Hydraulics Laboratory Manual

Title of Experiments Page No.

1. Discharge Measurement using Volumetric Tank................................................3

2. Discharge Measurement Using Different Types of Weirs..................................5

3. Discharge Measurement......................................................................................9

4. Open Channel Flow...........................................................................................14

5. Measurement of Water Hammer........................................................................17

6. Measurement of Hydraulic Jump........................................................................21

7. Determination of Metacenter of Body................................................................24

8. Velocity Measurement Using Pitot Tube............................................................28

9. Determination of Center of Pressure....................................................................32

10. Analysis of Pipe Network....................................................................................36

11. Demonstrate of Seepage.......................................................................................38

1
Laboratory Instructions

Laboratory Experiment on its General concept is similar to the scientific approach where it starts
with the hypothesis. With the help of some tools and logical reasoning the laboratory exercise can
arrived to a certain conclusions.

All the experiments being conducted are not in vain since whether the results were to affirm certain
hypothesis or not, it will still give some information to knowledge.

This laboratory manual is one of the tool in the search of the facts about Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics. Every experiment will follow the order of heading such as the objective, apparatus,
theory, procedure, computations, drawing, results and to some extent the precautions and remarks.

Although there are explanations about the theory behind the experiment to be done, the complete
explanation about it is beyond the scope of this manual. It is recommended that the user will refer
to the books or manuals in hydraulics.

In order that the laboratory becomes a wholesome place to perform laboratory exercises, the
following are some of the recommendations. There must be a sufficient supply of clear water. There
must be a place to tap water and a good drainage system. The laboratory room must be large
enough for convenience and good mobility of persons inside. It must have at least two doors for use
in case of emergency. It must be well ventilated and illuminated.

If a separate store room is not possible, a cabinet of lockers must be installed for safekeeping of
chemicals, breakable materials and expendable materials. In most cases a laboratory assistant must
be present in every session of experiment to assist in the operation, to prepare the apparatus, to
serve as storekeeper and to be the housekeeper.

For good understanding of the experiment there must have an introductory lecture regarding the
problem, theory, procedures and precautionary measures regarding the operation.

The respondent students as much as possible must understand the operations, and perform the
experiment on their own. They must have some drawings, computations, share responsibilities and
safeguard against injuries. At the end they must draw conclusion and submit report regarding their
findings.

Lastly, the instructor control is very vital with respect to the theory and principle on how the
experiments must be conducted and to safeguard against erroneous operation and result of the
experiments.

2
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.1
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Discharge Measurement Using Volumetric Tank.

II. Objective: To determine the discharge by the use of a volumetric tank.

III. Apparatus:

1. Hydraulic bench

2. Stop watch

3. Marble set

IV. Theory:

Discharge is defined as the volume of fluid passing a cross section of a stream in a

unit time. If equal velocities at all points in a cross section of a stream were
possible there would be passing any section, every second, a volume equivalent to
that of a passing particles having a base equal to the cross sectional area of the
stream and a length equal to the velocity.

Q=AV

Because, however, of the varying effects of friction, viscosity and surface tension,
the individual particles in a stream have different velocity. The visual method of
determining discharge for non-uniform velocity in a cross section is by using a
volumetric tank.

Q = Volume x Time

V. Procedure

1. Close the measuring tank outlet valve.

2. Start the stop watch when the water level in the measuring tank is at zero or
some other convenient level.

3. Time the collection of a suitable quantity of water. For low flow rates, only the

3
 lower section of the measuring tank need be used. For high flow rates, use the
10 liter mark as the starting point to ensure the hold up of water, as it flows
across the tank, does not cause an error.

4. After the measurement has been completed, open the measuring tank outlet
valve completely.

5. Adjust the outlet end of the pipe to adjust discharge and make another trial.
Make 4 trials.

VI. Computations

Q = amount collected / time taken to collect

Q = volume / time

VII. Tabulated data:

Trial Volume (m3) Time (sec.) Q = vol/time

1.

2.

3.

4.

VIII. Results and Observation:

What is the advantage of this method of measuring discharge compared to other flow
measuring devices such as orifice, weirs and channels?

4
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.2
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Discharge Measurement using different types of Weirs

II. Objective:
1. To determine the discharge through a channel using a calibrated weir.
2. To compare the discharges using different types of weirs plates by the
experimental method and by calculations.

III. Apparatus:
1. Hydraulic Bench
2. Rectangular, Triangular and Trapezoidal weir plates
3. Set of marbles ( energy dissipater )
4. Measuring stick or hook gage
5. Stop watch

IV. Theory:
Weirs have been commonly used to measure the flow of water, but their use
measurement of other liquids is increasing. The development of formula for weir
discharge dates back into the history of hydraulic theory.

Introducing a coefficient Cd to correct for vertical contraction of the nappe and

the frictional loss, the general formula for weir discharge are:

Rectangular Weir:

3
= 23 2 Cd L 2

Triangular Weir:

5
 Q = 8/15 2 Cd tan /2 52

Trapezoidal Weir

3 5
Q = CD { 2/3 2 LH 2 + 8/15 2 tan /2 H2

V. Procedure:
1. Set up the hydraulic bench and the weir plates desired.
2. Operate the pump to let the water flow through the weir desired head.
3. Start measuring the head just as the flow becomes constant. Head
measurement should be taken at equal intervals along the channel. The
head to be used in computing the discharge should be the mean of these
separate measurements.
4. At the same time determine the actual discharge using the volumetric tank
and compare the amount with that over the weir as calculated.
5. The heads may be varied for another trial.
6. Change the weir plate for another type of weir.

VI. Sketch

6
 VII. Computations:

Qa = Vol. / time

Rectangular weir:
3
Qc = 2/3 2 Cd LH 2

Triangular weir:
5
Qc = 8/15 2 Cd tan /2 H2

Trapezoidal weir:
3 5
Q = CD { 2/3 2 LH 2 + 8/15 2 tan /2 H2

Equate:

Qa = Qc

Where :

Qa = actual discharge

Qc = calculated discharge

VIII. Tabulated Data:

Rectangular Weir

Trial Volume Time Qa Have tan/2 Cd Qc %E

1
2
3
4

Triangular Weir:

Trial Volume Time Qa Have tan/2 Cd Qc %E

1
2
3
4

7
 Trapezoidal Weir:

Trial Volume Time Qa Have tan/2 Cd Qc %E

1
2
3
4

IX. Results and Observations:

Discuss briefly what could account for the discrepancy in the measured
discharge by the experiment method and from that which is calculated. For
the same weir at different heads, is the discharge coefficient the same?
Base your answer on the results of the experiment as well as the theoretical
point of view.

8
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.3
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Discharge Measurements

II. Objectives:
To determine the Coefficient of Discharge of an Orifice using the Principle of
Projectile.

III. Apparatus:
1. Transparent vertical cylinder
2. Orifice
3. Meter stick
4. Water
5. Plastic hose
6. Vernier caliper
7. Graduated cylinder
8. Water container
9. Plumb bob

IV. Theory:
An orifice is an opening on the side or bottom of the tank. It might be
circular or any geometric shape. When the tank is elevated and the orifice is
located on the side of the tank the trajectory of the water jet flowing out is in
the form of a parabola. This parabola has a definite form depending on the
head of the water inside the tank. The equation can be expressed in terms of
the distance dropped and the range of trajectory. The velocity of the jet on the
orifice can be determined. With the use of other equipment the coefficients of
the discharge can be solved.

In every measurement of discharge the actual value is always less than

the theoretical value. The factor to this is the coefficient of discharge C. In
order to correct the discharge a coefficient of discharge is used. This value is
almost constant for every orifice diameter although it will vary for small
amount for different heads.

9
 If discharge is big it is not practical to measure the discharge directly
but calculate it by using the coefficients. Coefficient of contraction is derived
from the diameter of the viena contrata and the orifice diameter.

On the other hand for small discharge it is advisable to measure the

discharge directly but it is difficult to measure the net area at the viena
contrata for small orifice diameter.

The actual velocity in an orifice is give by:

2
Va = 2

The theoretical velocity in orifice is given by:

Vt = 2

The coefficient of velocity then is

Cv =

The theoretical discharge is given by:

Qt = AV = 4 (Dia)2 2

The actual discharge is determined by the actual amount of water collected in

the container for a certain length of time. It is given by the following expression:

.
Qa = =

The coefficient of discharge is given by:

C=
The coefficient of contraction is given by:

Cc =

10
V. Procedure:
1. Set up the instrument. Make the plane of the wall where the orifice is
located to be vertical by making it parallel with the string of the plumb bob.
Doing this will allow the jet of water to flow horizontal.

2. Measure the diameter of the orifice by the use of caliper.

3. Measure the distance of the center of the orifice to the ground or floor.

4. Place a horizontal mark near the side of the orifice and the level of the
center of the orifice.

5. Place also a horizontal line mark on the maximum level of the water
intended for the fixed level or head of water.

6. Measure the distance between the two horizontal line marks. This distance
is the proposed head above the orifice.

7. Open the gate valve. Let the water flow inside the apparatus and allow the
water jet to flow freely. Allow the water to rise inside the apparatus. When
the water surface is nearing the final head, control the opening of the stop
cock to make the head to be constant. At this moment the incoming water is
equal to the out-going water in the apparatus. Do not start the observation if
the head over the orifice is not constant.

8. Fill the plastic hose with water to be used in the transfer of elevation of the
center of the orifice to the point where water strikes the floor. Measure this
vertical distance Y using a meter stick and a plumb bob.

9. Measure the horizontal distance X from the floor below the orifice to the
point of strike.

10. Collect an amount of water in a pail and measuring the time elapsed.
Determine the volume of water collected.

11. The actual is charged is equal to

Qa =
12. The actual velocity is
2
Va = 2

11
 13. Base from projectile, the theoretical velocity is

Vt = 2

14. The coefficient of velocity is

Cv =

15. The theoretical discharge is

Qt = At Vt = 4 d2 2

16. The coefficient of discharge is

C=

17. The coefficient of contraction is

Cc =

VI. Drawing

12
VII. Observation
Diameter of the orifice d . . . . . . . . . . . . _____________ cm
Head over the orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ H
Elevation of the ground . . . . . . . . . . . .______________ meters
Elevation of the orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ meters
Elevation of point of strike . . . . . . . . . . ______________ meters
Vertical distance Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ meters
Horizontal distance X . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ meters
Mass of empty container Wec . . . . . . . . . ______________ Kg
Mass of container with water Wc/w . . . . . . ______________ Kg
Mass of water only . . . . . . . __________ = ______________ Kg
Volume of water collected . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ Liters
Time elapsed in collecting water . . . . . . . . ______________ sec
Theoretical discharge Qt . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ M3/sec
Actual discharge Qa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ M3/sec
Theoretical velocity Vt . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ M/sec
Actual discharge Va . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______________ M/sec

VIII. Results
Coefficient of discharge C . . . . . . . . . _______________
Coefficient of velocity Cv . . . . . . . . . _______________
Coefficient of contraction Cc . . . . . . . . . _______________

IX. Precautions
1. The coefficient of discharge has range value that ranges from 0.59 to 0.65
for sharp-edged orifices.
2. The density of water must b check by the hydrometer when there are
impurities in it. Plain and clear water must be used for this experiment.
3. The head over the orifice must be constant during simultaneous collection
of water and reading of time. This can be done by maintaining the head to
be constant. The input and discharge of water must be equal.

X. Remarks:

13
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.4
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Open channel flow.

II. Objective:

1. To correlate the values of C from experimental and calculated values.

2. To determine by experiment the coefficient from Chezys formula for velocity

on open channels.

III. Apparatus

1. Tilting flume

2. Weir plate

3. Stop watch

IV. Theory

An open channel is a conduit in which water flows with a free surface. The liquid
conveyed by an open channel exerts no pressure other than that caused by its own
weight and the pressure of the atmosphere. The flow of water in open channel is
ordinarily turbulent. Under ideal conditions, where there are no disturbing
influences of any kind, the distribution of velocities in a regular channel will be
uniform and similar on either side of the center. Surface tensions however,
produce a resistance to flow and cause the maximum velocity to occur at some
distance below the surface. Total energy head for open flow channel is ordinarily
computed with reference to the bed of the channel.

H = V2 / 2g + d + z

V. Procedure:

1. Set up the tilting flume with the slope adjusted by 1 revolution of the tilting
screw.

2. Switch on the power for supply.

14
 3. Adjust the water supply so that depth of flow in channels uniform at all
sections.

4. Measure the width of the channel and depth of flow, and also note the slope of
the flume and record.

5. Adjust the tilting screw and/or quantity of flow rate for another trial and repeat
steps 3 and 4.

6. Make up to 5 trials by adjusting slope of flume and quantity of discharge.

VI. Computations:

volume
Qactual = --------------
time
From Chezys Formula:

V =C RS

Where:

A cross sectional area of flow

R = ------ = ---------------------------------------
P wetted perimeter
S = hf / L

hf = equal to the drop in elevation of the channel in the horizontal distance L.

Q=AV

C = Q / A ( R S )1/2 experimental

Kulters Formula:

(23 + 1/n + 0.00155/S)

C = ---------------------------------------- calculated
[ 1 + n/R(23 0.00155/S)]

Bazin Formula:

87
C = ----------------- calculated
1 + m / R

Mannings Formula:

C = R16 / n

15
 See tables for n and m at the appendix of any book in Hydraulics or Fluid
Mechanics.

VII. Tabulated Data

Trial Volume Time Qa = vol/time S= R = A/P Cexp Bazin Kulters

hf/L Ccal Ccal
1

VIII. Graph:
1. Plot values of C, experimental and calculated for different values of slope S.

IX. Results and Observation:

1. Comment on the discrepancies in the values of coefficient C both for
experimental and calculated values.
2. Which empirical formula for C is more accurate?

16
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.5
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Measurement of Water Hammer

II. Objective:

To determine the head magnifying effect of water hammer

III. Apparatus:
1. Hydraulic Bench
2. Stop watch
3. Meter stick
4. Hydraulic Pan set
5. Graduated cylinder

IV. Theory:

The ram is a simple pumping device which uses a large quantity of water
falling through a small height to lift a small quantity of water to a greater
height. It is widely used for obtaining water supplies from natural water
sources where no external power supply is available. The ram makes use
of the inertia of the water flowing down a long inclined pipe. If the outlet
of the pipe is close abruptly, the water is suddenly brought to rest causing
the change of kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Where 1 and 2 refer to times immediately before and immediately after the
closure and this effect is called water Hammer and often occurs
accidentally in domestic supply pipes when a tap is suddenly closed; and
can cause severe damage.

The test will demonstrate the effect and measure the efficiency of the
device and the degree of pressure multiplication.

The test will demonstrate the effect and measure the efficiency of the
device and the degree of pressure multiplication.

17
 The energy per sec. (power) supplied by input flow = Q1h1

The energy per sec. (power) delivered at the output Q1h1

Since this output was initially at a height h1, then the additional energy per
second giver to it by the ram is g(h2-h1)

2 (2 1 )
= 1 1

2 (2 /1 )
=
1

The head amplification factor

H.A.F = h2/h1

This can reach values as great as 50 for conventional rams.

Water flows down the fall pipe and past the pulse valve to waste. As the
velocity increases the dynamic pressure in the back of the pulse the velocity
increases until it exceeds the weight and the valve closes suddenly. The
sudden increase in pressure lifts the non-return valve and pumps a quantity of
water into the air vessel and delivery pipe.

When the momentum of the water in the fuel pipe has been destroyed the
pressure returns to its original value, closing the non-return value to close and
enabling the pulse valve to re-open. The flow of water recommences and the
cycle is repeated. The pulse valve carries a weight plat form to enable the
closing pressure to be adjusted. The air vessel is used as a surge tank to
smooth out cyclic fluctuations in the delivery pressure.

V. Procedure:
1. Set up the hydraulic ram apparatus on top of the hydraulic bench.
2. Adjust height of supply tank and height of discharge hose such that the
discharge end is much higher in elevation than the supply tank.
3. Switch on the pump and see to it that no air is trapped inside hose
connected to ram.
4. Adjust the surcharge weight on ram so that it hammers at a uniform
rate.
5. Determine the discharge from supply tan k using the volumetric tank.

18
 6. At the same time determine the discharge from the delivery pipe by
placing water discharged inside graduated container and timing it.
Discharge is equal to volume/time.

VI. SKETCH

VII. COMPUTATIONS:

1. Flow rate (low pressure water)

1
1 =

2. Flow rate ( delivery )
1
1 =

3. Head amplification Factor

H.A.F. 2 =
1

4. Pumping Efficiency

= 2 1 ( [2 1 ])

VIII. TABULATED DATA:

Load Supply Del. Low pressure Delivery HAF Pumping

On Head Head Efficiency
Pulse h1 H2
Value Time vol. Time vol.
Q1 Q1

19
IX. RESULTS AND OBERVATION:

1. Compare the values of head and flow rates obtained with different loads on
the pulse value and deduce the correct loading for maximum efficiency
and maximum H.A.F.
2. In view of the interval working of the hydraulic ram as described in the
theory, explain why the efficiency should vary with the load placed on the
pulse value.
3. Comment on the application of the hydraulic ram as pumping apparatus.
What are the deficiencies of the hydraulic ram as a pump?

20
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.6
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Measurement of Hydraulic Jump

II. Objectives:

1. To determine the energy dissipated by the hydraulic jump.

2. To correlate the advantage of the energy dissipation in some hydraulic
structures.

III. Apparatus:

1. Tilting flame
2. Sluice gate or spillway of dam model
3. Meter stick
4. Timing device
5. Volumetric tank

IV. Theory:
The hydraulic jump is an abrupt rise in water surface which results from
retarding water flowing at the lower stage. The change in stage is from a depth
less than critical depth, but because of the loss of head in the jump, the depth
after the jump is less than the alternate stage of equal energy before the jump.
The hydraulic jump is illustrated in the figure below.

21
 Assuming a channel width of 1 meter, q being the discharge per unit width of
channel, the depth from d1 changes to d2 wherein water losses momentum. The
unbalanced force acting to retard the mass must equal the rate of change of
momentum.
F = q / f (V1 V2)
The unbalanced force F is the difference between hydraulic pressures
corresponding to the depth d2 and d1.

22 12
F= -
2 2

Equating 1 and 2

Substituting q/d1 for V1 and q/d2 for V2

The loss of head in the jump is then the difference in total heads before and
after the jump.

E = E1 - E2
E = [1 + 12 /2] [2 + 22 /2]

V. Procedure:
1. Let the water flow on tilting flume.
2. Adjust the opening the sluice gate so that there is a considerable
head at the upstream side and there is a super critical flow at the
downstream side.
3. Adjust the fume so as to have a steeper slope.
4. Measure the depth of water just before and after the jump.
5. Determine the discharge by either the volume metric scale or by
the sluice gate.
6. Repeat the procedure from 2 to 5 by varying either the slope, the
head over the sluice gate or the combination of them.

VI. Sketch

22
VII. Computations

Q = vol / time

V1 = Q / Width (d1)

V2 = Q / Width (d2)

E1 = d1 + V12 / 2g

E2 = d2 + V22 / 2g

VIII. Tabulated Data

Test Discharge, Depth Depth V1 V2 E1 E2 Energy

No. Q d1 d2 Lost, E

IX. Result and Observations

1. Is there a considerable amount of energy dissipated in the jump?

2. What are the uses of hydraulic jump or advantage?

23
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.7
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Determination of Metacenter of Body

II. Objective: To determine the metacentric height of a floating body.

III. Apparatus:
1. Block of wood
2. Movable weight
3. Set of weights
4. Basin of water
5. Marker
6. Ruler

IV. Theory:
1. The metacenter is a point of intersection of the line of action of the center of
buoyancy in its tilted position and the vertical axis of floating body through its
center of gravity. Call this point M.
2. The original center of buoyancy is a point which is the center of the buoyant
force acting on the submerged portion of the body when its axis is in the
vertical position. Call this as Bo.
3. The center of gravity is the point where the weight of the whole body is
concentrated. Call this as G.
4. The metacentric M and the center of gravity G are the two points where the
forces of a couple will pass. The distance MG is called the Metacentric
Height.
5. Mbo is the distance from the metacenter M to the new center of buoyancy Bo.

Consider the formula:

Mbo = I / V
B2 tan2
Mbo = ------ (1 + ---------)
12 d 2

24
 Where:
I = centroidal moment of inertia of the water line of floating object. The
neutral axis of the area is the line of pivot of when the floating body when it
oscillate. The oscillating movement of the floating body may be caused by
the force of the wave or shifting weight of movable weight on the body.
Y = Volume of the submerged portion of the floating body.
b = the base or the width of the water line section
D = the depth of floatation or the total submergence of floating body.
= the angle of tilt
The other relation is expressed in the following formula:
MG = Mbo + Gbo

V. Procedure:

1. Measure the dimension of the block or scow.

2. Determine the weight of the block, Wt.
3. Determine the weight of the movable weight, LL.
4. Place the movable weight at the center deck of the block.
5. Determine the location of the center of gravity of the block with the movable
weight.
- If the block is homogenous, solve the centroid of the block and the
movable weight. The reference distance of the centroid is the top deck of
the block.
- If the block is not homogenous then hold the block on one side by
suspension. Adjust the location of grip to the block so that the axis of the
scow is vertical. Note that the line of force of grip is vertically in line with
the force of gravity or the weight of scow. Measure the distance of the line
of grip from one of the side of the scow.
- Repeat the process with the other side of the block. The intersection of the
line of force is the location of the center of gravity of the scow.
6. Place the block with movable weight on top of deck in water.
7. Mark the water line on the side of the scow, D.
8. Determine the depth of floatation, call it d1. Note d1 = D. base point for
measurement is the bottom of the scow.
9. Move the load to the side center-edge of the block. The scow will tilt to one side,
thereby increasing the depth of floatation on one side and decrease on the other
side.
10. Measure the new depth of floatation, call it as d2. The angle of tilt is based on the
difference of depth of floatation from initial position to the tilted position.
11. Compute the angle of tilt of the final position of the scow.
Tan = t/(b/2) = (d2-d1)/(b/2)
12. Compute Mbo, Mbo and MG using formula as discuss in theory 5 with angle of
tilt . Since the location of the center of gravity is known, MG can be solved.
MG = MBo Gbo

25
 Point M can be located which is MG distance above the center of gravity.
13. The location of the buoyant force BF is x distance to the right of G expressed by
the formula
x = MG sin
14. Repeat the procedure as another set by changing the movable load In another
position such as middle point or quarter points.
15. Mark the location of metacenter M on the pole of the scow.

VI. Drawing

VII. Observation:
Dimension of scow:
Length, L ______________cms.
Width, b ______________cms.
Height, H ______________cms.
Weight of movable weight ______________cms.
Weight of scow ______________cms.
Weight of scow and movable weight ______________cms.
Distance of G from top deck ______________cms.
Initial draft d1 ______________cms.
Final draft d2 ______________cms.
Additional submergence due to tilting d2-d1 ______________cms.
Angle of tilt
tan = t/(d/2) ______________
= ______________deg.
b tan
MBo = ------- ( 1 + -------- ) ______________cms.
12D 2
GBo _______________cms.
MG _______________cms
x _______________cms.

26
VIII. Precautions
1. The water should enter the block. The weight of the scow plus the movable
weight must be equal to the weight of equal volume displace. If there is a big
discrepancy then the intrusion of water to the side of the scow.
2. The position of the load must be symmetric with respect to the axis of tilting.
The upper horizontal side or deck must not be over flooded.

27
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.8
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Velocity Measurement Using Pitot Tube

II. Objectives:
1. To determine the velocity of flow in the pipe by the use of a pitot tube.
2. To determine the velocity distribution along the cross section of the
pipe.

III. Apparatus:
1. Hydraulic Bench
2. Manometer tubes
3. Pipe with Pitot tube
4. Constant head inlet tank
5. Variable head outlet tank

IV. Theory:

A bent L-shaped tube with both ends open is called a Pitot tube, after French
investigators who first use such a device for measuring the velocity of liquids.
When the tube is placed in a moving stream, the liquid enters the opening and
the velocity is gradually retarded to practically zero. Hence the velocity is
transformed into pressure head and because of this increase, the pressure head
shown in the Pitot tube I greater than the static pressure head by an amount
equal to V2/2g.

The velocity distribution curve in a circular pipe varies differently for laminar
and turbulent flow.

When laminar flow occurs in a conduit the velocity varies as the ordinates to a
Paraboloid of revolution, and the average velocity is the maximum velocity.
With turbulent flow the velocity distribution curve is much flatter, and it can
be stated in general that the average velocity of water in a pipe is about 0.80 of
the maximum velocity.

28
V. Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus with the nose of the Pitot head pointing upstream.
2. Connect the pressure tapping points of the Pitot tube to the manometer.
3. Switch on the bench pump and open the valve slowly to allow water to
flow to the apparatus.
4. Adjust outlet pipe to maintain sufficient back pressure to ensure that the
level in the manometer tube is visible.
5. All air in the interconnecting pipe work must be bled off.
6. Traverse the nose of the Pitottubeacross the back and obtain the mean
velocity by averaging or taking of the maximum velocity for turbulent
flow. Alternatively, place the nose of the Pitot tube 2/5 d from the inner
wall for laminar flow and 0.124 d for turbulent flow to obtain the average
velocity.
7. Take about five equally spaced readings of flow rate and manometer
levels.
8. Determine the actual discharge by the volumetric tank.

VI. Sketch:

VII. Computations:

Qa = vol/time

Actual V = Q/A where A = d2/4

V2/2g = h1 h2 = h

29
Experimental:

V1 = 2 1

V2 = 2 2

V3 = 2 3

V4 = 2 4

Average velocity = 0.50 Vmax. For laminar flow

Average velocity 0.80 Vmax. For turbulent flow

%E = [ Vave. Vactual ] / Vave.x 100

Q = AV = CA 2

C = Q/A 2

VIII. Tabulated Data:

Laminar Flow

Trial Qave. V act.= h1 h2 H V vel. V ave. %E

(mm) Q/A 1/2Vm

Turbulent Flow

Trial Qave. V act.= h1 h2 H V vel. V ave. %E

(mm) Q/A 0.80V
M

30
IX. Results and Observations
1. Comment on the use of the Pitot tube as a flow measuring device in relation to
the other instruments available, with particular reference for accuracy, ease of
application and range.
2. From a consideration of velocity profiles across the tube under laminar and
turbulent condition, what is the importance of the position of the Pitot head
with respect to tube diameter?

31
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.9
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Determination of Center of Pressure

II. Objectives: To locate the center of pressure of the total hydrostatic force on a
submerged surface.

III. Apparatus:

1. Hydraulic bench
2. Center of pressure apparatus
3. Set of weights
4. Tap water
5. Measuring stick

IV. Theory:
Any plane surface subjected to hydrostatic pressure is acted upon by an infinite of
parallel forces the magnitudes of which vary with the depth, below the free
surface. These parallel forces may be replaced by a single resultant force F. The
point on the surface at which this resultant force acts is called the center of
pressure.

32
 Consider an element strip of breadth b, the thickness dy, distance y from B.
The intensity of the unit pressure on the strip is p= y sin
The total pressure on the strip dF = y sin b (dy)
The total pressure on the surface F = y sin b (dy)

But y b dy = 1st moment of area of surface about B

=yA

Where: A = area of the surface

Therefore F = sin A so F = h

It should be noted that the total pressure on a plane surface is independent of the angle
of inclination of the surface of the liquid to the free surface of the liquid.
The moment of P about B = sum of the pressure on the elements strip about B.
Therefore F (Yp) = y2 b (dy)
But 2 b (dy) = 2nd moment area IB and F = h

Therefore Yp = IB / A
But IB = Io / A
Therefore Yp = e +

V. Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus.
2. Measure the dimensions b, d, h, y and the distance r from the knife edge
axis to the balance axis.
3. Adjust the counter balance weight until the balance arm is horizontal.
4. Place a mass of 50 grams on the balance pan. Admit water into the Perspex
tank until the balance arm is horizontal. Note the water on the scale. Fine
adjustment of the water level may be achieved by overfilling and slowly
draining using the drain cock.
5. Repeat procedure 4 for different masses noting the corresponding water
levels.

33
VI. Sketch

VII. Computations

a.) Partial Immersion:

Total force on the end face F = (d/2 + hs) (bd)

b.) Full Immersion:

Total force on end face F = (d/2 + hs + h) (bd)

For equilibrium equate

Wr = F (Yp)

34
 VIII. Tabulated Data

Trial W Depth of Toroid Dist. Center of Tota Mom. Due Wr

(kN) water (h) Dimension Hs pressure Press. F to F kN.m %E
bxd Yp (kN) F(Yp)
kN.m

IX. Results & Observation

1. Compare the experimental results Wr with the calculated values of F (Yp) and
give reasons for the discrepancies if any.

35
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.10
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ___________

I. Title: Analysis of Pipe Network

II. Objective: To correlate the calculated results of discharges using Hardy Cross
solution to the experimental values.

III. Apparatus:
1. Pipe assembly
2. Stop watch
3. Graduated cylinder

IV. Theory:
City water supply distribution systems are constructed in the form of many loops
and branches. Such a system is called a pipe network. A practical procedure is the
method of successive approximations by which the distribution of flown can be
determined, is introduced by Hardy Cross. Nevertheless, the flow in any network,
however complicated must satisfy the basic relations of continuity and energy as
follows:
a. The flow into any junction must equal the flow out of it.
b. The flow in each pipe must satisfy the pipe friction laws for flow in
a single pipe.
c. The algebraic sum of head losses around any closed conduit must
be zero.
By Hardy Cross method first assume a reasonable distribution as flows that
satisfies condition 1.
Write condition 2.
c K(Qc)n = cc K (Qcc)n
The amount of the flow correction Q which was subtracted from Qc and
added to Qcc will equaize the head losses in two directions and must satisfy
the equation
c K ( Qc Q )n = cc K ( Qcc + Q )n
Simplifying
Q = c K Qcn cc KQcc n / n (c KQcn-1 + cc KQccn-1 )
From equation 1 dividing by Q

36
 KQn-1 = hf/Q
Therefore,
c hf cc hf
Q = -------------------------------
n( c hf/Q + cc hf/Q )

V. Computations
Assume the discharge in and out of the pipe network.
Apply the formula until conditions 1 till 3 is satisfied.

VI. Results and Observation:

1. How many cycles of corrections did you make until you arrived to the value
that satisfied conditions 1 to 3?
2. Compare results of your computation with values derived from actual
experiment.

37
 PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Puerto Princesa City

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulics
Experiment No.11
Name: ______________________ Course &Year: __________

Group: _______ Date: ____________

I. Title: Demonstration of Seepage

II. Objective:
1. To demonstrate seepage using a model dam
2. To compare the theoretical and experimental result of seepage in dam

III. Apparatus:
1. Aquarium, glass or fiber glass
2. Model Dam (to fit the aquarium)
3. KMn04 solution or equivalent
4. White sand

IV. Theory:
When seepage is identified at a dam, a determination must be made whether the
seepage is a problem and , if so, the seriousness of the problem. This
determination should always be a methodical, logical process and consider the
effect on the dam both for present conditions and for possible future conditions.
For example, consider the effects of reservoir levels significantly higher than
historic levels.

To determine the effect seepage may have on a dam, consider the seepage path
and the potential for piping, internal erosion, solutioning, and development of
excessive pressures. Several methods and techniques are used in making these
determinations. In some cases, a review of available information and experienced
judgement are adequate, while in other cases, extensive field investigations and
detailed analyses are required.
The method used to analyse seepage conditions may range from simple to
complex. The best method to use will depend on site-specific conditions. There
are many pitfalls in seepage analysis because properties, such as permeability,
may vary tremendously over short distances and in different directions. Analysing
internal erosion and flow through bedrock with fractures is different than the study
of inter-granular seepage flow. Many of the pitfalls of seepage analysis are
discussed in this unit.

38
 To analyse seepage problems, you must possess a good knowledge of
fundamentals of fluid mechanics, courses in hydrology or geotechnical
engineering covering the mechanisms of ground water flow. However, obtaining
reliable results requires experience and judgment. The input of qualified
engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers is essential. In all cases of
numerical analysis, a parametric analysis must be conducted to judge the
sensitivity of the results to various input parameters, and to establish the
uncertainty in those parameters.

Common causes of dam leakage are:

1. The work of a contractor unfamiliar with dam construction
2. Failure to remove topsoil and vegetation at the embankment site
3. Use of an unsuitable soil type in the dam wall
4. Failure to construct a cut-off trench
5. Poor soil compaction
6. Failure to backfill exposed rock, gravel or sand in the storage basin
7. Poor maintenance of the dam

Ways to seal dam

The method used to repair the dam is often determined by the cost of the repairs in
relation to the short- or long-term benefit.

The methods used to seal earth dams include:

1. Clay lining with available local material

2. The used of bentonite
3. Installing commercial (plastic or synthetic rubber) liners
4. Chemical treatment of the soil
5. The application of a sprayed membrane.

Introduction

Many of historys dam failures resulted from the lack of a consistent and
logical framework for anlyzing and anticipating seepage problems. Empirical rules
based on observed good and bad performance, while of some help, were often not
applicable to slightly different materials, foundations, and other circumstances. The
logical analysis of seepage started with the development of Darcys law in 1856, and
the realization that the laplace equation governing heat and current flow was also
applicable to the steady-state flow of an incompressible fluid through a porous media.

Darycs Law

Henri Darcy, published in 1856 a formula governing flow through porous media. The
formula, now known as Darcys law, was based on the study of water flow through
vertical filters in laboratory experiments. The experiments indicated that the quantity
of flow is expressed by the equation:

39
 Q = kiA

And

Vd = Q/A

Where:

Q = rate of seepage (cm3 / sec)

Vd = discharge velocity, also equal to ki (cm/sec)

k = Darcys coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

i = hydraulic gradient equals the head loss (cm) divided by the length over
which head loss occurs (cm)

A = cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow (cm2)

There are several aspects to note about Darcys law:

1. The discharge velocity Vdis an average fluid velocity and is defined as the
gross quantity of fluid that flows through a unit cross-sectional area of soil in a
unit of time. Since flow only occurs through the interconnected soil voids, the
real velocity of flow or seepage velocity (Vs) for a single molecule of water
travelling a unique path in the soil voids is greater than the discharge velocity.
The seepage velocity is roughly equal to the discharge velocity divide by the
porosity of the soil.
2. Darcys law is applicable only to laminar flow (adjacent flow lines are parallel
and straight andVdis directly proportional to I). This law is reasonable for
most soils, but flow through coarse gravel and rock openings may become
turbulent andVdis proportional to approximately the square root of i.
3. Darcys law is limited to flow through saturated materials. Flow through
unsaturated materials is in a transient state and is time dependent.
4. Darcys law is not useful in studying flow through cracks or fractures and
similar features in rocks or soil.
Darcys law has many applications in seepage analysis, including:
Determining permeability, both in the field and laboratory.
Predicting quantity of laminar flow

With approximate modifications, Darcys law can be applied to problems of turbulent,

transient (time-dependent), and partially saturated flow.

Darcys law is also used in solving many seepage and drainage problems associated
with dams. A common example is determining the necessary permeability or
dimensions of inclined or horizontal drains in a dam.

40
V. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION
Compare the theoretical and experimental result of seepage in dam.

41
References:

Hydraulics. King, Wysler, Woodburn.

Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machineries, Arora, K. R.

1980, Standard Publishing Distributors, 1705-B NaiSarak, Delhi-6

Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics. Munson, Bruce R.; Young, Donald F; Okiishi, Theodore H., 1990,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Engr. Rodolfo V. Ocate, Ollege of Engineering, Central Philippine University.

Hydraulics ( Reference Text ) R. DelaFuente, T. Dela Rosa, P. Templo.

Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, R. Daughtery, J. Franzini, E.J. Finnemore.

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, R. Fox, A. McDonald.

Applied Fluid Mechanics, R. Mott.

42