Geophysics:

How to image the subsurface?

Seismic Reflection Data Drilling
Use surface geology
Seismic Reflection Imaging
Send sound into the rock, and collect the
echoes
Gravity
Magnetics

Geol493K- West Virginia University

Send sound waves, collect the echoes

Seismic Acquisition
 Basic Principles
Steps in the Seismic Process Seismic velocity is dependent mostly on rock stiffness
Usually: Denser= Faster
1. Data Acquisition done by a service Abrupt change in stiffness causes:
company Reflection
2. Data processing done by a service Refraction
Slower Reflected energy
company
rock
3. Interpretation done by in-house
geologists or geophysicists
Refracted energy
Faster rock
Denser

Snells Law What is a Reflector?

Sin a1 Sin a2
=
V1 V2
Boundary between beds with different Major changes in properties
properties. usually produce strong,
V1 Reflected energy continuous
a1 a1
energy signal
source receiver

a2 Refracted energy Bed 1

V2 lower velocity
higher velocity

Bed 2
At some point, if V1>V2, a2 = 90 and all the energy
goes along the contact (a1= critical angle)
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One Shot- Reflections to all geophones Wave Spreading
Seismic waves propagate as Wave Fronts, not just rays

Energy spreads out as (distance)2

One shot causes reflections all along the
reflector

Most Seismic Surveys use P-Waves

V1
V1= (k1 + 4/3 h1)/ 1

V2
V1= stiffness / 1
V3
V= acoustic velocity
k = bulk modulus
h = shear modulus
= density

You need 3-component geophones for S-waves

 Depth vs Time Reflection Coefficients
What is he magnitude of each reflection?

V1 Acoustic impedance = Z1= v11

echo1

Time
Depth

V2
echo2
Reflection coefficient = (Z2- Z1 )/(Z2+ Z1)
V3
echo3 Fraction of reflected energy

Typically -0.1 to 0.1

Seismic Interface Example Seismic Interface Example

Velocity = 2000 m/s Velocity = 2000 m/s

Shale Density = 1.7 gm/cc Shale Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400 I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Velocity = 2400 m/s Velocity = 2600 m/s

Sand Density = 1.8 gm/cc Carbonate Density = 2.1 gm/cc
I = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320 I = 2600 * 2.1 = 5460

Reflection I below I above 4320 - 3400 Reflection I below I above 5460 - 3400
Coefficient
= = = 0.119
Coefficient
= = = 0.232
I below + I above 4300 + 3400 I below + I above 5460 + 3400

Of the incident energy, 12% is reflected, 88% is transmitted Of the incident energy, 23% is reflected, 77% is transmitted

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 Marine Seismic Survey

Reflection seismogram viewed as the convolved output of a

reflectivity function with an input pulse

Seismic Acquisition - Onshore

Marine Swath Data for a 3D

Streamers
Diverter

Vibroseis trucks

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Drilling holes for Seismic Acquisition - Onshore
dynamite source

80 kg shot for deep seismic

Russia Laying out Geophones
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Seismic Acquisition - Onshore Seismic Acquisition - Onshore

Geophones

Laying out Geophones in Mountainous Areas

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 Seismic Processing Seismic Processing
Velocity model
Data Processing
Stream

Field Record
(marine)
Subsurface Image
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Common Shot All traces from a

common mid point
Depth Point Gather (redundant data)
S are shots
D are receivers
Single-ended spread Hyperbolas get
flatter with
12 channels
increasing V
6-fold redundancy
Sort the shot-
receiver pairs that
collect data from
the same point
 Seismic Processing: Velocity Analysis: find the velocity
Geometry of Seismic Acquisition function that will flatten the hyperbolas

Time- t= travel time

distance
t= (1/V)(x2 + 4z2)1/2
plot
A hyperbola
t, x are known
V unknown, but
can be found
graphically using
Geometry the seismic data
z calculated (V, t) Velocity function Uncorrected Corrected
T= normal moveout Gather

Stacking Noise reduction Stacked, Unmigrated Line: has issues

Gather After Stack

Sum these
 Stacking Assumes Layer-Cake Stacking assumes layer-cake
Structure structure
B A In a tight
syncline, 3
reflections
originating
from different
spots
may focus at
the receiver

Migration Correcting for Location Migrated (corrected) line after processing

Unmigrated energy on single trace... S R

Sweep Ellipse

S R

...spread to all possible locations of origin

Sweep Ellipse

S R

Sweep Ellipse

ExxonMobil
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 Fault Diffractions: Diffractions
Seismic
energy is
scattered at
sharp edges

Raw data Migrated data

Seismic Migration Seismic Multiples: Ghosts of the

Unmigrated Image seabed
Positioning
Problems Blur the
Image

Migrated Image

Migration Reduces
Positioning
Problems, which
Improves the Image

L 5 Seismic Method Ghost 1 Ghost 2

Courtesy of ExxonMobil
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 Multiples in Marine Data

Butler et al. 2015

The Ideal Seismic Response Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick
Predominantly
1 meter
Shale

Predominantly
Sand

Predominantly
Shale

Increase in Impedance Decrease in Impedance

10 m
ExxonMobil

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 Vertical resolution of seismic is depends on
frequency and velocity
Scale for Seismic Data
Lamina
f= 30Hz , v= 6000 ft/sec Although seismic data can not
Lamina Sets
image small-scale stratal units,
Beds it can image mid- to large-
Bed Sets scale units
Parasequences

Parasequence Sets The big advantage of seismic

Sequences data is areal coverage
Sequence Sets

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Time versus Depth Time to Depth - Check Shot Data

Two way time (TWT) does not equate directly to depth
Depth of a specific reflector can be determined using Check shots measure the
wells vertical one-way time Seismic Shot

from surface to various

depths within the well
Depth

Used to calibrate well

depths and times from a
288
Borehole
Geophone
sonic log
0.58 926
926 m
sec
1865

m
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 Check Shot survey example Creating synthetic seismic data:

Convolution
Interval
velocity

Wavelet

Acoustic impedance Seismic Synthetic

from Sonic log Reflectivity Seismic
Use the sonic and density logs to compute an impedance log
Integrated
Calculate the reflection coefficients
Soniclog
Convolve our pulse with the seismic reflectivity
Sum the individual wavelets to get the synthetic seismic trace

Reference Synthetic Synthetic

Log (+) (-) Tops Seismic Ties Take Home Ideas
Seismic Data Requires Careful
Acquisition
Processing
Power of Stacking and Migration
Improves Signal to Noise
A Seismic Reflector is Boundary Between Beds of
Different Properties
Relates to Lithology Density and Velocity
Compare well data to seismic data
Relate horizon tops in a well with
specific reflections
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