (common financial
large GOB implemented program is limited reporting, common set of DLIs etc), signed by all DPs
and relies heavily on GOB produced and the GOB.
Program & Donor L administrative data. 3. GOB administrative reported data will be triangulated,
3. DP financing are subject to fluctuations in with information from other valid sources, as mentioned
aid and may be lost if not fully disbursed earlier.
due to unmet DLIs within the financial year. 4. Some proportion of bilateral funding will be provided
irrespective of success in meeting DLIs. This safeguards
the loss of all Development Partner funds earmarked for
the Project in the event of unmet DLIs.
There could be pressure to implement too 1. Through the DLIs, the focus is set on selected priority
large a number of interventions at the expense areas leaving some flexibility about the pace of
Delivery Quality MI of quality implementation of other program areas.
2. The program will support strong monitoring and
evaluation.
Overall Risk Rating at Preparation Overall Risk Rating during Implementation
ML MI
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Annex 5: Implementation Support Plan
I. Implementation Support Strategy
1. In line with the decision to use a common results-based approach and to provide
Development Partner funding for PEDPIII by using country systems, there is consensus among
all the Partners participating in the SWAp to have harmonized implementation arrangements,
joint planning towards key program results, and joint assessment of those results. This includes a
joint responsibility to supervise, and provide necessary implementation support to DPE and
MOPME.
2. While maintaining the usual functions of due diligence in fiduciary and safeguard
oversight over procedures, transactions, and activities, implementation support under PEDPIII
will shift from attention restricted to inputs in order to focus substantially on the capacity to
deliver results: in particular, in the areas identified as strategic interventions (see Annex 2). The
strategy for the Implementation Support Plan (ISP) will be to maintain a continuous dialogue
(both formal and informal) with the Government to identify ahead of time, problems and
obstacles which could delay implementation and prevent achieving agreed results; and to
provide, where and when needed, technical advice and support to remove such obstacles.
3. There is consensus among the Development Partners that, while Governments

commitment is key to the achievement of agreed results, technical assistance that is well targeted
on a number of strategic areas could be critical to strengthen capacity and country systems. The
Government has endorsed this strategy, requesting implementation support in selected areas. The
Development Partners have in turn, agreed to determine jointly with the Government, technical
assistance plans (to avoid duplication of efforts and confusing advice), and to build on their
respective comparative advantages in terms of expertise and financial resources. The
Development Partners and GOB will agree jointly on the providers of technical assistance and on
their terms of reference. Some of this implementation support is built within the PEDPIII. In
addition, some Development Partners will provide technical assistance directly, while this will
still be within parameters of the jointly agreed, technical assistance plan.
Implementation Support Plan
4. The following ISP describes how the World Bank and the other Development Partners in
the PEDPIII SWAp will support the implementation of the risk mitigation measures (identified
in Annex 4: ORAF) and provide the technical support necessary to facilitate achieving the PDO
(linked to results/outcomes identified in the Results Framework, Annex 1). The ISP also
identifies the minimum requirements to meet the World Banks fiduciary obligations. The ISP
will be reviewed at least once a year to ensure that it continues to meet the implementation
support needs of PEDPIII.
5. Joint Annual Reviews (between GOB and all Development Partners) constitute the first
element of the ISP. These joint reviews will take place twice a year. In May, their main objective
will to review progress, and, in particular, to check whether agreed results have been achieved.
The second review, scheduled for November, is also meant to review progress, but this time, the
70

focus will be on identifying ahead of time, obstacles and impediments (if any) that could derail
the implementation plan. During each of the reviews, and, especially during the November
review, the type of implementation support that is needed could be identified, followed by joint
decisions to provide technical assistance. The main beneficiaries of this support would be DPE
with its line directors, as well as all other agencies involved in the implementation of PEDPIII.
6. The second element of the ISP is the continuous dialogue that needs to be maintained
between the Development Partners and the Government, and which would provide an
opportunity for discussing options, responding to specific requests for advice, or identifying
possible issues. This second element is more informal and would not require that a full mission
be fielded, but rather that the relevant experts and/or selected Development Partner
representatives participate.
7. Whether formal or informal channels (annual reviews or small technical visits), there is
agreement between GOB and the Development Partners on the following principles: (i)
implementation support should be provided according to a rolling plan prepared by GOB in
consultation with Development Partners and based on identified emerging needs; (ii)
coordination and management of technical assistance should be done by MOPME and DPE; (iii)
technical assistance should aim at building system capacity and be used for short term tasks and
not be used to substitute for staff functions; (iv) international technical assistance should be
partnered with Government counterparts and/or local experts to build national capacity. These
principles were adopted to address the problems which the GOB and Development Partners
identified during preparation of PEDPIII, i.e. poor coordination, lack of planning and limited
government ownership which reduced the effectiveness of support during the life of the previous
project.
Technical Support/Review:
8. An initial needs assessment was conducted and several technical areas have already been
identified as particularly in need of implementation support. These are: (i) management and
evidenced-based planning; (ii) monitoring & evaluation; (iii) human resource management; (iv)
needs based quality infrastructure; (v) pre-primary education; (ii) stipend programs; (iii)
learning assessment and examinations; (iv) curriculum and teacher professional development.
This initial needs assessment will be further refined and completed before PEDPIII effectiveness.
9. Based on past and on-going experience, and an agreed sharing of responsibilities between
the Development Partners, implementation support financed (outside the Credit) by the World
Bank will be largely focused on the areas of monitoring and evaluation, learning assessments and
examinations, and delivery of stipends in addition to the overall supervision of the whole
program, and in particular, to the needs in areas of fiduciary and safeguards oversight.
10. Monitoring and Evaluation. The M&E support plan will seek to enhance the capacity of
the M&E division and the project implementation divisions. It will include support for:
improving the Annual Census instrument, enhancing data quality though validation and internal
checks, better triangulation of information through comparison with data from other sources,
designing surveys and analyzing data, undertaking third-party validations, monitoring of key
performance indicators, and expanding the coverage of the census to be more comprehensive
71

within the primary education sector. Support in the area of M&E will also seek to ensure closer
coordination between DPE divisions and between DPE and related agencies which are
implementing the stipend program, textbook distribution and construction activities.
11. Learning assessments and examinations. In this area, there is a critical need to strengthen
DPE and other agencies (e.g., NAPE, NCTB) with international expertise to ensure the quality of
the tests and administration, a timely analysis of their results and an appropriate feedback of
findings into teaching practices. The quality of tests used in previous rounds has been weak and
has prevented the establishment of a reliable baseline. Exams have tested rote learning rather
than ability to think. Improving the system in a sustainable way cannot be achieved with a one-
time assistance. Support will need to be provided on a continuous basis over the life of PEDPIII
to accompany the gradual improvement of the assessment system and carefully phased out to
allow for a gradual build-up of national capacity.
12. Stipend program. A study is currently under way to analyze several aspects of the
administration of the revamped stipend program. It is expected that support will be needed to
help implement recommendations which could result from this analysis and for undertaking
further analysis of its effectiveness and impact.
Fiduciary Oversight and Support:
13. Fiduciary oversight arrangements and support have been developed to support
harmonized approaches, particularly between the two multi-lateral development banks (World
Bank and ADB) co-financing this SWAp, which would be enabled upon acceptance of the
waivers (from the World Bank Board on recognizing ADBs sanctions list and from the ADB
Board on expanding the list of eligible bidders beyond its member states) being requested by the
two Banks.
14. For all expenditures incurred under PEDPIII, excluding procurement of goods using ICB
method and all consultancy services, the World Bank and the ADB have worked out, in
consultation with all other DPs, arrangements for mutual accountability of fiduciary oversight
functions. The World Bank will undertake fiduciary oversight for all ICB goods and works
contracts which it is co-financing along with other Development Partners (excluding the ADB,
which is not financing this category of expenditures). The ADB will undertake fiduciary
oversight for all consultancy contracts that it is co-financing along with other Development
Partners (excluding the World Bank, which is not financing this category of expenditures). The
oversight arrangements are also given in Annex 3 of this PAD and will be set out in detail in the
Joint Financing Arrangements to which the GOB and all the Development Partners in the
PEDPIII SWAp will be signatories.
15. The principal instruments for fiduciary oversight of PEDPIII expenditures include, each
year:
One Annual Fiduciary Review (AFR) including a detailed Procurement Post Review
Three Quarterly Fiduciary Review (QFR) (one of the three QFRs is expected to include
a light procurement review)the fourth one is replaced by the AFR
Review of and No Objection on the Procurement Plan (annual)
72

Prior review of ICB goods and works and all consultancies
Other regular fiduciary oversight activities including review of the Interim Unaudited Financial
Reports (IFR), Annual Audit Report, quarterly reporting on procurement risk mitigation plan or
procurement performance reporting based on agreed indicators, etc.
16. For the co-financed eligible expenditures, ADB and IDA will jointly manage the Annual
Fiduciary Review (AFR) and the Quarterly Fiduciary Review (QFR). The two Banks will
provide joint technical supervision of the work of the consultants and therefore both Banks will
be accountable for the quality of the report. The two Banks will make all efforts to take joint
decisions. However, in the event of disagreement, bi-lateral loan/credit agreements shall prevail.
17. Financial management: The financial management support plan will be risk based, and
will include: monitoring progress against the PFM action plan; review of the PEDPIII financial
management arrangements through Annual Fiduciary Review; reviews of quarterly/semi-annual
IFRs; review of annual audited financial statements and management letter; monitoring of audit
follow-up process as well as timely follow-up of issues arising; and participation in joint
implementation support missions as appropriate. Since it is the first time that a Project of this
nature relies on the use of country systems, a great deal of implementation support is envisaged
on a day-to-day basis to ensure adequate financial management. This will involve, inter alia,
MOPME, DPE, Ministry of Finance, CGA, CAG, and SPEMP. Close coordination would be
maintained with the MDTF (SPEMP) team for implementation of Public Financial Management
capacity building in the education sector.
18. Procurement: Procurement oversight will be provided by the World Bank exclusively for
all ICB contracts which are co-financed with all DPs (excluding the ADB). Procurement
oversight of all consultancies (ineligible for World Bank financing) will be provided by the
ADB. Both Banks have agreed to undertake mutual accountability for the supervision of
contracts subject to national competitive bidding processes (see Annex 3), pursuant to obtaining
the waivers mentioned above. The oversight will be required for planning procurement,
undertaking prior review, building capacity for procurement and undertaking post reviews.
Safeguards:
19. Given the weaknesses in DPE capacity, specialized assistance will be required for
managing the environmental and social safeguards assessment and mitigation issues. The
Upazila and district level DPE staff as well as the relevant personnel from the central ministry
who will be directly involved in implementation will be trained to ensure compliance with the
Environmental Management Framework (EMF) and the Social Management Framework (SMF).
20. The EMF and SMF have been reviewed and agreed by all Development Partners. These
documents clearly specify the monitoring arrangements. Because there is no lead donor
providing oversight of the program, oversight of safeguards compliance will be ensured through
joint reviews, led primarily by the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, as is the case
for fiduciary oversight. To the extent possible, joint decisions will be sought on safeguards
compliance; in the case of disagreement, bi-lateral agreements will prevail. If the need for an in-
depth review arises, the World Bank may contract (finance or co-finance) the consultant/firm to
undertake the review on behalf of all the development partners in the SWAp.
73

21. In addition, on an ongoing and regular basis, the World Bank team will supervise (in
collaboration with other Development Partners, particularly the ADB) and provide support to
agencies involved in ensuring safeguards compliance. Inputs from an environment and a social
specialist are required, though the Projects social and environmental impacts are limited.
Training is required on environment monitoring and reporting. Field visits are required on a
semi-annual basis. Both social and environmental specialists are based in the World Bank
country office in Dhaka.
Anti Corruption:
22. The World Bank team will supervise the implementation of the agreed Governance and
Accountability Action Plan which is based on the Annex 4: ORAF and available as a separate
document from this PAD.
23. The main focus of the ISP is summarized below:
Time Focus Resource Estimate Partner Role

First 12 Technical Review:
months M&E (school census instruments; M&E Specialist (20 Education
data analysis and reporting from SWs), Economist (10 Specialization may
school census; reporting for DLIS SWs) be shared with
and KPIs; expanded scope of census, other Development
effectiveness of revamped stipend Partners (DPs)
program);
Other DPs may
Grade 5 exam and learning Assessments contribute
assessments Specialist(s)15 SWs resources
& Firm (Learning
Assessment)30SWs
General education expertise Sr. Education

Specialist (25 SWs)
Fiduciary Oversight: Mutual oversight

Financial Management Financial with ADB
Management (pending waiver).
Specialist (15 SWs)
Procurement Procurement Other DPs
Specialist (10 SWs); contribute
Procurement resources for all
consultant (6 SWs) fiduciary oversight
functions
Safeguards:
Social Safeguards Specialist(s)5 SWs Other DPs
Environmental Safeguards Specialist(s)5 SWs contribute
resources for all
fiduciary oversight
functions
Task Team Leader 15 SWs
74

Time Focus Resource Estimate Partner Role
12 48 Technical Review:
months M&E (data validation, third party M&E Specialist (60 Education
validations, designing Education HH SWs), Specialization may
survey; analysis of the EHS data, data Economist (30SWs) be shared with
analysis and reporting); other DPs
Building capacity for exams and Assessments
assessments; targeted support for Specialist(s)30 SWs Other DPs may
learning assessment & Firm (Learning contribute
Assessment) 30 SWs resources
General education expertise Sr. Education
Specialist (75 SWs)
Fiduciary Oversight: Mutual oversight

Financial Management Financial with ADB
Management (pending waiver).
Specialist (30 SWs)
Procurement Procurement Other DPs
Specialist (18 SWs); contribute
Procurement resources for all
consultant (18 SWs) fiduciary oversight
functions
Safeguards:
Social Safeguards Specialist(s)- 15 SWs Other DPs
Environmental Safeguards Specialist(s)- 15 SWs contribute
resources for all
fiduciary oversight
functions
Task Team Leader 45 SWs
Other Technical Review:

Third party evaluation of Stipend Research Firm - Other DPs may
program 30 SWs contribute
resources
Fiduciary Oversight:
Public Expenditure Tracking Survey Consultants:
International - 10 SWs
National - 20 SWs
75

24. The staff skills mix required is summarized below
Skills Needed Number of Staff Weeks Number of Trips Comments
International and
M&E Specialist 80 SWs Fields trips as required.
local consultant
Economist 40 SWs Field Trips as required Local
Individual Specialist(s) 45 SWs

Assessment Firm 60 SWs Field Trips as required International
Year 1; 10 SWs Year 2
International
Senior Education Specialist 25 SWs annually Field Trips as required
(based in Country Office)
Research Firm + Research Firm (stipends eval.) 30 SWs

Field Trips as required Local
consultants Consultants (PETS) 30 SWs
Social specialist (national) 5 SWs annually Fields trips as required. Country office based
Environment specialist 5 SWs annually Fields trips as required. Country office based
10 SWs Yr 1; 6 SWs Yr2
Procurement Fields trips as required. Country office based
onward
Procurement Post Review
6 SWs annually Fields trips as required. International
(consultants)
Senior Financial 15 SWs Yr1; 10 SWs annually Fields trips as required. Country office based
Management specialist Yr2 and onward
International/Country
Task Team leader 15 SWs annually Fields trips as required based
76

Annex 6: Team Composition
World Bank staff and consultants who worked on the project:
Name Title Unit
Susan Opper Senior Education Specialist and SASED

Co-TTL
Ayesha Vawda Senior Education Specialist and SASED
Co-TTL
Helen Craig Lead Human Development AFTED
Specialist
Michelle Riboud Consultant (Economist) SASED
Marta Molares-Halberg Lead Counsel LEGES
Jay Pascual Counsel LEGES
Syed Rashed Al-Zayed Economist SASED
(Josh)
Benjamin Safran Junior Professional Associate SASED
Dilip Parajuli Education Economist SASED
Md. Mokhlesur Rahman Senior Operations Officer SASED
Subrata S. Dhar Senior Operations Officer SASED
Burhanuddin Ahmed Senior Financial Management SARFM
Specialist
Furqan Ahmad Saleem Senior Financial Management AFTFM
Specialist
Chau-Ching Shen Senior Finance Officer CTRFC
Zafrul Islam Lead Procurement Specialist SARPS
Toufiq Ahmed Procurement Specialist SARPS
Marghoob Bin Hussein Senior Procurement Specialist SARPS
Nadia Sharmin Consultant (Environment) SASDI
Shakil Ahmed Ferdousi Senior Environment Specialist
Sabah Moyeen Social Development Analyst SASDS
Teen K. Barua Consultant (Social Development) SASDI
Hena Mukherjee Consultant SASED
Somasundaram Finance Analyst CTRDM
Swaminathan
Sandra Alborta Program Assistant SASHD
Nazma Sultana Program Assistant SASHD
Alejandro Welch Information Assistant SASHD
Shashi K. Shrivastava Consultant SASHD
77

Annex 7: Governance and Accountability Action Plan (GAAP)
The World Bank, together with eight Development Partners (DPs), aims to support the
Government of Bangladeshs (GOBs) Third Primary Education Program (PEDPIII) through the
use of a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp). Disbursement is conditioned on the achievement of
pre-specified results, referred to as Disbursement-Linked Indicators (DLIs). The PEDPIII seeks
results in three broad areas: (i) improving the quality of the learning environment and measuring
student learning; (ii) increasing participation and reducing social disparities in primary
education; and (iii) improving program planning and management, and strengthening
institutions.
The most critical risks to the achievement of these results are:
(d) Focus on inputs: The current focus of education service delivery is on inputs. Given that
results-based interventions are fairly new, it will take some time to change from a culture
based on inputs to focus on outcomes and results. Hence, if adequate emphasis is not placed
on monitoring and evaluating effectiveness of programs/DLIs, the effectiveness of the
program is likely to be reduced. There has been a systemic effort to reduce this risk.
Significant dissemination regarding the change in approach has taken place through the
system, and will continue. MOPME, through DPE, has already initiated a results-based
management system which will be strengthened during the project. Further, capacity support
in strengthening monitoring and evaluation will be a strong feature of PEDPIII. Finally, the
adoption of DLIs builds an incentive mechanism into the program design.
(e) Capacity: Despite ongoing capacity building efforts, staff vacancies and turn over, civil
administration issues and lack of accountability cut across the sector. Weak capacity at
planning, implementing and monitoring stage, as well as low fiduciary capacity could
jeopardize program achievement. To mitigate this risk, the program ramps up technical
assistance in various aspects of educational management as well as on fiduciary issues to
assist the government in achieving results. Local capacity and accountability are being
enhanced through scaling up school-based management under School Level Improvement
Plans (SLIP). Increased focus is also being placed on developing quality monitoring and
evaluation systems.
(f) Fraud and corruption: Certain systemic weaknesses in some aspects of the program, such
as delivery of stipends, contracts for books, hiring of teachers, civil works etc., expose the
project to a risk of corruption and non-transparent or inefficient practices. Furthermore,
enforcement of GOBs procurement regulatory system may not meet the needed level of
governance and accountability. These risks are mitigated through several measures. The
program design incorporates expenditure monitoring; external validation exercises, and an
annual fiduciary review. A PFM action plan is being implemented to ensure timely and
reliable financial reports for the Program and to enhance monitoring for follow-up of audit
observations. The Bank's own intensive supervision of technical and fiduciary aspects will
also mitigate this risk. On procurement, GOBs regulatory system will be strengthened in line
with internationally accepted procedures, and procurement capacity will be enhanced as
78

needed. There will also be transparency in disclosure of procurement activities, mainly
through DPEs website.
The program has been designed to address these critical risks, and hence, project interventions
are in essence the mitigation measures for ensuring the outcomes planned for this program.
While the details of the interventions are provided in the Project Appraisal Document, the
following tables summarizes the key elements of achieving results through enhanced governance
and accountability in the sector.
79

Issues / Risk Mitigating Actions GAAP monitoring mechanisms Agency Timeline
Responsible
Focus on inputs includes Adoption of Disbursement Linked Indicators, Monitoring of Disbursement MOPME Semi-annual
too much emphasis on which provides a strong financial incentive to Linked Indicators through and DPs (once for JARM
inputs rather than on results, deliver results since a large proportion of Joint Annual Reviews (JARM) and once 6
often resulting from lack of financing is linked to the delivery of results months earlier)
incentives to focus on Results based management Preparation of Annual Sector DPE Annual
outcomes and constrained Performance Report
by ineffective management Strengthening capacity for monitoring and DLI verification (use of more MOPME Semi-annual
information systems and evaluation through enhanced instruments for comprehensive education and DPs (once for JARM
unavailability of analyses M&E and better staffing census questionnaire, data and once 6
for decision making. verification through sample months earlier)
based quality control
mechanisms, data
triangulation through
household surveys and interim
household survey focusing on
education); Analysis of results
of 2013 Grade V terminal
examination completed by
DPE and NAPE and results
disseminated
Capacity constraints Incentives for attracting and retaining high quality DLI verification: Proposal of MOPME Year 3
includes limited availability staff through well designed career paths for all career paths for teachers and and DPs;
of skills required for teachers, head teacher, and all staff of the head teachers and, career MOPME
undertaking the work either Directorate of Primary Education (center and paths, recruitment and
due to frequent turnover or localized) promotion rules for DPE
inadequate career paths, officers (field and Head
weak capacity at planning, Quarter) approved
implementing and
monitoring stage, as well as Grade 5 examination which is
low fiduciary capacity. The 25% competency based
system overall may be Strengthened assessments of student learning, verified through independent DPE and Year 3
limited in its capacity due to measuring skills as opposed to rote learning review NAPE
unpredictable financing. At least 75% of schools having
prepared SLIPs and received
Support school based management thorough the funds according to SMC MOPME Year 3
provision of School Level Improvement Plans guidelines validated by and DPs
(SLIPs) expenditure tracking survey
80

Responsible
Budget circulars 1 & 2;
Detailed budget framework
Support financial sustainabilityFor each fiscal and expenditure forecast; draft MOPME Annually
year, Primary education budget aligned with budget (May), and expenditure and MOF
program framework and consistent with 3 year statement until April, approved
Medium Term Budgetary Framework (MBTF); budget for next FY; simplified
Actual primary expenditures for each fiscal year AOP and Integrated Financial
within 15% deviation of the originally approved report June.
budget Site visits, third party
monitoring
Community involvement in school maintenance MOPME Annually
and LGED
Fraud and corruption Needs-based infrastructure development At least 55 % of planned MOPME Annually
include non-transparent or needs-based infrastructure and LGED
inefficient practices development completed
according to criteria and
technical standards.
Improved targeting of stipends to beneficiaries Public Expenditure Tracking MOPME Year 3
Survey
All teachers and head teachers positions Needs-based analysis of new MOPME Annually
(vacancies and new positions) filled according to teacher and head teacher and
agreed recruitment procedures and on needs basis positions approved by Ministry
MOPME; Teacher database of
and EMIS, Administrative data Establish
on teacher recruitment process. ment
Third party validation exercises Third party validation of Contracted As required
validation census data out to (more details on
completed, at least 25% of agencies each validation
Upazilas having prepared exercise in
Upazilla Primary Education PAD)
Programs(UPEP) and received
funds based on UPEP
guidelines validated by
expenditure tracking survey;
Third party validation of
infrastructure development
81

Responsible
according to criteria and
technical standards; Third
party validation of monitoring
mechanism for textbook
distribution completed
FM Risks include:
Weaknesses in Financial Financial management arrangements are provided in Annual Fiduciary Review DPE/MOP Annual
Management capacity at GOB detail in Annex 4. The key measures that directly Reports (Studies) ME,
level in terms of supervision, strengthen the governance and accountability include Quarterly Fiduciary Review PFWG
follow up, audit compliance.
among others: (review of FM systems and Quarterly
Use of country systems for financial flows, compliance with agreed
Lack of FM capacity at locals. payments and audit which would encourage more arrangements)
balanced segregation of duties in transaction Minutes of monthly meetings
processing and a pre-payment audit on reconciliation and
Potential delay in payments
Agreement on a comprehensive PFM action plan payment processing time Monthly
through the treasury system and
to mitigate key financial management and exceptions
risk of rent seeking procurement risks while using the treasury Interim Financial Reports
systems for PEDP III Annual Financial Statements Semi-annual
Inaccurate expenditure numbers Strengthening of financial management capacity and Audit reports (incl.
and/or incorrect classification of of the Finance Unit in DPE encouraging management letter)
accounts segregation of duties, exercise of authorization Minutes of tri-partite Annual
and approval controls, compliance with meetings on audit follow-up
Advances booked as an procedures and independent internal checking;
expenditure (not actually spent) Agreed templates and framework for monitoring Annual
of payments processing service standards at
Absence of an effective internal accounts offices
audit function within Agreed monitoring framework for monthly
MOPME/DPE reconciliation between DDOs and accounts
offices
Inadequate audit follow-up Agreed on a separate code of advances outside
(weak financial accountability) the expenditure codes
Adoption of International Accounting Public
Sector Accounting Standards to promote
adequate disclosure and presentation of financial
information;
82

Responsible
Annual audit by the Comptroller and Auditor
General of Bangladesh
Annual fiduciary review to bring out systemic
issues and concrete recommendations for high
fiduciary risk areas
Legal covenant for the executive follow-up of
Serious Financial Irregularities through tri-partite
meetings/audit review meetings on a timely basis
The program design incorporates expenditure
monitoring; external validation exercises, and an
annual fiduciary review conducted by DPs to
mitigate this risk substantially.
Procurement risks include: Raise awareness among implementing agencys Quarterly Fiduciary Review DPE, Quarterly and
officials/ staffs about fraud and corrupt issues. and Annual Fiduciary LGED Annual
Corrupt, Collusion, Fraudulent, In the pre-bid meeting aware bidders on the Review. and
and Coercive practices by the consequences of fraud and corrupt practices. NCTB
bidders. Also bidders are to be informed about bidders
right to complaint and complaint handling
Record Keeping and document obligations by the procuring entities.
management system All implementing agencies will ensure written
procedure for record keeping with periodic audit
Complaint mechanism, on functioning of the record keeping procedures.
Complaint handling, redress Ensure online complaint mechanism in place in
mechanism and awareness the website of the procuring entities. Conduct
training for handling complaint to the
Transparency and right to procurement staffs/ officials of the procuring
information entities.
Publish contract award information in the website
Verification of contract of the procuring entity.
obligations Keep records of complaint resolution, debriefing
minutes and ensure bidders are made aware of the
decision.
A protocol on access to information to be
developed and all staffs are to be made aware of
the protocol (including the requirement of
confidentiality of bid evaluation).
83

Responsible
Complaint mechanism at field level to be
introduced for contract obligation verification.
Involvement of School Management Committee
in contractual obligations monitoring. Establish
complaint mechanism specifically on issues of
quantity, quality and timeliness of contract
obligations.
84

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DIVERSE PROVIDERS OF

CREATE BANGLADESH POLICY BRIEF 3

DIVERSE PROVIDERS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH

A Brief History of Educational Provision in curbed centuries-old culture of community

Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE)

http://www.create-rpc.org Tel: 00 44 (0)1273 877984 create@sussex.ac.uk

EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:1

57% In Bangladesh, non-government and quasi-

Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE)

http://www.create-rpc.org Tel: 00 44 (0)1273 877984 create@sussex.ac.uk

EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:2

Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE)

http://www.create-rpc.org Tel: 00 44 (0)1273 877984 create@sussex.ac.uk

EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:3

Ahmed, M., Ahmed, K. S., Khan, N. I. and Ahmed,

Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE)

http://www.create-rpc.org Tel: 00 44 (0)1273 877984 create@sussex.ac.uk

EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:4

EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:13

Abu Hamid Latif

Volume 7 Number 2 December 2008

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Bangladesh Education Journal, Volume 7, Number 2, December 2008, Published by

EDU 502_Readings Vol 2_Page no:15

Manzoor Ahmed, Advisory Editor

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Achieving Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh

Assessing "Communicative" Writing Skills:

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A sectoral approach is about sectoral thinking, not a specific administrative modality.

II. A Vision for Universal Primary Education in the Context of

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providers should be included in the framework of the programme and must

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III. Fulfilling the Vision - Getting there from here:

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Variation in provision. The system is characterized by great variations in provisions. The

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Status of classroom materials. There is an official curriculum with detailed specification of

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7. Governance and management

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UPEPs. UPEP is an important mechanism complementary to and supportive of SLIP with

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partisan politics. Educational decision-making including appointments, transfers and

IV. Consensus-building and Decision-making

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