| | | | | INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DYNAMICSINTRODUCTION 70 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS invite ie a Ain irr of Corn Cao ard umber 42088 BBN orcas? Preface "This beak hasbeen written to provide a sel-eontined text on structural dynamics for use in courses offered to seniors or frt-year graduate ftadents in evil engineering, ‘The material ix based on the authors ‘oles foreach a couse given at MIT during the past few years tit presumed that the student has completed the normal undergraduate workin applied mechanic, mathomatis, and structural engineering. "The emphasis in this txt is on the practical analysis and design of es strusturer rather than oa the mathemalal techniques of dytaie ‘nalysin ‘Throughout the book examples are give to lustre appa tion of the theory to atualstrustual problems. Much ofthe material hs boon drawn from the author's experiences a consulting engine. ‘With tis emphasis the book should be useful to practicing engineers, as voll esto studente whose abjotive isto become structure designers nthe author's opinion, structural dynamies i to often taught as 8 ‘coure in vanced tathematie for engineer, For some students this ‘spproach makes the eubject unnecssarly difcult. Other students find ‘he mathematica manipulation ao intriguing that they fl to develop the ‘hynical undertanding essential for good design. In this text the author that avoided raathenateal complestiee, whieh, although they may be ital in advanced resareh, aro Unncctsary for most design purpose. ‘Chaptees 1 snd 2, im vome respects, are n review of the dyzamice ormally taught in applied mechanics. "In addition, however, two other purposes ave served: (1) the basic theory is related to actual sructres {ind (2) numerical analysis, which i not normaly covered in applied tiechanies, i intrdveed. "The order of presentation, ir, nsmerea Aoaiynis before closed sohtion, is tomewhat unorthodox. ‘The author Teioves, a6 result of his teaching experience tht this order is prefer- ble, because numerical analysis exeeuted by hand develops a physical "ea" for dynamic behavior much more rapidly than does the solution of ferential equations ‘Chapters 3 and 4 are, perhape, the heart ofthe hook, since they conta the thoory of analysis for multdegre systems, ‘The suthor hat chowen not to Use matrix notation, which is eurrently so popular, because in his ‘opinion iti podagogieally unwise to do 20 at this introductory level or thoe tethers who prefer matrix formulation, the Appendix moy be helpful Chapter 4 contaies considerable material on beam of various ‘types, because this s believed to be particularly important to structuralChapter 6 is devoted to approximate methods of design, which are veloped on the basis of the theory presented in earlier chapter ‘Because many dynanie problems in evil enginceriag involve uncertain loading conditions, tha methods are often more appropriate thay the ‘more proce but time-consuming procedure Chapters 0,7, and 8 contain applications ofthe theory to some impor ‘tant typenaf structural problema.” These treatinente are incomplete, tt they are belived to be sufciently thorough to provide sound ited tion tthe subjects ‘The author wihes to acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of hie wife, Margaret C. Biggs, who ot only typed thé manuscript, but poe ided encouragement throughout the writing of this book. Dace ‘eltran-Muldonsdo was extromely helpful in preparing the figures nd proofreading the manasrpt. ‘The author i particularly indebted to hie teacher and caleague Prof Chaves 1H. Norris for instruction and inspiration over an extended period of tte ohn Me. Bigge Contents Chapter 1 Numerical Analysis of Simple Systeme 1 Ld Intedoeton 1 12 Opedapee late Systems 3 13 Twodepee Elatic Stems tt 14. Opecdeoe Ela Sytem with Damping 17 15. Opedegrs Blouse Stems 0 18 Atermtive Methods of Nunes Anajes 28 (Chapter 2 Rigorous Analysis of One-degree Systems 34 21 Introduction 24 22 Undauped Stone 35 23, VasiowsForig Funetooe (Undamped Systeme) 40 24 Damped Satame St 25 Respoone to's Pung Yore 58 26 Sapport Motion 27 Blatoplatie Sytem 6 2B Chart Sluins for Maxim Response of One-degree ndanped He peti etme 76 (Chapter 3 Lumped-mase Malidegree Systems 8% 3 Direct Deteranation of Natural Frequencies 8 33. Chraceatie Shaper 9 84 SiodoacVinaell Procedure for Natural Fregwaies and CCharcertis Shapes fr 35, Motifod Rayleigh Method fr Natura Bre- queecies 105 85 Ungrane’s Equation 111 87. Modal Saale of Mulder Syatoms 118 88 Meldnory Rigid Pramas Sbjpted to Laer lade 8 89, Bhatplatie Analy of Malidegrs Systran 138 ‘810 Damping in Moltegre Systema 150 Chapter 4 Structres with Distributed Mass and Load 150 42 otodtion 150 482. Slaglegpn Beame—Normal Mos of Vibe 143. Ford Vibration f Beams 158 44 Beas wih Variable Cros Sesto and Maat 170 45 Contiuoan Beas ita 48 Beuwsieler Stee Yay AT. Pte Sab Subjectel to Normal Loads 188 448 Bhst-plstis Anal of Beane Tea Chapter 5 Approximate Design Methods 189 ‘Sd Itrodueton 190 52 died Sytem ana 53 Truaormaton Factors 209 54 Dymuinie Reston a7 35 Reon Caletens 219 458 Dds Bsamplen 204 57” Approsinate Design of Mulder Stems 233, Chapter 6 Farthquake Analysis and Design 245 8 Introduction 245 62 Respmase of Maltdgree Syetems to Support Mota 218 68 Malstoryuiting Ams 250 84 Raspon Spectra 267 85 Fartquake Groond Motions 283 188. Barshqunke Spectrum Analee of Bflidegr® Sytem 28S (G7 Prato Dosgn for Earthquake 268 Chapter 7 Bast-resintant Design 276 TA teodseton 276 72. Woading Herts of Neca Explosions 27 7 Abovearound Rectangla Strature, 22 74. Aboveground Arche nd Done 287 15 Belomerond Struct Sts 78 Ground Motions 308 (Chapter 8 Beams Subjected to Moving Loads 315 81 Tnsvoduton 315 2 Constant Force with Contant Velocity 815 83 Pulating Force with Conant Vety 318 84 Dean Teavewed by a Ring Mae, 321 8 Beam Vibaton Due to Page of Spr Mass 322 0 Bridge Vibration Dus to Moving Vekicos 823 Appendix Matrix Formation of Modal Anatyaia 329 Referens Inder a Introduction ‘The eubjoet of this tert isthe analysis and design of structures subjected ‘to dynamic Toads, ic, ods which vary with time. Although the rnajonity of civibenginering structarea ean propery” be designed as ‘hough the loads were state, there are wine importa exceptions, and it 's obviously imperative thatthe designer beable to dtingnich between Stati and dynam loads Tn fact, no steutaral loads (with the posite exception of dead lad) ‘re realy static, since they must be applied to the structure in some ‘anne, sud thi involves atime variation of fore. It obviou, hom rer, that ifthe magnitude of force varios slowly eaough, it wll have mo dynamic eect and can be treated as sate. "Slowly enough” fe wt ‘definite, abd apparently th qutetion of whether or nt w led is dynarnie isa relative matter in th signionnt parameter, andi the load varie ovly relative to this Period, it may be considered to be sate. The natural pe, losty ‘efne, isthe time required fr the stricture to go trough one ele ok free vibration, i, vibration after the fore casing the motion has been ‘emaved oF has ered to vay, ‘The interest in structural desig for dynamic fod has been increasing steadily over the year, This i in part due to advancing techolony, ‘ich hs made posible more arcurae dign, Its sso due to the face ‘that more daring sruotares Carger,Hghter, et) are being etempied, ‘nd these arw more susoptive to dynamie eer because they are gen. ‘rally more esible and have longer natural periods, Examples of situs. ‘ons in which dynamie loading mnt be coosideed include ()stuetures ‘ubjeoted to alternating fores caused by onllstng machinery, (2) sue. tures which support moving loads och abridge, (2) structures subjected to suddenly applied foroee such as blast pressure or wind gust aod (4) cass where the supports ofthe structure move, ea bullding daring ‘urns out thet the natural period ofthe structure ‘The basic principles of structural analysis ar of sures not invalidated by the fact thatthe lod is dynamic. ‘The same relationships between delction and strew apply under both dynam and static conditions Dynami analysis consist primarily of the determination of the time ‘aration of defection, from which alreses ean te diretly computed Since the natural period depends upon tho mac and wines of the erie ture, these two quantities are of perp greater importance in dynamicIn this text considerable attention i given to tho inelastic behavior of structures, ie, behavior beyond the elastic limit. "This in partially important in dynamic design because iis often imprcteal or at leat lunceonomiaal, to dsign the structure 20 sto remain eompletly elastic, ‘The energy absorption which reals from th plastic deformation of the ‘material permita a much lighter structure than would be reine i ll energy had tobe absorbed by elastic sexi, ' Chapters 1 and 2 which deat with simple dynamic systems contain the ‘more elementary theory of stntaral dynamion In Chaplom 3 and thiathoory is extended to more complex structural systems Chapter 3 in preentation of spproximate design procedirs, which ae oft more ‘suitable for practical purposes than diet application of the theory. Finally, Chapters 6,7, and 8 contain applientions of the mater in res cadingchaptors to prantieal problems of importance, u 10 Ks, Kes Be, Kw » Lt wet ga List of Symbols ‘modal amplitude statis modal deletion eharacerstic amplitude, dimension constant vid frag cootcent ‘damping coeficient criti! damping consi Seiamie velocity flexibility coeficient total conerete thisknest constant Ayman load factor tffstive depth of eonerete section modus of elasticity Ieee ‘tural frequeney, eps nondiieasonal ime fonetion onatant ‘ovelertion of gravity Tight moment of inertia Inertia foree impules Kinetic energy ‘ransformatina Sectors spring constant san bending moment iat bending strogth ‘aes por unit Jeng ‘numberof modes ssl stro ressre, distributed ladHi Lat of Sombote » S88 get see escre et ane spase d= aye y= Pyar ue ” dynamic prose reflected preware flde-on overpreseure Initia side-on overprewire Aisplacoment weapon range radios hea claneing ditance atural period time interval Toad duration load eae time shock-front velocity ‘eloety of sound steal energy relative daplacenent relative velocity hear oF reaction ‘velocity, displacement vreight| vrork "eh per nt ath ‘weapon yield Aisplacenent or defection ‘elcity sowlertion slastiosimitdefsction Stati defection ‘support mation Aisplacement, coordinate constant, phase angle constant, damping coelicient (o/281) Dartsiption factor pring distortion ondimensional digplaements ssgle of rotation Tal-arch central sngle dct ratio 0, 66 i t time variable density ‘stl rti in concrete tres intensity ‘ynamie yield eteogth dynamic conorete compremive strength ‘ine variable Dertepation factor forcing frequency, rad/see ‘natural elreula frequency1 Numerical Analysis of Simple Systems 1A Introduction ‘The determination of the dynanie reponse of simple systems using ‘numerical procedures is iscumed in thie chapter. "The more trade ‘onal rigorous methode are introduced in Chap. 2 This onder of pros ‘sentation in followed because nomeresl analysis, rather than rigorous solution, & believed to be the most general and yet straightforward Sppresch posible and the best for introductory purposs,” Only base principles ‘of physics and the moet emuntary mathemalte are ed ‘Thus the render shouldbe uble to conoentrate onthe physical phenomena ‘avolved rather than on the mathematieal techniques employed. Te is hoped that this emphasis will help develop a physieal “fol” or intl tion, for dynamie reponse, which i nessary for suceoful analyia of ‘more complicated dynamic probleme. ‘The reader is unged to keep thin objective in mind duving his study ofthe following sctons Numerical analysis, that is, solation of the dierenial equations of ‘motion by arithmetic procedire, ie a much more general attack on the roblem than rigorous, or closed, solution, beeause the liter is pte ‘only when the londing and the rectance functions can be exprewed it risively simple mathematic! terme For the type of problems in hich we are interested, this in severe restrition, and thus the rigorous ‘pprosch is obviouly of Kmited usstulnes, The evulaiity of eleetrenie computers hee accelerated the adoption2 Intvatuetion to Structural Dynamies = E of numerical thods by structure! engineers. Solutions to many come plex dynamie problems which wore imposible in ear times ean now be obtained with relative ease Although computer programming x not dicuiwed in this text and the procedure are ilstrated by hand ‘aleilations, itis expected that, in practice, many of these computations ould be done electronically. ‘The fllowing sections dea with systems consisting of combinations of springs and masses. It should fo emphasised that thew are not merely academic exercises, but rather thatthe system idalted inthis ‘manner is 8 convenient representation of an actual structure, For txample in Fig. 12a, the weight I, ssppored by » beat and subjectod ‘0-0 dynamic load, may often be represented by the simple meseapring ‘system shown. The same is tue of the rgi.frame stuctare shown fa Fig. 110, where the mass is distributed along the girder and only bor ontal motions are considered. Ta order for the Wdeaived sytem, to Deform in the ane way at the actual stryture, tf oly neceeanry to inako s proper selection of the system parainctors, For example, the spring constant k can be determined trom the properties ef the bens or frame since itis merely tho ratio of foes 40 defection. Ta the sansa shown, the weight, or mas, ofthe idealised aytem ie the same as that of the actual structure wince the weight of the structural members is ‘assumed to be negligible. Tn other cae thie may not be true snd & factor must be applied to obtain the equivalent mam for the ilalzed YHoume 12 Ove dor satem—Aynanin equim, fp sytem. Such a futor would be neosrary ifthe tues were distributed over the straturo—a situation which will be dacune in later chapters. ‘The loud-tire relationship, ot load faction, is urally the ane forthe two systems, although the magnitude ofthe load may difer” "The ideal ‘prngsmace rysiem svelte such thatthe defection ofthe mao isthe ‘same ust wore point of sgnieance on the slrwcturo, for example, the ‘idepan ofthe beam. ‘The important point ie that at Mdealinedsyecem hich behaves timewise in exactly the sane fashion ao the seta stuce ‘re ean be constructed and then analysed with relative ene 12 One-degree Hate Stems AA onedegcesaystom is dafied as one in which oly one typeof motion is pombe, or in other words, the positon of the system af any instant ‘an be defined interme of a single coordinate, Such s eyetem is shown in Fig 1.2, where the mase ean move in a vertieal diction only and all the mast in the system deficta by Ube same amount (the opting it4 Intrtution to Structure Dynami ‘seeumed marese). Avan example of dyaamle analysis let us determine the motion ofthis mass resulting from the application of imesvarying fore ‘The ist sep i to iolate tho mass as shown in Fig. 1.28, "to thie ‘ntes we apply the external forces, in this ease the applnd force Fi) and the spring fores hy. Tt is uamomed here that the spring iy Hess, ke, that the foes in the speng iv always equal to the spring contend times the displacement. Nove that the weight, or gravity fore, docs ‘ot appear inthe figure. This implies thatthe dnplacemnss ya oes ‘red from the neutral postin, in ther words, the state prion whieh the mass would take if only the forew of gravity were acting “laving isolated the mans, we may write the equation of motion simply by applving the elementary formula F = Ma, "Fin of tourse the sey or algsbrsie, sum ofthe fores acting onthe mass, and the peive dice tion of fore isthe same as that fr depacement or acceleration, ‘Thus ‘the equation of motion fr this yetem at FO ~ by = Mg an This diflerential equation may be solved to determine the variation of isplacement with time oneo the loading futetion, the lita conditions, snd the other paramaters ate known. An altemative and very convenient way of writing the equation of ‘motion is by the use of D’Alember's principle of dymamie epuirium, ‘This method in illntrated in Fig. 125 where an additional imaginary fore i applic to the mass. This eth inti fore, and equal te he prvlet of the mass and the aceleration. Nee that it mis alway be ‘Applied in the diretion of negative aceeleration, or oppite to postive iplacement. “Having added this foros, we may tat the stuation shown in Vig. L.2e exactly as a problem in satle equibriam. ‘The uli equation ie Fl) ~ by ~My =0 ay 1 is sen that this approach results in exactly the same cuntion as that Previously obtained. In general, the sgond appro even, ir more convenient, expecially when distributed mames are involved Before considering & speci example we shall discus the process of ‘numerical integration in general terms, ‘The is « proeeure ty whi of ilremest with apc one orn her wnt the wee ot [Numerical Anaya of Simple Sytem 5 Tepe impabe pce o the diferential equation of motion i solved step by step, starting at sero time, when the displacement and velocity ere premumably Known, ‘Tho time wale is divided into diserte intervals, and one progresses by succomively extrapolating Uhe daplacenient from one time station 10 the next. ‘There are many uch methods avaiable, bat in Keeping with the polity stated for thie chapter, only eae of the more simple veions| will be presented here. ‘This might be ealled the conan, or Paomped-npulae, procare Suppose at analysis fr the determination of the displcerent-time variation for ® dynamic system was in progens as indisted ia Fig 13, Suppon, further, thatthe displacements y® at Gime station ¢ andy" at the preceding time station + ~ 1 had been previously dtermiued ‘The acceleration 7 ut time station + eau thon be determined ing the ‘equation of motion. ‘The problem ito determine the next diplacersent, 1", by extrapolation. Thi could be dose bythe following selfevidens forma yo 4+ dat aa) where ju tthe average velovty betwoon time stations ¢ and s+ 1, and ts the time interval between station. "The ererage veloity maybe ‘exprosoid by the folowing approximate forma ir)© Inteduetion to Structural Dymamtes whore the fiat term isthe average velocity inthe time interval between «= 1 andl, and the store term othe incase in the velocity betes the tro time intervals, assuming that is sa average asteleration Uroughout that time peciod. The assumption sated ie omalent oo “prorimating the aceleraton curve bya seis ol tr lee te shew in Fig. 1.86 and, in dition, replacing the area wader then Hoes hp ‘erin of pulsn concentrated atthe time stations. ‘Thus the shaded soos Fepresnts aa impulse applied at station # which equa th cheoge ie ‘average velocity between the two adjgcent time interaia Substteting Ea. (4) into Ba, (13), the following reewrence formula it obterond, et — By — yoo + gi (ape as ‘With thin equation one is able to extrapolate to ind the displacement ‘tthe next time station. Note, from Bg (11), that 9 maybe deter ‘mined since it depends only upon the: diplasement which ws previous obtained, and Fi), whith is Laowe ‘The reeureace formu. given by Ba. (1.3) is obviously approximate, but it give suicintly accurate reales provided that the tine interval ti taken sal inelation to the variations in weedlerntion In face, ‘5 46-0, the olution becomes exat although the number of computa, ons obviously increases as is reduced, thereby increasing the nabs of timo intervals involved. Ta general, it hae been found that noite ‘afcently necurate for practical purposst can be obtained i the tie interval is taken no larger than oveenth of the natural period of the fytem. ‘This point will be discus in more detail i eter seseore Many other recurrence formulas are available for vse." Somee of those formulas permit lrge time intervals but require tore cabana comers tations ia each step. When probleme of stability or eonvengence are encountered, more accurate reeurrence formulas’ may. lw aecooury ‘These are beyond the scope of the present dvcusion, but are eovered i Bec. 1.6. ‘The author has found the formula presated, Ray (9), to be adequate for mest problems in structural dyunnien ning the recurrence formula, the easly sizoply begins at time equals ero and procords sep by step to determine the daplaemeate af the tine stations exerted, It is necesary, however, to ue a epesial pe dure in the fit time interval beeaun, at = 0, no valve of y-0 fe svailable, ‘Two diferont procedures may be used, Fist, the sclera tion may be amumed to vary linasly up co the Art Une tation, i hich env the displacement at that time ie given by the fallowing.® v= S602 + 9) cane as) "gunn (1.0) ad (1.7 may be dary erating y= ff dt Numerical Analyteof Simpl Systema Second, the secleation may be assumed content during the fret time interval snd equal to the intial value. For the ater assumption the following equation applies v= 56 (a9 an In either ease, having established y, th analyst then proceed in the formal way, using Eq. (5). Note that Bi. (1.0) must be solved by til and error since g depends upon y. However, Ba. (1.6) smut bo used if therein zero force (and hese ere aceleration) at sero time, fot in no other way ean y be determined. Ifthe aoselers tion at f= 0 is ‘ot ser, Ta (1.7), which doo nt require iteration, may be used without sppresible eror, provided that the foree dove not change greatly ia ‘he fint interval. "Thi method of navercal soalyes used in the example which fllows. ‘The mumerial procedure outined shove wil st frst yoom tediou. However in the very common eases where no cowed solution ar poet ble, there ix no alternative. If oe i dating with a oo-degre system, {he computations ean, with alittle practine, be done very quickly. "Whe the syeten is more complicated, computers are aormally used and the Tength ofthe ealoultions is uot & serous problem. ample ‘To ihstrate the prosedures discussed above, conser the spring-mase system shown in Pig. 14a, whichis subjeted to the loadtime fooeon shown in Fig, 14, Tt Gsized to determine the variation of diplace- ‘ment with time, starting with the ystom at rest at ~ 0, Substituting into Bq, (.1) and being careful to kowp the uate consistent, the equation of motion in writen a fallow: Fi ny = Sg « $= 4700 toy a ‘Thu knowing the lo and the displacement at anytime enables one to compute necelaratio at that time. ‘The next tep i to selec atime interval for the numeri integration. ‘As mentioned abovo, this should not be greater than one-tenth of the ‘ature period of Whe system. ‘The natwal period T of « one-Jegres ‘yrtem i given by je Q aor as) hich, in thie example, in 0.198 ase. ‘The natural requncy f in the invere ofthe natural period, oe 5.04 eps, "The natural ceular fregueney= aL] revs cae Mt Bap 6) Spiga 1 2ef, or 31.6 rad/see. Natural periods and frequencies are diseued ‘ore fly ia Iter chapters, One-teath of the natural porod ia approximately 0.02 eo, and thie value will be wed in the computation. However, « second eiteron ‘murt be considred when slcting the time lateral: the interval should ‘ve small enough to represent propecy the variation of loed with time In this example i willbe noted that the time stations (AP = 092) coeur at the sudden breaks in the load function and, furthermore, thatthe Intoral is small enough so thet points at this wpacing sceureely repres sent the funetion (Pig. 142). ‘Therefore the time interval sletel Io stitactory. ‘The numerical integration for the example problem is shown in Table 11. Note that, in the ft time interval, Bq. (17) ie dned say fo the following interval, Ba. (5) & employed Since Bq. (8) gives HL ~ 0) = 25, Ba. (17) vie y(t = O02) ~ ¥4(25)(0.02)" = 0.0050. ‘sing the later value in Eq, (1.8) provides st = 0.02) = 25, and there: 0.0) = 2(.0050) 0 + 25(002)* = M0200 by’ Ba. (18), ‘The caleulations then eontinue in identieal manner. ‘Te result of the complete calculation i plotted in Fig. 1.5, where dplacement veewis time in shows. The ordinate also represnte the tz variation of the spring fore if the daplacemente are multiplied by the spring constant ‘To asst in the interpretation of the rst, the hypothetiealdiplace- Numeric Analy of Simpl Seiten — 9 Table 1 Numeric Integration; Cndemped Bale Onedere Spt, ‘ wre | 9% | tin | 940 | ten we | aewet | | a | ae bo | i 5 | d.engor oe | & Some | o.ea0 om | <0 | fo | sone | “ota om | ts | “3 | oom | ons om Soon Equation ‘ment corresponding tothe static appliation ofthe lod at any instant §2 also plotted. The maximum dipiacement which occurs at 0.12 aoe carespond to » spring fore of 1501, whichis 59 tines the taxa ‘exter! lond. ‘Submeuent peaks are somewhat smaller and correpod to mepringfores of 1671. ‘The later peak value would remain cossteat indebnitely since we have nt insluded damping ia the present exemple ‘The time interval between succesive postive (or negative) peaks is exactly equal to the natural period of the aystemn, Aer the load becomes courtant at 0.14 tee, the spring fooe varies fn sinusoidal fashion, the Dostive and negative pnks being equiditant above and below the value ofthe exteraal load, ‘The student it urged to study the computation shown in Table Lt ‘aefuly snd to mako similar compatations on his own. Ib would be ‘visable to plot the displacement as the computations proceed. ‘This crete bas two advantages: frst exors in arithmetic are quickly die covered; and second, it helpe to develop an undertanding of dynamic——_ Iyer a Z 1 Brag, Regn of yen shows in Fig 1 behavior, Although somewhat tedious, the efor is well worthwile, ‘nce thi intuitive understanding wil be invalumble in Inter chapters Lest it be forgotten thatthe ayetom analyzed In the previous pars: raphe could reproent an actual structure, conser the frame shows in Pig, 160, This isa steel vgid frame to whichis applied n dynam force at the upper lve. It is dasized to determine the dynamie dolloe, ‘ion ofthe top ofthe fame inthe horiaontl iret. "Two sosumptions vil be made: iat the weights of the ealus and wall are nealigibley ‘nd second, the girder i suficiatly rigid to prevent sigaifeant rotation ‘tthe tope of the columns, These assumptions are not tereaary bat rl ourve to simplify the problem aud, in fat, are esentinly vereect {or many etal frames of this type ‘The perameters ofthe idealized nystnt shown in Fig. 1.08 may be aly computed aa fellows: W = 1000 x 20 ~ 30,000 1b p= BAN _ 12x30 x10" x 1128 = “a0 x = 35,2001b/18 (10) ‘The spring constant & i simply equal tothe inverse of the dafetion at the top of the frame due to & unit horisontal load, und the equation Mameriat Analyte 0 Simple Sytem 11 + See + 2 Lane — "Hocus 1.8 Rigel frame preted by om dee tye, ‘employed above may be easly verted by scnple elastic analysis. Hay lng thee parameters, the acalyet would then prover to determing the dynam dapacements for aiven load fanotion, sing the same techniqne tn in the previous example. ‘Thete diplacemente would be squat Lo the actual horizontal defections at the tp of the frame. ‘The spring {roe computed forthe idesl sytem would a all times be oqual to the taal shear in the to columag, and the maximum column bending ‘moment would be given by OBfy/4. Thus the dynamic tec ab ny time could be eal determined, 13. Two-degree Hlaste Systems 1s thin ection the analysis of two-degreeaystems wll be discus, aply- ing the same basic concepts ab those tnd in the previous section for one-degres ayatoms, A twodngree system is Geied ae ote in which ‘oro seperate types of motion are pesbie, of in other words the com ‘curation of the system at any time is completely specified by exaclly to parameters or displacements. Buch « rysem ia thown in Fig 17a, where the parameters defining the motion are the placemat of ho ‘oro mawos, namely, ys nd ys. The constants of the system are the foro mais fy and Mf, and the two spring constants ty and hyn ‘dition, the external forces F,() and F4(), which vary with time, must12 Introtueton to Structarl Dynamics IT, nial Deen Ment tai Yowna 1.7 Two-egre stem dynamie eo be knows. 10s our purpaoe in this sition to determine the vasia- on ofthe two dicplcements with time forgiven set of exloral forces having preseribed time variation, 1 Pormulation ofthe Problem ‘The equtans of motion may be writen by applying the const of 0 [Note that zero free i epplid wo the mans Mf and thatthe foree applied to the mass, i euddenly applied at ¢~ 0 and remains constant indete ntely thereate. 1 these values re inserted into Bas. (1.11), expressions for the two scelerations may bo wetten a fllome 8: = 100069 ~ y) ~ 2000, 3 — 200 — 2000445 — 9) Only these two equations and the recurrence formula, Eq. (1.6), are required for the analysis, ‘Tho reourrence formula appiea to each of the two diaplacement independently ‘As explained previously, a proper time interval for the numerical ‘njegraton depends upon the atural period of the esetem, In thie example there are two natural periods, since we are dealing with & two- ‘agree aysem. For Uhve particular paramstars, the two naural Perinds ‘are 0.20 and 030 se. The fortes i the natural pore ofthe fit, oF fundamental, mode of vibration, and the latter isthe natural period of the second mode. The determination of natural periods for twodeqsee ‘ystems i dianuseed in Seo. 32, and will tot be conwideved here. In order for the numerical analysis to yinld accurate ruta, the time interval should aot be larger than oneteath of the smaller natural period. ‘Thus, in this example time interval fof (01 ao wl be ured, ‘The computations for this analysis are arranged in tabula form for convenience in Table 12. At each time sation the two diplaeemente have been determined by the preceding computations ‘The procedure ayTobe 13. Numeral Integration: Undape Bie P-dpes Sytem Pia. 17) “ere St seERE REDE oEEEY oe weeee 21d) is therefore as follows: (1) the two accelerations are computed by Bas (2.12); and @) the displacements wt the next time station are computed tung the recurrence formula. For further iusteation te detailed computations leading tothe displacemente at ¢ = 0.05 are given. below Ate = 04, 51 = 0.0060, ys = oars | Ati= oo ” previously determined th = 00167, ys = 01240 Ate = 004, 1% = 100040.1249 ~ o.0167) — 200.0167) = 75 9: = 200 ~ 2000(0.1249 ~ 00167) = ~16 Att 005, sy = 2X 00167 ~ 0.0060 + 75(0.0 ye 2X 0.1240 — 00787 ~ 1600.01) = ono40 = 0.1005 Mumerice Anetgis of Simple Spateme 18 Soa ‘in nlag®3008 | rooms 18 eanpl,Repons of wo-dge tt AI values ar, of course, in unite of fet and atcouds. ‘These computs- ‘ous ace sepeated foreach tan interval in suoeeson 'At theft time station, ys determined by the special formula (1.7), since the load it appliod suddenly at ¢= 0. Por yy at the St time ‘ation, Bq, (1.6), with y= 0, used, since the aoelerstion of mae begins at aro, The raul of this analysis ie plotted in Fig, 18 where the dapiae- ments are displayed as a fanetion of time, Inspection of such data assists one to become aware ofthe general characteristics of dynamic response, For example, bith displacements yy and ys vary in what appears to be almost sinusadalfeshion tntwoen minimum of ano and some maximum value. Purthermore, the period of this siusoidel raia- ‘loa is epprosimately 0.2 se, or in other words, the sarbe asthe fist. ‘ntural period of the sytem. Thus one concludes that the response in ‘his partieular example is przarily inthe fst mode aud thatthe eft ‘of the second made of lve nigificnce. On the other hand, the differ= cove between the two displacements, which alo plotted in Fig. 8 Aatinetly abows the eect of the recond mode. The reason for this ‘havior will come more clear when modal analysis of multidegr® ‘toms ie dscumed in Chap. 3. Tt is al of interest to consider the maximum spring forces which rem fom the application of this suddenly applied loud. For example,16 Intratueton to Structure Dynamice Ae) 000 mr 4 iL SRR f gig tng | nin fo jain the maximum force in eprag 1a 24 Ub (Fig. 1.8), whith i 2.67 ttmes the valuo of the applied extomal load. ‘The maximum force in apring 5 305 lb, which is equal to 1.53 times the marimm valve of the tpplod lod. “The multipliers given are alo the ratios of the masimum dyes spring fore to the foree which would have occurred had the exteroal Toad been appli stetieally. Thus one reaches the eoneluton, which is enerally true, that s suddenly applied foroe causes considerbly ‘reterstromes ine tructue than woud the sme fore apled sata, Before leaving this subjet the reader ie reminded thatthe ideale system shown in Fig. 1.7 im reprenentatin of wn aetual structure For feample, such a structure could be the two-story rigid frame subjected fo horisontal dynamic force as show in ig. 1.9. If its asso for ‘implcty that the girders are infinitely rigid and that the weight of the columns is negligible, the constants of the ideliaed spring ase system tay be eaily determined ne follows W, = 2000 x 40 ~ 80,000 W, = 1000 X 40 = 40,000 15 WEGH _ 1260x109 x 28 an, = HRN _ 12080 x 109 x 1128 | Be Te 8,500 I 12@0 x 109 x 1128, or x a ‘The two lumped weights (or mass are smply equ to the total weights st the two floor levels. ‘The spring constant in ove of the wioien it be 85,20015/#¢ america Analy of Simple Sptema 7 ‘merely the sum of the two column shears developed by a unit relative Aisplacement in that tory. The formula given above may be cally derived by simple elastic analysis, Having the values of ten system Darsmeters and given the two loadtime functions, we could determine ‘he horizontal displacements of the two More by exactly the sane pro- ‘dure a8 was uae for the lmped-maaseysten ofthe examplo. The spring mass system chown ia Fig. 1.9 le, of core, exactly equivalent (hat in Tig. 17 1A One-degree Elastic System with Damping ‘This section contains & very brief diseumon of the elect of damping i siructaral dynamic syetoms and methods for inelading thie ett im numerical nnaiyeis. The discussion is extended in later chaps, Damping Chorcteritie All structural dynamic ystems contain damping to some degre, but ‘2 will be shown below, the effort may not be significant if the loud das tion is short and only the maximum dynacnio response is of interest, ‘On the other hand, if contineng state of vibration s being investigated, damping may be of primary importance. In fac, if enough damping ‘a present, vibration may be completely eliminated Damping in structures may be of several diferent form It i in ict due to the internal moleeular freton of the material 1 i ey ue tothe los of energy sesocinted with the slippage of structiral con ‘octions ether between members or between the structure and the Sup porta Tn some cats it may be due to the resitanos to mation provided by air or other fds ourrounding the structure. In any ene, the eect. 's one of forces opposing the motion, and henge the azplitade of the response is decreed. Tis generally believed that, for purposes of analy, structural daanp- ing may be saramed to be of the viscous type; the damping force ‘opposite but proportional to the velocity. ARhough ether forme of damping are ‘umually present, this senumption provides reasonable emul, Accordingly, the damping force applied to a lumped mass ray be expremed by the following: Damping force = —cy here in a numerical constant, and y it the velocity of that mus. ‘The negative tign indietes that the free is always opposed to the dlzetion ofthe velocity. The magnitude ofthe eoeficent es extremely Aiffeult to determine, and for this reason tig convenient to introduce the concept of enitca! damping. ‘This is the amount of daryping that18 Iniroduction to Structural Dynamics othe reese 130 Dnt snore ten gk ae ae ‘would complataly eliminate vibration and, for & onedegree system, is siven by the following ee 2 VEN ts) there E and M are the wills and mast ofthe astem. The concept erties damping ie uefu since iti often easier to apeity the ammount of damping as certain pereotage of extial than it to arive st the humarial value for the eocficient «The derivation of Ba. (1.18) and further discon ofthis subject are contained in Se. 2.4, 1 Formulation of the Problem Consider the simple onedegzee system shown in Fig, 1.10% and the state of dynamic equilibrium shown in Fig. 1108,” ‘Thiseyotecn differs ‘rom thooe in the previous examplee only in the inclusion ofa damping fores. Tn Fig. 1.10) the damping fores is whowa upward, or pponite to the direction of positive welotty. Using the concept of dynamic ‘uilibriom, we write the equation of motion a fllows by +My +a — FO = 0 a ‘Thus the equation of motion contaiae one additional term, and invalvex ‘velocity, bosden acceleration snd displacement ‘To illustrate the eect of damping the analysis of Se. 1.2 will be repented, but in this instance 10 pereent of eritical damping will be assumed, The parameters of the system and the loadtime fonction fare given in Fig. 14. The damping eoiiient is equal to one-tenth ‘ofthe ertealeootcient aa given by By. (1.13) » 722 ee ‘Note tnt damping coclicints must have units of force divided by velocity. By substituting the proper nameieal valves fnto Eq. (114) 62 01x 2 VEN = 02 2000 Numerics Aneyats of Simple Spteme 8 the following expremion fr aedertion is obtained: 9» PCO — 10004 ~ 6389 (115) Although numerical integration, a i previous actions wll be wee, 4 mast be modified, wince fs now neceaary to detérmine the velocity st each time station. The velocity at time sation « will be approxi ‘mately exprened by the following 9 = ESE gol 16) here the frst term i the average velocity inthe preceding time interval, snd the second term isan estimsto ofthe amount by which that everegs ‘must be inerensed to give the velocity at the next time sation, This procedure i consitent with the eonoept of nosleration pues on which Bg (1.5) b based and in adltion approximates aa the mean of the ‘sveage velocities in the adjacent time intervals (Eq. (1.4) ‘By muattuting Bg (116) into. (1.14) and raven, the fllon= ing i obtained Be by — ety yoy ear a 1 we mubetitte the numerical values ofthe problem at hand a time interval of 0.02 see, Ra, (115) becomes - fe - Pc ‘he computations for thi any, which art based on Bae (8) 0d (350), ae hows io Tae 13.” This table fer trom provout compton tales only in the aditlonal columns, which permit the talelton ofthe veoiy at each ine mation. "At = 0,9 obtained by Ba. (18) rather than (1.150), sno the vlsty i known to be nro nd the later equation isnot appleaie.”As Sn previous example, the Alplacement atthe end of the Bt interval ie cmmputed hy Ea. (4.7) ‘ther than (19) ‘The ret of thse computation i plotted in Fig. 1.11. Por compari ton, the eaiton obtained in See. which difored oly in that damp {ng was nok inchuded, ie lo plotted.” Te eould be noted that the fest of daopng onthe tet pak of resposne m not peat However th fet become considerable atthe wtond postive pal, and wil become ‘ester a tine increas. Since the damping in owt seta usar ‘tans doesnt exned 10 perent of eral may be generally one lied that damping ie not of grat Sports with opect to the2 Introduction to Structural Dynamics Table 13 Numerical Integration: Damped Hastie One-deaee Sytem traci rmarimum streasia the strastate, which unually occurs with the fet Drak of cesponm, Tt should be noted, however, that for eortain sii Uions this satemont may not be true, Examples of auch exceptions fare multidoree systems in which higher modes are important and one degree systems with irregular lead-time fanetions 1.5 Onevdegroe Hlasto-late Systems Up to this point only Linear elastic nytems have been considered; i, the resitancefunetion has been a tright Line wth slope and without upper limit. Ta many practical cass this function iw nonlinear (the lope isnot constant) and/or inelastic (when the spring unloaded the resistance does not retura to zero by the sume path). These conditions can easily be handiod by numerical analysis provided only that the resistance is w unique function of diplacement." Attention hero will be focused on that tye of inelastic behavior which i normally sasuned in strnotaral desig, Considered below i the dynamic respons ofa structure which extends ‘through the elastic nd into the plastic ange, Because most eructares Mumerce Angas of Simple Stems — 34 ove LIL Keasple. Raapnt of daupel td sndamped eens Jnavo considerable ductility, this type of behavior i entirely feasible Although plastic behavior & not generally pormimible under continuons ‘operating conditions, iti quite appropriat for design when the structare issubjected toa wovere dynamic loading only once or at most afew tts during its life.” Among other exampea which might be ite, plat Iahavior is normally anticipated in the design of Dastrsitant struc tres and at least implied in the design of structure for earthqaake, This concept of considerable importance ia structural dvigh for dynamic lois barause a much greater portion of the enegy-absorbing ‘capacity of the structure i utiiaed thereby. The economy of the design canbe considerably increased by taking thie fact into serount. In some ‘ropects plastic behavior is similar to damping sinee i dluple the harmonic motions which sre charsctrati of elanti vibrations Resistance Function Consider the ono-degree system shown in Fig, 1.12, the spring of which is aseumed to bave the rsistance function shown in Fig. 1125, ‘The latior is usualy called @ bilinear resistance fonction see all Ube lines raking up that funtion lie in one of two drvetions, Ax the die placement iacroas from aero, the resistance incense linearly with lope of, the spring constant.” The inert continues wnt ths clastie-22 Introduction to StructratDynames Aa ‘hin; (Sd tone ans ames limit displacement yc is reached, at which point the maximum spring force fe has been attained. Aa Une displacement inerenees furtier, the resistance is assumed to remain constant at fx. The later alae wil ‘be maintained unt the ductility limit ofthe eructur is reached. Hom ever if the displacement reaches a misximum before that Limit and then creases, the aructure is aid to “rebound” Dury rebound the resitanee is assumed to decrease slong a line perlal othe intial slastic slope. ‘Ths decrease will contings with dacreuing dplacement until a pring fore equal to — Rg it ata. ‘The resistance function described abore ban idealization of that of fan actual structure. A real structure wil have a curved transition in ‘the region of yu rater than the sharp bak thown in ig. L122. Ths ‘curvature oes oven when only one plastic hinge is aecomary to dovlop Numeric Anais o Simple Spates 23 ‘he fll plastic strength of the structure If the structure i sch that ‘more than one hing is required, the transition range wl be even wide. Nevertheless, the resistance function shown in Fig. 12h isan adoquats repreounation for the majority of structures, Stein hardening such ‘exhibited by stel may be jnored wines thie occurs only at very large strustaral deformation, whichis uaully beyond the range of interes. ‘These points are further dcused in Se. 6.2, By isolating the maze of the one-degre aystem a shown in Fig 1.128 ‘and applying the coneept of dynsine eqiibrium, the equation of motion imay be written ab in previous examples, Por this inelastic cae, i i convenient to represent the apring force, or resistance, by the more feneral notation A since the expression for resistance changes in the various ranges of tho rstance faneton. The mjuaions of motion are ss followe: (@ My+R— Po 7 My + hy FO © M+R FO MSY Se © MFR ha - 9-70 a2) <9 Sm ‘where Ba (a) the general equation of mation (2) applies in the orginal eleti ange, (2) apple inthe plastic ego, and (@) apple during the clastic tehavioe afer yq has been attained, "Additonal equatioas cou be writton, but this i unnooseary sinee in toe station rebound das not extend into the negative plastic range, The render eat easly ‘erly thee equations since (), (2), nd (0) follow directly from (a) and the included expremions for E Yecome obvious upon inspection of the resotance function in Pix. 112 O 065, the maximum responee of the ystems the same ae i the lod duration had been ifn Chacts such as Fig. 2.7 (and aloo Figs 2.8 and 2.9) are extremely ‘useful for design purposes, as illustrated in Chap. 5. Por a give load ‘igorous Analg of Onecdepre Sistema «8 funtion one need know only the nature period in order to read from ‘the chart the maximum DLP an henes the ratio of maximum éynamis to attic sires. Alo given in Fig. 2.78 (and Fige, 286 and 2.9) lathe time ut which the masimum sea, of deflection, occurs ‘This time i often a matter of considerable importance. In the derivation of thee charts no damping has bee achaded because it would have no siguicant lft, "The masimim dynamic load factor usally coreaponds to the fins peak of respons, aad the amount of damping normally encountered in sructures i nt suieient to decease appreciably this valu Consider next a system initially at reat and subjected to a force F ‘which has a initia, suddenly applied value of Fy and decreas Lnearly to sero at time 1 (Pig. 2.00)."The romponse may be computed by Ba (2.15) in two wtagea, For the Sst ete, +S i wo BHO f= Substituting those values in Bq, (2.15) and integrating, fh 2 (inet 2B naa + fi (seat ata ok « DLP = 1~ comet + 178) hich defines the eaponse before &. For the second stage, from Es. Gt, roe ail nat) Fara =F (osnaa 2) {=o Subwtitating these values in Hq, (2.15), replacing ¢ by ¢— 4 and simplifying, Py B yo Bitrin wt ~sinate— a] ~ Beast 8) on DLF Flint ~ in w(t ~ 00} ~ ens ot es) hich gives the response ater© intrtuction to Structural Dynamics function acd/or intial conditions. A closed elution i ofcourse posible only if the intagral can te evaluated. Applications of a. (215) are iluteted below. . Rectangular ple Load Consider fist the caw of « suddenly sppisd constant loud with « limited duration tas shown in Fig. 260. ‘Thomyetamn tarts at ret, and there is no damping. Up to time 4 Hq (2.10) appiny and ae that Cine we have vee Ba ents i fem Ba inate Yor the response after 4 we may apply Eq, (2.16), taking asthe initial conditions the velocity and displacement at ta Replacing t by te snd ye aud je by y, and sand noting that f) = 0, we obtain y= 21 ~ creat) con t= 0) + Ein lint = 19 = FE (oon w(t — 6) ~ on tl (2.180) Since Fi/k is the sttie deletion snd the dynamic load factor is given by W/m we may write : DIP=t-oust=t newark 164 gagy DW seat) —eaw te a 1 sf ni stam en pm cnn by ane Pe ana omg cipal lett rt a ee Sharh cet tir ueay cam Too tnclvapene cadens eae Een anmorbe tre casi date nec eae id cr sate aca be Shan nee ae Covent fee tp see ee 2 Ep er career are Ee ee a en ern SS2 a Chas wai GS Fg, 28 ad 29) we it wl er et Toate BE 2.80 see Rigorous Analg of Onecdepre Syitoms 8 fanetion one need know only the natural period inorder t read from the chart the maximum DLP and hence thereto f maximant dynamic tw static srem. Alo given in Fig. 270 (and Figs, 286 aad 298) ia the time at which the maximum etre, or deflection, occurs This ie i often a matter of considerable importance, Iu the derivation of tae hart no damping has bean included because i would have no egnicant ‘fleck, “The marimum dynamic load factor tually corresponds to the frst peak of response, and the amount af damping normaly encountered in structures i not ficient to decrease appreciably this value Milango Pans Conder next a system intially at rest and subjected to & force F hich fs an init, suddenly applied value of Fy and deere inerly to aero at time t (Fig. 2.60). ‘The reponse may be computed by Eq (2.15) in two stages. or the iret stage, +S ‘Substituting these values in Eq. (218) and intgrating, ran + E(t) enw rete erm hich defines the reponse before 4 For the second stage, from Ba, » BS ona) =F (ona et) fone Sutatitating these values in Bq, (216), replacing «by ¢— ty and sinplifying, Fe a my v= Ee trin at ~ sin att 1] Booed (2180) our Lida —ta) et ai) which gives the response ater(Me Intrtucton to Structure! Dynamics ‘lgorow Anais of Ont-tegre Systema — 4s "im 28 Tite mon cada eat ens) owas 26 (Coninae) review ple! eset fre ahr “Typical reepones for this type of forcing function age shown in Fig 266." Sexism dynamic load factors and the time of that maximus response are given in Fig. 27. As would be expected, (DLPeoy =? ‘8 /T becomes large, or im other words, Ube oct ofthe decay in Zoree in negligible inthe time required forthe roxponse to reach te int peakey oso TT oxo YC i {I ' ‘ t HT i i | i | tn Teco to rectangular sd tear pes hg ting Oe Sim Cop of Bp) Rigorous Anais of Onedegre Sptema z wo ‘noc 28 Masimun eons of oop sit ens (dang) aie ‘oct iar ede . 7$5 Introduction to Structure! Dynamics tae wn o "ouss29 Maximum reponse of ene degre satis amined) "leat nae orca ie tne U8 tng Capea Bagnare Consider now » ayzmmetrieal triangular pul which starts st zero and ‘reaches ® maximum at one-half the total duration (Fg. 2.6). In this cease, Bq. 2.15) must be applied in three stage, taking for th inital conditions of each stage the Enal velocity and displacement of the pre- cling stage. ‘The time fonctions toe ted are aa follows Rigorous Analy of Onedepree Stems — fy =at OSS ite fo) Mu Sekt f= 0 use Following the same procedure as in previous eases, we obtain Oct iu sina] eect ur 2 aana(-$)-soes-sawe—o] wee ‘Typical responses ace plotted in Fig 2.66 and maxim respons a4 function of f/7 is given by Pig. 28. It tay be obeerved tha, for this lead-time funtion, the maximum dynamie effet oceurs when the irae ‘ion of oadig i approximately equal othe natural period of the system, 14. Constant Pore with Fate Rie Time Since, in realty, a foree can never be applied intantansously, i is of nteret to investigate a loading which ha te rae tie bat remain constant thereafter a whown in Fig. 26d. In thi case the Ineo unetone ate Jae ree ST ree whore 8 the rie time, Proewding a in previous ease, peri ts 1 (220) DL = 14 J tein ott 6) ~ sind) 13 ‘Typical responses ae shown in Fig 264, from which it may te deduced tat, if is Inge relative to, the reaponen simply fllows the appa Joad’and the dynamic effect is negligible. In Fig. 29, (DLP owe and ‘he time of maximum response nee plotted. Here tho effect of ts tne ‘in appacent. IF is lems than about one-quarter ofthe natal prio, he elect i essentially the eae ae for w suddenly applied load. This ‘bvervation i of signifianoe in practical design snes it indietos that ‘smaller rise times may be ignore A peeuiarty of this type of loadG0 tntroduction to Structural Dynamics chron ae og » en Teeceae,. ‘evar 210 Bump, Repos of «be having eet ile is the fact that ifthe rise time ie 8 whole miple of Use natural Derid, the reponse the same as F, had boen applied sttiealy inate then of the chat uk dinner theese ore bam i conte nan 2) a wee toe dyn lal atin pe shown in Fig 22 vk» mt & Dios se anda minum vl Pf Kp. be weight he eam ‘conte eg, the yn bas cay one dpe fen We ‘ito dere aint yams Snding trom Tlet th ntl ped of he ower ye must compte ‘he ming constants dete ih fora pansy Yo fuses wil doer a the ee post. Te ABB _ 4830 X10" 800.8 . 30 10 X SO 53.4 Kips, t= ae JM wae eg = ot cco Ve N56 ma tering Fig. 20 with 4/7 = 0.075/0.111 ~ 048, we obtain (DLP oun = 138 128 Rigorous Ansgl of One-depree Spies St ‘Te maximum dynamic sre equals the static rss due tothe 20kip force multiplied by (DLV ax = (DLP one Xe Fila x BUS a8 x mas sins = = ou 0X 20/4 se 5 0720/8 1.6 i oo ‘The time at which thie maim sre oscar is to=(B) i= 128 x 015 = 000 we 24 Damped Systeme ‘As mentioned proviouy, if one interested in x continuing sate of ‘ibeation rather than merely the fst pene of respoue, the leet of darmping must be included. "For the onedegnee system show in Fig 2.1, with viscous damping, the equation of motion ax derived in See. 1.4 Mat hy oi = em Danping, ndiated in Fig 2.1 by the conventional dashpot, products a force eg which oppowes the motion and dissipates some af the stergy ofthe ayatem, ‘We conser fist tho eate in which there is no exteraal free ata the ‘tem is subjected to an initial disturbance, The solution of By. (2.21) With the rgd ede equal to aero is ¥ = EMC, sin wa + Cs 008d) 2 hore 8 = o/2M, and we = Va? =P. § is © maaaure of the amount of damping presen, and wy athe natural frequency of the damped rye tem, which & somewhat different from that of the Undamped system Baguation (2.22) apples only when # < v. Tho solution for eases in ‘ich this condition is nt met (overtamping) i of lined importance And will not be considered here" the system insubjected to initial deplacement and velocity, y and, ‘the constants of Hq. (2.22) are determined hy substtating {= 0 ito that equation and its derivative as follows: = e4C sia 0) + C008 (0) cs ‘Therfore ” B= CM (OCs + eu) sin ont + (as ~ 200) co a He = ef (AC + wil) in (0) + (uses ~ BC%) v0 (0)Thereore = he ‘The total response resulting from a combination af initial diglacement sand velocity i therfore given by v= o0(EM nad + yoo ad) 25) “The rerponae de oeach ofthe to inti condon taken spaatly Aealown io Fig 21a and , where iemay be obwerved that the expo- Tenta em n Eq.(220) with an appropriate mites fre 8 eure passing trough the peaks ofthe devayingbarmnie toton “The condition p =u crete cae of ser Intret At 2 the frequeney +0, and bane eo 1a a a” Aa ry (228) rece to vr tit + 0 + ody com) rom this equation it is apparent that the motion is no longer period, or in other words, there i no vibration i the umual sense of the word ‘As given by Bq (2.24), the response to an initial displacement (sero initial velosty) isan shown in Fg. 2-11e. Rather than vibrating, the system merely crops back tothe neutral postion "The amount of damping which removes all vibration as described above (8'= 0) it known a8 erica! damping. Although this ase ix of Tile importance in itelf, the eritcal coofeiont of damping is eon venient refeenes. For example, observations indicate that typieal src: tures have between 5 and 10 percent of critical damping. Since, for eritial damping, roe fs 2 the critical coefficient is given by oe = Ble = 2. EM 225) As noted shove, damping affects the natural frequeney of the systom ‘To illustrate the significance ofthis eect, considers system with 10 per- cant of etal damping, or 8 = Olu. The damped frequency ia then ae VOB = YORI = 0.9050 Uthich is only slightly diferent from the undamped natural frequency. Tt may be eonshided, therefore, that the decreas in natural frqeney due to damping may for practical purposes be ignored, 3 o fies abe zy See) lly it Sapo and5 Intrndction o Structure! Dynamics Another concept of imporianoe is that of the Laparithmie derement, ‘etna as the diferenee between the logarthins of two consecutive peaks in the free vibration, or Mentally, the logarithm of the ratio of bro ‘eoncutive peaks, An expression for lgaethmle decrement may be obtained by taking the logarithm of tro values given by Ba. (229), the fiat for time ¢ and the seond for a time (i+ Ti), where 7s is the damped natural period. ‘Thus oposite decrement = In monn, a0 (uar-%) am ‘Therefore i a ystem had 10 pereent of erica damping (8 = 0.10), ‘the logaritmie decrement wold be 0.2, which indicates thatthe ratio of succesive pane would be e°™, of LAT. Inverting this quantity, i could mid that each and every peak would have value 0.53 times that of the preceding peak. This ie obviously» convenient way to vimalze the effet of damping. A generalized solution for the forced vibration of a damped eystem, ray be obtained in the same manner as was used for an undamped ‘ystem in Soe.2-3a. For the damped eae, te response dust an element of impute is given by (Fig. 2.5) Fu ca inal =) “he total pons oun by sunning the leo a eet of Imus operapeng th ss a ial seins nC nas-+ nomad) vat [seer sinadt Ade 220) ‘This equation is comparable with Hq. (2.15) fr the undamped system tnd is identical when 8 = 0. ‘Consider now cysts iil et rest and gubjected to a suddenly ‘appli constant force Fy. ‘The response may be determined by direct Rigorous Anya of One-degreeSostema 58 ‘nos 212 Rent of ned ooedoge yen 4m solution of Rg, (221) with FQ) ‘nd i given by or by Eq. (27) with fe) = 1 rab lt-eo(mwetena] ‘where the diflerence between « snd ay has been ignored, ‘The rerponse Iniosted by Eq. (228) ie plotted in Fig. 2.12. It in apparent that thi response is ‘very similar to that due to an initial diplacement as shown, in Fig. 21a. If the itil dicplacement y had boon eyual to — Py), the only diferenee would have bom a ehift im the neural position by ‘a amount equal to P/k 1¢ wes stated in Sec. 23 that damping had ltl effet on the fiat Deak of response. ‘The validity ofthat statement may now be invesic ited by farther consideration of the case just presented,” With litle ror it may bo assuted that the ret peak oceurs when wf ~ x, for whieh Bq. (225) giver 228) pe Baten, Assuing for illustration tht 8 = 0.10 (10 peroent of erica darping, se obtain you = LTBF,/L For an undariped apstam the response vil be 2P/t, and hence the seduotion due to this amount of damping ‘5 12.5 percent. Since the damping assumed ie relatively high, this Dereentage effect may be considaed an uper Hnit for moet typial sMructures mbjected to lds which we fury rapid in application,$6 Introtucton to Structure Dynamiee a Gl & Coulom® Damping Up to this point we have concentrated our attention on eyetenas with, viseous damping, and will eontinue to doo hereafter, bees this type §s the most commonly assumed for stretural analysin Homever this particular section a diferent form, namely, Coulomb, or constant, damping is consbered. This would apply to © system auch as shown in Fig. 2.13, where the mass sides on surface och that the resistance to motion i provided by simple friction. ‘The magnitude ofthis ection force Fis constant and depends only upon the eosficient of (ition ‘nd the weight ofthe body." However, the direction ofthe force depende ‘upon the velocity of the mas, which i almays opposes. ‘Thus, for fre ‘ibation, the equation of motion i Mit hy + B= 0 20) where the postive sign before Fapplice when and only when the velosty is pastive. Because of the changing sign, any solution of Bq. (2.20) ‘would apply only during a tine interval in which the sign ofthe velocity remained unchanged, ‘As an illustration, consider muse which in given an intial diplaes- ‘ment y, with sr initial velocity. Duting the st halcyee of reponse, the velocity is negative and Eq, (220) becomes Mg+ly= +8, ‘Thus the situation under consdersion is equivalent o & system with & suddealy applied consent foros aud aa, iitial diplacements The Fesponge is therefore the uperposition of thee two eflecta at given by Bye (24) and (2.10), y= neon + = = (= Praets ean ‘cu 2.14 ree ibeation with Colon dpi. ‘The frst negative peak: given by Bg (2.20) =2)-- 8) In the second hall-eyelo the veloity ie positive and the equation of motion Mg + by = Fy "The response indicated by this equation ix the same as Ea, (230) if the sie ofthe force term it changed and if time is measured froma the Smt negative peak ((= r/o}, the amplitude of which taken as the ‘nial displacement. Thus, fr tho seond hall-yel, va(-nea%ene(-D-% aan ‘ent pk Goi) Oo A a = yd Sopa a (18) ana 1K may now bo deduced that motes postive peaks are given by 1 — (AF; on, where ion intger representing the numberof complete ‘eyeles,or multiples of the astura period. ‘The tounplete reponee is ‘shown in Fig. 2.14, where the damping envelope is formed by a pat of tenight ins ad each hall-eycle ea pare cosine function. ‘The response (2.3) indizates a58 Intoetion to Struturel Dynamics is completely damped out at ¢= (T/A )y5, where 1 i the nator asd, 25 Response toa Pusating Poree In this section we shall consider the casa! solution for the meponse ‘of 6 one-dogree system to panting free ofthe form Fe Fring ea) ‘The primary reason for intert inthis ease i the fat that I, (2:32) ray represeat the dynam force applied by rotating machine to is support. ‘The lightest imbalance of the rotting part produces this type of force. Fy 5s proportional to the unbalanced weight and @ i the froqueney, or sped, af the machine. Consideration of this problem will introduce the eoucept of rexmance,traditionslly mater of interest to engineers, which occas when the natural frequeney ofthe supporting steetate i lone tothe frequency of the machine “& Undempad System with StuandalForce For an undamped ouedogiwe system subjected vo a sinaoidal forcing function E. (252)] of indefinite duration, the equation of motion i Aig + hy = Fy "The mlution i of the form ino 233) Fy singe wae = Cysin ot + Creo at + where w i the natural frequency of the system. If the aystam starts strat the constants are determined by the following = Cam) + Coe +f) 8.0) = Cen) ~ Guin) + BB 220, * Solving for Cy and the fina resulta and subtitling inthe general solution, we obtain 5 ano P= 4 at — Paint (2 5 pur~qehven[sm—Zaou] ane) ‘may be observed thatthe response consists of two part, the fee part, having the natural frequency ofthe eystem, and the forced par, having ‘Rigorous Anais of One-degree Stems — 99 SSeS Fare fF = oan Frain of UF "awa 215 Reap sr fein er of rami the frequency of the forcing function. A typical respons is shown in Fig. 2.15, where the free and foreed parts ary separse The maximum DLY ean be deermined by diferentiating and etting ‘qual aero Eg (2.34), solving fort oF the time of raximum response, ‘and substituting the later back into Bq. (2MB). Mathematelly, ‘this procedare is rather dificult, but by plotting the fre and forced Aine fonetions separstely, one ea atleast eatiate the masitnint DL. An upper limit, whih for practical purposes i euficienty cle to the ‘ato val, may be obtained by aatuming, in Bq. (2.34), that at some ime win f= 1 and sin ot = 1. Substitution of these numeral ‘values into Ba, (2348) Imada drwy to (DLP au = 4 35)(8 Intratuction to Stracturet Dynes ‘cas 216 Maximo dys led ater fr aia nd ‘This expresion is plotted in Fig. 2.16 asthe dashed line, and it i noted ‘that the maxinus reponse #0 devermined contains both the free and forend parts Tor practic applications, Eq. (2.35) overestimates the maximum eapone, since even s small amount of daunpng gulch elininaten the fee vibration. Our concern here being with continuing tate of wbra- tion rather than with tho fst few eyle, i i reasonable to assume thet ‘the free vibration hae been completely danuped out. If the fren form it removed from Eq. (2241), the maxinium reeponse obviodsly occurs ‘when sin Gr 1, and i given by ane 2.36) (DL ae = ‘This solution implies tat the damping i 0 ama hat the foroed vibea- tion isnot affected even though the fre part is completaly eliminated. More detailed consideration of damping is given in Soe, 2.83. Ruston (236) ie aloo plotted in Fig. 216.” This solution in often refered to at ‘the eedyatate response, while that including the fre pati the fromviot eeponte In Fig. 2.10 it may be oboarved that, for either ofthe salutions given, (DLP ame spproachoranity an 0/0 —>Onnd approaches sero s/o = Physically this simply meane that, if relatively smal, the loud p= sates very slowly snd the nase of the aystems “rider” along without vibration abvut the neutral positon corresponding to the instantaneout Toad value. In other word, the effet lathe same ae for static load. ‘Rigorous Anais of Onesdegro Store ‘On the other hand, if ie relatively very lang, the mass cannot follow ‘he rapid fuctuations in Joed and mip remain stationary. Therefore DLE = Datall times ‘Next consider the condition of resonance which acoure whe “Av indicate in Fig, 216, thisitation role in very large displacement, ‘which thersticlly ieeome infinite it 2 =v (Eqs. @.35) aud (230 ‘Actually, thsi an oversimplifeation, as will now be demonstrated. Win Bs. (284) 0 nade equal tou, the reat iny = 0/0 or in other ‘words the response is indeterminate, "The dgplaetnet ean, however, F be obtained by the application of Hospital's rule, whieh state thatthe Himit of Bq. (348) au > isthe derivative of the term in brackets with respect to divided ty the sane derivative of the term in paren hoon Thue (DUP snow ~ 1% With 0 = 4 thie becomen (DUI) = F4l6n wt — wt om a) em) From the last equation it is apparent that: DLE does indeed becoane Infinite at resonance, but only alter an jafinite time, Rquationt (2.35) snd 88) are therefore valid when 0 = w, but oaly ater many eyeee of vibration. Te should be noted, however, that many” eyelet may tour in a skort period of nbolute time Th practi, exact resonance dows not really our, because eysteme te naver completly linear Ax ditortions bosom larg, the charace “asties ofthe sytem change because of paste deformation snd other E_efects. "The quetion as to whether diplacemeats become ili is Ff course of atademie interest only. Tho importent engineering cos ‘sion ik Ut, at or near resonance, the defections of the stricture become very lege and hee intolerable Tes sometimes of interest to determine the amplitude of response after 4 limited number of eyeles of palating load at resonant frequency ration (2:4) cannot be used forthe purpowe snes ii indeterminate at thi point. “However, we may obtain the reponse by the application ‘of Eq. (257), Limiting the solution to peak values, we Gist ata the times of peek reponsee by maxizsing DL a follows: 4 nad — oma Beourye. = 0 = Ge eonat + walnut — w cone) Therefore final = 0 at = 4,2 3,42 Introduction to Strstarel Dynamic ‘Nceme217 Ina etaget rept sinned, Fn, Subwitting thene values of wing, (2%), we find DLP aman = Hle, 26,85) 2) [DLPacel = Hone n= 12,3, eas) Where m is the mumber of half-eycles after the beginning of response. ‘Equation (258) atatce thet the maximm defection of an undamped fone-depre rytem subjected to sinusokal lading ie /2 tae the wate dotction Fy after 3f eyle of loading, x tory ater I eye 2/2 tines yy aftr 134 eps et. From the above dioousson it may be deduced that the initial sage of response to resonant wnusoialoading ave aa shown in Fi. 217 2, Damped Sytem with Sinsoidl Force In this eae the equation of motion i My + hy +e = Pesine 2.39) for whith th solution ig of the forma = CMC, tn a + C008 a) “PANG 08/0) ain 01 — 2(20/4) en 8) 7 (2.400) LLYN TT — a A 08 {| ane : A [ : = as 35 rie 218 Masi yao for nwa, asi, dapel syn where p = ©/2M, and ae = /aF =F, the nataral frequency of the damped syst.” As diseused previoly, the contribution of the fee part becomes nepigle after afew cycles of reponse, and therlore we ‘ow couider ony the steady-state, o forced, prt ofthe respon given ty the svat Ea. (2408). ‘Thin term may borer ae (FINO ~ OY /% + (50/1 a (E+ 0 C= a AIS am)44 Intrdction te Strueture Dynaee where 9 in merely « phase ange. Te is apparent that this expreion isa rnsimum when the sine unity, and therefore 1 LP. ea res ra ‘The last cxprosion i often called Ube dynam mapnifcain fcter, and js plotted in Fig. 2.18 for various valuce of /a, which isthe ratio of ctu fo rita damping 1t is apparent in Fig. 2.18 that, even with emall damping, theoretically infinite amplitudes do not occur at resonanor, In the extreme eae of critical damping (B/o ~ 1), the maximum rewonant dofestion i only ‘one-half the staie defection. ‘The eurve shown for nero damping i ‘ofcourse the ame as that shown in Fig. 2.16 for forced vibration onl Ava further simplifestion, the following may be derived frm Eq. (241) for the resonant condition (DLP eae ea) % AA development such a8 that leading to Eq. (2.37) oould also be shown, for the damped ease, thus indieting that the maximums given by Fa, 242) are attained only after many cycles of vibration © Undamped Spatem with Step Fore 1k should be emphasized that « sinusoidal forcing function i not & requirement for large daplacemeate near resonance. For example, con ser the alternating step free shown in Fig. 2.10, which bas the ste period as the responding wyetem,” ‘To investigate the. responce, we proceed as follows, recognising tht, fora suddenly applied constant fore, Y= (FyB(1 ~ cow af) and for an intial diplacement, y ~ y cO8 wl In the frst half-oyee, B v= coo) aah Atala, n=2 nao In the seond haley mem we » = 2 cos (at = 2) ~ REIL ~ cos ft ~ wi} Mato ae ee 0 Rigorous Analn of Oneepre Stora — 45 1 ie therfore apparent that succemive peaks (postive or negative) ofthe vibration have the displacements - mah il = an and [DLP aul = 20 eas) svhore n is the number of hayes from the staring point. ‘The ‘response i plotted in Fig 219. Comparison of by, (243) with Bq (2.38) indicates that, at revonance, the amplitads reing from ao stealing step fore ineeace even more rapidly than thowe dae toa sinueoal force 26 Support Metons An important clas of problems isthe determination of reeponae due to ‘movement of the eupport af the ryan eather than the application of ‘sternal free. Pethape the foremost example the anelysi an degn af structures for earthquake afete, Iti shown below that, with old tli modifeation, the preceding solutions for wppicdforecs ea als bused forthe ona at hand 4 Undempod Syteme ‘Suppor that the system shown in Fig. 2.20 is eubjocted to 8 support motion ys defined by ya = sof), whore pe i some arbitrary magaitedeef —Intrtion to Structure Dynes tT ts i Ay sony ya of support displacement and fs the time function deseribing the varia ton oy, with Gime. "The equation of mation x Mg + Ky — yd = 0 a y+ hy = hye = yah ey) Comparison of Fa, (244) with thowe previously written fr exteral force funetions (Fy(0| reveals that they are intial, event that Fy hus boon replaced by yx ‘Thus previous slutions are valid thin simp eube Stiution is made For example, the generat solution given by Ea 2.1) bacomen y= at fst = ae eas) To ita tho sbve, wo contder astm the mpprt of whieh is dpuoe sdety by ko tour yy tnd then rns fed ht Posi This imposed condition coon ta nuddenly applied ‘Stat fre ant the reponse mayb otained ty ttn Re {oem Bq 10). Tho poduoe = yall — cow eas) for the absntute dsplanement snd . = =r coe wt em whore w i the relative diplacemeat ofthe ram with respect tothe aap port. “The fore in the spring is of cours hu, aad the negative sigh ix Bq. (247) indientes that he spring is inially in compretion if hi positive. "he second example, let the mpport motion be ys = yesin Using the previously ven soltion for sinusoidal fore, kyr auletuted Rigorous Anais of One-degroeSyiema for Fy fa Ba, (2.34) to obtain 35) 4) Since DLE in the sume as that exproed hy Eq, (2340), the maximum LF for sinwoidal support motion in also given by Fig. 216 without modification and Yau = Yo(DLPuuy The relative sition, which is ‘the sume asthe spring distortion, may be obtained from En, (28) van(FUp 8d) DLE). 49) where (DLP), isthe dynamie load factor for relative. daplacsmnt, Equation (249), together with « consideration of the diseuston, of ‘maximum DLP in See. 25a, lads tothe consusion that Fig, 216 ca ‘so be used to obtain masiram relative displacement if @ and care Simply interchanged. Thus, atthe extreme limits, we conclude M8 y= nanda=0 Mls ay Oana ‘This pplin throughout the respons, ax well as to the maximum valu rom the above diseusion i showld be appareat thatthe chart of (DL) sa for various forcing Fanetions previously given (Figs 27 ta 29), ‘oply equally wel to the ease of support motion having the sane time functions; Uh is Yue a(DLF)ane However, thie fat is of limited twefulnesssinee the taaxium spring force whith i proportional to "lative dispiscement cannot be obtained directly in this manwer. ‘An alterontive approach which is often useful involves representation of the input in terms of support aceleration rather than diplacement. or this purpose it is convenient to change the variable to the relative placonient ofthe nas with reoot tothe suport, which i ientied byw =~ ye Sincod = ¥~ pu Bq (244) breomes Mat 9) +h -0 o Matha = MG, = —MvafA0 (250) here Jin the time fonction fr support aceleration, and je some scitray (usually maximus) value of aupport aoeceraton. This ene ‘ions identical with thor for foreing functions Fs isteplace by Me€8—Introuetion to Structure Dynan ‘Tarr the gn wtion fa the atv ston i woe fe aint = de sy fit assumed thatthe intial support velocity is aoro. ‘Thus roults ven claewhere for external forcing functions may be weed to determine diretiy relative distortions due to support motions provided that the Inter are given in terms of acdlration. Examples of this progeure sre tobe found in, Chap. 6 © Damped Setems ‘When damping is involved, iti generally more convenient to employ the approach represented by Eq. (2.0), in which the support mation is specied in term of noelerstion rather than diplecement. This i true because the damping force in unsally proportional to lative rather han abwolute velocity, If damping ie ieluded, Eq, (250) bacon Matin dea =. ie = ~ Mio (25) ‘The general solution obtained by replacing ya by —Ma/h in Bx, (2.27) in therefore ee Hf per nll de 88) 1 the aystem starts atest (iy i wy = =O). ‘The Falatve responce to sindsodal support mation (ys = yu sin ray be obtained from W. Q.40)) if Fy i replaced by’ — Mie ence $0 ~ £40. Thos the steaig-etate response is WI — 2/8 4 4690/09) in (OL + 8) ToT + 480/05 ony tod the asinun eltive apne given by i as wm Elo awar era] a9 ‘Because ofthe similarity betwoon the ist esution and Fg, (2-4), tin spparent that Fig. 218 isa plot of the bracketed term In Eq. (36) ‘Ths the maximum ruatvediplacemeat, snd hevae the maxiniati spring force igs, be obtsinoa by Fig. 2.18 and Hq. (2.5); that (ane = n/t DLP) ane here (DLE au given by Fig, 2.18, 1f the support motion cannot be expected in. term of acserntion ‘nd if damping is to be considered, itis neceestry’ to include ae input both aluplacement and velocity.” For a dasiped aystem, Bq. (254) Docomer Mi + KG —W)+e9~ 9) -0 + o My thy Fey hy heb 255) Additional diseuion of response to support motion i given in Chap. 6 Jn connection with analysis or earthquake, F 27 aso-pasle Systeme Consider the singledogree undamped aprtom in Fig. 2.214, which is swum to have the bilear resistance function abrn in Fig. 2216 ‘A rgorous solution fo the response due t «eudenly applied, constant load is given below. "Sine there aze two dionntiquities in the reponse, thin involves three separate stage: (1) the clastic response up to the lati iit ya (2) tho plastic response between the elated the ‘maximum displcement, sad (3) rebound, oF the elaatie reponee which focus after the masimin bas been attained and the displacement begs todecrene. In the determination of displacements for tages? an 3, ‘the inkl conditions are th final diaplcement and velocity ofthe pre ‘oo 221 Rola een,coding stage. If the applied free were not constant, editions stages, ‘one for each force discontinuity, would have tobe ineladed. Obvionly, thin & a very laborious proces, and except in the mont simple canes, fone would be better advised to use auneriea! anya as seated See. 18 For the example indicated by Fig. 221, with a initial diplacoment ‘and velocity, the response inthe fret mage is given by (ee. 220), v8 46 Y= wall = cos wt) (57) D> Yao in ot e257) ‘where ve = Fy and a = ETH. The tte at which pw i reached, ‘4 may be obtain fom Ha (2.57) con uta = 1 = Ht me — 2.58) and in aig = VE a a ‘ ‘rooesing to the veond stage and Itting f= ¢ ~ te, we huve the Initial condition fr ti eae a Si ad Myth, =F, ‘The wlution by diet intgration is 9 Fhe Ral + C4 2.0) ‘Making wwe of the initial conditions (Fge, (2.50) att, = 0 to salve for Gt and Cs and substituting buck into Eq. (280), we abtain the final lution fe this tage’ MSU Gre vm gps ~ ROWE Haan vu (20) ying Ba. €281) ad eting tere sil to mo, the th of mana maf aac ia = tn a 20) ‘The maximum displacement yq ie wblained by substituting into Ba. 20. For the third and Sal stags, one could proceed a4 above, utiog ‘table equation of motion with initial conditions from the cod sta However, an easier procedure to make se of some obvi fact regard iaorous Anais of Onedepie Systema 71 = aa ‘ 4 Po ] ery \ coven lg PI ‘ym 228 Enapl, Reponu of latte oe-epe srr te ‘deny applind cota fre ing the respon, which were dincued in See. 1.5. This stage const fe residuil vibetion, whith is of tours elastic or harmoeie- Whe ‘he mae iin its neutral postion, the spring fore le equal to the applied load Fi Therefore the amplitude of vibration, or the amount by hich the deflection must decrease below yu to reach the neutml poston, i (a ~ Fy)/k. The situation we equivalent to sn intial daplncement ofthis amount on a ajatem whowe neutral pation is yo = ex Fahi fea plate oder ete (aodampd) de to venga oad pur” (U At Cure Beyer ‘Therefore tho response i given by va(e- BeBe Bee where = ¢— be = te The complete Fexponse ie therfore given by Kas. (2570), (2.61), and (2.63), andthe mes at the inteior boundaries of the three stages by gs. 258) and (2.62) ‘To illustrate rigorous clasto-plastic analysis, tho raponse of the imple steel beam shown in Fig. 222 will be investigatad. "The clastic Droperties of the aystem were determined in See. 2, but in addition {o these, the maximum, oF plastic rerstanes ie now needed, ‘The total cos ate 265) ===: ec Cae a oF 7 0 rocan 253 (Crtinue) ‘asim rositnnc i given by sc am20 Bap = BEF = SX 30 555 npn whore Str isthe ultimate bending moment (eetangular stress block) Inu on a yol-point sirea of 33 ex Since the beatnauppurts a dead ‘weight of 10 kips the masimum foree available to reset the dynamic lead Ra 868 = 10 ~ 45. kips ‘The resistance function may be assumed to be bilinear, as indicted in Fig. 222. The ebove determination of resitance of eos impli thst lateral buckling of the beam ie preventad by ome means,14 Introduction to Strcturl Dynamice Aew oF ar ‘e 70 (anamped) de to tsrogla ond ula mi we Te (GS Aemy Cage of Baynes) ‘We wish to determine the complete response due tos suddenly appli, fonstant fore of 0 hips. ‘The parameters required for snalyia of the syst area fellows = 834 ipy/in APS 00230 kissin T= 0.111 see: w = 56.8 ead/ne Ra = 45.2 kp Ya ~ Raf = 0588 in t= Fk = 0.360 in. 1 fs apparent that the response will reach the plastir range since tale Ba <2, ‘a fellom te WSS ty Rigorous Analg f One degree Sprtoma 18 ice wr aces 294 (Cote) ‘The total solution based on the equations derived above 0.3001 ~ con 96.84) (asta) 0880 8ty = 0.508 Ba, (2.58) 36.84 0871 se sinaty = 0.61 Yr ~2056" + 1766 +0585 Bg. 200) fin = 0.0208 se Ba. 02) 1 ta fig = 0.0660 ae16 Introduction to Structrat Danamice ‘Rigorous Analy of Onedepre Systeme F Downe 228 Nasi rome feats oaedegne tse solampd ‘Therefore te = —208(0.0208)" + 17,6(00208) + 0548 = 0808 in, Ase y= 00622 + 0.184 cos 50. Ea. (2.68) =e 00688 The complete solution given bythe foregoing ie shown in Fig, 2.22 28 Charied Solutions for Maximum Response of One-degree Undamped lasto-planie Syeteme Because the analysis of clastoplstic aystems is eatnbersome, is eon ‘venient to make tse of charts giving the maximum reeponee, Usually, tH a a Poe errr 4 ‘the structural designer interested only in the maitnamn displacement, ‘nd therefore such charts need give only that quantity rather than the ‘ample response ae «fonction of time, Preatnted in this section ace response charts for fou load-tine functions. twill be found in practice, ‘That many actual loading conditions can be approximated by one of thes imple unctions.14 Inroduction to Structural Dynamics ‘ea hn ospf=ogP oo fogP a 4: Nondimensionet Eguatons of Motion ‘The procure given in See, 27 may be used to derive the desied shart, but for plotting purpoes it ie convenient to nondimensionalise the paraineter. Th the Base equation of slartic motion, M+ by = PAO) i \ { ‘gorous Anais of Onecepre Store 18 sca 2.2 (Contin) we transform the variables by letting £ = ¢/T and y = v/v fy dy pa, Thee = Sh tats as eee he, Mets FO) er = Red = 4, distr fino ow Inthe pats ge try Ha sn ot 1 the same wibetitations se tow lending to Ba. (268) are nade, the ‘equation of motion for this range becomea eet Bo em50 Introction to Structure! Dynamee Tnopietion of Ege (254) and (265) revels that in order Uo obtain Ue response in terms ofthe parkmeter y, one ued only know the ratio, F/R and the loadtime funtion in terms of the parameter In add ‘om fo the variable tf the latter involves ony the ratio, ene isthe duration or some other time value eharacteriaing the loading (ace below). Thus the two parameters Pit, and are suicint for & complete solution (i the system starts at rest and there sno damping). 1, Maimuen-reeponse Chara "The chars shown in Figs. 2 23 0226 incusiveare based upon numeri- ‘al solutions of Eqs (264) and (268). The results thus provided are or undaunped one-dogre systems with bilinear resistance funtion and without intial motion. Th the eate of the rectangular pulse, J(@) tunity up to € = t/ 7 and aero thereafter For the trianguly pulse With aero rise time, fle) 1 €(7/l) up to § = WT and then "er. When the force is constant but with fnit rss time, @ = e(T/) up to f= 4/P and unity at later Unee, For the triangular funetion of Fig. 2.26,/() ~ (27) upto = 6/27, followed by {0 = 2 ~ €2T/t) up to {= lg/T and zero thereafter. The charts wore constructed by inating thoes expressions orf) into qs. (2.64) and (268) and obtuin- ing the maximum displacement by numeral integration for dierete value of the parameters F/fe and 4/7 of. "The valuce provided by the charts are the nasizoun nondimensional ispaccmest, ous ~ Yo/ta = wand the nondimensiona time of masi- tum diplacement, fa = a/te OF t/t. Tt should be noted thatthe bottom curve in each ease (Ufy/F, ~ 2) represonts completely elastic espoune If (Ba/P,) > 2, the Sastcresponme chart (Figs. 27 to 29) ‘hold be wand & Hramote ‘To ilustzate uso of the charts prosatad above, let the team ete in See, 2.7 (Fig. 222) be subjected to a suddenly applied teangular pulse loading defined by F, — 40 ki and & ~ 02 se. The maximum mie span defection ofthe beam anid Uh tne of that defection are obtained ftom Fig. 2.24 as follows: Ra 853 wo 02 Roo M8 pe gin 8 From Fig, 2240, = 20 Fron Fig 2.24, e036 “Therefore ve = mya = 2.0 X 0.545 = 1.09 in 0.36 x 02 = 0077 see Rigorous Any of Onedapre Stems — 92 ‘Ap willbe illustrated in Chaps, 5 and 7, eberts such as Fgh 2.23 to 22555 gre wl for din pps, oid tat te lal ne variation can be approximated by one of these nnple functinas Sinilar charts can be developed for other tan funetons the thepss ‘are completely defined by two parameters, that i Fy and le Problems 2d Wie the expen or the natara ogee naar! proof haa ‘own in Pi 227th the beam andthe mag my be ine sea set {tational nea nay be acta ‘mount 227 Probe 21,22,25,26,28, ad oo +1 J £4 For he ye Poh 2, Wi, HL = 10 ent, = 00 1 Beier hana dishes 08 tate a Seti th pees an lyse Lee 424 Compe ntl toaecy ne hore made he eed rane shorn oF 8“ may Dette! ye ade Sofie tame my bagel iam Ts lie 24 Reps Poh 23, aig iat sot er Hey. The ental ‘member i & noel 1850 member, : rowan 2.25 Preblons 29,24 and 27Giga ee tt £3 friar cy StL A120) fore of 101 apd mdeny 1 ~ Dan een easly 26 “ag on oii odo he maximum doa sd ine {Srter eel The foe inreara nol ro su at = 0 4 Lipset = 0 ee Serhan meat Nahe nao dation adie £28, Repat Tob. 22, anming hat the system ba 18 prea fev! dtpig. 129. Repeat Prob 256, naming hat thre 1 pee feral ping 1210, Por the leasime fenton in Fig. 2.22, dive the enreton for DLP a « feamon of td wa apis when > ricina 209 Problem 2.10, oedine fe 2.11 For the dyoamie we and lod futon shown in Fig. 20, compute by ‘awrous methods an pt the dgacaeet vs Gna tol =O ne a rszns 230 Problo 211. Dynamic opt and lad | ‘loorous Anaya of Onecegree Stara 3 212 Ricca ew hat he amp of ie iran ie he ae is Gpetas fa anne? HHL dling Nok tho Fg 212 a atu pvil of 05, od he "a If the bloc in given an nial dilacement atin aller eye vomtont PEC eli pen min vat 10, Rt he alt er Bes oe 216 4 singe undaped spring am nner rgueny of 10 ie Side bjecaltaforce Prana Compute tie DLF att ~Oieve OS, Was sant (d= 50, The vyntem mara tr 218. peat Po 214 or th ra of percent ote apg 216 What ald be the way tate maxniin DEF for the dane aye of Fob. 218 flr many lst ig? ‘tea baricatal foes a tho ine er f(1000 is) Amrng yesc ‘dtp, ha he ye apd faa ri 218 “he fun of Pig. 231 mbes t oriental apport meton, ng the ‘pio nt dtr te simu sb idab po ee vooan 281 Probleme 247 t 220, 28 Jn rob 218 competi ang tre in tesla = 030‘oper selena ven ya i no 421 forthe dyna ten adn anton shown in Fig. 233, ompte he —_ oe "ume 28 Pens 221 and 222, Dyn tem ‘itt delotn for the tem and lading of Pig 280s te rable 4221 Use the appropiate chart, teri te as detonate tine that defection forte etm fig. and the lal fencing 230 tat rene 3 Lumped-mass Multidegree Systems 34 Introduction ‘The subject ofthis chaptar isthe analysis of dinrete-parameter systems, ie, eystems contiating of fniteaumber of lumped masses eoanected by springs. ‘The momber of degrees of frovdom ie equal to the number of independent types of motion poate in the system, Stated diferent the number of degrees equals the number of dependent condos roceary and cufiieat to deine completly the eonfguration of the system. To illustrate, the positon of the pendulum shown in Fig. 3.16 ‘ould be defined either by y or by , but not by both, snc the two coord fnies are not independent. Therefore it t'& one- rather thau & tron degre eystem, The double pendulum shown in Fig, 31) on the eter hand, » two-degroe system, since two coordinates (for example, and 9s oF nnd 0) ate reid. tay be sated that for each degree of freedom, there isan inde- pendent diferental equation of ation. For example, the equations for the two-degre system shown in Fig. 3.2, obtained by considering the dynam equilibrium ofthe tro maa, are MGs han ~ Hae — 9) = Pld Mahe + alge = 9) = FO Cap As someyhat diferent example, consider the rigid muse supported by two springs shown in Fig 3.3, Amuing no horiaontal notion,56 Introduction to Strcturel Dynamioe o ova. One and twee ons there are two independent evordinates,y and 6, and hence i 4 two- agree eystm. "The pring forms are given by By A) for sal ota tions, and the two equations of motion based on vertial and rotational Ayaan equilibrium are My + 2h = £0 HF aaa = ado cS where Ie the mast moment of neti, eee | a a Ft [ae Fone mm “i, Ate 7% wm Tend mia 2 Two-degre ate dynamie equi. as owas 23 Unouple to degre yen ‘An impoctat distinction may be made between Rag. (3:1) and (2.2). 1m the former, ys andy, appear in both equation, andthe pat ate said ‘to be coupled. Determination of the respanan of the aystam therefore involves the simattanow solution of fwo equations, Hquations (32) are ‘on the other hand, kncovpied, snd ech ofthe two equations aay be mlved ‘separately. The abalys af the ayatem represented ty the later equ ‘os may therefore be treated as that for tr ladependest one degree systems Te should also bo apparent from the above thatthe number of degrees ‘of freedom is not necessary equal to the number of lmmped ‘Our consideration erin will be reetvctd to planar ayten for which ‘there ean be no mare than theve degrees of freedom per mass, In the ‘most general cage a tree dimensional notion, si eoordinates are required 1 define tho potion of exch macs "The springs ina lumped-mase yet may be arsengedin diferent ways, depending upon the characteristic ofthe strstare. For example if ‘the three-story building frame of Fig. 2.4, the gider righty approaches Safty, the eystem (considering only hosiontal motion) may be repre- rented as sown in ig. 345. On the athar hand, if the girders are fox ‘ble, a proper represttation ax shown in Fig. 34. The reason for ‘hi diference may be understood i on imegines that the thd Moor ke eplaced horiaootlly while the second Noor ig held xed. With rigid ier, no free is transmitted to the ft oor, and therefore no spring Inneeded baton the third and fret, With lei gidery however, the joints at the second level would rtat, the elumas below would be di. {orted, and forees would therfore be applied tothe fist Roor, causing it to diplace, ‘This Interaction i represented in Fig. 3 do by the sping, and the suns reasoning account for springs fy ad hehe ebstem in Wig, 34% is sad to be cloeecoupled, and that in Fg. 8.4, Jarcouple, Although the number of springs afeote the equations of motion, both8 Introduction to Stractur! Dynamics yee ara a th act tie systems heve threo dogross of freedom and the method of enlysis re nti ‘Beams or other elements with signifeant mass at more than one point sre always fa-coupled aystema. For example, the beat with two ast ‘concentrations as shown in Fig. 8.5a could be represented a indicated in Fig. 85. Thi proper ance a deflection at mas 1 (but not nt mast 2) would couse a resstion at support 3. This accounted for by spring ky Te sould be emphasised that lumped-maee syst are not Henle nd analyses of sich eystems are not intended to be mere seademiec ‘xereigen. Many’ struetures sich asthe fume in ig. 3.40 have eseen- tilly Iamped masses since the weight of the columns and walls i often negli compared with that of the fore, Hence an analysis based on ‘the systems shown in Fig. 3.40 or is enatially exact. Truly distrib~ ‘ved mass systems, eg. a beat with usforny diatibuted weight, have ‘i infinite number of degrees of freedom. However, as willbe seen in Chap. 4, any practical analysis deals with s limited taimber of degre which ots be represented by « lumped-masespring system. Thus the ‘methods of analy given in this chapter have «wide ange of sppliction, Ts appropriate at this pot to inteoduce tentatively the concept of. normal modes (or natural modes) of vibration. A system has exactly the ‘ume number of normal modes as degrees of freedom. Associated with, each modo sa natural fequency and a characteitic shape. ‘The ditioe ishing feature of « normal mode i thatthe aystem could under ertaia tion the ratio ofthe dgplacemments of any two moos i constant with time. ‘These ration define the characteristic shape of the mode. AR txtremely important fact, which inthe basis of rultdegres analysis, is that the complete motion of theeystem may be obtined by superimposing ‘owas 25 Bats with bmped mee rules naping ytem ia the independent motion of the individual mode, More complete df- nition and the great signfiesnoe of nornal modes will unfall in Inter sections of this chapter "The nest four eetions dest with the detrssination of natural fe ‘queacies und characteristic abapen of normal modes. "This emphasis Aiberate for two reons (1) sch determination mut be the et xt in the dynamic analysis of the system; and (2) am experianced analy fan deo a great deal eoncering the behavior of & structure from Inowlsdge of ite normal modes ‘32 Direct Determination of Natural Frequencies ‘The equations of motion fora system having N mass and 1 degrees of freedom but no external frees have the following frm: Alage thats ays bbs = 8 Male + Ruan thee * thm =O gy) Majer + beans rays bb ana = 0 whote the are ain coeficionts, which are apring constants or ot: ‘iontions thereof, andthe ’'eare the daplaementa of the lumped mnaes ag iss atonnviouty cone when digi anes gti ‘hte meng of enon so heave lave for atetry sae ‘Riots formation the modal metho of talnin ie the Append2 Introduction to Structure Dynami 1 wl frst be shown tht vibration ins normal made must abnays be harmonic. As stated in the previous votion, during vibration in singe mode, the displeements of the several masses are always inthe ame proportion; ie, all posible postionsare geometrically tlc, This may be indioted ns afl. 9 = a0, where {(0 isthe same timo function in cach ease, and the o's aro the smplitudes of the individual motions, Substituting into Eye, (9), vos asd en MaaglO + bret + baal + <= + kansas) = 0 Madi) + bed) + koa) + ynefl) = 0 Meant + brunt) + bead) +--+ nasi = where Ji the second derivative off) with pect to ime, Regrang- ing thes last cautions, Wo © bus ~ tay + tae 1 ta 0 tom tn has aw i = brway ‘Since the left sides of Eqs. (3.5) are al identi, the vight sides must be ‘equal tothe same constant, which wil be identified by —o!. ‘Tha all ‘quntions may be writen as io o HO + fo = eo) uation (8.0), when solved, yields $19 © Corin ot 0, cosat = Corin vt +a) 7) ‘Ths it has been shown that motion as defined by Ey (3.4) i possible ‘and furthermore, that such motion is harmon with «natura feequessy of. This conclusion apples to aay one of the WV normal modes of the fystem. Note that all masses vibrato in phase with the same natural Irequnes. ‘Lumped.man Mulidepre Store 9 ‘To determine the natural frequency of the several modes, Bas. (8) ‘may be used. Substituting the constant —4*for the llt-and side en rearranging, hu ~ Baas haan + 2 + hires = 0 Ra + (l= Maton + tee 8 as ‘Thea equations ean bo usd to ove for relative values ofthe amplitudes ‘x. Recalling Cramer rule for ealvingwuch equations, we may ‘ate that nontrivial valuos of the amplitudes ext only ifthe determinant of the coocients of « is equal to zero, boeause the equations are homo tesoour; i, the right sides are sero. Sine fee vibration mart be poe sible in a ormal meds, we writs er a ae ba hn br |g ay kw bn © Che = Mat Alla are premumably known, and expansion of this determinant leeds to Jreency equation which ean he ealved fr, ‘Thote tune tel Ok for each normal mode, and hence nataral frequencies ae obtained ‘This procedure forthe determination of natural frequencies i ue ‘eated by an examplo involving a two-degree tystem, in the following Daragraph. Tt will become apparent that solution ofthe fejuney eae ‘ion becomes extzeinely eumbersoma as the nuruber of modee ingen For this eso other procedures have ben devised. An iterative method 5 given in Sec. 34, and an approximate method in See: 3. Jn mathematical terms the problem dipaseed shove it known © haractriniovalueproblon and the quantities x! a characlere value & cipewaluen, The solution of this prablem ix of importance in many engineering ls and several methods forthe detertinnton and manip lution of eigenvalues are to be found in theliterature."**" Attention herein ‘il be focused on those methods whieh sem most useful forthe type of Problems comtdered, 1 Teo-degresSateme ‘The equations of fee motion forthe fr-couped undamped twondegree system shown in Pig 3. are Mis hay bos — 99 = 0 Mags + kale ~ ys) + kus = 0 os)41 Introduction to Structural Dyamice 4 aed oH [= Hawar-f tS anon 7 ff i qt "Tew teunes™ As indicated by Eq, (3.7), if tho estem i vibrating in & normal mode, the {oro displacements are bermonie aad im phase, and maybe expresed by ne arin +e) i ata Wes arsinalt +6) Hh = ~awtsinutl + 0) ‘As an alternative to the direct use af Eqs. (89) forthe determination of ‘tural frequencies, we may substitute thes expressions into Bas. (3.10) to obtain [oMiwtas + fas ~ sles ~ a) sin w+ «) = 0 [-Mtsstas + bles ~ a) “+ Roan (l-+ a) = 0 o (Mut th kon + (has = 0 (Heder Eat Eb, Adan = 0 ean [In order forthe amplitudes vo have any values ather than aro (4 nese ‘ary condition for a normal mode), the determinant ofthe coeficints ‘us be equal 1 sro, [omen tan (oka (ha (Mat thet ky Bxpanding this determinant gives the equation (CM hb ba (— Maat + ha +) ~ (Bt = 0 ow (BEB HEH) MEME 9 Gn) ‘Thisie the frequen ‘tro real root are modes ‘quation forthe two-dogreeeystem in Fig 38, The squares of the natural frequencios af the fro normal Lumped-maue Mulidegroe Spore 38 ‘To illstute further, suppose that all thes spring constants are equal to: aud both masses equal to. Equation (£42) then becomes ( "The two rots ofthis equation are ot wth meine ‘Theve ar the nara ireula frequencies of the two normal modes. ‘The sulle frequency wy corresponds to the fundomenta, oft made, whe ‘4s the frequency of the scond mode. wom 83 Charneteristie Shapes ‘ving the natural frequencies of the multidegres system represented by ge (3), the ehameterstic shapes of the modes may be obtained by ‘the we of Eqs (3.8). Ifthe value of at fort partoular mode x subi ‘uted into these NV equations, there ste then exactly unknowns, namely, the character amplitudes a; ay of that mode, Since the Fight idee of Ege, (3.8) arw aero, unique values of the o's are not obtained However, is posible to obtain the relative values ofall amplitudes, of ‘nother words, the ratio of any two. If an arbitrary value in given One amplitude, all others are then fixed in magutude. A set of auch abic trary amplitudes deine the characteristic spe, since the latter io not dependent upon abyolut values of amplitude. In mathematical rmy, ‘tet of modal amplitudes = known ae 8 eharalraie eter eis not surprising that unigue values ofthe characteristic amplitudes see unobtainable. We are hoe dealing with fre vibration, the ease of hich hasnot boon defined by ether intial conditions or forsag funeton, ‘The important poi is thatthe amplitudes of «normal mode ae alway in the same proportion; ie, the shape is mintained, regardles of the ‘use ofthe vibration ‘To illustrate the above, consider again tne two-dagres eps of Sec. ‘32a and Fla, 26, for which tho rturalfrequencls were found to be VE/M and 1.78-VR/H. Since the Ws were taken Wo be onal a8 were The eBags. (2.11) become (Met + 200+ (bas = 0 (Cha + (Mat + 2b; © 04 Intrducton Structure Dynamics Sutetituting m, the frequency of the Sint mode, into the rst equation veld (Cr+ Bhan + (“han 0 ‘Therefore on on whioh defines the characters shape of the fst mv, ‘The same result ‘would ave been obtained by eubstittion ito the seed eitation. The notation adopted ie thatthe fret mbecrpt cn the e indicates the many ‘or point on the structure at whish the semplitie occur, aad the secon subveript dosignates the mode, Substituting ey into either equstion yield (BE Aya + (Ban = ‘Thenetore ie 0m) hich defines the eharastaistio shape ofthe teond mode. Ibis desired to assign arbitrary values to the amplitude, the two medal shapes cole oe indleted by ‘The two chameterstic shapes, icy the motions aseoiated with the normal modee, re indicated in Fig. 37. In the fret mode the two mastes ‘move in the same direction and by thessme amount, Th the seond ode ‘hey more bythe same amount but in opposite dineetions. In both eace ‘isons 3.7 Chart shapes f som ad, ‘Lumped.mava Malidepres Systems $8 the motions ofthe two maases are in phase; the manimam dpc: ‘ents are attained simultaneously. The neutral point of the vibttion ' the static deadoad position, and the a's ar in reality amplitude of ‘the total motion. Tt shoul be intultively obvious that the typeof di tortion associated with th fest mode shoud, as we haye shown, have 8 lower natural frequency than that ssociated withthe second mode, « Orthoponatity An extrmoly important property of normal mode athe fet that any ‘0 modes ar orthogonal. Thin may be expresed as flows 3 Manon = 0 (ta0) hete m and m identify any two normal mode of the rytem, and the subscript refers to the rb mage ovt of «total of j masses ‘he sum ‘matin therefore indicates a serin with one tern for cach mae of the system. The proof of Eq. (8.182) is given below.* ‘When the system i vibruting in the nth mode and hae attained the ‘maximum amplitude, the masse could be planed a statis equilibria by ‘he application of inertia frees equal to Ma". ‘Thi tatemen, whieh isnot limited o maximum displacement but ould be ade for any modal position, is merely D’Alemberts principle of dynamic equiliviam, For ‘the nth mode ad the rt maa, the inertia force would be identied hy Manas, Suppote now that virtual displacement cotreponding to the ‘nth mode is intraduced, "The virtual wore dan bythe loerfin foree luring thi proone ie 3 rata 1 the proces is now reversed, ie, virtual digploements corresponding ‘othe nth ode are impose onthe system aleady in the mth ode the ‘virtual work §Otaan den According to the elementary principle known as Bet aw, tise 0 {Segue attest of rthognalty i hatte el pode wo nema ian cance veto i seo Var Pte nye fad taboos ‘soil athena" "The one given hae perp deve! y te ae ‘Gon tetra eneeps. An aberatv ests wan otabie gen int open96 Intrducton to Structure Dynes Virtual work quantitieg mut be equal, ‘Therefore § Manta = ot § Maat o ( = 08) ¥ Mere = 0 Since (ac! ~ a) cannot be xero ifm my, ° @.130) 3 Maat hich isthe erthoponality contin. Thies an extremely weal consept in the analyis of multidegre sytem, "The validity of Bq, (12) ean bw demonstrated by consideration of the twordegree example of ace &:2e and 3.3, for which the charter shupee were found to be snd substituting My = Bf, ~ AF (as asqumed in the example) and the humeriel characteristic amplitudes, we obtain MCN + MOHD "Thus the orthogouality condition ie satisfied, “Another form of erthogonality which iv also psf! involves sping eon ‘ants rather than muses and may be developed as follows. Fora system vibrating in a norms] mode, the inertia and ping force form a st of fores in equiibrim, By the lw of virtual work the net work done by sich « ot during «vietal distortion mist be rer. For ‘he nth moda, let the inert force at mast rb Man andthe fore in spring ¢ bed. where dys is the spring distortion ‘Then the tata work during virtual distortion in the form ofthe mth mode e §, tantandon + $ hbetm emped-mate MutiepreeSpttems $1 where j and » are the number of masses and spring, epectively. By ‘Ba. (120, the frat scien inthe lst esation We are ae thereto Brana, =o aim) ‘hich isthe wzond erthoponaly condition. In the twouegres example previo cite, the mal sping dor tions may be determined from the modal amplitudes ae fallws (Pig 3.) an " ‘Therefor, singe all spring eoustanta arf, suetitution into Bq (8.13) 3 Rebate = ECHICED) + HO(—2) 4 EEI=D =O hich demonstrates the validity of the second orthogonality condition, 34 Stodola-Vianelo Procedure for Natural Frequencies and Chara teristic Shapes Direct determination of natural frequencies and characteristic sped as biven in Sec, 8:2 is exeemively todious if there ae inore than two, oF Dethaps tec, degrees of freedom. Thin ie trie becouse, for an’ Ne degre aystem, the frequency equation leg, Ea, (8.12)] bol degree N and ‘the voluton is very laborious if 7 > 2 or 3. Furthermore, the expan son of the determinant [Eq (3.)] ray be impenciel in such eaten Te 4s therefore necewary to resort to mutneriea, erative (ac, enka fron) procedures. ‘The most commenly ved ofthe thal associated with the names of Stodae and Viaell In the general cae, this progodure involves the saution of Bas. (8.8) by iteration, which yields both the natural Trequency athe charaster- isle shape. The procedure i at fellows: (1) assume choractorisio shape, i. a ot of o values; (2) using one of Ra, (38), solve for a (8) sing the raining (¥ — 1) equations, obtain a new shape by saving for (9 ~ 1) o's in terms ofthe tho; and (4) ting the new shape jst computed as the assumed shape in the next cycle, epeat the provedare to convergence, i, uatl the computed shape te the sume as th prev ‘unlyaswumed shape. In step 3 ie wally convenient to asin Wi value to the Nth a.” The rate of convergence may be ineretsed by “over: relaxation,” i, by using an improved tstiate ofthe shape instep 4,98 Introsucton to Structure Dynes rs , Be baw ” 2, Wht prion yal nd, Mrcnt nm 1 e rn 35 Tener bse on the trend of convergence rather than that actually computed instep 3, However, this refinement i not asrsary and eins exper tengo to be done uecesflly. ‘The proedure outlined will eonvergo on either the highest or the lowest rode, depending upon the form of the equations of motion (Ste. 3.4. ‘The other modes are then obtained, using the same procedure, after having fist clminated one of the equations by xe ofthe orthogonality condition ‘The Stodoln-Viauello method is het described by a numerical exanple, ‘or this purpose the natural frequencies and eharaeteriste shapes of the ‘hree-degre yetem shown in Fig, 3.8 willbe determined. ‘The equation, of fee motion are Mags + kay — bn 9) = 0 Mage + alte — 9) ~ Bis = 9) = 0 18) Bie + hss = 99) = 0 Proceeding as before, we substitute Won sine) and 9, = ~eyntsinanlt +a) ‘neal the commen sine tara, and rearrange to obtain (-Alsa + + bee + (kam = 0 (ohm + Man + be hale (Shida = 0 18) Chitin + (Allie + ham = 0 where the subseript m indicates that the equations apply to any mode, ‘For the sumerieal example, the following valune sre giv: My 2tbswctfin. My = My = 1 Io-ee!/in 1b, = 6000 Ibfin ke = 4000 18 /in, by = 2000 lovin. Lumped-mans Multidegrce Sptome 98 Insertion of these values in Eq. (8.15) and rearrangement leads to the following convenient form ofthe equations: io 0m = 500054. ~ 2000 ® (S00, = 4000 + 60000. ~ 20004. a1 e Sen, = 200005 + 20003, ‘The procedure is to substitute an assumed shape in the right sides of the equations, use one equation to compute wy, and uso the two renaiing ‘uations to obtain the scond tral shape. AVter this procow has beh repeated several ies, the shape will caver on that ofthe higher, ot third, mode, and therefore the analyt sould begin by making ex et imate of the mative amplitudes for that mode.” Vor example, kus ane Ht ays 15 Substituting these ia Ea, (8.180), eH1) = 5000(41) ~ 2000(—1.8) Substituting this valu foros ad tho ein the right wide of Ba. (3.108), 8000(0u) = 4000-41) + 6000(1.8) — 2000¢+0.5) ‘Therefore a= 05 inal, om Ba, (2162), 000K) = ~2000(—1.5) + 2000(0.5) an = +05 ‘Therefore the ret estimate of wy e 8000, and the next til shape eto be taken a8 n= +1, cu = 1.75, and am ~ 40.5. This procedure ia repeated until convergence is sebioved se indieated in Table 31. Tt ray bo soen that ve eyeles are required to obtain what i considered to De eatfactory agreoment between the aarimed and corpited shapes "Tho last valuea computed are adopted as thown in the euunmaty of Table 3.1, ‘Tesimportant to retain mficlent sigifeat Sgoresin the Sst mde omputed since small errors here would rau in large error ithe last ‘mode eoroputed. Tt should be realed thatthe abelute mplitudss are indeterminate and tse vaio used sre arbitrary, since ay, wat arbitrarily {ken as unity. However, the ratior of the amplitudes aro ll that i requited, Prootoding to the next move, we use the orthogonality condition to redace the number of equations by one. If, ia B. (3.18), taken to tbe the third mode just computed and we the second mode now to be cam a= 405; ce = $000100 Intraduction to Structure Dynamites Table Stedola-Vanello Procedure lor Sone Shon In Fg 8) i} Bk te Bip | we) ‘ 40388 | 1.00 ~[«]"~[.*]- |e Teint wade | sta <1ae| oan | ea | aw Seondinede 3470 fore | Toa] io | "Sa Finnie | tm fir | Gat] so | cs pled, the expanded ste ie 3 Mate = Asin + Mise + Matt = Mos)F1) + Non) —1860) + ay) (+0.858) or (y= 881004 + 8.368, ey Substituting the last expression foray into Bigs (8.10) results in only ‘eo Independent equations, which may be written as fllows @ i as) Lumpod-mace MaltieprenSortems 10h ‘We now iterate Eqs (2.18) to obtain i, ay td ayy, and then ws Ba, @.17) to obtain ayn Asrume oxy +1, aye = +08, By Eq. (180), C41) = 8000641) ~ 2000(40.5) et = 4000 By Bq. .188), : 4000(an) = 322041) — 736405) an = +0213 Subsequent cycles of iteration are given in Table 3.1, where i may be seen that four eydle are required foreatfactory rela, In the last ep, Bq. (3:17 is used to obtain ay ‘The frat mode ean now be computed directly from the orthogonality foutltion. ‘This always true ofthe lat mode computed, Equation (G.130) must be applied twice, ot combining the third snd Gest modes, ‘nd then combining the second and Grt modes, S Sat Mans + Mason + Morvan, ° = 2H Dan + 1OTEI)en + 1-108), 3 Masa = Mon + Manan + 6.19) = 2G Tan + 1(-1.868)00) + 1(+0.554)an = 0 Taking ay ~ +1, thew two equations are solved simultaneously to provide an 4211 ay = +280 Any one of Eqs (8.16) may now be used to compute ait. Using Ba, 0), eI) ~ 500041) — 2000(42.11) ot = 780 Ass check on the accurey ofthe solution, the frqueney and shape of ‘he last computed mode may be wbatitted into either Eq. (2.108) oF (8.106). Tell be found that, in mort case, liderul emptation dove ‘not provide fen signifesnt figures ther are more tha thee modes. ‘The summary in Table 3.1 gives the complete soatin ofthe problem, i, the frequencies snd characteristic shapes of the normal modes for the stem in Fig. 328. The characteris shapes are depicted graph cally n Pg. 39, se Altrnatio Ue ofFesiiity and titres Ravations In the preceding svetons the natural frequencies and characteritic shapes wore derived from tifaees equations i, the equations of motion42 Introducion to Structural Dares Jensorsen Fy Iowe tee rere written in terms of stiffness coeficents f, For example, cach of Eqs (3) ofthe form ay + Div =0 G20) here the W's ate stitfcanes, When the Stodole-Vianllo procedure is applied to sich equation, the Hest mode obtained isthe highet mode, eg, in the computations awd on Fig. 3.8 the third mode mae Sst coblained. In many eases this it underrble since the fundamental, or firs, mode i uaully of greatest interest. To fect, when dealing with rary degres of freedom, analyasf often based on the fit few moder alone, while the higher modes are uegleste, ‘This dificulty can be circumvented if the equations of motion are writen in tera of fertility eaeicions, ‘Tha forma of the equations is then y+ Dmg = oa where the D's are feibilitycoeBicints, 1 the Stodola-Vianello method ‘in sppled to equations such us (3.21), the Get mode obtained, rather than the ghost, e he fundamental, “To ilustete the so of feiilityooefclents, consider the beam with three concentrated asses ar shown in Fig. 2-10. ‘The eneiients are noted by Dy, whic, by the usual structural convention, indicates the —_ room 239 tan with enemas LY {}—, defection st point ‘dus toa unit fore aplied wt point j. ‘Thus the coe cinta are determined by the suceeive application of wit force the various points. or example, in Fig. 10) the covfeients obtained by. spplying a ust fore at point I are indented, Sino, in normal made, ‘he ony forces involved are inertia fores, the qutions of motion are erved from the fast that at any instant, the tot defotion isthe sume af the defections due to the individual inertia forces Considering the force system shown in Fg 5.10, the following rye writen: = BAD ~ MegDis — MapDus Wee ~MDa — Med Dee — Manns 2 = =MGDy ~ MebDa— MaDe ‘Asin previous discumsion, we now sulstitete y, = ay in w(t +) and Sr =~ a(t + a, canoe the common sine terms, and reerane to obtain (03h) ag + Uta + dda tdaten + (sidn~ Jou + OnDadan = 0 022) atDn) brea + (inde oe hoes equstions are equivalent to Es. (3.8) or, in the previous example sven, Kae. (18), The Stodoly-Vianello procedure may be applied to gn (23) in exactly the same manner ax previously described for sti.106 Introduction to Structural Dynamics ness equations. The fst step would be to rewrite the equations inthe form 85 = MDutis + MeDitin + MeDustn 25 = MDetuct MDutin + MD ro a2 = M Dest + MDs + MeDeae, hich are equivalent to Bags. (16). The procedure would then be racy the same as Mustrated after Ege (3.16). willbe found that ‘the fundamental mode i fet obtained "Tn viow of the advantage of obtaining the highest mode ft, the only ceuton for using sifu equations that in many caus, the le ew coofeients are more easly computed. For example, the stfness oefiients forthe rigid frame of Fig. 3.11 are obtained by introducing Unit deletions at the floor. One wt of eoufiients would be computed by a simple morment-distebutionsidewmay tolution a lutrated in ig SD, whore the holding foro aro the desired sili coficeate, On the other hand, determination ef simular set of flerbility eefcente requires a more complex analysis involving the superposition of three tidesway’ elution followed by defestion computations a indvatad in Fig Ste Tn other cases, the Mxibility coefficients are more easily determined than are the siffesecooficionta. For exemple, for the team of Fig, 5.10, its easier to determine the deflections duc to nit loeds than to ‘eters holding forces due to imposed unit deflections, If shearing distortions are tobe Sneladed, ie impomible to obtain the stiffens cet ‘ents directly, and one must begin with eb Tt should be noted that equations of one type ean, Wf necemary, be inwred to obtain the equatins of the oer type. For example i Ea ‘oom 3.1 Rigi ramet ad Sexy conicient Lumped.mate Multidgre Stems 168 (8.22) ae saved for Majh, May and Ma, one obtains the corresponding ‘iffees equation in the form of Eqs. (88)."This or the reveree operas tion is sometimes a wef procedure 35 Modited Rayleigh Method for Nataral Frequencies When the gstem has many degres of freedom, the Stodla-Vianello ‘method for determining frequencice and characteritc whaper becomes ‘sactedingly cumbertome, if not impossible This ie tue because ene ‘ust dal with Une completa st of equations af mation, one equation for ech degre of freedom. In this ection an proximate mth usualy Atrbuted to Rayleigh i presented fr tse when one i interested in aly 1 few ofthe lower moden ‘in show in ce, 3. tha, by thie method, the natural frequency of ‘the fundamental mode ean be obtained with considerable sceureey tad Yet with relative ease. The charaterate ehape obtnined i eos tocar ‘ate, but can be improved ly an erative procedure, In See. 35%, the vwethod i extended to include higher natural modce The method ‘exeribed herein is particularly uefl for eyeams with continuous mass slstribution and henee an infinite numberof degree of freedom. Appi ‘ations ofthis sort ae given in Chap. Fundamental Mode The Raylsigh method is an energy procedure based on sa assumed ‘haractariatic shape. ‘Let (2) be an nesimed nondimensonal shape, ‘where zis. a coordinate defining positions on the eructue, and lt the swoumed diplacements be A’g'(2}, whore lis am azbitary constant For » hunped-mase system, the aerumed diplacement at tame io xpresed by A's If this were the true shape of 2 normal mode, the corerpending inertia force would be MA’ = constant (4) Since the abtolate value ofthe inertia force is indeterminate and of 20 ‘mportaue, the constant may be dropped. Therefore lt Fy represent thi foree at be given by Fan Ms Suppose thal the ores, were applied tothe system and the resulting Aslleoted shape determined.” This nem ehape wil be ieatied Uy 9”, the dinpicemente by 49"), aud that at maser ly 491 thewe dleplacements represent the te modal shape, i ean be stated that the kinetic eneray ofthis yetom at ero displacement equals tho werk done by the inertia forees at the wpstem mioven from aero to mia di06 ntroduction to Structural Dyariee placement, ‘This statement may be farther explained hy the fact that the work done by the inartie forse must equal the strain energy inthe system at masinum displacement and, furthermore, that thi axis ‘train energy must qual the masinnus:kineiceoergy ater doplacemtnt, Since 4” ia the maximum digplaeement and the sotlon is barmonk ‘the maximum velocity of masts A's, ‘Therefore, forthe complete system, x= Syantaretan w= S sercarety Where 3 = total hoe energy’ at sero daplucement A= toa rin eoegy at sini dplcement ° = amber of meee 1 the expremion for sin eomry, the 34 factor appears because the force varanasi rot ero toa aimin ws the dapaceneat increases quating the ubove energy expense obtain D Pee! oh 025) ae $ ser hich gives the natural rogueney ofthe fundamental mode fra lumped ‘ns system besed on an assumed shape #(a)..‘The computed Hape 6") a better approximation of the characteristic shape of the rode, ‘To.ummarte, the complete prosedure sas follows (1) asim shape #1); @) compute the corresponding inertia ores Fy; (8) eompute the destin dae to FoF "(2s and (2) compute the natal frequey hy Eq. (2.25). If greater asouracy ie require, thie procedure ean be repeated using ¢”(2) a the amumed shape for the next evel "The succes ofthe Rayligh method lies in the fant that seeurat values of fequeney are obtained even though the seamed shape i only approsi Inntely correct. ‘The bet frst ertimate ofthe fundamental-mode spe is usually that produced by the dead wight, or in other words, by the ruvity fore ating on the masts ofthe mysem, ‘This was infact, the Insc conceptof the origins! Rayleigh mtbed. ‘The complication encoun tered in applying the method to higher modes that no such simple devon ‘rita for etimating the modal shapes ‘To illustrate the sbove method, we shall determine the natural tre ‘queney and characteristic shape forthe fundamental mode ofthe three Alegre system shown in Fig. 3.12. Thi the same eyatem a ht ned “Lumped-macs Mulidepre Systems ot ~— etme nae @ "owns 12 Deleination of fundamental de by he Rayhigh thd for illsteation ofthe Stodole-Viaellosuthod in See, 34. For the Ray leigh methed, the first step i to compute the dendloed defections as indicated in Fig, 3.12). g(a evaluated by arbitrarily letting 4” equal ‘the deflstion ab maa 1, aad ence 4 = 1.” The rerninder of the pro- cedure is shown in Table 32, where the deal ahspe i te wanted shape in the Gat eyce, and the computed shape of thet cycle is taken to be the assumed shape of the second epee. Te may he bwerved that the frequency ablained in the it cycle is indeed acrurete, sites no ler improvement is made, However, the characteristic shape is not very ‘osurate, and thre cycles are shown to indieate the rte of convergence, Comparison withthe values forthe fundamental mode in Table 2.1 (the same problem done by Stodas-Vianllo) reveal that the two give ‘wentially the same remult. Sion the fist raodo was the lst obtained in the Stodola-Vianllo procedure, tho values given in Table 8.2 are the more seeurate Te should be apparent that the Rayleigh method is extremely weal for systems having many degrees of frdom. This ix periulrly teve ‘ben the completa set of equations of mation are not required for eller ‘rps and whoa the stroctaro auth Ut eifnes and exit toe ficients ae gifteult tocompute. By this method deeetions need team ted for only ove set of loud, while to write the equstioae needed for ‘he Stodola-Vianllo method requirer a whole serie of computations for ites or Hesblty coulis