LPG Energy Efficiency Report PDF

LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY
FOR A MODERN WORLD
WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION

LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY FOR A MODERN
WORLD
22 JANUARY 2009
PREPARED BY ENERGETICS INCORPORATED
LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 1 January 2009

FOREWORD BY THE WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION (WLP GASA)
The availability of energy is one of the most crucial issues facing the world today. Concerns about rising energy costs,
reliability of supplies and environmental impacts of energy use, including the potentially disastrous consequences of
global climate change are forcing world attention to focus on intelligent, efficient use of energy sources. This study
quantifies and compares the primary efficiency of LP Gas and other energy sources in six regions and in four
different applications with the goal of informing policymakers, industry stakeholders and consumers about the relative
efficiency of using LP Gas when compared with other fuels.
LP Gas is a clean-burning and very efficient fuel. It is also a vital source of energy for hundreds of millions of people
throughout the world today. It is a modern and safe energy providing heat and power to both urban and rural
consumers. LP Gas can be used anywhere and is available now without large investments in technology and
infrastructure. It is a multi-purpose energy with litreally thousands of applications. It is portable; can be transported,
stored and used virtually anywhere in the world and there are sufficient reserves to last for many decades. This study
demonstrates that LP Gas is among the most attractive options for improving energy efficiency in various applications
all over the world. When combined with its other environmental, cost, and performance advantages, is clear that LP
Gas is a clean, efficient energy source of the modern world.
The World LP Gas Association (WLPGA) is the global voice of the LP Gas industry. Granted Consultative Status with
the United Nations Economic and Social Council in 1989, the WLPGA promotes the use of LP Gas worldwide to help
foster a cleaner, healthier and more prosperous world.
January 2009 2 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was developed with the support of the following WLP GASA members who generously shared their time,
talent and wisdom.
Makoto Arahata Japan LP Gas Association

Renzo Be Totalgaz
A. Benbekhaled Salamgaz
Kimball Chen Energy Transportation Group
Arnaud Duvielguerbigny AEGPL (The European LP GAS Association)
Andrew Ford SHV Gas
Mauricio Jarovsky Ultragaz
Sunil Kakar ` BP
Greg Kerr PERC
Ian Maloney ELGAS
Sunil Mathur Indian Oil Corporation
Ian McCracken SHV Gas
Inigo Palacio Repsol
This study was prepared by Energetics Incorporated. Ross Brindle, Matt Antes, Joe McGervey, Kristian Kiuru, Mike
Lloyd, Matt Munderville, and Lindsay Pack, all with Energetics, are the principal authors of this report.
Michael Kelly of WLP GASA coordinated this project.

Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................. 5
About This Study ............................................................................... 6
Methodology ..................................................................................... 7
Summary of Findings
Cooking .....................................................................................................................................................12
Distributed Power Generation ...................................................................................................................14
Residential Space Heating ........................................................................................................................16
Residential Water Heating Central .........................................................................................................18
Residential Water Heating Point-of-Use.................................................................................................20
Application-Specific Analyses
Cooking .....................................................................................................................................................23
Distributed Power Generation ...................................................................................................................26
Residential Space Heating ........................................................................................................................29
Residential Water Heating ........................................................................................................................32
Appendix A Assumptions and References ........................................... 36

Appendix B Glossary of Terms .......................................................... 43
About the World LP Gas Association .................................................. 47

Executive Summary
This study quantifies the energy efficiency of using Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LP Gas) compared with other energy
sources in four selected applications and six regions of the world. Specifically, we estimate energy efficiency in India,
Japan, a selection of European countries, North America, the Republic of Korea, and South America in four
applications important to society: cooking, distributed power generation, residential space heating, and residential
water heating.
The findings of this study, based on existing scientific research in different countries and periods, clearly demonstrate
that LP Gas has an important role to play as global decision-makers seek to address climate change and energy
supply issues by promoting energy efficiency.
Indeed, in many applications and regions, LP Gas is among the most energy efficient options.
CookingIn nearly all regions examined, LP Gas was the most efficient fuel analysed for cooking.
Distributed Power GenerationIn all regions, LP Gas was found to have higher efficiency than natural
gas fuelled distributed power generation while remaining comparable with modern diesel configurations.
This result is driven by technology differences between diesel-fuelled generator sets, which are highly
efficient, and LP Gas-fuelled generator sets, which typically have slightly lower efficiencies.
Residential Space HeatingLP Gas is among the most efficient energy options available for residential
space heating, in every region analysed, across a wide variety of technology configurations.
Residential Water HeatingAs with space heating, LP Gas is among the most energy-efficient options for
providing both point-of-use and central water heating to residential consumers. In fact, LP Gas was
consistently the most efficient water heating option across the regions analysed.
These results are not surprising. LP Gas has many inherent characteristics that make it an efficient energy choice in
many diverse applications. LP Gas is an energy-rich fuel source with a higher calorific value per unit than other
commonly used fuels, including coal, natural gas, diesel, petrol, fuel oils, and biomass-derived alcohols. This fact
means that an LP Gas flame burns hotter, an advantage that can translate into higher efficiency. Further, because LP
Gas is a gaseous fuel rather than a liquid fuel, it is easier to pilot and emissions standards are typically easier to
achieve both factors that enable LP Gas to achieve higher efficiency. Also, because LP Gas is a very clean energy
source nearly all the energy delivered by the fuel can be utilized by the application or device. Equipment
manufacturers recognise and exploit these inherent advantages through optimized designs that allow LP Gas to
deliver higher efficiencies than many other fuels in the applications analysed in this study and many others. The
clean burning nature of LP Gas also means that applications tend to hold on to high levels of efficiency consistently
over the totality of their life cycles and that maintenance is usually relatively undemanding and cost effective. This is
particularly true when compared with more polluting fuels such as fuel oil and biomass. Recent and ongoing
advances in LP Gas fuelled technologies promise to deliver even greater efficiency in other applications such as
vehicles and other engine-driven applications in the near future.
As policymakers continue to seek ways to enhance energy security, slow the depletion of finite energy resources,
and address environmental concerns including global climate change through energy efficiency, LP Gas can offer
significant near-term solutions. LP Gas is not only among the most attractive options for improving energy efficiency,
but it is abundantly available today in many parts of the world through existing distribution channels. Switching to LP
Gas can improve energy efficiency in many applications and parts of the world. LP Gas also can be easily delivered
to developing regions which may not have existing natural gas or electricity distribution infrastructures, offering an
immediate, cost-effective, and low-carbon energy solution. When combined with other environmental, cost, and
performance advantages, it is clear that LP Gas is an efficient, clean energy source for a modern world.

I. ABOUT THIS STUDY
Energy is one of the most crucial issues facing the world today. Concerns about rising energy costs, reliability of
energy supplies, and global climate change are stimulating increased attention on energy conservation and efficiency.
The purpose of this study is to inform policymakers, the worldwide LP Gas industry, and other interested parties
about the relative efficiency of using LP Gas compared with other energy sources in applications important to society.
Ultimately, this study can help to inform businesses, policymakers, and individual consumers as they seek ways to
increase their energy efficiency and reduce their impact on the planet.
This report does not offer original scientific findings derived from experimentation. Rather, it is an analysis of data
from prior studies that allows for meaningful comparisons of LP Gas and other fuels in specific applications. The
study is intended to provide global stakeholders with information that specifically highlights the efficiency advantages
of LP Gas in a variety of applications and world regions.
STUDY BOUNDARIES
This study quantifies the relative energy efficiency profile for LP Gas and other significant energy sources in selected
applications in six regions of the world: India, Japan, a selection of European countries, North America, the Republic
of Korea, and South America. The four applications analysed are cooking, distributed power generation, residential
space heating, and residential water heating.
The analysis estimates the primary energy efficiency of LP Gas and other fuels in a given region and application. It
does not attempt to estimate the total energy consumption by fuel source in an application or region. Total energy
efficiency is driven by the overall energy supply and use picture in each region and the relative market shares of
various technologies within the application areas. Such an analysis is beyond the scope of this study.
ABOUT PRIMARY ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Primary energy consumption is a measure of the naturally occurring energy such as coal, crude oil, natural gas, solar
radiation, hydraulic power, and other sources that must be converted to heat, electricity, or mechanical force to
produce a useful output. Other definitions of primary energy consumption include:
OECD: Primary energy consumption refers to the direct use at the source, or supply to users without
transformation, of crude energy, that is, energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or
transformation process. 1
U.S. Energy Information Administration: Primary energy consumption is the amount of site consumption,
plus losses that occur in the generation, transmission, and distribution of energy. 2
Primary energy efficiency, then, is a measure of the total amount of primary energy consumed to obtain a useful
output in a given application, such as heating a home. For fuels this measure is a straightforward measure of the
energy consumed at the point of use. Electricity is an energy carrier, not a form of primary energy. Accordingly, the
energy lost during the conversion of primary energy sources to electricity, and the losses associated with
transmission and distribution of that electricity to the point of use are factored into the measure of primary energy
efficiency of electricity. Using this convention provides a more accurate view of the amount of energy required to
obtain a useful output. Figure 1 presents a visual representation of the boundaries of primary energy efficiency.
This study does not attempt to quantify the energy used during the transport and distribution of fuels to their point of
conversion to other forms of energy (electricity at a power plant or distributed power generator, or heat in a stove,
furnace, or water heater). The transport of fuels from production facilities to domestic points of use can be expected
to consume slightly more energy than the energy consumed to transport fuel from the same production facility to
centralised power plants; however, this study does not attempt to quantify this small difference.
1
http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2112
2
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/efficiency/ee_gloss.htm

Fig. 1: Boundaries of Primary Energy Efficiency
II. METHODOLOGY
The following describes the basic methodology used to determine the relative energy efficiency profile for all
applications in all of the regions examined in this study. For detailed application-specific assumptions, please see the
Appendix.
BASIS OF COMPARISON
This study examined four different applications important to the global LP Gas industry in six different regions of the
world. For each application, LP Gas-fuelled equipment was compared to that fuelled or powered by other energy
sources. To create a meaningful basis for comparison of relative energy efficiency profiles of LP Gas and other fuels,
a base case for each application was defined. This report does not offer original scientific findings derived from
experimentation. Rather, it is an analysis of data from prior studies that allows for meaningful comparisons of LP Gas
and other fuels in specific applications. Each base case and the rationale used to determine it are described below:
Cooking This analysis compares the energy efficiency of using various energy sources to heat one litre of
water from 20 to 100 degrees Celsius on a stovetop. This application is sufficiently generic to allow the
comparison of a wide range of stovetop cookers. Other cooking technologies, including ovens, microwave
ovens, toasters, griddles, and traditional three stone arrangements were not included in this analysis.
Distributed Power Generation This analysis calculated energy use based on manufacturer specifications
(specs) for power-only (i.e., no combined heat and power) generator sets, or gensets, operating at 1,800
rpm for 60 Hz output and at 1,500 rpm for 50 Hz output and 100% nameplate load. We analysed
manufacturing specs from more than 150 commercially available units that contained adequate data and
were available in the regions analysed (see the Appendix for a full list of manufactures and models
analysed). Statistical log-linear regression of genset data of a given power frequency and size were used to

estimate energy end use. Gensets fuel usage for North America, South America, and Korea are based on
60 Hz power. India, the European countries analysed and Japan are based on 50 Hz power. The analysis
considers a range of sizes of generators used for both prime and standby use.
Residential Space Heating To make a fair comparison of LP Gas-fuelled and competing space heating
technology, we chose to compare the most efficient units commercially available for all fuels, reflecting the
best-in-class technologies available in each region. The basis for analysis was the energy required to heat
a typical home or room in the region for one year. Our analysis reflected the differences in technologies
used in each region. These differences are driven by government regulations, climate, availability of fuels,
and the cost of various technology options.
Residential Water Heating While there is substantial regional variation in both water heating
technologies and their application, all regions tend to rely on central and/or point-of-use systems for their
water heating needs. Central residential water heating heats all of a households water from one source,
while point-of-use heaters are used to heat water for independent needs like dishwashing, hand washing,
and showering. This study analyses both central and point-of-use water heaters on the basis of the amount
of energy typically used by in one year.
The study compares LP Gas-fuelled technology to equipment fuelled by other energy sources commonly used for the
same application. Operational variables such as size, hours of operation, and frequency of use were selected to
represent an average or typical use of the technology or equipment. Data was obtained from published test results,
vendor-supplied specifications, and government studies to determine what constituted a typical use and energy
efficiencies of each fuel system. For most applications, the efficiencies were used to determine the amount of fuel
needed to deliver an equivalent energy service using LP Gas and each competing energy option. For some energy
sources, such as electricity or diesel, differences in energy efficiencies between LP Gas and the other fuel are the
result of different technology designs. In other instances (most notably natural gas), there are only slight differences
in technology design between the LP Gas-configured technology and alternate fuel configurations. All results are
presented on a gross calorific value (GCV) basis. Gross calorific value is also known as higher heating value (HHV).
For residential applications (cooking, space heating, and water heating), available equipment configurations can vary
significantly across regions. Therefore, for these applications we attempted to analyze the range of technologies
used in a given region. However, comparisons of the relative energy efficiency profiles of LP Gas versus other fuels
across regions in one application may be misleading. Because distributed power generation is a highly global
industry, a cross-regional approach for this application was not used.
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PRIMARY ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF ELECTRICITY
The generation of electricity from thermal energy by means of mechanical energy (turbines) or other means is often a
highly inefficient process. Basic laws of thermodynamics and technological inefficiencies prevent a full conversion of
thermal energy into electrical energy. To account for these inefficiencies, we calculate regional-specific primary
energy efficiencies associated with electricity generation, transmission, and distribution to the point of use. This
calculation is based on several key factors, such as primary energy sources used in the region to generate electricity,
the efficiency of generation technology that uses those fuel sources, and losses associated with the transportation
and distribution of electricity.
Primary Energy Sources This report considers all significant sources of electricity as well as several minor
ones. Specifically, it includes coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear, biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar
photovoltaic, waste, and wind generation. Coal, gas, oil, nuclear, and hydroelectric generation account for the
vast majority of all electricity generated worldwide, but emerging technologies are also considered, as interest
and growth in the use of these energy sources is growing rapidly in many parts of the world. The study
presents regional summaries of primary energy sources used to generate electricity that are based on data
produced by the International Energy Agency. 3 Fuel mix varies widely by region, and differences in source
fuels have a significant impact on the generation efficiency of regions.
Generation Efficiency Large amounts of energy are lost during the conversion of heat energy into the
mechanical energy that powers electrical generators. The efficiency of generation varies, however, according
to the type and quality of the fuel and the type and quality of generation equipment. This report uses average
3 http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/prodresult.asp?PRODUCT=Electricity/Heat

values for equipment efficiency across a region for each primary energy source used to generate electricity, as
reported by the International Energy Agency. 4 Values for efficiency vary widely from region to region, while
intra-region values tended to be more similar. Note that there is no universally accepted practice for measuring
the thermal conversion efficiencies for electrical generation via biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar
photovoltaic, waste, or wind power. Accordingly, we used reliable national government estimates of efficiency
for hydroelectric, waste, and biomass fuel sources and assumed 100% efficiency for renewable energy
sources such as geothermal, solar, and wind power. Please see the Appendix for more details regarding these
assumptions.
Losses in Transmission and Distribution Efficiency losses during the transmission and distribution of
power from generating plants to points of use are unavoidable. Much of this is accounted for by heat
generated in power lines due to electrical resistance. Another source of loss, more significant in some areas
than in others, is the direct theft of electricity from power lines. Due to the illegal nature of the latter, it can be
difficult to distinguish between the unavoidable losses incurred in transportation and those caused by theft.
General conclusions may be drawn, however, from the data: India, for example, loses more than a quarter of
its electricity in transportation and distribution, while Korea only loses about 3.5 percent.
By factoring these considerations into the analysis, this study calculates the primary energy efficiency of electricity
generation, transmission, and distribution by region. The results of this calculation are provided in Figure 2. Figure 3
provides details regarding the efficiency attributed to various fuel sources in each region. Figure 4 presents the
electricity generation fuel mix of each region.
Fig. 2: Electricity Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Efficiency
Gross
Electrical
Generation 39.9% 25.7% 40.0% 38.9% 36.6% 59.8%
Efficiency
4 Energy Efficiency Indicators for Public Electricity Production from Fossil Fuels, IEA Information paper

Fig. 3: Efficiencies of Electricity Generation Using Various Energy Sources
North South
Europe India Japan America Korea America
Coal 37.3% 27.3% 41.5% 36.2% 36.5% 28.9%
Oil 36.8% 25.7% 41.9% 35.7% 36.8% 34.1%
Gas 49.3% 40.5% 44.9% 51.0% 48.6% 44.7%
Biomass 20.0% 20.0% 20.0% 20.0% 20.0% 20.0%
Hydro 90.0% 90.0% 90.0% 90.0% 90.0% 90.0%
Waste 52.0% 52.0% 52.0% 52.0% 52.0% 52.0%
Nuclear 31.9% 28.2% 33.6% 32.4% 34.3% 31.3%
Geothermal 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Solar 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Wind 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Note: Europe is defined as the EU 27 plus Croatia, Norway, Switzerland, and Turkey.

Fig. 4: Electricity Generation Mix by Region
Europe India Japan

0% 0% 0% 0%
7% 1% 0% 1% 0% 0%
14% 8%
2%
32% 0% 28%
0%
9% 28%
36%
4%
4%
70%
1% 13%
0%
3% 17% 1%
21%
North America Republic of Korea South America

0% 0% 3%
0% 0% 0%
0%
0% 1% 0% 0%
13% 5%
14%
38%
38%
2%
19% 47%
0%
2%
0%
1% 74%
0%
17% 7%
3% 0% 16%
Coal Nuclear
Oil Hydro
Gas Geothermal
Biomass Solar PV
Waste Wind

III. Summary of Findings
This section presents a summary of the findings of this study. The following pages contain a series of graphs that
show the primary energy efficiency profiles for LP Gas and other fuels in the applications and regions considered.
The fuels selected for analysis reflect regional differences in fuels used in that application. The comparisons among
fuels in each regional-specific analysis of a given application are meaningful. However, because of the significant
regional variations in equipment, electricity generation sources, and efficiency regulations, readers are cautioned
against drawing conclusions from cross-regional comparisons as they may be misleading. All results are presented
on a gross calorific value (GCV) basis. Gross calorific value is also known as higher heating value (HHV).
All results are normalized relative to the energy efficiency of LP Gas and, therefore, have no units. Higher
values indicate higher energy efficiency.
Europe
COOKING
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00 0.80
0.80 0.70
0.60
0.40
0.20
-
LP Gas High- Natural Gas Electric Electric Coil
Efficiency High- Induction
Efficiency
India
1.20
1.00
1.00 0. 88
0.80
0.60 0.54
0.41 0.36
0.40 0.25
0.18
0.20
-
LP Gas Keros ene Wood Wood Electric Coil Crop Dung Mud
Single- Pump-Type Ceramic Traditional Residue Stove
Burner Stove Stove Stove Stove Improved
Stove
Japan
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
-
LP Gas High- Natural Gas High- Electric Induction
Efficiency Efficiency

COOKING (CONT.)
North America
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00 0.82
0.72
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
-
LP Gas Natural Gas Electric Electric Coil
Standard Standard Induction
Republic of Korea
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00
0.80 0.73
0.60
0.40
0.20
-
LP Gas High- Natural Gas High- Electric Induction
Efficiency Efficiency
South America
1.20 1.10
1.00 1.00
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40 0.23
0.20
-
Electric Coil LP Gas Natural Gas Wood
Standard Standard Lorena
Stove

Distributed Power Generation - Primary
Europe, India, Japan

50 Hz Output Frequency
1.40 25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.15 1.19
1.20 1.11
1.00 0.96 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.96
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Diesel LP Natural Diesel LP Natural Diesel LP Natural
Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas
North America, Republic of Korea, South America

1.40 25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.15 1.16 1.17

1.20
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.93 0.94 0.94
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00

DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION STANDBY
Europe, India, Japan

25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.40
1.13 1.15 1.17
1.20
1.00 0.96 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.94 0.92
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
North America, Republic of Korea, South America

25 kW 50 kW 100 kW
1.40
1.15 1.17 1.18
1.20
1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99
0.90 0.94
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00

Residential Space Heating
Europe
1.05
1.00 1.00
1.00
0.96
0.95
0.90
0.85 0.84
0.80
0.75
Condensing LP Condensing High-Efficiency High-Efficiency
Gas Boiler Natural Gas Boiler Fuel Oil Boiler Wood Stove
India
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.26
0.18
0.20
0.00
LP Gas Space Kerosene Space Electric Space Wood Stove
Heater Heater Heater
Japan
1.20
1.02 1.00 1.00
1.00
0.80
0.60 0.49
0.40
0.20
0.00
Kerosene Direct LP Gas Direct Natural Gas Electric Space
Vent Heater Vent Heater Direct Vent Heater
Heater

RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING (CONT.)
North America
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00 0.90
0.80
0.60 0.48
0.41
0.40
0.20
0.00
High- High- Fuel Oil Electric Electric
Efficiency LP Efficiency Furnace Baseboard Furnace
Gas Furnace Natural Gas Heater
Furnace
Republic of Korea
1.20
1.00 1.00 0.97
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.41
0.40
0.20
0.00
High-Efficiency LP High-Efficiency High-Efficiency Electric Space
Gas Boiler Natural Gas Boiler Fuel Oil Boiler Heater
South America
1.20
1.00 1.00 0.97
1.00
0.80 0.68
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.00
High-Efficiency High-Efficiency High-Efficiency Electric Space Wood Stove
LP Gas Boiler Natural Gas Fuel Oil Boiler Heater
Boiler

Residential Water Heating Central
Unless otherwise noted, instant water heating systems included in this analysis use electronic ignition systems.
2.50
2.11 Europe
2.00
1.50
1.00 0.99 0.96 0.91 0.91
1.00 0.83
0.68
0.50
0.00
Pumped LP Gas Natural Gas Electric LP Gas Natural Gas Electric Electric
Solar w/ LP instant Instant instant, Instant Instant instant, Storage
Gas electronic Combination Combination hydraulic
Combination temp control Boiler Boiler temp control
Backup
6.00 5.46 India

5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00 1.00
0.71 0.69
1.00
0.00
Pumped Solar LP Gas Instant, Natural Gas LP Gas Instant, Natural Gas
w/ LP Gas Electronic Instant, Pilot Ignition Instant, Pilot
Instant Backup Ignition Electronic Ignition
Ignition
Japan
2.50 2.33
2.00
1.50
1.05 1.00 1.00
1.00
0.50
0.00
Pumped Solar w/ Fuel Oil Instant LP Gas instant Natural Gas Instant
LP Gas Instant
Backup

RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING CENTRAL (CONT.)
North America
1.20
1.00 1.00 0.98 0.98
1.00
0.85
0.80
0.56
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
LP Gas Natural LP Gas Natural Fuel Oil Electric
instant Gas Instant Storage Gas Storage Storage
Storage
Republic of Korea
2.50 2.33 2.33
2.00
1.50
1.05 1.00 1.00
1.00
0.50
0.00
Pumped Solar Pumped Solar Fuel Oil Instant LP Gas instant Natural Gas
w/ LP Gas w/ NG Instant Instant
Instant Backup Backup
South America
6.00 5.46
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00 1.00 0.87 0.71 0.69
1.00 0.38 0.38
0.00
Pumped LP Gas Natural Electric LP Gas Natural LP Gas Natural
Solar w/ Instant, Gas Storage Instant, Gas Storage Gas
LP Gas Electronic Instant, Pilot Instant, Storage
Instant Ignition Electronic Ignition Pilot
Backup Ignition Ignition

RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING POINT-OF-USE
Europe
1.20
1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.88
0.80
0.62
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
LP Gas Electric Natural Gas Electric Electric
Instant, Instant, Instant, Instant, Storage
Electronic Electronic Electronic Hydraulic
Ignition Temp. Control Ignition Temp. Control
India
1.20
1.00 1.00
1.00
0.80
0.60 0.53
0.47
0.40 0.33
0.20
0.00
LP Gas Natural Gas Electric Electric Electric
Electronic Electronic Electronic Hydraulic
Ignition Ignition Temp. Control Temp. Control

RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING POINT-OF-USE (CONT.)
Japan
1.20
1.00 1.00
0.88
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
LP Gas Instant Natural Gas Instant Fuel Oil Instant
Bathtub Heater Bathtub Heater Bathtub Heater
South America
1.40 1.24
1.20 1.09
1.00 1.00
1.00 0.84
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Electric Electric LP Gas Natural Gas Electric
Electronic Hydraulic Electronic Electronic
Temp. Control Temp. Control Ignition Ignition

IV. APPLICATION-SPECIFIC ANALYSES
The following pages present detailed information regarding the four applications considered in this study. Each
section includes a brief description of the application area; energy use, broken down by fuel and technology; market
data or information; key assumptions made in the analysis; and additional notes to explain the analysis. A complete
list of assumptions and references for each application is provided in the Appendix.
The structure of this section is as follows:
Cooking .......................................................................................................................................... page 23

Distributed Power Generation ........................................................................................................ page 26
Residential Space Heating ............................................................................................................. page 29
Residential Water Heating Centralised ....................................................................................... page 32
Residential Water Heating Point-of-Use ..................................................................................... page 35

COOKING
Stovetop cooking is one of the worlds most universal energy-consuming
activities. Consumers in industrialized countries choose from numerous
stovetops and ovens using LP Gas, natural gas, and electricity. In developing
countries people use more basic LP Gas, natural gas, or kerosene cookers or
locally manufactured stoves that burn biomass (e.g., wood, crop residues, and
animal dung), often with significant adverse human health and environmental
consequences.
Actual cooking efficiencies may vary widely with the size and composition of the
cooking pot and whether a lid is used. This analysis is based on standardised
tests that control for these variables. Generally, the efficiencies of stovetop cookers of similar designs (e.g., LP Gas
sealed burner) do not vary substantially between manufacturers. Governments have not issued efficiency standards
for stovetop cookers.
MARKET DATA
Mass-produced stovetop cookers are sold in all regions, although certain designs are preferred in each region. In
developing countries, food may be cooked on a smaller single or double cooker that sits on the floor or tabletop.
Biomass cookers in this analysis are stoves burning locally available fuels. In all cases the biomass stoves
incorporate simple chimneys or vents to improve efficiency and remove smoke.
Europe: Cooking practices vary by country according to fuel availability and local preferences. Sales of electric
stoves slightly outpace gas stoves across the region; however gas stoves are nearly universal in Italy while nearly
all stoves sold in Germany and Sweden are electric. High-efficiency gas and electric equipment was analysed in
Europe, where consumers in many countries place a high value on efficiency.
India: Efficiency data is specific to India and is based on a boiler water test using locally available cooking
equipment and fuels. This analysis uses only seven of the 28 combinations tested by the Tata Energy Research
Institute.
Japan: Gas stovetops have traditionally been dominant in Japan. Interest is growing in electric induction stovetops
due to strong interest in technology, efficiency, and reducing dependence on imported natural gas.
North America: Standard-efficiency gas and electric stovetops dominate consumer sales in this region.
Republic of Korea: Technology options are similar to those found in Japan.
South America: Standard efficiency gas and electric stovetops are typical in this region. In rural areas locally
produced Lorena stoves are common.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. The base case analysis was heating one litre of water from 20C to 100C on a stovetop. This corresponds to
0.335 MJ of heat being delivered to the cooking vessel.
2. The efficiencies of gas and electric stovetop cookers are based on standardized tests performed by the U.S.
government. (DOE 1996).
a. LP Gas or natural gas stovetop: Standard (open flame burner): 39.9%. High efficiency (thermostatically
controlled, sealed burner design): 42.0%.
b. Electric stovetop: Coil: 73.7%. Induction: 84.0%. The coil uses electrical resistance to generate heat, which is
conducted directly to the pot. The induction element generates a high-frequency magnetic field that produces
eddy currents in the cooking vessel, causing it to heat up. Some electric stoves use smooth heating elements,
but performance is similar (74.2%) to electric coils.
3. LP Gas and natural gas burners are assumed to have the same efficiencies.
4. Biomass cooking is assumed to use renewable energy, which is included in the energy-consumption analysis.

EFFICIENCY DATA*
Point of
Total Energy Upstream
Fuel / Technology Use Energy
Use (MJ) Energy (MJ)
(MJ)
LP Gas: High Efficiency 0.80 0.80 0
NG: High Efficiency 0.80 0.80 0
Electric: Induction 1.00 0.40 0.60
Electric: Coil 1.14 0.45 0.69
LP Gas: Single Burner Stove 0.62 0.62 0
Kerosene: Pump-Type Stove 0.71 0.71 0
Wood: Traditional Stove 1.52 1.52 0
Wood: Ceramic Stove 1.15 1.15 0
Crop Residue: Improved Stove 2.48 2.48 0
Dung: Mud Stove 3.56 3.56 0
LP Gas: Standard 0.84 0.84 0
NG: Standard 0.84 0.84 0
LP Gas: Standard 0.84 0.84 0
NG: Standard 0.84 0.84 0
Wood: Lorena Stove 3.72 3.72 0
*Unit of comparison: Heating one litre of water from 20C to 100C on a stovetop. This process adds 0.335 MJ of energy to the
water.

NOTES
1 Some governments are encouraging consumers to switch from electric to gas appliances (E.U.) while other
governments encourage the use of electric appliances (Japan).
2 The major energy-saving measure available to manufacturers is the replacement of pilot lights with electronic
ignition. Standing pilot lights can consume more energy than is used for cooking over the life of a stovetop.
This analysis assumes that none of the stovetops have a pilot light.
3 Manufacturers data indicated that in nearly all cases, LP Gas and natural gas stovetops have the same
efficiency.
4 Biomass stove energy consumption is not zero because the energy contained in the biomass is included in
this analysis.

DISTRIBUTED POWER GENERATION
Distributed power generation provides small-scale production of electricity at or
near the location where the power is used. Distributed generation is employed
for a variety of applications and users. Commercial users operate distributed
generators as backup power (standby generators) for critical functions such as
data centers or hospitals, or as primary power (prime generators) for operations
off the electric grid. Residential users employ standby generators to supplement
interrupted grid electricity, or use prime generators in remote areas not reached
by electric grids.
Reciprocating internal combustion engines represent the most widespread and
mature distributed generation technology. These engines come in two varieties:
spark-ignition and compression-ignition. Spark-ignition engines commonly
operate on LP Gas or natural gas, and compression engines operate on diesel
fuel. Both engine types can by designed for standby use, which normally run for
less than about 500 hours per year in short intervals, or they can be designed for
prime use, which are rated and designed for regular use throughout the year. Figure 1. Small and mid-
These engines are packaged with supporting systems into generator sets, or sized spark engine
gensets. distributed generators
The type of generator set (genset) technology does not vary significantly Sources: Honda 2008, Cummins
among the regions evaluated in this study. Major manufacturers in each
region supply generators to customers worldwide. The electric power frequency
does vary among world regions, so only generators that are able to supply power at the region-specific electric
frequency were considered in this analysis. North America, South America, and Korea primarily use 60 Hz power,
while Europe, India, and Japan use 50 Hz power in most cases.
Distributed generators for onsite use typically range from a few kW to several hundred kW (Figure 1).
MARKET DATA
Five of the most common manufacturer brands worldwide are Cummins/Onan, Kohler, Generac, Caterpillar,
and Honda (Figure 2). These manufactures offer diesel, natural gas, and LP Gas-fuelled standby and prime
gensets. The most regularly sold gensets deliver power of 100 kW or less. Gensets of several hundred kW
to several MW are also offered, but are less common.
Cummins
15%
In developed regions of the world, the genset market is mainly driven
by the need to protect local electricity supply against interruptions from
natural disasters or other catastrophic events. In less-developed
Kohler
regions, increasing wealth has enabled greater purchasing power to
Other 12%
procure electricity-driven applications, such as household appliances,
47%
but the electric grid is often unreliable and intermittent. Generators are
Generac increasingly common in these regions as a regular supplement to grid
10% power.
Caterpillar
Honda 8%
8%
Figure 2. Fraction of genset brands offered by
distributors, worldwide sample (Power Systems
Research 2005)

25kW Prime Genset 50kW Standby Genset 100kW Prime Genset
EFFICIENCY 90 MJ Energy Output 180 MJ Energy 360 MJ Energy Output
(Electricity Delivered) Output (Electricity (Electricity Delivered)
Delivered)
Region Fuel Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency

Input (%) Input (%) Input (%)
(MJ) (MJ) (MJ)
50 Hz LP Gas 351 25.6% 672 26.8% 1395 25.8%

(Europe, India,
Natural
Japan)
Gas 367 24.5% 716 25.1% 1457 24.7%
Diesel 317 28.4% 585 30.8% 1169 30.8%
60 Hz LP Gas 352 25.5% 698 25.8% 1318 27.3%

(N. America,
Natural
Korea, S.
Gas 377 23.9% 741 24.3% 1404 25.6%
America)
Diesel 305 29.5% 599 30.0% 1123 32.1%
*Energy efficiency is based on ratio of energy output (in the form of electricity delivered) compared to energy input to the genset
(in the form of fuel).
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Reported efficiencies and energy use are based on prime and standby gensets delivering 25kW, 50kW,
and 100kW at steady state for 1 hour at 100% load.
2. Energy use requirements are based on data reported in manufacturing specs from over 150 commercially
available units that contained adequate data and were available in the regions of interest (see appendix).
Different manufacturers provide different energy use requirements for generator set ratings. Statistical log-
linear regression of genset data of a given power frequency and size range were used to estimate energy
end use.
3. Energy use and calculated efficiencies are based on manufacturer specifications (specs) for power-only
(i.e., no combined heat and power) gensets operating at 1800 rpm for 60 Hz output and at 1500 rpm for 50
Hz output and 100% nameplate load. Gensets fuel usage for North America, South America, and Korea
are based on 60 Hz power. Europe, India, and Japan are based on 50 Hz power.
See appendix for full list of assumptions and references.

NOTES
Energy use and efficiencies are the same for regions using the same electric power frequency (50 Hz or
60 Hz).
Actual efficiency of individual gensets varies significantly based on use and maintenance/upkeep. Well-
maintained generator sets typically operate more efficiently than systems that are not well-maintained.
Fuel usage for both prime and standby gensets are based on performance at manufacturer-specified
conditions and ratings. Fuel usages required for startup or for poorly maintained units are not
incorporated into manufactures specs.
Energy efficiency of diesel (compression) engines improves with larger gensets compared to natural gas
and LP Gas powered (spark-ignition) engines.
Energy use is based on gensets operating at an elevation below 500 m and at 25C. Energy use
increases about 4% for spark-engine (LP Gas and natural gas) generators operating above 1000 m, and
1% per every 5C above 40C. For diesel gensets, energy use increases about 4% for every 300 m
above 500 m, and 2% per every 11C above 25C (Cummins 2008).
Efficiencies should be compared for a single genset size/usage in a given region; avoid making
generalizations between 50Hz and 60Hz gensets and between standby and prime gensets within a
region.

RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING
Residential space heating utilizes either a centralised system to distribute warm air or hot
water throughout the home or individual heating units that heat either a single room or a
part of a room. Warm air for a centralised system is typically generated by a furnace. In
other centralised systems, a boiler produces hot water that is distributed to each room in a
home. Furnaces and boilers can use LP Gas, natural gas, fuel oil or electricity.
Single-room heaters are smaller and can operate independently in a home. Single-room heaters that burn LP Gas,
natural gas, fuel oil, or wood typically incorporate a direct vent design in which room air is heated and re-circulated
while combustion gases are exhausted to the outdoors. In developing countries small space heaters using LP Gas or
kerosene may not incorporate heat exchangers and all combustion gases are released into the living space. Electric
baseboard heaters and space heaters use electric resistance to generate heat.
The amount and type of space heating technologies used in homes vary by region, reflecting differences in home
construction, cultural attitudes, fuel availability, climate, and cost. This analysis compares the relative primary energy
consumption associated with space heating for one year. In general, the technologies analysed reflect the most
efficient commonly used systems in each region.
MARKET DATA
Europe: Europe is a highly diverse region in terms of climate and housing stock. Historically high energy costs
and strong government requirements for efficiency and labeling result in the use of highly efficient space heating
equipment, especially boilers. Sophisticated wood stoves are used in northern Europe. Many urban homes utilise
district heating systems, which are not included in this analysis.
India: Space heating is not common in India and limited to northern areas. Centralised furnaces and boilers are
almost unknown. Small electric resistance space heaters are a common heating option. Biomass-fired cook
stoves may be kept in use throughout the day to provide space heating.
Japan: Most homes do not have central heating and are maintained at cooler temperatures (15C) than other
regions. Individual room heaters using a direct vent design are highly efficient as required by government
standards.
North America: North America features larger and warmer (20C) homes than in other regions. Warm air
systems are dominant, and a large number of manufacturers produce equipment to meet energy-efficiency
labeling and efficiency requirements. Older heating systems used plentiful and affordable natural gas and
electricity, but recent price increases have boosted consumer interest in more efficient technologies.
Republic of Korea: Rising incomes and government policies have resulted in fuel oil displacing coal and wood
as the dominant heating fuels over the past 20 years. Central heating systems using boilers are common.
South America: Heating demands generally are lower than other regions, but some form of home heating is
universal. About half of rural homes use wood to cook and heat. Energy policies in the regions largest country,
Brazil, include energy labeling and efficiency requirements, although space heating is not specifically targeted.

KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. The analysis uses a typical seasonal space heating requirement that varies by region:
a. Europe: 18,191 MJ based on an average E.U. household in 2005.
b. India and Japan: 3,600 MJ based on 1,000 hours of heating from a typical space heater.
c. North America: 40,095 MJ based an average-sized (U.S.) home in a climate with 4,000-5,499 heating
degree days.
d. Korea: 19,200 MJ based on estimated average residential energy use in 1994.
e. South America: 10,551 MJ
2. Technology selection varies by region:
a. Europe: Based on highest boiler efficiencies in practice as identified by E.U. Condensing boilers are
assessed for LP Gas and natural gas fuels.
b. India: Small space heaters (LP Gas, kerosene, electricity) are not vented to the outdoors and 100% of
energy is delivered to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as identified by United Nations data.
c. Japan: Gas and oil heater efficiencies are based on Japanese Top Runner standards. Electric space
heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space.
d. North America: Energy efficiencies based on the highest annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) reported in
the GAMA Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings (GAMA 2006) for gas and fuel oil furnaces with greater
than 60,000 Btu-hour ratings. Assumed 100% conversion efficiency of electric heaters and electric furnaces.
e. Korea: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric space
f. South America: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric
space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as
identified by United Nations data.
3. Centralised heating systems experience distribution losses in the pipes and ductwork that do not occur in
single room and portable heaters. These losses are added to the heating demand assumed for the region. In
boiler systems the heat losses in the pipes are assumed to be 5%. In furnace systems the heat losses in
ductwork are assumed to be 15% in this analysis.
NOTES
1. Differences in calculating the efficiency of boiler and furnaces by manufacturers makes it difficult to compare
systems between regions. For instance, the duration and frequency of equipment cycling is determined by
government regulations, which can affect overall performance.
2. The efficiencies of central heating systems are diminished by losses in ductwork (15%) and boiler system
piping (5%).

EFFICIENCY DATA*
Duct and
Total Energy Point of Use Upstream
Fuel Pipe
Use (MJ) Energy (MJ) Energy (MJ)
Losses (MJ)
LP Gas: Condensing Boiler 22,063 20,993 1,070 0
Natural Gas: Condensing Boiler 22,063 20,993 1,070 0
Fuel Oil: High-Efficiency Boiler 23,012 21,942 1,070 0
Wood: High-Efficiency Stove 26,404 26,404 0 0
LP Gas: Space Heater 3,600 3,600 0 0
Kerosene: Space Heater 3,600 3,600 0 0
Electricity: Space Heater 14,024 3,600 0 10,425
Wood: Stove 19,999 19,999 0 0
LP Gas: Direct-Vent Heater 4,390 4,390 0 0
Natural Gas: Direct-Vent Heater 4,390 4,390 0 0
Kerosene: Direct-Vent Heater 4,311 4,311 0 0
LP Gas: High-Efficiency Furnace 49,291 42,215 7,076 0
Natural Gas: High-Efficiency
Furnace 49,291 42,215 7,076 0
Fuel Oil: Furnace 54,851 47,775 7,076 0
Electricity: Baseboard Heater 103,025 40,096 0 62,929
Electricity: Furnace 121,206 40,096 7,076 74,034
LP Gas: High-Efficiency Boiler 21,755 20,745 1,011 0
Natural Gas: High-Efficiency Heater 21,755 20,745 1,011 0
Fuel Oil: High-Efficiency Boiler 22,456 21,446 1,011 0
LP Gas: High-Efficiency Boiler 11,955 11,399 555 0
Natural Gas: High-Efficiency Boiler 11,955 11,399 555 0
Fuel Oil: High-Efficiency Boiler 12,340 11,785 555 0
Wood: Stove 58,614 58,614 0 0
*Unit of comparison: Energy consumption for one heating season (varies by region)

RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING
While there is substantial regional variation in both water heating technologies and their application, all
regions tend to rely on central and/or point-of-use systems for their water heating needs. Central
residential water heating heats all of a households water from one source, while point-of-use heaters
are used to heat water for independent needs like dishwashing, hand washing, and showering. A wide
variety of technologies are used in each region for these two types of water heating, including:
storage tank Maintains a readily available reservoir of hot water
instantaneous (tankless or demand) Heats water as it is supplied to the end-user
combination or combi boilers Water is heated by a space heating boiler system
solar thermal Fluid absorbs solar energy in a collector; common designs use electricity to
circulate fluid and connect the system to a conventional heater for cloudy days
electric heat pump (Japan) Use electricity to move heat rather than directly generating heat
There are many design features that impact energy consumption of a water heater. For example, the
ignition mechanism of gas water heaters can impact the energy use of small units, while instantaneous
water heaters with electronic temperature control have an efficiency advantage over heaters that
control temperature hydraulically.
MARKET DATA
There are a wide variety of water heater technologies available in each region, and there is substantial
regional variation in both technologies and their application. While gas and electricity are popular fuels
for water heating in every region, the use of fuel oil for water heating is significant in North America and
Japan. Gas and electric storage tank water heaters are dominant in North America, whereas it is common for those
fuels to power instantaneous (also called tankless or demand) water heaters in other regions. In Europe,
instantaneous water heaters that are combined with a space heating boiler system (combination or combi boilers)
are widely used. Solar water heaters have a substantial market share in India and South America, where abundant
solar energy makes this technology cost-effective, but are also gaining significant market share Europe and Japan.
Solar water heaters frequently feed into a conventional heating system, which is used as a backup for cloudy or cold
days. Electric heat pumps water heaters are rare in most regions, but are being aggressively subsidised in Japan.
Region Central Water Heating Technologies Point-Of-Use Water Heating Technologies

Europe gas-fired combination boilers instantaneous heaters (gas or electric)
electric storage heaters small electric storage heaters
India solar thermal systems instantaneous heaters (gas or electric)
electric storage heaters small electric storage heaters
Japan large dedicated instantaneous gas bathtub heaters (common household
heaters appliance
North America dedicated gas-fired storage heaters
Republic of instantaneous (gas or electric)
Korea solar thermal
South America solar thermal instantaneous water heaters (gas or
electric storage heaters electric)
small electric storage heaters
Storage and instantaneous water heaters come in a large range of sizes and power ratings, respectively. Unit size
and power depends on whether the application is being used for central water heating or point-of-use water heating.
There are marked differences among regions in the type of technology chosen for central heating. In Japan, large
dedicated instantaneous gas water heaters are the norm, whereas in Europe, central hot water is provided mainly by
gas-fired combination boilers or electric storage heaters. Dedicated gas-fired storage water heaters are the most

common heater type in North America, but are rarely found in European households. In India and South America,
central hot water is typically provided by solar thermal systems or electric storage heaters.
Smaller point-of-use applications are popular in Europe, India, and South America for dishwashing, hand washing,
and showering. In these regions, households may employ instantaneous water heaters fuelled by gas or electricity
for their point-of-use water heating, or small electric storage water heaters. In Japan, bathtub water heaters are a
common household appliance.
While gas and electricity are popular fuels for water heating in every region, the use of fuel oil for water heating is
significant in North America and Japan. There are many design features that impact energy consumption of a water
heater. For gas water heaters, however, the ignition mechanism can have an especially significant impact on the
energy use of small units. Gas water heaters that use a pilot light will burn a substantial fraction of total fuel
consumption while not heating water. Electronic ignition devices eliminate the need for a pilot light and consume a
negligible amount of electricity. For electric instantaneous water heaters, those with electronic temperature control
have a significant efficiency advantage over heaters that control temperature hydraulically by regulating water flow.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Water heating performance in North America is based on government-mandated minimum energy performance
standards in the United States.
2. Water heating performance in Europe and Japan is based on the estimated energy efficiency of the existing
stock of water heaters. 1, 2
3. Water heating technologies in Korea were assumed to have the same performance of Japanese water heaters.
4. Solar water heaters were assumed to employ backup water heating for 15% of the hot water load in India and
South America, and 40% in Europe, Japan, and Korea.
5. Different efficiency values for the LP gas and natural gas were only used where the difference was supported by
region-specific data. 3
NOTES
1
Average system efficiency of European water heaters (also applied to Indian and South American heaters) is
based on analysis contained in VHK 2007.
2 Japans voluntary Top Runner programme bases efficiency targets on a percent improvement from estimated
efficiency of existing stock in 2000.

3 Although there is some anecdotal information suggesting LP Gas water heaters are more efficient than natural
gas models, this was not supported by the data. An analysis of energy factors reported by the Gas Appliance
Manufacturers Association showed that LP Gas and natural gas achieved the same efficiency on the same water
heater.
4 Demand assumptions for central water heating: North America, Japan, and Korea 2560 kWh per year of
useful heating per household. Europe 1280 kWh per year. India and South America 1160 kWh per year.
5 Average of pilot and electronic ignition shown for Europe due to small (<2%) difference in results. Non-
specificity of ignition type in data for other regions. India and South America have larger differences between
results since smaller units can be used for the same flow rate (due to a lower T).
6 Demand assumptions for point-of-use water heating: Europe 460 kWh per year of useful heating per
household. India and South America 400 kWh per year. Japan (bathtub heating) 1280 kWh per year.

EFFICIENCY DATA: CENTRAL WATER HEATING*
Fuel/ Technology Total Energy Use End Use Upstream Energy Use
(kWh/yr) Energy Use (kWh/yr)
(kWh/yr)
Solar, pumped w/LP Gas
5,207 5,207 0
combination backup
Electric Instant, electronic temp
11,472 4,865 6,607
control
Electric Instant, hydraulic temp
13,210 5,603 7,608
control
Natural Gas Instant 11,139 11,139 0
Electric storage 16,146 6,848 9,298
Natural Gas Instant

12,164 12,164 0
combination boiler
LP Gas Instant 11,013 11,013 0
LP Gas Instant combination
12,164 12,164 0
boiler
Pumped solar w/ LP Gas
1,883 1,883 0
instant backup
NG instant, electronic ign. 10,272 10,272 0
LP Gas instant, electronic ign. 10,272 10,272 0
NG instant, pilot ign. 14,791 14,791 0
LP Gas instant, pilot ign. 14,550 14,550 0
5,006 5,006 0
instant backup
Natural Gas Instant 11,661 11,661 0
LP Gas Instant 11,661 11,661 0
Oil Instant 11,099 11,099 0
Natural Gas instant 14,858 14,858 0
LP Gas instant 14,858 14,858 0
Natural Gas storage 15,102 15,102 0
LP Gas storage 15,102 15,102 0
Fuel oil storage 17,381 17,381 0
Pumped solar w/ NG instant
5,006 5,006 0
backup
5,006 5,006 0
instant backup
Natural Gas instant 11,661 11,661 0
LP Gas instant 11,661 11,661 0
Oil instant 11,099 11,099 0
*Unit of comparison: Energy consumption for typical residential building for one year

EFFICIENCY DATA: CENTRAL WATER HEATING (CONT.)*
Fuel/ Technology Total Energy End Use Energy Upstream Energy
Use (kWh/yr) Use (kWh/yr) Use (kWh/yr)
Pumped solar w/ LP Gas instant
1,883 1,883 0
backup
Natural Gas instant, electronic
10,272 10,272 0
ignition
LP Gas instant, electronic
10,272 10,272 0
ignition
Natural Gas instant, pilot
14,791 14,791 0
ignition
LP Gas instant, pilot ignition 14,550 14,550 0
Natural Gas storage 27,189 27,189 0
LP Gas storage 27,189 27,189 0
Electric Storage 11,791 7,043 4,747
EFFICIENCY DATA: POINT-OF-USE WATER HEATING*

Fuel/ Technology Total Energy Use End Use Upstream Energy
(kWh/yr) Energy Use Use (kWh/yr)
(kWh/yr)
Electric instant, electronic temp
4,604 1,952 2,651
control
Electric instant, hydraulic temp
5,939 2,213 3,005
control
LP Gas instant, electronic ign 3,328 3,328 0
6,085 1,562 4,523
control
6,896 1,770 5,126
control
NG instant bathtub heater 6,163 6,163 0
LP Gas instant bathtub beater 6,163 6,163 0
Oil instant bathtub heater 7,003 7,003 0
2,615 1,562 1,053
control
2,963 1,770 1,193
control

APPENDIX A ASSUMPTIONS AND REFERENCES
COOKING
REFERENCES
Carniero de Miranda, R. 1998. Forest replacement schemes in Latin America: An effective model to achieve
sustainability of supply for industrial fuelwood consumers. Unasylva 192. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7126e/w7126e0a.htm (accessed May 2008).
Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (e-CFR). 2008. Appendix I to Subpart B of Part 430Uniform Test Method
for Measuring the Energy Consumption of Conventional Ranges, Conventional Cooking Tops, Conventional Ovens,
and Microwave Ovens (May 7). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office
(GPO). http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-
idx?c=ecfr;sid=76a0c2194d8b367d90c6fd26fe702502;rgn=div5;view=text;node=10%3A3.0.1.4.16;idno=10;cc=ecfr#1
0:3.0.1.4.16.2.9.7.9 (accessed May 2008).
Energy Information Administration. 2007. Emissions of Greenhouse Gas Report (November): Appendix H of the
instructions to Form EIA-1605. DOE/EIA-0573(2006). http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/excel/Fuel%20EFs_2.xls
(accessed May 2008).
European Commission Institute for Environment and Sustainability. 2007. Electricity Consumption and Efficiency
Trends in the Enlarged European Union: Status report 2006. Prepared by Paolo Bertoldi and Bogdan Atanasiu. Italy:
European Communities.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2006. Energy. Vol. 2 of 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, ed. Eggleston H.S.,
Buenida L., Miwa K., Ngara T., and Tanabe K. Japan: IPCC. http://www.ipcc-
nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html (accessed May 2008).
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1996. Technologies, Policies and Measures for Mitigating
Climate Change. Ed. Robert T. Watson, Maraufu C. Zinyowera, and Richard H. Moss. IPCC.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2006. World Energy Outlook 2006. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD)/IEA.
International Energy Initiative (IEI). 2004. Report on the use of LP GAS as a domestic cooking fuel option in India
(June). Prepared by Antonette DSa and K.V. Narasimha Murthy. Bangalore: IEI.
Lebot, Benoit, Alan Meier and Alain Anglade. 2000. Global Implications of Standby Power Use. Proceedings of
ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Asilomar: American Council for An Energy Efficient
Economy. Also published as Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory Report LBNL-26019 (June 2000).
Ramakrishna, K., L. Jacobsen, R. Thomas, E. Woglom, and G. Zubkova. 2003. Country Case Study: India. Action
Versus Words: Implementation of the UNFCCC by Select Developing Countries (February). Woods Hole, MA: The
Woods Hole Research Center.
Roggema, Paul. 2006. Energy Saving in Gas Cooking. Appliance Magazine
(June). http://www.appliancemagazine.com/editorial.php?article=1431&zone=208&first=1 (accessed May 2008).
Smith, Kirk R., R. Uma, V.V.N. Kishore, Junfeng Zhang, V. Joshi, M.A.K. Khalil. 2000. Greenhouse Implications of
Household Stoves: An Analysis for India. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, no. 25 (November): 741-
763.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 1999. Trends in Consumption and Production:
Household Energy Consumption (April). Prepared by Oleg Dziuobinski and Ralph Chipman. A Discussion Paper of
the United Nations Department and Social Affairs, New York.

United States Agency International Development (USAID). 1997. Fuel Efficient Stove Programs in IDP Settings
Summary Evaluation Report, Uganda (September). Prepared by the Academy for Educational Development (AED).
Washington, DC: AED.
U.S. Department of Energy Office of Codes and Standards. 1996. Potential Impact of Alternative Efficiency Levels for
Residential Cooking Products. Vol. 2 of Technical Support Document for Residential Cooking Products. Prepared by
Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory. Berkley, CA: Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Air and Radiation. 2000. Greenhouse Gases from Small-Scale
Combustion Devices in Developing Countries: Phase IIA Household Stoves in India (June). Prepared by National
Risk Management Research Laboratory. Washington, DC: EPA. EPA/600/R-00/052.
World LP Gas Association (WLP GASA). 2005. Household Fuels and Ill-Health in Developing Countries: What
improvements can be brought by LP Gas? Prepared by Kirk R. Smith, Jamesine Rogers, and Shannon C. Cowlin of
the University of California, Berkley. Paris: WLP GASA.
ASSUMPTIONS
1. The base case analysis was heating one litre of water from 20C to 100C on a stovetop. This corresponds to
0.335 MJ of heat being delivered to the cooking vessel.
2. The efficiencies of gas and electric stovetop cookers are based on standardized tests performed by the U.S.
government. (DOE 1996).
a. LP Gas or natural gas stovetop: Standard (open flame burner): 39.9%. High efficiency (thermostatically
controlled, sealed burner design): 42.0%.
b. Electric stovetop: Coil: 73.7%. Induction: 84.0%. The coil uses electrical resistance to generate heat, which
is conducted directly to the pot. The induction element generates a high-frequency magnetic field that
produces eddy currents in the cooking vessel, causing it to heat up. Some electric stoves use smooth heating
elements, but performance is similar (74.2%) to electric coils.
3. LP Gas and natural gas burners are assumed to have the same efficiencies.
4. Biomass cooking is assumed to use renewable energy, which is included in the energy-consumption analysis.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
REFERENCES
Armstrong Power Systems. 2006. Wide range of electric generators available. Gas product
list. http://www.armstrongpower.com/products/gas.htm (accessed May 2008).
Armstrong Power Systems. 2006. Wide range of electric generators available. Diesel product
list. http://www.armstrongpower.com/products/power.htm (accessed May 2008).
Baldor. Industrial Diesel Liquid Cooled Generators (IDLC) Standby/Prime
Power. http://www.baldor.com/products/generators/idlc.asp (accessed May 2008).
Baldor. Industrial Gaseous Standby/Prime Power Generators (IGLC) Industrial Gaseous Liquid
Cooled. http://www.baldor.com/products/generators/iglc.asp (accessed May 2008).
Caterpillar. Spec Sheets: CAT Gensets Powered by CAT engines, Olympian Gensets Available from your CAT
Dealer. http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=39280&x=7 (accessed May 2008).
Cummins Power Generation. Generator Sets: Spark-ignited Gas Generator
Sets. http://cumminspower.com/na/products/generators/sparkignited#results (accessed May 2008).
FG Wilson. 10 to 30 kVA. Gas generator set models. http://www.fgwilson.com/cda/layout?m=147961&x=7
Generac Power Systems, Inc. Home Standby Air-Cooled Spec
Sheets. http://www.generac.com/Products/Residential/AirCooled/SpecSheets.aspx (accessed May 2008).

Kohler Power. Residential Power: All Residential Generators. Product
list. http://www.kohlerpower.com/residential/filterresults.htm?categoryNumber=13061&sectionNumber=13561
Kohler Power. Industrial Power: All Gas Generators. Product
list. http://www.kohlerpower.com/industrial/filterresults.htm?categoryNumber=12061&sectionNumber=13261
(accessed May 2008)
Lareya, Nathan. 2008. Gen-sets: A Transition from Industrial to Commercial Use? (April 4). Frost & Sullivan Market
Insight. http://www.frost.com/prod/servlet/market-insight-print.pag?docid=126684096 (accessed May 2008).
McNeely, Mark. 2007. 31st Power Generation Order Survey. Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide
(October). http://www.dieselgasturbine.com/pdf/power_2007.pdf (accessed May 2008).
Power Systems Research. 2005. PowerTracker Dealer/Distributor Survey (November
23). http://www.powersys.com/pdf/DealerSampleReport.pdf (accessed May 2008).
ASSUMPTIONS
1. Manufacturer specs used to calculate energy use is based on over 150 commercially available units that
contained adequate data and were available in regions of interest. A full list of manufactures and models
analysed is provided in the table below.

Make Model kW Fuel Hz Prime/Stby Make Model kW Fuel Hz Prime/Stby
Caterpillar GEP13.5-2 10 Diesel 50 Prime Olympian GEP65-2 52 Diesel 50 Standby
Caterpillar GEP13.5-2 11 Diesel 50 Standby Cummins GGHF 55 Nat gas 50 Standby
Olympian G12U3 11 LPG 60 Prime Generac QT055 55 LPG 60 Standby
Olympian G12U3 11 Nat Gas 60 Prime Generac QT055 55 Nat gas 60 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 11.5 Nat Gas 50 Prime Cummins DGCB 56 Diesel 50 Standby
Caterpillar D13-2 12 Diesel 60 Prime Cummins C80 D5 58 Diesel 50 Prime
Caterpillar GEP13.5-2 12 Diesel 60 Prime Armstrong AGM60Si 60 Nat gas 60 Standby
Olympian G12U3 12 LPG 60 Standby Cummins DGCB 60 Diesel 60 Standby
Olympian G12U3 12 Nat gas 60 Standby Cummins GGHE 60 Nat gas 60 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 12.8 LPG 50 Prime Cummins GGHF 60 LPG 60 Standby
Caterpillar D13-2 13 Diesel 60 Standby Cummins GGHF 60 Nat gas 60 Standby
Caterpillar GEP13.5-2 13 Diesel 60 Standby Cummins GGHF 60 LPG 50 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 13.7 Nat gas 50 Standby Generac SD060 60 Diesel 60 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 15 Nat gas 60 Standby Generac SD060 60 Diesel 50 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 15 LPG 50 Standby Kohler 60REOZJC 60 Diesel 60 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 15.8 LPG 60 Prime Kohler 60RES 60 Nat gas 60 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 15.8 Nat Gas 60 Prime Olympian D60-4 60 Diesel 60 Standby
Olympian GEUG16-1 16 LPG 60 Standby Kohler 80RES 60 Nat Gas 50 Prime
Cummins C30 D6 24 Diesel 50 Prime Armstrong AGM60Si 62 LPG 60 Standby
Cummins C33 D5 24 Diesel 50 Prime Kohler 80REOZJC 62 Diesel 50 Prime
Cummins GGFE 25 Nat Gas 50 Prime Kohler 60RES 63 LPG 60 Standby
Cummins GGMC 25 Nat Gas 50 Prime Olympian G80-F3 63.5 Nat Gas 60 Prime
Kohler 30REOZJB 26 Diesel 50 Standby Cummins C80 D5 64 Diesel 50 Standby
Kohler 30RZG (alt. 4P5W) 26 LPG 50 Standby Kohler 80RES 64 LPG 50 Prime
Kohler 30RZG (alt. 4P5W) 26 Nat gas 50 Standby Kohler 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 66 Nat gas 50 Standby
Cummins GGMC 26 LPG 60 Prime Olympian G80-F3 68 LPG 60 Prime
Cummins GGMC 26 Nat Gas 60 Prime Kohler 80REOZJC 70 Diesel 50 Standby
Kohler 30REOZJB 26 Diesel 50 Prime Kohler 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 70 LPG 50 Standby
Kohler 30RZG 26 LPG 50 Prime Armstrong A80PE 72 Diesel 60 Prime
Kohler 30RZG 26 Nat Gas 50 Prime Caterpillar D80-6 72 Diesel 60 Prime
Cummins C30 D5 26.4 Diesel 50 Standby Kohler 80REOZJC 72 Diesel 60 Prime
Armstrong AGM30Si 27 Nat Gas 60 Prime Kohler 80RES 72 LPG 60 Prime
Armstrong A30PE 27 Diesel 60 Prime Kohler 80RES 72 Nat Gas 60 Prime
Caterpillar D30-8 27 Diesel 60 Prime Armstrong AGM80Si 73 LPG 60 Prime
Cummins C30 D6 27 Diesel 60 Prime Armstrong AGM80Si 73 Nat Gas 60 Prime
Olympian G30F3 27 LPG 60 Prime Baldor IGLC150N/L-CB 73 Nat Gas 50 Prime
Olympian G30F3 27 Nat Gas 60 Prime Kohler 100RZG 73 Nat Gas 50 Prime
Armstrong AGM30Si 29 LPG 60 Prime Olympian G80F3 75 Nat gas 60 Standby
Cummins GGMC 29 Nat gas 60 Standby Armstrong A80PE 80 Diesel 60 Standby
Armstrong AGM30Si 30 Nat gas 60 Standby Armstrong AGM80Si 80 LPG 60 Standby
Caterpillar D30-8 30 Diesel 60 Standby Armstrong AGM80Si 80 Nat gas 60 Standby
Cummins C30 D5 30 Diesel 60 Standby Baldor IDLC150-3J 80 Diesel 50 Prime
Cummins GGFE 30 Nat gas 50 Standby Baldor IGLC150N/L-CB 80 LPG 50 Prime
Cummins GGMC 30 LPG 60 Standby Caterpillar D80-6 80 Diesel 60 Standby
Cummins GGMC 30 LPG 60 Standby Cummins C80 D5 80 Diesel 60 Standby
Olympian G30F3 30 LPG 60 Standby Kohler 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 80 Nat gas 50 Standby
Olympian G30F3 30 Nat gas 60 Standby Kohler 100REOZJC 80 Diesel 50 Prime
Cummins DGGD 30 Diesel 60 Prime Kohler 100RZG 80 LPG 50 Prime
Cummins GGFE 30 LPG 50 Prime Kohler 80REOZJC 80 Diesel 60 Standby
Cummins GGMC 30 LPG 50 Prime Kohler 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 80 LPG 60 Standby
Armstrong AGM30Si 32 LPG 60 Standby Kohler 80RES (alt. 4S7W) 80 Nat gas 60 Standby
Kohler 30REOZJB 33 Diesel 60 Prime Olympian G80F3 80 LPG 60 Standby
Kohler 30RZG 33 LPG 60 Prime FG Wilson P100P2 80.4 Diesel 50 Prime
Kohler 30RZG 33 Nat Gas 60 Prime Armstrong AGM100Si 81 Nat Gas 60 Prime
Kohler 45RES 33 Nat gas 50 Standby FG Wilson P110E2 88 Diesel 50 Standby
Cummins DGGD 35 Diesel 60 Standby Kohler 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 88 LPG 50 Standby
Cummins GGFE 35 LPG 50 Standby Kohler 100REOZJC (alt. 4S1 88 Diesel 50 Standby
Kohler 30REOZJB 35 Diesel 60 Standby Armstrong A100PE 89 Diesel 60 Prime
Kohler 30RZG (alt. 4P5W) 35 Nat gas 60 Standby Kohler 100REOZJC 90 Diesel 60 Prime
Kohler 40REOZJB 35 Diesel 50 Standby Armstrong AGM100Si 91 LPG 60 Prime
Olympian GEP44-2 35.2 Diesel 50 Standby Armstrong AGM100Si 91 Nat gas 60 Standby
Kohler 45RES 36 LPG 50 Standby Kohler 100RZG 91 LPG 60 Prime
Armstrong AGM45Si 40 Nat gas 60 Standby Kohler 100RZG 91 Nat Gas 60 Prime
Cummins DGBC 40 Diesel 60 Standby Armstrong AGM100Si 100 LPG 60 Standby
Generac SD040 40 Diesel 60 Standby Baldor IGLC150N/L-CB 100 LPG 50 Prime
Generac SD040 40 Diesel 50 Standby Kohler 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 100 LPG 60 Standby
Kohler 40REOZJB 40 Diesel 60 Standby Kohler 100 RZG (alt. 4S13W 100 Nat gas 60 Standby
Olympian D40-4 40 Diesel 60 Standby Kohler 100REOZJC (alt. 4S1 100 Diesel 60 Standby
Olympian GEP44-2 40 Diesel 60 Standby Kohler 150RZGB (alt. 4S13) 125 Nat gas 50 Standby
Kohler 45RES 41 Nat gas 60 Standby Baldor IGLC150N/L-CB 125 LPG 60 Prime
Cummins GGFE 42 Nat gas 60 Standby Kohler 150REOZJC (alt. 4S1 132 Diesel 50 Standby
Cummins C55 D5 44 Diesel 50 Standby Baldor IGLC150N/L-CB 135 Nat Gas 60 Prime
Armstrong A45PE 45 Diesel 60 Standby Baldor IDLC150-3J 140 Diesel 60 Prime
Armstrong AGM45Si 45 LPG 60 Standby Baldor IDLC150-3J 140 Diesel 50 Prime
Generac QT045 45 LPG 60 Standby Cummins C200 D5S 148 Diesel 50 Prime
Generac QT045 45 Nat gas 60 Standby Baldor IDLC150-3J (alt. UCI 150 Diesel 60 Standby
Kohler 60REOZJC 45 Diesel 50 Standby Baldor IGLC215N/L-CB 150 LPG 50 Prime
Kohler 45RES 46 LPG 60 Standby Baldor IGLC215N/L-CB 150 Nat Gas 50 Prime
Cummins GGFE 47 LPG 60 Standby Kohler 150REOZJC (alt. 4S1 150 Diesel 60 Standby
Kohler 60RES 49 Nat gas 50 Standby Kohler 150RZGB (alt. 4S13) 150 Nat gas 60 Standby
Kohler 60RES 51 LPG 50 Standby
2. Different manufacturers provide different energy use requirements for generator set ratings. Statistical log-
linear regression of genset data of a given power frequency and size were used to estimate energy end use.
3. Energy use is based on manufacturer specifications (specs) for power-only (no CHP) gensets operating at
1800 rpm for 60 Hz output and at 1500 rpm for 50 Hz output and 100% nameplate load.
4. Gensets fuel usage for North America, South America, and Korea are based on 60 Hz power. Europe, India,
and Japan are based on 50 Hz power.
5. Actual efficiencies vary significantly based on fuel type, combustion technology, operating conditions,
control technology, quality of maintenance, and age of combustion equipment. Fuel usage in this study is
based on performance at manufacturer-specified conditions and ratings.
6. Energy use is based on gensets operating at an elevation below 500 m and at 25C (LP Gas vaporizers are
not necessary). Energy use increases about 4% for spark-engine (LP Gas and natural gas) generators
operating above 1000 m, and 1% per every 5C above 40C. For diesel gensets, energy use increases
about 4% for every 300 m above 500 m, and 2% per every 11C above 25C (Cummins 2008).

RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING
REFERENCES
Euroheat & Power. 2006. Ecoheatcool Work Package 1: The European Heat Market (Final Report). Brussels,
Belgium: Ecoheatcool and Euroheat & Power.
European Commission Altener Programme. 2003. Benchmarking for Existing European Dwellings. Task 1 of Energy
Performance Assessment Method for Existing Dwellings (EPA-ED). (April). Prepared by C.A. Balaras, E. Dascalaki,
S. Geissler, K.B. Wittchen, and G. van Cruchten. Athens, Hellas: European Commission.
European Commission BOILeff project. 2008. Summary report on studies and field test reports dealing with boiler
efficiency in practice. Deliverable 2.1 of Raising the efficiency of boiler installations. Prepared by CREVER
Universitat Rovira I Virgili. European Commission.
European Commission DG for Energy and Transport Save II Action. 2002. Labelling and other measures for heating
systems in dwellings: Final Technical Report (January). European Commission.
Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association. 2008. Consumers Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings for Heating
and Water Heating Equipment (March). Arlington, VA: Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, An Association of
Appliance and Equipment Manufacturers.
Hayden, Skip. 2006. Heating System Choices & Installation: Maximizing Comfort and Efficiency. Burlington, VT:
Better Buildings by Design 2006 (February). PowerPoint slides.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 1999. Trends in Consumption and Production:
Household Energy Consumption (April). Prepared by Oleg Dziuobinski and Ralph Chipman. A Discussion Paper of
the United Nations Department and Social Affairs, New York.
U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Prepared by Roger Taylor of
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Residential Wood Heating Economics. NAEMI Biomass Training
Workshop. PowerPoint slides.
ASSUMPTIONS
1. The analysis uses a typical seasonal space heating requirement that varies by region:
a. Europe: 18,191 MJ based on an average E.U. household in 2005.
b. India and Japan: 3,600 MJ based on 1,000 hours of heating from a typical space heater.
c. North America: 40,095 MJ based an average-sized (U.S.) home in a climate with 4,000-5,499 heating
degree days.
d. Korea: 19,200 MJ based on estimated average residential energy use in 1994.
e. South America: 10,551 MJ
2. Technology selection varies by region:
a. Europe: Based on highest boiler efficiencies in practice as identified by E.U.
b. India: Small space heaters (LP Gas, kerosene, electricity) are not vented to the outdoors and 100% of
energy is delivered to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as identified by United Nations data.
c. Japan: Gas and oil heater efficiencies are based on Japanese Top Runner standards. Electric space

d. North America: Energy efficiencies based on the highest annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) reported in
the GAMA Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings (GAMA 2006) for gas and fuel oil furnaces with greater
than 60,000 Btu-hour ratings. Assumed 100% conversion efficiency of electric heaters and electric furnaces.
e. Korea: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric space
f. South America: Boiler efficiencies are based on the highest efficiencies reported by manufacturers. Electric
space heater is assumed to deliver 100% of energy to the living space. Wood stove efficiency is typical as
identified by United Nations data.
3. Centralised heating systems experience distribution losses in the pipes and ductwork that do not occur in
single room and portable heaters. These losses are added to the heating demand assumed for the region. In
boiler systems the heat losses in the pipes are assumed to be 5%. In furnace systems the heat losses in
ductwork are assumed to be 15% in this analysis.
RESIDENTIAL WATER HEATING
REFERENCES
ECOHOTWATER. 2007. Water Heater Model Draft v.2. (May 9).
European Commission. 2007. Preparatory Study on Eco-design of Water Heaters: Task 5 Report (Final) Definition
of Basecase (September 30). Prepared by Ren Kemna, Martijn van Elburg, William Li, and Rob van Holsteijn of Van
Holsteijn en Kemna BV (VHK). Delft, Holland: VHK.
European Commission. 2007. Preparatory Study on Eco-design of Water Heaters: Task 6 Design Options(Final)
(September 30). Prepared by Ren Kemna, Martijn van Elburg, William Li, and Rob van Holsteijn of Van Holsteijn en
Kemna BV (VHK). Delft, Holland: VHK.
European Commission. 2006. Preparatory Study on Eco-design of Water Heaters: Task 1 Report Definition, Test
Standards, Current Legislation & Measures (Draft) (December 3). Prepared by Ren Kemna, Martijn van Elburg,
William Li, and Rob van Holsteijn of Van Holsteijn en Kemna BV (VHK). Delft, Holland: VHK.
Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association. 2008. Consumers Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings for
Heating and Water Heating Equipment (March). Arlington, VA: Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association,
An Association of Appliance and Equipment Manufacturers.
Indiasolar.com. Survey on Solar Water Heater Uses. http://www.indiasolar.com/survey-swh.htm (accessed May
2008).
Pillai, Indu R. and Banerjee Rangan. 2006. Impact of Hot Water Usage Pattern and Location on Economics of Solar
Water Heating Systems. Bombay, India: Energy Systems Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology. http://www.me.iitb.ac.in/~rangan/publications/recent%20papers%20published_homepage/Solar%20pap
er.pdf (accessed May 2008).
ASSUMPTIONS
1. An extensive study of water heaters in the EU (Eco-design of water heaters), conducted by the
Netherlands consulting firm VHK, was used to obtain many of the parameters in the analysis.
2. Efficiencies for water heaters in Europe, India, and South America were based on modeled and tested
system efficiencies of water heaters in the base case reported in VHK 2007a). Currently, each country in
the EU has independent efficiency standards for water heaters.

3. Average efficiencies for North American water heaters were assumed to correspond to the United States
minimum energy performance standards established for 2004. This was chosen to represent the typical
performance of the existing stock of water heaters, reflecting a mix of sub-standard models purchased
before 2004 as well as models that exceed the minimum standard.
4. Japanese water heater efficiencies were based on the performance of existing water heaters, which was
inferred from the Japanese Top Runner program voluntary efficiency targets, which are based on a set
percentage improvement from average efficiency in 2000. Each data source calculates efficiency differently.
The U.S. government and the Japanese Top Runner program base minimum efficiency on a prescribed test
procedure; the VHK study tends to include higher losses in its estimation of total system efficiency.
Although some of the difference may be due to actual efficiency differences (such as the much more
stringent standards for standby losses in the U.S. compared to Europe), caution is advised in drawing
conclusions from cross-regional comparisons of results.
5. Size classes assigned in the VHK study were used to estimate heating energy demand in each region (the
heating energy needed for useful hot water service after efficiency losses - see notes in main report for
values). For Europe, the efficiencies of water heaters for central heating were based on the medium size
class, which represented the largest number of water heating units sold in the EU. Average storage size in
the medium size class is 80 litres. The flow rate of instantaneous heaters in this size category is 6-8 l/min
(corresponding to a power input of 21-27 kW). For North America, Japan, and Korea, heating demand for
the large size class was used. Average storage size in the large size class is 120 litres, which agrees well
with the average size of United States water heaters (EIA 2001). The flow rate of instantaneous heaters in
the large size class is 10 l/min. The large size class was chosen for Japan based on the popularity of
bathtub use in that country. The water heating demand of Korean households were assumed to be similar to
Japan.
6. Heating demand for point-of-use heaters was assumed to correspond to the small size class in the VHK
study. Average storage size in the small size class is 20 litres. The flow rate of small instantaneous heaters
is 5 l/min.
7. Central water heater efficiencies for India and South America were based on the medium size class for
storage heaters, but used efficiencies from the small size class for instantaneous heaters (18 kW) due to
tendency in those regions for smaller water heaters to be used to match the same flow rate demanded by
the medium size class (reflecting a lower temperature change, possibly due to a higher inlet temperature or
a lower outlet temperature in those regions, or both). Similarly, efficiencies for instantaneous technologies
in the extra small category were used to estimate energy consumption for meeting the small energy
requirements for point-of-use applications in these regions.
8. A lower heating energy demand than used for other regions was assumed for India and South America due
to higher ambient temperatures. The VHK model assumes a T of 50 C from inlet to outlet. A T of 40 C
was assumed for India and South America. Total heating demand for those regions was therefore reduced
by 20% from the heating energy requirement assigned to each respective size category in the VHK study.
9. The percentage of backup solar water heaters was assumed to be 15% for India and South America, based
on data presented in Pillai and Banerjee 2004. The backup percentage of 40% assumed for Europe, Japan,
and Korea were based on typical backup percentages for solar water heaters in the United States (DOE
2005). (Solar water heaters were not analysed for the United States due to a small market share relative to
other regions.)
10. Efficiencies for small and extra small gas instantaneous, electronic ignition technologies were taken from
efficiencies reported in the VHK design options study (VHK 2007b). The efficiency used for the medium gas
instantaneous water heater was calculated using the VHK spreadsheet model (VHK 2008).
11. The relative market shares of water heating technologies in India and South America was gleaned from a
number of different sources, in particular the global trade website alibaba.com, which indicates the number
of different water heater types available by regional export market.

APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY OF TERMS
T: Change in temperature.
Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE): The measure of seasonal or annual efficiency of a furnace or boiler,
accounting for the cyclic on/off operation and associated energy losses of the heating unit as it responds to changes
in the load, which in turn is affected by changes in weather and occupant controls. AFUE calculates the percentage
of heat delivered compared to the amount of fuel supplied to the furnace.
Baseboard heater: A heating system in which heating elements, installed in panels along the baseboard of a wall,
provide non-motorized convection heating.
Bathtub heater: A common Japanese household appliance that keeps bath water warm.
Biomass: Living and recently dead biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production, such as
wood.
Boiler: An apparatus that generates heat (usually by burning fuel) and uses it to heat circulating water (or sometimes
another liquid) in a closed system that is then used for general heating.
Calorific value: The amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a material or fuel, typically measured
in units of energy per amount of material.
Central residential water heating system: A system that heats all of a households water from one source.
Clean fuel: Fuels which, when combusted, produce a relatively small amount of greenhouse and otherwise harmful
gases.
Climate change: Refers to changes in long-term trends in the average climate, such as changes in average
temperatures. In IPCC usage, climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural
variability or as a result of human activity. In UNFCCC usage, climate change refers to a change in climate that is
attributable directly or indirectly to human activity which alters atmospheric composition.
Coil electric stovetop: A type of stove which generates heat through electric resistance by means of an electric
current passing through a coil.
Combination (combi) boilers: A boiler which generates hot water for both space and water heating purposes.
Combined heat and power: The simultaneous generation of useable heat and power in a single process.
Combustion gas: A gas generated through the combustion of a fuel.
Compression-ignition engine: An engine which uses compression of the fuel to cause ignition. This is a defining
feature of a diesel engine,
Conduction: Heat transfer within a substance or between substances through molecular action. Heat flows from
higher-temperature areas to lower-temperature one areas.
Direct vent heater: A heater which forces exhaust away from the immediate area of the heater. Typically used to
prevent contamination and human health issues.
Distributed power generation: The small-scale production of electricity (typically using engine-driven generators) at
or near the location where the point of power use.
Distribution: Used in this report to mean the delivery of electric energy from the source of generation to customers.
District heating system: A large system that distributes steam or hot water to multiple buildings. The heat can be
provided from a variety of sources, including geothermal, cogeneration plants, waste heat from industry, and
purpose-built heating plants.
Eddy current: A current that is induced around a closed conducting loop by the application of an external magnetic
field.
Electric power frequency: The number of oscillations in an alternating current that occur within one second,
measured in Hertz (Hz).

Electric resistance: A material's opposition to the flow of electric current; measured in ohms ().
Electronic ignition: An electrically controlled ignition system.
Emission standards: Government supported standards requiring applicable equipment to produce emissions below
a certain maximum level to be legally sold. Varies heavily by country.
End use: The point at which energy is used.
Energy carrier: A form of energy allowing for convenient transportation and use. Includes electricity and, in the
future, hydrogen.
Energy conservation: The idea that the minimum amount of energy should be used for a given task. Arises chiefly
from the beliefs that energy sources are limited and excess energy use is harmful.
Energy efficiency: The calorific value of the fuel used to generate heat compared to the amount of energy created.
Thus, if a reaction is 50% efficient, the amount of input energy (fuel) is twice the amount of output energy (electricity).
Energy source: Any substance that supplies heat or power (such as petroleum, natural gas, coal, or Renewables).
Energy supply: The sum total of all energy sources available. May be applied to smaller divisions, including
planetary, continental, national, personal, etc.
Equipment efficiency: The efficiency at which a particular piece of equipment converts one type of energy (electrical,
mechanical, or thermal) into another.
Equivalent energy service: To perform a task done with one energy source using another.
E.U. 27: An economic and political union of member states established by the Treaty of Masstricht in 1992. Current
member states are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Furnace: A heat-generating device which combusts fuel to heat air and distribute the resulting heat through ducts or
an equivalent system.
Generation: Throughout this report, used to mean the generation of electrical energy via thermal or mechanical
means.
Generator set (Genset): A relatively small generator of electrical energy typically used to provide electricity for
systems without easy access to the electrical grid or as a backup for critical systems.
Gross electrical generation efficiency: The overall efficiency of electrical generation. Used in this report to indicate
the average efficiency for a geographical region as calculated through consideration of the sum efficiencies of
constituent areas.
Heat exchanger: A device that transfers heat from one source to another.
Heat pump: A heating and cooling unit that draws heat from an outdoor source and transports it to an indoor space
for heating purposes or, inversely, for cooling purposes.
Heating degree day: A measure of how cold a location was relative to a base temperature of 18 C. The number of
heating degree-days is the sum of the daily heating degree-days for one year.
Induction: An electrical phenomenon whereby an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in a closed circuit by a
change in the flow of current
Induction electric stovetop: A stove top which generates heat from the electrical resistance of eddy currents
caused by magnetic induction.
Instantaneous (Tankless or demand) water heater: A water heater which generates heat for a particular task
(such as cooking or showering) at the time of the task. Differs from storage tank water heaters, which heat water in
advance of a task to be stored until required.
Load: The demand for service or performance made upon a given machine or system.

Log-linear regression: A method of analysis which assumes a linear relationship among logarithmic data. A model
is constructed to predict the frequency with which particular equipment is used in a particular region.
Lorena stove: An enclosed stove of rammed earth construction with a chimney built onto it.
Low-carbon energy solution: An process or material which generates lower carbon emissions than alternative
methods or materials.
Mechanical energy: The inherent energy of motion.
Minimum energy performance standard (MEPS): A specification containing a number of performance
requirements for an energy-using device, and that effectively limits the maximum amount of energy that may be
consumed by a product in performing a specified task. A MEPS is usually made mandatory by a government energy
efficiency body and generally requires use of a particular test procedure that specifies how performance is measured.
Nameplate load: The maximum rated output of a generator under specific conditions designated by the
manufacturer.
Normalized: A statistical method allowing convenient comparison of data by choosing a specific parameter to be
equal to unity (in this report, one) and adjusting all other data points to values which preserve their multiplicative
relation to the original.
Pilot light: A small, continuous flame (in a hot water heater, boiler, or furnace) that ignites gas or oil burners when
needed.
Point of use residential water heating system: A compact system that heats water for a dedicated, independent
use, such as dishwashing, hand washing, and showering.
Primary energy consumption: The amount of energy consumed as calculated without consideration of secondary
sources of consumption (typically upstream considerations for the procurement and distribution of fuel).
Primary energy efficiency: The energy efficiency as calculated without consideration of secondary sources of
inefficiency (typically upstream considerations for the procurement and distribution of fuels).
Prime generator: A generator which is used as the primary source of electricity.
Pump-type stove: A self-contained stove, typically fuelled by kerosene, which is pumped by hand to create and
maintain combustion.
Reciprocating internal combustion engine: An engine which operates through the entirely internal combustion of
fuel and the oscillatory motion of pistons.
Renewable energy: Energy obtained from sources such as biomass, geothermal, photovoltaic, solar, and wind.
Sealed burner: A type of burner which does not introduce outside air into the fuel (petroleum or natural gas) until the
point of the flame. Increases the efficiency and temperature of combustion by minimizing excess air.
Smooth heating element: An electric cook top which functions similarly to a coil electric stove but in which the
electric current passes through the surface of the stove, rather than a visible coil, to generate heat.
Spark-ignition engine: A defining feature of a petrol engine, an engine which, after mixing fuel and air, introduces a
spark to cause ignition.
Standby generator: A generator used for backup power, generally for critical functions such as data centers or
hospitals.
Steady state: Refers to a generator which has been running continuously, as opposed to cycling.
Storage tank water heater: A type of water heater which heats and stores water in anticipation of use.
System efficiency: The overall efficiency of a system.
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI): A non-profit, scientific and policy research organization, working in India
and globally in the fields of energy, environment and a whole range of sustainable development issues.
Thermal conversion efficiency: The efficiency with which electrical or mechanical energy is converted into heat, or
vice versa

Thermal energy: The inherent energy of heat.
Thermostatic control: A simple mechanical system which turns a heating system on once the temperature becomes
lower than a set point and will turn the system off once another, higher point has been exceeded.
Top Runner program: A Japanese government program that searches for the most efficient model on the market
and then stipulates that the efficiency of this top runner model should become the standard within a certain number
of years.
Total energy consumption: The total amount of energy consumed. Useful in distinction from primary energy
consumption, the amount of energy consumed as calculated without consideration of secondary sources of
consumption
Total energy use: The total amount of energy used. Includes both point-of-use and upstream energies.
Transmission loss: The decrease or loss in power during the transmission of energy from one point to another
across a power line or other medium.
United Nations Economic and Social Council: United Nations organ facilitating international cooperation on
standards-making and problem-solving in economic and social issues.
Upstream: The part of a process including all activities prior to point-of-use. Typically includes procurement,
processing, refinement, transportation, and distribution.
Useful heat: Heat which is put to use, as opposed to that which is lost in the creation, transportation, and distribution
of heat.
Waste: In this report, refers to the generation of electricity through the extraction of energy from solid and liquid
waste.

ABOUT THE WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION
The World LP Gas Association is the authoritative voice of the global LP Gas industry representing all sectors of
industry.
The primary aim of the association is to add value to the sector through driving premium demand for LP Gas, while
also promoting compliance to good business and safety practices. It brings together private and public companies
involved in one several or all activities of the industry, it develops long term partnerships with international
organizations and implements projects on local and global scales.
The association was established in 1987 and granted Special Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic
and Social Council in 1989
World LP Gas Association Mission

9 Demonstrate the benefits of LP Gas and position it as a clean energy for a low carbon world
9 Create the environment to develop and sustain LP Gas markets
9 Identify and stimulate innovation
9 Promote compliancy with health, safety and environment standards and good business practices
9 Facilitate and drive communication among all stakeholders

As the global voice for LP Gas, the World LP Gas Association (WLPGA) promotes the use of this
fuel to foster a cleaner, healthier and more prosperous world.
WLPGA was officially granted Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social
Council in 1989 and actively represents the interests of the LP Gas industry in numerous UN
processes including the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations.
world LP Gas Association

9, rue Anatole de la Forge, 75017 Paris, France Tel. +33 (0)1 58 05 28 00 Fax +33 (0)1 58 05 20 01
Email: to mkelly@worldlpgas.com Web: www.worldlpgas.com

LPG Energy Efficiency Report PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LPG Energy Efficiency Report PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LP GAS: EFFICIENT ENERGY

FOR A MODERN WORLD

WORLD LP GAS ASSOCIATION

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 1 January 2009

January 2009 2 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Makoto Arahata Japan LP Gas Association

Michael Kelly of WLP GASA coordinated this project.

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 3 January 2009

Executive Summary ............................................................................. 5

About This Study ............................................................................... 6

Appendix A Assumptions and References ........................................... 36

About the World LP Gas Association .................................................. 47

January 2009 4 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 5 January 2009

ABOUT PRIMARY ENERGY EFFICIENCY

January 2009 6 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 7 January 2009

January 2009 8 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Fig. 2: Electricity Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Efficiency

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 9 January 2009

January 2009 10 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Europe India Japan

North America Republic of Korea South America

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 11 January 2009

January 2009 12 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 13 January 2009

Europe, India, Japan

North America, Republic of Korea, South America

1.15 1.16 1.17

January 2009 14 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Europe, India, Japan

North America, Republic of Korea, South America

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 15 January 2009

January 2009 16 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 17 January 2009

6.00 5.46 India

January 2009 18 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

2.50 2.33 2.33

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 19 January 2009

January 2009 20 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 21 January 2009

Cooking .......................................................................................................................................... page 23

January 2009 22 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 23 January 2009

January 2009 24 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 25 January 2009

January 2009 26 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

Region Fuel Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency

50 Hz LP Gas 351 25.6% 672 26.8% 1395 25.8%

Diesel 317 28.4% 585 30.8% 1169 30.8%

60 Hz LP Gas 352 25.5% 698 25.8% 1318 27.3%

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 27 January 2009

January 2009 28 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 29 January 2009

January 2009 30 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 31 January 2009

Region Central Water Heating Technologies Point-Of-Use Water Heating Technologies

January 2009 32 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World

efficiency of existing stock in 2000.

LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World 33 January 2009

Electric storage 16,146 6,848 9,298

Natural Gas Instant

January 2009 34 LP Gas: Efficient Energy for a Modern World