Energy Com,ers. Mgmt Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 179-186, 1991 0196-8904/91 $3.00+0.

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Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright ~ 1991 Pergamon Press pie

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AN ELECTRIC ARC

FURNACE

J. C. HO and T. T. CHANDRATILLEKE
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, National University of Singapore,
10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 0511

(Received 19 August 1988; received for publication 14 February 1990)

Abstract--A thermodynamic analysis was performed on a 44-tonne capacity electric arc furnace. The
results obtained showed that this process of billet steel manufacture from scrap iron has a specific energy
consumption of 520 kWh/tonne of billet steel. First- and second-law efliciencies, based on electric energy
input, were 84.7 and 58.6%, respectively. Modified first- and second-law et~ciencies which considered the
chemical energy from exothermic reactions as inherent energy input were 54.9 and 36.3%, respectively.
Several areas in the production process were examined for the purpose of energy conservation and
production cost reduction. The scrap charging and preheating sub-processes offered potential for energy
saving for the steel mill.

Arc furnace Steel Scrap iron Energy conservation Thermodynamic analysis Thermo-
dynamic efficiencies Scrap preheating Recovery Scrap charging

INTRODUCTION

The manufacture of steel in an electric arc furnace was introduced early this century as a production
unit for quality carbon- and low-alloy steels. Arc furnaces are charged with scrap iron, pig iron
and alloying materials. High electric current, exceeding 50 kA, produces arc bursts in the
temperature range of 3600-10,500C between the tips of the electrodes and the charge in the
furnace, causing melting of the scrap iron. Although the production of various grades of steel from
scrap iron using this method provides relatively precise control of temperatures in a sulphur-free
environment, it is characterized by high energy input. In modern arc furnaces, electrical energy is
the direct energy input, while chemical energy from exothermic reactions and liquid fuel from
oxy-fuel burners form the indirect and secondary energy inputs, respectively. At present specific
electrical energy consumption in electric arc steel mills varies approximately between 400 and
600 kWh/billet tonne of steel produced. Depending upon unit electricity costs, electrical energy
constitutes 10-15% of the product value of steel mills. This variation in specific electrical energy
consumption among steel mills and the proportion of electrical energy cost in the cost of the steel
product underline the potential for reduction in production costs through energy savings.
Steel making is a complex process, and the practice itself varies from steel mill to steel mill. For
example, the use of electrical, chemical and liquid fuel energy, scrap preparation and scrap
preheating depend not only on the equipment but also on the practice adopted by the steel mill.
Each of the stages in the production process affects the overall energy cost. The sub-processes in
an electric arc furnace which affect energy consumption significantly include scrap quality and
preparation, scrap preheating, rate of power input, furnace wall cooling rate, employment of
oxy-fuel burners to supplement the electrical energy input, molten steel ladle preheating, oxygen
input via oxygen lances and exothermic chemcial reactions within the furnace.
National Iron and Steel Mills (NISM) is the largest industrial consumer of electricity in
Singapore. In 1986, it consumed 220 x 106 kWh for the production of 0.43 x 106 tonnes of billet
steel in its three electric arc furnaces. The specific energy consumption was about 520 kWh/billet
tonne, and the total energy cost exceeded US$13 million. This paper presents a thermodynamic
analysis of one of NISM's arc furnaces. The objectives are to evaluate the thermodynamic
efficiencies of the arc furnace process for the production of steel from scrap iron and to examine
the opportunities for reducing energy consumption and production cost. Analyses of the thermal
performance of industrial processes based upon the first and second law of thermodynamics have
received considerable attention in recent years. Among the analyses are those by Horlock and
179
180 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

STEELMAKINGPROCESS CONTINUOUSCASTINGPROCESS
(SCRAP
~ ~a~GING)SCRAP
ELECTRICARC FURNACE MOLTEN
_ _ _ STEEL ~ ~ LAOLE CORI1NIJOU$CASTIffGMACHINE |
/

0~ ~ _ _ ~ I-INN
~ ~ ~ H~O~LO
ROLL -.~-----~..~.~
SHE, I.IBILLE]
. .I . . STACKINIG
ii e ,,e

BILLETJ - -
E
LADLE /
Fig. 1. Production process flow.

Haywood [1] on a combined heat and power plant; by Gagglioli et al. [2] on a HVAC system; by
London [3] on steam and gas power plants; by Fujiwara [4], Bejan et al. [5], Wijeysundera and
Ho [6] on solar-thermal collector systems; by Manfrida [7] on a textile plant; by Ho and
Wijeysundera [8] on structural brickworks; and by Ho et al. [9] and Ho and Chandratilleke [10] on
food-processing plants.

PRODUCTION PROCESS

Scrap material from the scrap yard is compresed in a compactor to increase its density. The
compressed scrap iron is transported via an overhead crane to a preheating bay. The preheating
bay consists of two vessels. Hot exhaust gases at a temperature exceeding 800C are diverted via
a gas distributor to the preheating vessels. After preheating to about 300C, the scrap is unloaded
or charged into the arc furnace via a clam shell bucket.
Electric current is carried via water-cooled cables from transformers to three carbon electrodes.
Arc bursts in the temperature range of 3600-10,500C are produced between the electrodes and
the scrap, causing rapid melt-down. During the melt-down period, oxygen is blown into the furnace
via oxygen lances to increase the rate of oxidation. When the first charge is sufficiently reduced
to liquid, the electrodes are lifted, the second charge of scrap and, subsequently, a third charge
are loaded into the furnace. After metallurgical tests have been performed on the steel samples,
the electrodes are lifted until the tips are just above the liquid metal. Calcium oxide is added to
remove sulphur and to assist in further oxidation. A layer of oxides, called the slag, rises above
the liquid steel. After the refining process, the furnace is tipped forward, liquid steel at about 1680C
is tapped through a spout into a ladle, and the whole process, called a heat, is complete. Schematic
sketches of the arc furnace process are given in Figs 1 and 2.

MATERIAL BALANCE

A material balance was performed to determine the composition of the reactants and products
of the arc furnace. Data for the material balance consisted of average input values per heating cycle

GASOISTRIBUTOR
..,')
EAF HOTGAS

VESSE]L
Fig. 2. Arc furnace and preheating system.
 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE 181

of the steel scrap, coke powder, calcium oxide, pig iron, alloying materials such as FeSi and SiMn,
electrode consumed and the oxygen lanced. The composition and mass of the slag were determined
from a slag analysis and from an assumption that the proportion of calcium oxide (29.1%)
remained unchanged in the furnace. A backtracking method of computation using the data from
the slag and molten steel analyses yielded the composition of the scrap material.
The infiltration of air into the furnace was deduced from the difference between the total amount
of oxygen present in the products minus the sum of the amount of oxygen lanced and the oxygen
in calcium oxide. In this oxygen mass balance, the moisture content of the scrap, approx. 0.3%
was neglected, and the carbon content of the reactants was assumed to be converted to equal
proportions of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. This assumption was based upon experimen-
tal observations of Lyche and Neuhaus [11].
The above method of material balance is not intended to be precise, but it offers sufficient
accuracy for the purpose of overall energy and exergy analysis. The results of this mass balance
are presented in Table 1.

THERMODYNAMIC EFFICIENCIES OF THE ARC FURNACE

In the electric arc furnace process of manufacturing steel from scrap iron, work in the form of
electric energy is supplied to produce molten steel at 1680C. Under the present plant operating
conditions, approx. 50 tonnes of scrap are used in each arc furnace to produce 44 tonnes of billet
steel during a heat cycle of about 82 min. The 50 tonnes of scrap are normally loaded into the
furnace via three charges of 20, 10 and 20 tonnes; depending on the quality of the scrap, two-charge
Ioadings are sometimes employed. For the three-charge loadings, preheating is performed only on
the first charge, that is, for 20 tonnes or 40% of the total scrap charge and to an average
temperature of 300C. The electrical energy input to the electrodes during each heat cycle is
520 kWh or 1879 MJ/tonne of billet steel. Auxiliary electrical power such as those for fans, blowers
and pumps are small and are excluded in the energy analysis.
During the melt-down process, exothermic chemical reactions occur which constitute an indirect
input of energy and exergy to the furnace. The other components of the manufacturing process
which affect the thermal performance are the extraction of furnace exhaust gas to preheat the scrap,
circulation of water through furnace wall cooling panels to protect the refractory, surface heat loss
via convection and radiation and heat loss from the molten steel during scrap charging. In addition
to the specific electrical energy consumption, two efficiencies can be defined to characterize the
thermal performance of the electric arc furnace. These are the first-law (r/1) and second-law (r/2)
efficiencies and are defined as
minimum energy to perform the task
r/l = actual energy input (1)
and
minimum energy to perform the task
r/2 = actual exergy input (2)
In evaluating r/i and ~/2, the minimum energy and available energy to perform the task were
regarded as those values required to raise the temperature of 1000 kg of steel from 300 to 1680C.
The numerators of equations (1) and (2) become
minimum energy = m ( h 2 - hi ) = m e ( T : - Tt ) + mhir (3)
and

minimum exergy = m c ( T 2 - T t ) - m c To In ~ + mhif 1 - (4)

Table I. Material balance of arc furnace

Reactants C Mn Fe Mg A1 Si P CaO Scrap Air + 0 2
Mass(kg) 14.80 5.20 15.20 8.10 3.04 9.90 0.80 31.6 1026.6 211.5
Products MnO FeO MgO A1203 SiO2 P2Os CaO Steel Exhaust gas
Mass (kg) 6.7 19.5 1 3 . 5 11.5 21.6 1.80 31.6 I000 184.5
182 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

where m = mass of product, c = mean heat capacity, To = ambient temperature and hif -- enthalpy
of fusion of steel.
The direct energy and exergy input to the arc furnace are each equal to the work input of
1879 MJ/tonne of molten steel. The indirect heat inputs from exothermic chemical reactions were
determined from the heat released when the elements reacted to form the products given in Table
1. The amount of heat released was computed using a table of enthalpy devaluation provided by
Kotas [12]. In each case, the physical enthalpy of the reactants and products were assumed to be
approximately zero, as these enter and leave the furnace at ambient temperature. There was no
heat recovery from the slag. Heat recovered from the exhaust gases is used to preheat the scrap
from ambient temperature to 300C. Accordingly, the amount of heat recovered was determined
from the product of the scrap mass, mean specific heat and temperature rise.
The indirect exergy inputs arising from chemical reactions in the furnace were accounted for by
summing the chemical exergy from each reactant given in Table 1. Values of the chemical exergies
provided by Kotas were used. The energy and exergy contributions from exothermic reactions are
given in Table 2.
The first- and second-law efficiencies of the electric arc furnace were computed using equations
(1) and (2) and the data given in Table 3. Values obtained for the first- and second-law efficiencies
are,
ql = 84.7% (5)
and
q2 -- 58.6%. (6)
In the computation of the values of rh and q2, the energy and exergy losses of the wall-cooling
panels, the steel slag and exhaust gases were not considered as there were no energy recoveries
associated with these losses. The amount of energy and available energy input arising from the
existing partial heat recovery from the exhaust gases for scrap preheating were 3.6 and 2.5% of
the work input. Absence of scrap preheating would lead to a lowering of the first- and second-law
efficiencies to 81.7 and 57.1%, respectively.
The indirect energy and exergy inputs from exothermic chemical reactions within the furnace
form significant proportions of 54.4 and 61.2% of the work input. If contributions from these
exothermic chemicals reactions were not considered, the work input would have to be increased
by their corresponding values and would lead to much lower first- and second-law efficiencies of
q'l = 54.9% and q~ = 36.3%, respectively. This analysis serves to demonstrate the contribution
towards energy and exergy input from the exothermic reactions. The question of whether an
absence of chemical reactions would entail additional input of work does not arise, since the
presence of the chemical elements in the scrap is inevitable. Furthermore, a large proportion of
the energy and exergy input from chemical reactions is due to the oxidation of the carbon electrodes
and the carbon contained in pig iron. The input of carbon from these two sources is an inherent
part of the electric arc furnace process for the manufacture of carbon steels. The inclusion of the
energy and exergy as input to the furnace in the computation of the modified first- and second-law
efficiencies, q~ and ~/~ becomes meaningful in considering recovery of the thermal energy output.

DISCUSSION

The first- and second-law efficiencies of the electric arc furnace were 84.7 and 58.6%, respectively,
based upon partial heat recovery to preheat the scrap iron to 300C. The specific electrical energy

Table 3. Energy and exergy components of process

Component of process Energy (M J) Exergy (M J)
Electrical energy 1879 1879
Table 2, Energy and exergy input from chemical reactions Molten steel 1592 1101
Chemical Chemical reactions 1023 1150
element C Mn Mg AI Si P Fe Preheating scrap 68 48
Coolant and surface loss 1035 75
Energy (M J) 311 36 203 94 304 14 61 Slag energy 184 93
Exergy (MJ) 507 42 212 100 284 22 103 Exhaust gases 337 253
 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMICANALYSISOF ELECTRICARC FURNACE 183

consumption, a traditional measure of the first law efficiency in the steel manufacturing industry,
was 520 kWh/billet tonne. The first law efficiency is appreciably better than the value of 73% of
West German steel mills [13] and close to the average value of 81% of Japanese [14] and 88% of
Swedish [15] steel mills. By considering the energy and exergy from exothermic reactions in the arc
furnace as part of the total energy and exergy input, the modified first- and second-law efficiencies
were found to be 54.9 and 36.3%, respectively.
Potential exists for improving the first- and second-law efficiencies for the arc furnace as well
as for the plant. This is evident from the relatively low values of the modified first- and second-law
efficiencies which indicate that very significant amounts of energy and exergy are irreversibly
discharged to the surroundings. Opportunities for energy conservation and related production cost
reductions have been identified. It is appropriate at this stage to summarize some of the plant
operation data so as to provide a better perspective of the conservation opportunities. NISM
operates three electric arc furnaces and each of the three arc furnaces has a capacity of 44 tonnes.
On the average, 15 heating cycles, each of 82-rain duration, are performed over 24 h. Plant
operating cost at NISM is typically that of modern arc furnaces; material cost amounts to about
75% of the total production cost; energy, electrodes, refractory and labour costs represent 12, 8,
2 and 3%, respectively, of the total cost. Electrical losses (FR losses) constitute 10% of the power
input and are essentially unavoidable. Heat loss at the water-cooled furnace wall panels is
significant, 28% of the total energy input. Measures to reduce the heat loss in this area should
include consideration of the refractory maintenance which amounts to 2% of the total operating
cost.
An increase in the temperature of the cold scrap would lead to a reduction in the electrical energy
input. Provision for preheating the cold scrap to 400C had been incorporated in the design of the
plant. With modifications to the exhaust gas extraction system, the preheating temperature can be
readily raised to 700C. In practice, demands of plant production rate and scrap charging schedules
act against this, particularly when the number of preheating bays is limited. As such, it is not
uncommon for steel mills to bypass preheating altogether in order to meet the charging needs of
the furnaces.

Scrap preheating
Scrap preheating offers a number of areas for achieving energy savings in the arc furnace process.
In most cases, these energy saving opportunities can be readily implemented. Under the present
practice at the plant, 50 tonnes of scrap are charged into the furnace in three charges of 20, 10
and 20 tonnes. Preheating to 300C is applied to the first charge of 20 tonnes or 40% of the total
charge. With furnace exhaust gasses available in excess of 800C, the estimated energy saving under
this charging schedule, arising from an increase in the preheat temperature from 300 to 700C,
would be 101 MJ or 28 kWh/tonne of billet steel. The corresponding improved values of the
modified first- and second-law efficiencies would be 56.8 and 37.6%, respectively.
Variations in the mass of each charge of the present three-charge schedule for the furnace cycle
were examined for energy saving opportunities and for reductions in the tap-to-tap time. Two forms
of charging and preheating schedules were considered. The first is the 1SP schedule in which 50
tonnes of scrap are loaded in three charges of ml, m2 and m3 tonnes and preheating is applied to
the first charge only. The second form is the 13SP schedule in which the scrap is loaded in three
charges and preheating is applied to the first and third charges. The analysis showed that
re-distribution of the three charges produced minor changes in the tap-to-tap time. Significant
energy savings, however, are possible from increases in the proportion of scrap preheated under
the ISP and 13SP schedules. Computations showed that, for a 1SP schedule in which mj = 25
tonnes and for a 13SP schedule in which m 20 tonnes and m3 20 tonnes, the energy savings
= =

are 85 and 136 MJ when the preheat temperature remained at the existing value of 300C. The
corresponding energy savings are 210 and 337 MJ for the 1SP and the 13SP schedules, respectively,
when the preheat temperature is 700C. A comparison of the modified first- and second-law
efficiencies resulting from the proposed preheating schemes is shown in Table 4.
The data given in Table 4 show that there is an improvement of about 13% in both the first-
and second-law efficiencies if a 13SP schedule (80% of scrap preheated) with preheating to 700C
is adopted. By increasing the scrap preheating temperature of the existing 1SP schedule (40% of
184 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

Table 4. Effect of scrap preheating on first-

and second-law et~ciencies
Preheating process r/~ (%) ~/~ (%)
Existing, 40%, 300C 54.9 36.3
ISP, 40%, 700C 56.8 37.6
1SP, 50%, 300C 56.5 37.5
13SP, 80%, 700C 57.6 38.1
ISP, 50%, 700C 59.1 39.1
13SP, 80%, 700C 62.0 40.9

scrap preheated) to 700C, the first- and second-law efficiencies would be 56.8 and 37.6%,
respectively. These efficiencies are very close to the values of 56.5 and 37.5% when the existing
preheating temperature of 300C is maintained, but the preheated scrap amount is increased from
40 to 50% in a I SP schedule. The latter proposal is preferred, since it is much more readily
implemented.
Energy recovered for scrap preheating implies a reduction in the electrical energy input. This
energy saving, in turn, leads to a reduction in the electrode consumption for the arc furnace. Based
upon the findings of Klein [16], the 1SP and 13SP schedules with a preheating temperature of 300C
would reduce the electrode consumption by 15 and 18%, respectively. If the preheating temperature
of these two schedules were increased to 700C, the corresponding reduction in electrode
consumption would be 24 and 40%, respectively. As electrode cost constitutes 8% of the plant's
overall operating costs, it can be seen that this additional benefit of scrap preheating is indeed
attractive.
If the extraction of furnace exhaust gases to preheat the cold scrap or to provide further increases
in the preheat temperature is not possible because of charging schedules and limited preheating
bays, an alternative procedure can be considered. Scrap temperature can readily be increased by
direct heating from industrial fuel oil burners outside the furnace. Replacement of part of the total
electric energy input at the electrodes by a cheaper form of energy would lead to reduced energy
cost and improvement in the first- and second-law efficiencies.
Use of furnace exhaust gases or external direct heating to preheat the scrap offers added
advantage in the case of scrap materials stored in open scrap yards [17]. In this case, the presence
of water in the scrap mass is unavoidable. Water in the scrap poses problems of safety and energy
increases to the steel mill. Explosions often occur in the arc furnace as a result of the rapid
expansion of water to steam at high temperature. Furthermore, the presence of 0.1% of water in
the scrap leads to an increase of 8.3 MJ in energy consumption.

Bucket scrap charging

Scrap materials in the steel mill generally come from three sources; home scrap, process
scrap and merchant scrap. Home scrap is the revert scrap generated internally in a steelwork.
Process scrap is generated by steel fabricators during the manufacture of marketable products.
Merchant scrap is post-consumer scrap such as tin cans, old refrigerators and old cars. In the
context of scrap charging, these three scrap forms differ significantly in quality and bulk density.
The variations in scrap density and improperly prepared charges during compaction often lead to
more than two charges of scrap to the furnace per heating cycle. An increase in energy loss from
the steel bath and the electrodes takes place when the electrodes are lifted to allow a third or even
fourth charge. In order to evaluate the significance of an additional charge to two scrap charges
per peating cycle, data were obtained from the production records of NISM for J u l y and August
1986. Tap-to-tap time and power consumption per billet tonne for 100 samples of two-charge
heating cycles and for 100 samples of three-charge heating cycles were analysed. The results show
that the tap-to-tap time improvement was not significant. On the average, the tap-to-tap time of
the two-charge heating cycle was reduced by 1.6 rain. The power consumption of the three-charge
heating cycle exceeded that of the two-charge cycle by 17 kWh/billet tonne. This difference
in specific energy consumption is appreciable, as the annual output exceeds 0.4 million billet
tonnes.
 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE 185

Continuous charging
The finding that limiting the scrap charging to two charges per heating cycle can result in an
appreciable energy saving leads to a consideration of modification to a one-charge plus continuous
or a wholly continuous charging process. Adoption of a continuous charging process would lower
electrical energy input by about 10% because of stable melting conditions and lower heat loss in
the furnace. Scrap fragmentizing equipment is required, and the cost of this may not be encouraging
until a detailed cost analysis is considered. In this connection, the additional advantages of a
continuous charging process should be taken into consideration. Electrode cost to the steel mill
is 8% of the total production cost. With bucket charging, the repeated lowering of the electrodes
to the scrap mass causes mechanical wear and sometimes breakage of the electrodes. These are
much reduced in the case of continuous charging, since scrap is charged in fragmented form.
Furthermore, with a continuous scrap charging process, part of the scrap (20-30%) can be
substituted by directly reduced iron (DRI). Directly reduced iron has free-flowing characteristics,
and its addition to the furnace results in improved heat transfer because of a foamy slag as well
as shorter refining period.

Electric power
Installed electric power of arc furnaces is classified under regular power (RP), high power (HP)
and ultra high power (UHP). Power inputs during meltdown for the three ratings are 200, 450 and
600 kVA/tonne, respectively. Power input at NISM's arc furnaces is in between the regular and high
power range. An increase in power input to the electrodes reduces the meltdown time and can lead
to an electrical energy saving of about 12%. With higher power, the electrode consumption
increases by as much as 10%. With energy costs at 12% of the total cost and electrode cost at 8%
of the total cost, the overall cost saving resulting from increased power input is about 0.5%. This
saving per heating cycle, in itself, may not appear attractive. The productivity for the plant is
appreciably improved, since the increased power input can reduce the meltdown period of each
heating cycle by about 30 min.

Oxy-fuel burners
The use of a secondary fuel to increase the rate of meltdown in the electric arc furnace via
oxy-fuel burners has been shown to be advantageous, and oxy-fuel burners are in the process of
being installed at the steel mill. The introduction of a cheaper liquid fuel, such as kerosene, would
lead to cost savings and improved thermodynamic efiiciencies, but more importantly, an increase
in the meltdown rate means a reduction in tap-to-tap time for the furnace. Additional heating cycles
are possible for the plant. It should be noted that the introduction of oxy-kerosene burners in the
furnace would imply an increase in the exhaust gases and hence larger capacities of the gas
extraction and dust collection systems of the plant need to be considered.
A number of measures to improve the energy consumption of the arc furnace are presented. It
must be emphasized that the implementation of these measures depends on detailed thermo-
economic analyses and modification in production practices of the steel mill.

CONCLUSION
The specific electrical energy consumption of the steel mill was found to be 520 kWh/billet tonne.
First- and second-law efficiencies, based only on the electrical energy input to the arc furnace,
were 84.7 and 58.6%, respectively. Consideration of the energy and exergy released from
exothermic reactions as energy input leads to more meaningful definitions of the thermodynamic
efficiencies. These modified efficiencies were found to be 54.9 and 36.3%, respectively. A number
of measures for improving the thermodynamic efficiencies of the arc furnace have been proposed.
Enhanced scrap preheating can be readily implemented. For the case when 80% of the charge is
preheated to 700C, the modified first- and second-law efficiencies would be 62 and 40.9%,
respectively.
186 HO and CHANDRATILLEKE: THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

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