1854 Radioactive beams

ionosphere
ent beam species; the disadvantages are that high beam quality,
purity, and intensity are difficult to obtain. See NUCLEAR FUSION;
NUCLEAR REACTION; PARTICLE ACCELERATOR. [M.S.S.]

Radioactive fallout Whenever radioactive materials

become airborne, either from a nuclear device detonation or
from a nuclear release accident, the resultant contaminated
ve
wa
atmospheric plume will ultimately return radioactivity to the
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sk

Earth’s surface. Material settling from the radioactive plume

direct wave
ve
d wa
flecte
- re
und
surface wave gro
Earth
Possible transmission paths between antennas.
bending), the transmission loss is increased. See REFRACTION OF
WAVES.
Radioactive beams Beams of radioactive (unstable)
nuclei. In several nuclear physics laboratories, a capability exists
to produce such beams and, before these nuclei spontaneously
decay, use them to gain insight into the reactions on and struc-
ture of nuclei never before accessible. Radioactive beams are
particularly useful to study stellar explosions such as novae, su-
pernovae, and x-ray bursts. These explosions are some of the
most catastrophic events in the universe, generating enormous
amounts of energy while synthesizing the elements that make up
lifeforms and the world. These spectacular explosions involve,
and in some cases are driven by, reactions where the atomic
nuclei of hydrogen (protons) and helium (alpha particles) fuse
with (are captured by) radioactive isotopes of heavier elements
to form new elements. The capability to produce beams of ra-
dioactive nuclei allows direct measurements of these reactions,
providing crucial information needed to theoretically model cat-
aclysmic stellar events and to understand the origin of many
chemical elements.
One approach to radioactive beam production is the isotope
separator on-line (ISOL) technique. One accelerator bombards
a target with a beam of stable nuclei, and a small number of the
radioactive atoms of interest are produced through nuclear re-
actions. These atoms are transported, by various techniques,
including thermal diffusion, to an ion source where they are
ionized (removing or adding electrons to give atoms an elec-
trical charge) and extracted. The radioactive ions are then mass-
separated from other ions and accelerated to energies needed
for nuclear physics experiments by a second accelerator. The
ISOL technique can produce very high beam qualities, purities,
and intensities; the disadvantages are that only a few radioac-
tive beam species can be generated from each combination of
production target and primary beam, and that beams with short
lifetimes (less than 1 s) are difficult to produce. See ION SOURCES;
MASS SPECTROSCOPE.
A complementary radioactive beam production technique is
projectile fragmentation. When a high-energy beam of stable
heavy ions passes through a thin target, the beam particles (pro-
jectiles) can break up into fragments—some of which are the
radioactive isotope of interest. The desired fragments are then
mass-separated from other ions and steered toward a target to
undergo the reaction of interest. The projectile fragmentation
technique can produce beams of very short lifetimes (10−6 s or
less), and the same setup can be used to produce many differ-
and its subsequent surface deposition is known as radioactive
fallout.
Radioactive materials consist of unstable atoms which emit
gamma rays, beta particles, or alpha particles. These emissions—
rays and particles—are unique in that they cause ionizations
in neighboring atoms. The energy of the emitted radiation and
subsequent ionizations can be a cause of concern if absorbed
by living systems. See ALPHA PARTICLES; BETA PARTICLES; GAMMA
RAYS; RADIOACTIVITY.
Fissioning of uranium and plutonium produces isotopes of
about 70 different atoms; each atom may have several different
isotopic forms. Examples of daughter products are the isotopes
of elemental strontium, which are efficiently produced in nuclear
fission. The isotope strontium-90 (90Sr) has a 28-year half-life,
while 89Sr is produced in slightly higher concentrations but has
[K.B.] a half-life of only 50 days. In addition to the differing half-lives,
each isotope emits a unique radiation spectrum. The two stron-
tium isotopes emit beta particles of different energies. Other iso-
topes such as cesium-137 (137Cs, half-life 30 years) and iodine-
131 (131I, half-life 8 days) emit both beta particles and gamma
rays. See CESIUM; IODINE; ISOTOPE; STRONTIUM.
Atmospheric fallout can be scavenged by rainfall. Wet deposi-
tion, involving washing out of atmospheric fallout, can increase
local deposition patterns. This was the case following the Cher-
nobyl accident, where local rainfall in Belarus, Ukraine, and Rus-
sia washed high concentrations of radioactive iodine and cesium
out of the plume and onto the spring pasture. Radioactive iodine
and cesium are relatively volatile and were more easily “boiled”
out of Chernobyl’s burning core. Cesium is a congener of potas-
sium and therefore is fairly uniformly distributed throughout the
body once inhaled or ingested. The result is a whole-body radia-
tion dose. Furthermore, the energetic gamma-ray emission from
137
Cs adds a source of external radiation from surface deposits
on the ground. These factors, in addition to its long half-life and
relatively high concentration, make 137Cs the major long-term
contamination concern from fallout. For example, although the
Chernobyl accident occurred in 1986, precautions must still be
taken against potential intake doses of 137Cs: inhalation doses
can occur when burning wood from contaminated trees, and
consuming mushrooms grown in contaminated forests delivers
an ingestion dose.
Levels of 131I in the plumes of radioactive fallout are of par-
ticular concern. With an 8 day half-life and a strong beta- and
gamma-ray emission, this radionuclide concentrates almost ex-
clusively in the thyroid gland. Recent dose reconstructions in
the United States show that the 1950s and 1960s fallout ra-
diation doses from 131I were large enough to have increased
the risk for thyroid cancer, especially in children. See THYROID
GLAND.
In 1955, the United Nations established the Scientific Com-
mittee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, due to concern over
possible risks from fallout. It issues comprehensive reports about
every 5 years and has collected and documented the world’s
literature on radioactive fallout and, more recently, on possible
radiation consequences. See ATOMIC BOMB; NUCLEAR EXPLOSION;
NUCLEAR FISSION; NUCLEAR FUELS; NUCLEAR REACTOR; RADIATION
INJURY (BIOLOGY). [M.Gol.]
Radioactive minerals Minerals that contain uranium
(U) or thorium (Th) as an essential component of their chemical