BIOENERGYTRAINING

Modular Course Series

ANDIG1
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic Digestion Course Series

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Module 1:
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion

Author:
M. Charles Gould, Extension Educator-Agricultural Bioenergy & Bioproducts and On-farm
Energy Efficiency, Agriculture and Agribusiness Institute, Michigan State University

Peter Taglia, Peter Taglia Energy and Environmental Consulting, LLC

Peer Reviewers:
Norma McDonald, North America Sales Manager, Organic Waste Systems, Inc.

Steven I. Safferman, Associate Professor, Department of Biosystems & Agricultural

Engineering, Michigan State University

Sections of this module benefited from comments by David Panofsky, Division of Air and Waste,
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

This guide is also available as an online learning module at:

http://blogs.extension.org/andig1/files/2012/07/ANDIG1.pdf

Additional modules on Energy independence, Bioenergy Generation, and Environmental

Sustainability are available online at:
http://fyi.uwex.edu/biotrainingcenter/

This material is based upon work supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, under Agreement No. 2007-51130-03909. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this
publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Table of Contents
Summary......................................................................................................................... 2
Learning Objectives......................................................................................................... 2
Unit 1.1: The Anaerobic Digestion Process...................................................................... 3
Background and Guiding Questions........................................................................... 3
The Biological Process of Gas Production.................................................................. 3
The History of Anaerobic Digestion............................................................................. 4
The Evolving Science of Anaerobic Digestion............................................................. 4
Anaerobic Digestion in the U.S................................................................................... 5
International Applications........................................................................................... 6
Conclusions............................................................................................................... 6
Unit 1.2: Applications of Anaerobic Digestion................................................................... 7
Background and Guiding Questions........................................................................... 7
Main Applications of Anaerobic Digestion................................................................... 7
Municipal and Industrial Waste Treatment Systems.................................................... 7
On-farm Systems....................................................................................................... 8
Conclusions............................................................................................................. 10
Unit 1.3: Products from Anaerobic Digestion................................................................. 10
Background and Guiding Questions......................................................................... 10
Digestate.................................................................................................................. 11
Filtrate...................................................................................................................... 11
Fiber........................................................................................................................ 12
Biogas..................................................................................................................... 13
Conclusions............................................................................................................. 14
Unit 1.4: Environmental Benefits and Concerns............................................................. 15
Background and Guiding Questions......................................................................... 15
Environmental Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion......................................................... 15
Indirect Benefits....................................................................................................... 17
Digester Scalability................................................................................................... 18
Opportunity Costs.................................................................................................... 18
Conclusions............................................................................................................. 19
References.................................................................................................................... 19

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 1

Summary
This module provides background information on the anaerobic digestion process, biogas and other prod-
ucts of anaerobic digestion, and on the energy applications of biogas. Possible environmental benefits and
concerns associated with anaerobic digestion are described.

Learning Objectives
1. Understand the biological process for producing biogas.
2. Discuss anaerobic digester applications for agricultural and wastewater systems, the situations that
warrant an on-farm digester and the various digester size options that are available for a producer.
3. Describe the uses for digestate and biogas.
4. Discuss the environmental benefits and concerns associated with anaerobic digesters.

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 2

Unit 1.1: The Anaerobic Digestion Process
Background
Anaerobic digestion is a natural biological process
where microorganisms convert complex carbohydrates into
biogas in an oxygen free environment. Anaerobic digestion
mineralizes nutrients and reduces odors, which enables
farmers to apply digestate (the slurry that is removed from
the digester after digestion) in places manure cannot be
applied. A growing number of farms are using anaerobic
digestion to treat manure as part of a manure management
plan.
The Biological Process of Gas Production
An anaerobic digester simulates the digestive process
of the ruminant animal. Like the ruminant animal, an
anaerobic digester uses fermenting bacteria to break down
biomass into organic acids. These acids are converted into
methane by methanogens. Biogas is typically 60 percent
methane and 40 percent carbon dioxide, with some trace
gases
Figure 1: The Basic Anaerobic Digestion Process. Source: Gould and Crook
Guiding Questions
What are the basic steps in the biological process of
anaerobic digestion?
When were anaerobic digesters first used? What areas
of the world have the most anaerobic digesters?
What types of organic materials are suitable foods for
anaerobic bacteria? Which materials produce the most
biogas during anaerobic digestion and which produce
the least?
Figure 1 illustrates the engineered anaerobic diges-
tion process. Feedstocks are injected into the digester.
Anaerobic bacteria break down complex carbohydrates
in the feedstocks into organic acids that are used by
methanogens to create biogas and slurry. The biogas is
removed to produce natural gas, electricity or heat. The
slurry is removed and land applied as a source of nutrients
on growing crops or further processed into a filtrate or fiber
product. Both present value added opportunities for farm-
ers. More in-depth information on the anaerobic digestion
process is found in ANDIG 2.
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 3
The History of Anaerobic Digestion
Although the science of anaerobic digestion was not
clearly understood at the time, methane gas produced
from anaerobic digestion was utilized in Assyria (present
day Iraq) as early as the 10th Century BCE. Biogas from
biomass has historically been used in Asia as a household
fuel for cooking. At present, there are an estimated 8 million
small-scale digesters operating in China alone (International
Energy Agency, 2005). Similar systems have also been
widely used in India, Africa and other developing countries.
The Evolving Science of
Anaerobic Digestion
The simplest type of digester is a covered lagoon with
a mechanism to capture the biogas from under a flexible
cover (Figure 2). Covered lagoons work best in temperate
climates where additional heat is not needed to support the
microbial community and maintain the digestion process.
The same basic functions of the covered lagoon have been
incorporated into anaerobic digesters of many shapes and
sizes to accommodate both local site conditions and the
specific characteristics of the feedstock (primarily the solids
content). Some anaerobic digesters can hold the feedstock
in large tanks or vessels that are continuously mixed or in
a plug-flow configuration in which the feedstock moves in
one direction. These may also offer the option of heating
the vessel to support microbial growth. Some of the new
types of digesters include upflow anaerobic sludge blanket,
expanded granular sludge bed, attached growth, and
two-stage systems. Many anaerobic digestion technologies
and configurations have been developed or adapted to
optimize system performance and accommodate organic
wastes of different compositions. Many of these systems
attempt to retain more biomass in the reactor, which
can greatly reduce the detention time required, thereby
reducing the cost and the footprint of the systems. The
newer designs can also accept a greater range of solids
content in the organic waste feedstocks. More information
on digester types is found in ANDIG 3.
Some of the case studies from the Wisconsin Biogas
Casebook show that while the latest research has resulted
in greater biogas production efficiency in some situations,
in other cases simpler systems have proven more reliable
(Energy Center of Wisconsin, 2009). It should be noted that
the owner and operators of the anaerobic digester may
have different feedstocks and uses that can influence the
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 4
 Biogas Storage
Digester Influent Cover
Cell 1
Figure 2: Schematic of a basic anaerobic digester: the covered waste lagoon.
Source: Adapted from USEPA AgSTAR Program by UW Extension
success of various designs. For many farm operators, the
products of the digester are secondary to the production of
milk, meat and fiber.
Anaerobic Digestion in the U.S.
In the U.S., municipal wastewater treatment plants
employ the greatest number of anaerobic digesters.
The EPA 2008 Clean Watershed Needs Survey (CWNS)
database identifies 3,171 wastewater treatment facilities
in the United States. Of these, 1,351 utilize anaerobic
digestion for treatment of municipal wastewater (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 2011). Municipal sewage
contains organic biomass solids, and many wastewater
treatment plants use anaerobic digestion to reduce the
volume of these solids. Anaerobic digestion stabilizes
sewage sludge and destroys pathogens.
Only a little over 100 of the anaerobic digesters at
treatment plants use the biogas produced in the process
as an energy resource for producing either electricity or
usable heat; the majority of the wastewater treatment
plants flare-off the biogas or only use it to heat the
anaerobic digester itself. Anaerobic digestion at municipal
wastewater treatment plants continues to be one of the
most energy-efficient methods of wastewater treatment.
Anaerobic digesters were first introduced in the
agriculture sector in the U.S. during the energy crisis of
the early 1970s, but the majority of these early digesters
failed. Failures were generally attributed to poor design,
poor equipment selection and a lack of maintenance
(Lusk, 1998).[1] Since 2000, the growth in construction
1
For a summary of the early history of anaerobic digestion, see http://www.biogasworks.com/Reports/MOC-3.htm. The complete
document can be downloaded at: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy99osti/25145.pdf.
Biogas Pipe
Digester Effluent
Cell 2
of anaerobic digestion systems in the U.S. has been
remarkable. The use of anaerobic digestion for livestock
waste management is tracked by the AgSTAR program, a
partnership of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE).
As of September 2012, AgSTAR estimates that there are
192 anaerobic digester systems operating at commercial
livestock farms in the United States (Figure 3). The AgSTAR
database provides more detailed information about
operating projects. Of these operational projects, 178
generate electrical or thermal energy from the captured
biogas. The electricity projects produce about 586,000
megawatt-hours (MWh) annually, and boiler projects,
pipeline injection, and other energy projects generate an
additional 55,000 MWh equivalent per year. Other projects
flare the captured gas to reduce methane emissions and
control odor (AgSTAR, 2012). To put this in some perspec-
tive, the Grand Haven Board of Light & Power (GHBL&P)
has 95 megawatts (MW) of generating capacity, which
produced about 455,000 MWh in 2011. The GHBL&P
serves approximately 13,500 residential, commercial
and industrial customers in Grand Haven, Michigan and
surrounding area (Allen and Kelly, 2009). Another way to
think of it is one MWh of electricity can meet the needs of
approximately 1,000 typical Midwestern households.
Digesters are designed to prevent the direct emission
of methane into the atmosphere; as such, they are a tool in
climate change mitigation. In addition, the combustion of
biogas displaces the use of fossil fuels for energy genera-
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 5
tion, achieving additional emissions reductions
of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants.
These benefits can also be amplified if the farmer
is able to take in offsite wastes, for a tipping fee,
and further boost energy production. Economic
benefits can also accrue to a farmer from
anaerobic digestion in the production of valuable
products, such as animal bedding, potting soils
and other products discussed in Unit 1.3.

International Applications
In Europe, Germany leads the European
nations with 6800 anaerobic digestion systems, Figure 3: Farm-based anaerobic digestion systems as of September 2012.
Source: AgSTAR. http://www.epa.gov/agstar/projects/index.html
followed by Austria with 551 (IEA, 2011) (IEA
Bioenergy Task 37. 2011). European systems
are typically combined heat and power (CHP)
systems, which benefit from the more supportive
renewable energy policies and increased emphasis on
climate change and energy security in Europe. CHP
systems use biogas to produce electricity and heat. As
most internal combustion engines are typically less than
40 percent efficient, much of the energy from the biogas
is given off as heat. Combined heat and power captures
and utilizes heat energy, resulting in greater efficiency
and energy utilization. European anaerobic digestion with
CHP systems often utilize a variety of feedstock materials,
including manure, energy crops, and food-based products
and byproducts.
There is a long history of anaerobic digestion systems
being used in developing countries. In general, most of
the anaerobic digesters in developing countries are in the
small to medium-size range (approximately 100 m3) and
are used to supply methane for residential cooking and
heating. In Africa, Tanzania and Lesotho lead the continent
in small- to medium-sized anaerobic digesters, with greater
than 500 and 1,000 systems, respectively.
Conclusion
Anaerobic digesters are designed to create an oxy-
gen-free environment in which microorganisms to convert
organic wastes into biogas. Methanogens use organic
acids produced by fermenting bacteria to create methane,
the flammable constituent of biogas. Digesters have been
used since ancient times as a source of flammable gas and
to stabilize waste. Anaerobic digesters are used in develop-
ing countries as a source of fuel for cooking and heat,
and in developed countries to provide renewable energy
or reduce the amount of organic biosolids in municipal
wastewater treatment systems. The first applications of
anaerobic digesters on farms in the U.S. in the 1970s were
not very successful, but newer designs and a greater focus
on renewable energy and greenhouse gas mitigation have
increased the number of successful farm-based digesters.

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 6

Unit 1.2: Applications of Anaerobic Digestion
Background
The ability of anaerobic digestion to process a wide
range of organic wastes from diverse sources under
different waste management strategies underscores the
utility of the anaerobic digester. Applications for anaerobic
digestion are varied, but typically fall into two broad
categories with considerable overlap: renewable energy
production and waste treatment. For example, the primary
motivation for a dairy to build a digester may be to control
odor, but producing electricity makes the digester profitable
to the farm. For a wastewater treatment plant, the primary
motivation may be to reduce the volume of organic
biosolids. For an industrial facility, the primary motivation
may be to reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of
a high-strength waste stream. As a source of renewable
energy generation, anaerobic digestion offers the significant
Main Applications of Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is used to treat organic waste
feedstocks in agricultural, municipal, and industrial waste
treatment systems. While the focus of this curriculum is on
anaerobic digestion of agricultural feedstocks, municipal
and industrial applications for treating organic waste
materials are used as examples.
Municipal and Industrial Waste Treatment
Systems
Anaerobic digesters are used in municipal wastewa-
ter treatment systems as a complementary process to
aerobic treatment of wastewater. Digesters are an effective
method for treating high-strength wastes delivered directly
to the plant and biosolids from the aerobic process. High-
strength wastes are feedstocks such as fats, oils, and
advantage of being available on a continuous basis (unlike
wind or solar). In addition, biogas is a versatile energy
resource that can be burned directly for heat, electricity
or combined heat and power (cogeneration), cleaned and
compressed for use as a vehicle fuel, or upgraded for
injection directly into natural gas pipeline system.
Guiding Question
What are the main motivations for deploying anaerobic
digesters in the wastewater treatment sector? On-farm
sector?
What are the main benefits of anaerobic waste
treatment versus aerobic treatment?
What local factors or considerations go into the evalua-
tion of anaerobic digesters for farms?
greases or other organic components that have a high bio-
logical oxygen demand (BOD). High BOD wastes contain
high amounts of decomposable organic matter. Under
anaerobic conditions, these types of wastes can produce
biogas. Wastewater treatment plants that do not use
anaerobic digesters produce more biosolids that require
alternative disposal methods such as land application or
incineration.
Anaerobic digesters are increasingly being used to
treat high-strength wastewater streams at food processing
plants, pulp and paper mills and other industrial facilities.
Current options for treating high-strength wastewater
from industrial facilities include: trucking the wastewater
to a nearby farm-based or municipal anaerobic digester;
direct land application; discharge to municipal wastewater
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 7
treatment facilities; or operation of an individual wastewater
treatment facility, either as the sole treatment for wastewa-
ter prior to surface water discharge, or as a pre-treatment
before municipal wastewater treatment. One motivation for
treating high-strength wastewater with anaerobic digesters
is the increasingly stringent water quality regulations that
restrict the opportunities for land application and force
municipal wastewater treatment plants to require greater
pretreatment of industrial wastewater.
In wastewater treatment and industrial applications,
the energy advantages of anaerobic digestion are three-
fold:
(1) Anaerobic processes use less energy than do aerobic
processes when treating high strength wastes
(Kramer, 2011). This is because aerobic treatment
requires active aeration to maintain the oxygen con-
centrations necessary for aerobic microorganisms to
oxidize waste, and large compressors are necessary
to deliver air below the water surface 2.
(2) Wastewater treatment systems using anaerobic
digestion produce fewer biosolids and more gases
than one using only aerobic digestion. Biosolids
must ultimately be land applied, incinerated or
landfilled, and each of these options requires
energy to process and/or dry the biosolids and
to transport them offsite.
(3) The biogas produced by the anaerobic digester
can be used to offset electricity and natural gas
costs at wastewater treatment facilities.
larger farms, increased environmental scrutiny of agricul-
ture, and the desire to maximize the value of agricultural
feedstocks and/or reduce the financial liabilities of feed-
stocks are the main factors driving farm-based biogas
projects. In Europe, where renewable energy demand and
incentives are high, manure treatment is often secondary.
Manure is added to ensiled energy crops in high solids
digesters to ensure the proper carbon to nitrogen ratio and
moisture levels. This means that manure is not the primary
feedstock in a digester, as is the case on U.S. farms.
The digested slurry is then reapplied to the land used for
energy crop production land that is often double or triple
cropped.
Figure 4 points out that as the number of cows increase
the capital costs per cow decrease for three different
types of digesters. There are current economies of scale
in anaerobic digester design; as such, larger dairies are
better candidates than smaller dairies for incorporating
on-farm anaerobic digestion facilities into their opera-
tions. The average digester cost for dairies in the United
States is $1.5 million. Many models indicate that at least

On-farm Systems
In the U.S., anaerobic digesters are typically
used on farms as a manure treatment method (i.e.
reduce odors and manage nutrients) rather than
for renewable energy production. The trend toward Figure 4: The cost per dairy cow of three different types of digesters.
Source: AgSTAR. 2010. Anaerobic Digestion Capital Costs for Dairy.
http://www.epa.gov/agstar/documents/digester_cost_fs.pdf

2
Wastewater treatment professionals site the lower energy use in anaerobic systems relative to aerobic systems, for an equivalent
waste stream and discharge limitation, as a primary motivation for utilizing anaerobic digestion. The Great Lakes Region Food Industry
Casebook (http://www.ecw.org/ecwresults/261-1.pdf) features a number of case studies that highlight the energy reduction of
anaerobic versus aerobic treatment.

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 8

1,000 dairy cows are necessary to operate a farm-based
anaerobic digestion system cost-effectively. This is based
on numerous factors such as electrical rates, greenhouse
gas credits, availability of grants/loans and tax credits,
value-added uses for digested solids, etc. In addition to
the physical and logistical factors that favor anaerobic
digesters at larger livestock facilities, these facilities are
generally more familiar with a specialized labor force, using
professional engineering and consulting services and
obtaining financing for farm projects. These factors favor
large farm digester projects.
Engineered small-scale systems are currently being
developed for farm applications at dairy farms with as few
as 150 to 200 cows. These systems present some unique
opportunities that are not available with larger systems. sulfide aerosols are precursors to fine particle air pollution.
Engineered small-scale systems are currently being
developed for farm applications at dairy farms with as few
as 150 to 200 cows. These systems present some unique
opportunities that are not available with larger systems.
Small-scale anaerobic digesters can be engi-
3
neered as modular systems, thus allowing a farmer
to add or remove segments according to herd
fluctuations. Avatar digesters are an example of
a module digester. Small scale digesters can be
made of materials other than concrete and steel,
thus reducing the cost of a digester. For example,
bladders made from low density, linear, polypropyl-
ene or polyethylene are known for their flexibility and
long life. Sistema Biobolsa digesters are an example
of a bladder-type digester.
Some digester vendor companies offer a leasing
program, which allows farms to lower their capital
risk and financing costs.
Smaller electricity generators (e.g., less than 100
kW) may fall under a utility policy called net metering,
which means a system owner receives retail credit
for at least a portion of the electricity generated as
opposed to the much lower wholesale electric rate
that are applicable for larger systems.
3
For more information on small digesters, please see: Micro-Scale Biogas Production: A Beginners Guide. 2010. Published by the
National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Available at: https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=339
Growing environmental scrutiny of agriculture is leading
farmers to look for ways to reduce environmental impacts
and increase the sustainability of food production. In many
rural areas, especially those near the urban fringe, livestock
manure odors may cause complaints from residents. The
odor of manure is a subjective characteristic that is difficult
to quantify but the volatile compounds responsible for
odors are readily degraded by anaerobic microorganisms
in the digester. In addition to reducing odor, anaerobic
digestion also lowers greenhouse gas and air pollutant
emissions from livestock farming. Methane and nitrous
oxide are powerful greenhouse gases, approximately 21
and 300 times respectively more powerful than carbon
dioxide on a mass equivalent basis, and ammonia and
These are released when manure is stored and applied to
land. Many factors can influence the overall greenhouse
gas emissions from manure handling, but compared to
conventional manure handling, anaerobic digestion is very
effective in reducing these emissions. The U.S. EPA and
many voluntary carbon credit programs have developed
protocols to calculate the greenhouse gas reduction
benefits of anaerobic digesters compared to various alter-
natives in different areas.
Anaerobic digestion provides some opportunities for
greater management of the nutrients and pathogens in
livestock manure. The anaerobic digestion process does
not appreciably change the mass of nutrients in the manure
before and after the digester, but it does change the prop-
erties of the nutrients in ways that can both facilitate field
application and protect water quality:
Nitrogen in manure is converted from an organic
form to an inorganic form that is readily taken up by
plants.
The nitrogen and phosphorus in manure can be
extracted from the liquid and solid effluents of a
digester. In some cases, anaerobic digestion is
more cost effective and/or more efficient than other
methods (e.g., conventional solid separation, solids
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 9
 separation with ferric treatment, solid separation and
drying, incineration) (Welch, 2010). Nutrient separa-
tion provides greater options for farmers to distribute
the appropriate nutrients according to crop needs.
The elevated temperature and biological activity
inside an anaerobic digester reduces the pathogens
in manure and thus decrease the amount of
pathogens released to the environment.
While anaerobic digestion is a well-established technol-
ogy, implementing an on-farm system is a complex task.
Subsequent modules will provide more detail on many
of the design and technical considerations that go into
choosing and implementing an anaerobic digester on-farm.
In general, these considerations include the suitability of
the livestock manure characteristics and handling systems,
the local environmental conditions and scrutiny, and the
different farm energy use, energy costs and potential net
energy production of the anaerobic digester. For example,
farms that use propane and fuel are more likely to see
faster returns by substituting biogas for these fuels than
farms with natural gas supplies. Finally, the availability of
capital, grants and revenue for environmental benefits and
Unit 1.3: Products from Anaerobic Digestion
Background
As discussed in the preceding units, anaerobic
digestion is chosen for many different applications and
reasons by facilities because the biological process at the
heart of an anaerobic digester performs many different
functions in transforming the feedstocks into useful
products. These products can be divided into the liquid
and solid factions of the digestate and biogas. Some of
these products, like biogas, are produced directly from the
anaerobic digester, while other products (such as fiber)
are easier to produce using an anaerobic digester, but
could also be produced without an anaerobic digester.
The biogas produced from anaerobic digestion is one of
the most versatile energy resources. It can be burned to
replace fossil fuels; used to create electricity or pipeline
energy production will vary for farms depending on the
state, local region and utility territory of the facility.
Conclusions
The municipal wastewater treatment, livestock and
industrial sectors have different motivations for using
anaerobic digestion. Increased interest in anaerobic
digesters for all of these applications generally follows
more stringent water quality requirements, higher energy
prices, and increased demand for renewable energy. For
on-farm systems at livestock facilities, anaerobic digesters
are also becoming a necessity in certain areas to manage
odors and other impacts from increasing herd sizes.
While anaerobic digesters typically have been deployed at
large livestock farms, new developments in smaller-scale
anaerobic digesters may allow some smaller livestock
farms to take advantage of opportunities for leasing and
net metering. In any case, the decision to adopt anaerobic
digestion on any farm requires consideration of a number
of factors, such as type of manure handling system,
financing options, operation parameters, and safety
protocols
quality renewable natural gas or vehicle fuel. Other op-
portunities include carbon dioxide enrichment when an
anaerobic digester is integrated with other systems such as
greenhouses.
Guiding Question
What are the products of the various stages of
anaerobic digestion? What are the options for each of
the different products of digestion?
What factors influence the choices of what products to
market or utilize from anaerobic digesters?
What are the energy applications for biogas produced
from anaerobic digestion?
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 10
Digestate
In the anaerobic digestion process, fresh feedstocks
are added continuously or at frequent intervals. Each
day a portion of slurry is removed from the digester. The
material that is removed from the digester is referred to
as digestate. Digestate can be separated into a liquid
called filtrate and solid component (Figure 5) that is high in
fiber (assuming there are fibrous materials going into the
digester).
Both components of digestate can be further refined
into additional products. The filtrate portion of the digestate
can be used as a fertilizer. The solid fraction can be used
Figure 5: Anaerobic Digester Process Flow Diagram with
as a cattle bedding or blended with other materials to options. Source: Gould and Crook
make compost, fertilizer pellets, fuel pellets, medium
density fiberboard, fiber/plastic composite materials
tional amounts of phosphorus to be captured in the solids,
(decking), and other value-added products.
but at an additional cost.

Key issues in solids separation include:

(1) Separator efficiency
Separator efficiency is important because it deter-
mines the amount of solids that will be recovered
Solids capture rates range from less than 5% to
higher than 70%
Solids capture rate can be increased significantly
with the use of polymers
(2) Solids content of recovered digestate
Figure 6: Solids separation process. Source: John Katers Studies show ranges of recovered solids from ap-
proximately 12% to 40% or higher
Solids separation (Figure 6) offers the opportunity to
This is important because the characteristics of
separate solids and nutrients from the digested substrate,
solids are critical to value-added products
which can determine the quality of solids available for
value-added products and the ability to land apply filtrate.
Filtrate
Solids separation allows the operator to partition nutrients,
The filtrate from a farm-based anaerobic digestion
since some of the nutrients such as phosphorus will con-
system is typically stored in a lagoon for later land applica-
centrate in the solids. Using polymers may allow for addi-
tion4 . Anaerobic digestion mineralizes nutrients, making

4
Nutrient management plans are required for many larger dairies. These plans identify the concentrations of soil nutrients over time
(from natural soil development and geology as well as previous nutrient application buildup) and specify which additional nutrients are
needed or would be excessive and possibly contribute to nutrient runoff and water quality impacts. The ability of anaerobic digestion
to change the phosphorus concentration during liquid solid separation can be an effective way to reduce soil phosphorus levels in soils
with high concentrations of this nutrient.

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 11

them plant available to the crop upon application. The fertil-
izer value (N,P,K) of the filtrate depends on the type and ef-
ficiency of solids separation equipment utilized, with lower
concentrations of phosphorus in the filtrate as greater
amounts of solids are removed.

Fiber
The solids from the separation process consist of
fiber in the manure that was not digested by livestock or
microorganisms. This fiber can be used in many different
applications and can be either a source of revenue for the
farmer or used on the farm for things like animal bedding
and compost. Figure 7: Turning cattle manure and bedding using a tractor-pulled
windrow turner at Windy Acres Farm in Michigan. Source: Gail
Animal Bedding
Sikkenga
Animal bedding is used in most types of housing for
dairy cattle to improve cow comfort by cushioning the Compost
animals and removing moisture from the stall or housing. Composting is an
The type of bedding varies by farm and affects not only the aerobic process in which
comfort and cleanliness of the cows, but also determines microorganisms decompose
the type of manure storage and handling system. Various various organic materials to
materials are used for animal bedding including sand, yield carbon dioxide, water,
sawdust, straw and digested solids. The type of bedding and a stable, soil-like product
used on dairy farms can vary considerably in cost and called compost. There are
availability, with some bedding materials, such as sawdust, many composting methods5.
becoming more difficult to procure due to increased use in One example is windrow
other markets (such as for energy) or local changes in pulp (Figure 7). Organic material
and fiber output. Many dairies have realized significant cost is piled in long rows and Figure 8: An example of an
engineered soil product made
savings by using digested solids for bedding as opposed turned mechanically. from digester fiber. Source:
to purchasing alternative bedding materials from off the Solids from anaerobic Charles Gould
farm. digesters can be used to
The type of animal bedding used by a producer can produce high quality compost.
also have an important impact on milk quality and farmers Engineered Soil Products
may be firmly committed to one type of bedding. One of In addition to composting, the digested solids can
the most popular bedding materials at larger dairies, sand, also be blended directly with other materials to produce
creates some difficulty for anaerobic digesters since sand high quality potting soil (Figure 8). This has been a revenue
can quickly collect in the digester and reduce its operating source for dairies with anaerobic digesters. The type of
capacity. Therefore, dairies with sand bedding require ad- separation and the choice of other materials will influence
ditional equipment to remove the sand from the manure the nutrient characteristics of the potting soil.
before it can go into the digester.

5
The On-Farm Composting Handbook (NRAES-54) is an excellent source of information for farmers who want to learn how to
compost manure and other organic materials. It is available through Cornell University.
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 12
Composites
Digester fiber can be used to produce composite
products such as medium density fiberboard and decking
material (Figure 9). Significant research in this area has
been conducted by Michigan State University Extension
and the Forest Products Laboratory at the University
of Wisconsin-Madison. The composite products made
with digester fiber are similar to, and meet the industry
standards for, composite products made with wood that
are widely available in the building materials market.
Biogas
Biogas formed during anaerobic digestion is con-
tinuously collected. Anaerobic digestion produces 7 to
12 cubic feet of biogas for every pound of volatile matter
digested, depending upon the characteristics of the
feedstock. The biogas produced from a properly function-
ing digester is typically composed of 55 to 70 percent
methane and 25 to 30 percent carbon dioxide, with the
remaining fraction comprising of water vapor, nitrogen,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide (EPA, 2012).
The energy content of the biogas per unit of volume
depends on the feed material and management of the
process. When burned, a cubic foot (0.028 cubic meters)
of biogas yields about 10 Btu (2.52 kcal) of heat energy per
percentage of methane composition. For example, biogas
composed of 65% methane yields 650 Btu per cubic foot
(5,857 kcal/cubic meter).
Biogas can be combusted as is, however removing
or reducing carbon dioxide, moisture content and H2S in
biogas before combustion takes place extends the life of
an internal combustion engine. Water vapor reduces the
energy content of biogas and H2S is converted into an acid
when combusted. Carbon dioxide has no direct energy
value and little impact on the various end uses of biogas
for energy systems. Information on removing or reducing
carbon dioxide, moisture and H2S, as well as engine care
and maintenance, can be found in the Michigan On-farm
6
Pipeline natural gas characteristics and standards vary by utility and interstate pipeline company. The Natural Gas Supply Associa-
tion uses a value of about 1,027 Btus per cubic foot. www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asp
Anaerobic Digester
Operator Handbook
available through
Michigan State Uni-
versity Extension.
Biogas becomes
biomethane when
it is upgraded to
pipeline quality gas, Figure 9: A composite decking
product made at Michigan State
meaning carbon University from digester fiber from
dioxide, moisture and three Wisconsin dairies.
Source: Charles Gould
other impurities are
removed. Biometh-
ane is chemically identical to natural gas. It is identical in
properties to natural gas, but it is not derived from fossil
fuels. Biomethane is suitable for use in natural gas vehicles
and meets vehicle engine standards. Biomethane is also
suitable for insertion into the natural gas pipeline as it
meets the full Btu content of natural gas (approximately
1,000 Btu per cubic foot6 ).
Biogas that has been scrubbed of carbon dioxide
and meets pipeline natural gas quality specifications
becomes fully compatible with the millions of natural gas
appliances in use today. Biogas systems in the U.S. that
have taken this approach inject biomethane into existing
natural gas pipelines (Figure 10). Current low prices of
natural gas in the U.S. (as of November 2012) and the lack
of renewable energy policies for the natural gas market
have been a limitation for this application here. In addition
to the applications of biogas in the natural gas grid, other
innovative biogas projects take advantage of the carbon
dioxide produced by cleanup equipment or in the exhaust
of biogas engines to amend greenhouses to boost plant
growth.
While the majority of biogas energy applications will involve
some type of gas conditioning or cleanup, raw biogas still
has applications in some boilers and other combustion
appliances that either mix the biogas with natural gas or in-
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 13
corporate features that are more tolerant of impurities (such
as a Stirling engine).
Figure 11 depicts two internal combustion engines
(with water jackets for heat recovery for digester heating
and/or other heating uses to make a biogas combined
heat and power project) creating renewable electricity from
biogas. On the right are the mufflers for noise reduction,
which can also be another opportunity for heat recovery
from the exhaust gases to further increase the efficiency of
the biogas energy system.

Conclusions Figure 10: Renewable natural gas injection into the pipeline
The biological processes in anaerobic digesters modify grid at the Scenic View Dairy in Fennville, MI. Source: Norma
McDonald
agricultural organic wastes to reduce costs and generate
revenues or additional benefits. The products from ties, and continued improvement in biogas engines has
anaerobic digestion are divided into digestate and biogas, improved some components resistance to impurities. The
with the digestate further divided into fiber and filtrate. largest and most diverse energy applications of biogas
The type of solids separation used for the digestate can are those that substitute it for natural gas, but for many
result in a wide range of solid separation efficiency, and of these applications the energy content of biogas must
subsequently affect the partitioning of nutrients between be increased by removing carbon dioxide and other inert
the liquids and solids and the market opportunities for gases. Systems are available to remove essentially all the
the solids. The value of the end products and the cost inert gases and allow biogas to meet pipeline natural gas
of producing them must be weighed when deciding how quality specifications, but these systems are expensive
the anaerobic digestion system will be used. Many of the and further growth in this area will likely depend on greater
potential applications of fiber and energy from anaerobic policy opportunities or cost reductions.
digesters are still emerging and may
provide greater opportunities in the
future.
The energy applications of biogas
are also diverse, and depend on
the types of gas scrubbing systems
employed. Raw biogas can be burned
in some appliances, but for most ap-
plications the raw biogas will need to
be scrubbed to remove impurities, (e.g.
hydrogen sulfide and water vapor),
that can damage internal combus-
tion equipment. Various methods
Figure 11: Two internal combustion engines with heat recovery apparatus.
are available to remove these impuri- Source: John Katers

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 14

Unit 1.4: Environmental Benefits & Concerns: Placing
Anaerobic Digestion into Context
Background
Anaerobic digestion and biogas are generally judged by
many organizations, government agencies to be a sustain-
able method for reducing the strength and environmental
impacts of waste and a way to produce renewable energy.
Evidence for the green credentials of anaerobic digestion
is found in the EPAs AgSTAR initiative for manure manage-
ment, the diverse availability of carbon and green energy
credits for anaerobic digestion from both public (e.g. Cali-
fornias climate reserve program, state renewable energy
credit standards, the EPAs Renewable Fuel Standard)
and private (Terrapass) programs, and the efforts of many
sustainable development efforts around the world. Detailed
scientific analyses have compared the full life cycle carbon
emissions of biogas from anaerobic digestion to alternative
sources of fuels with positive outcomes.
Nevertheless, anaerobic digestion has come under
environmental scrutiny in two major ways. First, the
demonstrated green credentials of anaerobic digestion,
as with any other green technology, cannot be viewed in
isolation. If other methods are available to meet the same
positive environmental attributes, but at a lower cost,
there may be an environmental opportunity cost to using
anaerobic digestion. Second, anaerobic digestion has
been scrutinized for some environmental impacts, such
as the potential for increased ammonia emissions and the
Environmental Benefits of
Anaerobic Digestion
Many of the environmental benefits of anaerobic
digestion as a waste management method and renewable
energy source have been described in previous units of this
module. The intent of this unit is to put these benefits into
context and explore the fuller picture of the environmental
benefits of anaerobic digestion as well as to review areas
creation of air contaminants associated with biogas com-
bustion when compared to alternative methods of livestock
waste management. While anaerobic digesters may
reduce some environmental effects of concentrated animal
livestock operations (CAFOs) such as odor reduction
they do not mitigate all environmental impacts on large
scale operations (e.g., water quality, air emissions). As
such, they are not a panacea and should not be construed
as a silver bullet remedy for all the potential environmen-
tal impacts of CAFOs. The full environmental footprint of
anaerobic digestion is complex and will vary depending on
the application, management and design specifics of each
project.
Guiding Questions
What are the main environmental attributes of
anaerobic digestion?
What alternative waste management or energy
systems should be compared to anaerobic digestion
and biogas?
What environmental impacts and criticisms of large
commercial livestock farms do anaerobic digesters
address and what impacts do these systems not
address?
What is an indirect environmental impact and how
should society weigh these impacts?
where anaerobic digestion does not offer environmental
benefits or even increases negative environmental impacts.
To summarize, the environmental benefits fall into the cat-
egories of greenhouse gas emissions, odor control, water
quality, nutrient management and pathogen reduction.
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 15
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Methane is a potent greenhouse gas because it is 21
times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere
than carbon dioxide over a 100-year timeframe. In other
words, it takes 21 tons of carbon dioxide to equal the
effect of 1 ton of methane.
Anaerobic digestion has been found to reduce
methane and nitrous oxide greenhouse gas emissions from
manure compared to manure management systems that
do not use anaerobic digestion.
In municipal and industrial wastewater treatment,
systems that incorporate anaerobic digestion require less
energy than systems that only use aerobic treatment.
Anaerobic systems can reduce the amount of biosolids,
reducing the high energy demands of aeration compres-
sors and the high transportation and disposal costs. In
addition, the beneficial use of biogas instead of fossil fuels
for energy systems will reduce the emissions from using
conventional fuels.
Odor control
Livestock odors present a significant nuisance
potential. Wilkie (2000) states that odorants in livestock
manure result primarily from the partial decomposition of
organic matter by anaerobic microorganisms. Over 75
malodorous compounds have been identified in swine
manure. Many of the offensive odorants are nitrogen- or
sulfur-containing compounds. Additionally, phenols (phenol
and cresol), indoles (indole and skatole), and volatile
fatty acids contribute to malodor. Anaerobic bacteria in a
digester consume the volatile solids, thereby destroying
the source of odors. The destruction of volatile solids will
reduce the potential for odor complaints when digestate is
land applied or used for other value-added purposes.
Wilkie further states that odor control is the primary
reason some digesters are installed on livestock opera-
tions. Anaerobic digestion has been shown to reduce the
offensiveness of manure odor. Wilkie provides the following
examples:
Anaerobic digestion at 35C was more effective in
controlling odor than at 25C provided that solids
retention times were 10 days or greater. The reduced
presence and offensiveness of digested effluent
odors remained even after storage for nearly three
months.
Digested pig slurry, when spread on land, produced
an odor significantly less than that from undigested
slurry. During the first six hours after spreading,
when the rate of odor emission is highest, digestion
reduced emission by 79%. Also, additional storage
did not negate the benefits of anaerobic digestion in
reducing odor offensiveness from pig slurry applied
to grassland
Effluent from anaerobic digestion of simulated
flushed dairy manure was much less odorous
than the fresh manure influent. Maintaining longer
hydraulic retention times and separating the most
fibrous solids by screening the manure prior to
digestion further reduced odors, as evaluated by a
human panel.
Odgers and Struss (2009) suggest that the degree
and predictability of odor control may be realized with a
hydraulic retention time of 29 days or longer. They point out
that although digesters reduce the organic content of the
wastes passing through them, some organics remain un-
digested. The longer the retention time, the more thorough
the digestion, however, the larger the digester also needs
to be. Most digesters are sized to optimize payback, which
means they are smaller than what would be needed for
complete digestion. They conclude that if odor control is
a goal, retention time should be maintained at 29 days or
longer.
Water quality (nitrogen, phosphorus) and nutrient
management
The filtrate from anaerobic digestion will vary based
on solids separation equipment, as described in Unit 1.3,
but in general the filtrate will offer the livestock producer
greater options for targeting agricultural lands with only the
needed nutrients and may allow for savings in nutrient land
application costs. Anaerobic digestion has been found to
be an effective way to segregate phosphorus, a common
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 16
watershed pollutant, into the fiber or solid portion of the
filtrate for export from phosphorus-saturated agricultural
lands to phosphorus depleted lands.
Pathogen reduction/destruction
High levels of pathogen destruction (90 percent or
more) have been well documented for anaerobic digestion
systems. A study conducted by Baldwin and Katers (2008),
for example, showed pathogen destruction levels well over
90 percent for both coliform and streptococcal bacteria.
Pathogen destruction is important not only for herd health,
but also for environmental reasons associated with land
application.
The reduction in pathogens can often be a critical
selling point for the installation of a digester, although it
is difficult to put a true value on this benefit. In European
countries that have even more stringent biosecurity restric-
tions, anaerobic digestion can be a method to comply with
requirements to destroy pathogens. The effectiveness of
pathogen destruction from anaerobic digestion will vary
depending on the temperature, holding time and other
characteristics of the anaerobic digestion process.
Indirect Benefits
Many of the environmental benefits of anaerobic
digestion are indirect. For example, the reduction in the
mass of biosolids produced from anaerobic treatment of
wastewater can result in decreased energy consump-
tion for drying, storing or trucking biosolids. Anaerobic
digestion can also be an effective alternative disposal
strategy for high-strength wastes from food processing,
avoiding the need to truck these wastes for land applica-
tion. The reduction in land application of wastewater and
the greater opportunities for nutrient management from
anaerobic digesters in livestock applications can also
reduce soil compaction on farm fields. Manure treated
with anaerobic digesters has both lower odor and greater
inorganic nitrogen compounds than untreated manure,
creating greater opportunities for land applications with
irrigation equipment. Alternative methods for land applica-
tion of manure can require greater soil disturbance, such
as manure injection or land spreading followed by disking,
that can reduce the opportunities for certain types of soil
conservation tillage methods. By creating more options for
the treatment of wastewater and livestock manure, some of
the environmental advantages of anaerobic digestion may
not be realized directly or immediately after the installation
of the anaerobic digester but may create future options for
a producer to implement other sustainable methods such
as no-till farming or even increase food production with
aquaculture or greenhouse cultivation.
Digester Scalability
Perhaps the greatest areas of environmental concern
around anaerobic digesters are not directly related to the
biochemical process inside the digester, but are instead
related to socioeconomic concerns:
Does the use of anaerobic digestion encourage
farming practices that may be viewed as unsustain-
able?
Is anaerobic digestion the most cost-effective
method to process wastewater or manure, or are
there other management techniques that could be
equally as effective?
The primary complication related to anaerobic
digesters and pollution reduction on farms in the United
States is not directly related to the function of the anaerobic
digester itself, but to the types of farms that are most likely
to have these systems. According to U.S. EPAs AgSTAR
program, conventional anaerobic digesters are typically
designed to process the amount of wet manure created
by dairy herd sizes of at least 500 cows or 2,000 feeder
pigs. Herds of this size and larger are difficult to pasture,
therefore the animals are held in large buildings or covered
enclosures called Concentrated Animal Feeding Opera-
tions (CAFOs) where at least 90 percent of the manure
is collected regularly. The manure from these facilities is
typically scraped or pumped from concrete floors and
the volume of waste can result in potential manure man-
agement problems, with or without anaerobic digesters.
While anaerobic digesters may reduce odors and make
manure easier to apply to the land, from a water quality
standpoint, the overall volume of manure and nutrients
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 17
does not change appreciably due to anaerobic digestion.
The presence of large volumes of wet manure before or
after treatment with an anaerobic digester will always
entail some risk of spill or over-application of nutrients to
farmland, resulting in nutrient runoff. As discussed previ-
ously, the anaerobic digester changes the nutrient profile
in ways that have been found to have benefits for nutrient
management, but the risk of runoff is not eliminated.
One way to examine the relationship between biogas
energy production and manure management is to ask
questions that address the net environmental impact of
anaerobic digesters at large farms. For example:
Do large CAFOs have environmental impacts greater
than what can be addressed by anaerobic digesters?
Will additional incentives or policies that encourage
the production of biogas from anaerobic digesters
promote not only the energy systems themselves but
also the expansion of larger herd sizes to the detriment
of smaller farms? Or are other trends and regulations
driving the expansion of farm sizes?
Does the use of anaerobic digesters at CAFOs reduce
options for farmers who are moving toward a grass-
based system for dairy or beef?
The larger impediment to anaerobic digesters on small
farms is the high fixed cost of grid interconnection, which
when amortized over a small amount of electrical produc-
tion, makes it infeasible. If policies existing to make inter-
connection costs part of the rate base, anaerobic digesters
would be on a lot more small farms and the whole CAFO
versus small farm debate would go away.
While most of the anaerobic digesters in the United
States to date have been installed at CAFOs, the
expansion of biogas production in the future is likely to
come from a much broader range of sources, including
wastewater treatment plants, food processing facilities
and, eventually, digesters now being developed for smaller
farms.
Many of the proposed state and federal climate policies
that would expand biogas also provide incentives for
reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
through nitrogen fertilizer emission reductions, adopting
agricultural cropping systems that store carbon (reduced
tillage, cover crops, etc.), and planting perennial grasses on
highly erodible or marginal land all scale neutral incen-
tives. In addition to their advantages in reducing climate
change, these agricultural processes provide benefits
for water quality, soil fertility, and wildlife habitat. It is
important to note that many agricultural advocacy groups
that support sustainable agriculture in the United States
also support comprehensive clean energy policies, such
as federal carbon cap and trade legislation, which would
encourage biogas production.
Opportunity Costs
Another environmental criticism of anaerobic digestion
is the question of whether subsidies for anaerobic digesters
with advanced nutrient management features, such as
solid separation and/or polymer additions to segregate
phosphorus from digestate, have an negative opportunity
cost relative to other approaches to reduce phosphorus
runoff from livestock agriculture. Current government
voluntary cost share programs offered by the Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) provide assis-
tance to producers to implement manure management
practices. Provision of subsidies for nutrient management
planning or for the construction of appropriate facilities for
manure handling and storage can have a much lower cost
than developing an anaerobic digestion facility. Manage-
ment practices such as rotational grazing or composting
manure also have lower costs and have documented
positive impact on water quality and nutrient management.
Federal or state subsidies for development of anaerobic
digestion facilities must be evaluated against other potential
methods of addressing manure management. All practices
will have benefits and tradeoffs to the producer and to
society at large that should be considered along with cost
effectiveness.
Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 18
Conclusions
In the U.S., anaerobic digestion is promoted by
many different public and private sources primarily as a
waste management strategy and, to a lesser extent, as a
renewable energy resource. Depending on the technol-
ogy used and the management of selected technologies,
anaerobic digestion systems may fail to reduce odors; can
result in an increase in ammonia emissions; and create
nitrogen oxide and hazardous air pollutant emissions from
biogas combustion. Any practice, if not done properly, can
have negative effects. The failure to reduce odors is an
indication the anaerobic digester system is not operating
properly, or that the remainder of the manure manage-
ment system does not control odors. Some critiques
of anaerobic digestion focus on the indirect effects of
anaerobic digestion, such as the possibility that anaerobic
digestion or biogas incentives are not scale neutral, or that
the development of anaerobic digesters may reduce incen-
tives for less expensive methods to improve water quality
or reduce odor. The scale and impact of these indirect
effects of anaerobic digestion will require continuing evalua-
tion.

References
Unit 1.1
AgSTAR, 2012. Operating Anaerobic Digester Projects. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/agstar/projects/index.html verified 08/09/2012.

Energy Center of Wisconsin. Biogas Casebooks. Available at:

http://www.ecw.org/project.php?workid=4&resultid=419 verified 08/09/2012.

M.C. Gould, Crook, M.F. 2010. Michigan On-farm Anaerobic Digester Operator Handbook. Michigan State University
Extension, East Lansing, MI.

International Energy Agency, 2011. IEA Bioenergy Task 37: Biogas Production and Utilisation: Country Reports of
Member Countries, Istanbul, April. International Energy Agency. Available at:
http://www.iea-biogas.net/_content/publications/member-country-reports.html verified 08/09/2012.

International Energy Agency, 2005. IEA Bioenergy. Task 37: Biogas Production and Utilisation. May. Available at:
http://www.ieabioenergy.com/MediaItem.aspx?id=56 verified 08/16/2012.

P. Lusk. 1998. Methane Recovery from Animal Manures: A Current Opportunities Casebook. Third Edition. NREL/
SR-25145. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Work performed by Resource Development Associates,
Washington, DC. Available at:
http://www.biogasworks.com/Reports/MOC-3.htm (summary)
or http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy99osti/25145.pdf (complete document). verified: 08/15/2012

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2011. Combined Heat and Power Partnership. Opportunities for Combined
Heat and Power at Wastewater Treatment Facilities: Market Analysis and Lessons from the Field. October. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/chp/markets/wastewater.html verified 08/09/2012.

Unit 1.2
AgSTAR. 2010. Anaerobic Digestion Capital Costs for Dairy Farms. May. Available at:
www.epa.gov//documents/digester_cost_fs.pdf verified 08/09/2012.

J. Kramer. 2009. Wisconsin Agricultural Biogas Casebook. Prepared for Focus on Energy. December. Available at:
http://www.focusonenergy.com/files/Document_Management_System/Renewables/biogas09_casestudy.pdf verified
08/09/2012.

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 19

J. Kramer. 2011. Great Lakes Region Food Industry Biogas Casebook. Prepared for Energy Center of Wisconsin. March.
Available at: http://www.ecw.org/ecwresults/261-1.pdf verified 08/09/2012.

J. Welch. 2010. Community Manure Digester Dane County. Presentation given at the EPA Ag-STAR Conference, April 28.
Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/agstar/documents/conf10/Welch.pdf verified 08/16/2012.

Unit 1.3

Anaerobic Digestion.com. 2012. Anaerobic Digestion Flow Chart. Available at:

http://www.anaerobic-digestion.com/html/anaerobic_flow_diagram.html verified 08/14/2012.
M.C. Gould, Crook, M.F. 2010. Michigan On-Farm Anaerobic Digester Operator Handbook. Michigan State University
Extension.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2012. Case Study Primer for Participant Discussion: Biodigesters
and Biogas. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/agstar/documents/biogas_primer.pdf verified: 8/15/2012.

P. Westerman, Veal M., Cheng, J., Zering, K. 2008. Biogas Anaerobic Digester Considerations for Swine Farms in North
Carolina. North Carolina Cooperative Extension. Available at:
http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/manure/energy/digester.pdf verified 8/15/2012.

J.L. Walsh, Ross, C.C., Smith, M.S., Harper, S.R., Wilkins, W.A. 1988. Handbook on Biogas Utilization. Georgia Tech
Research institute, Georgia institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332. Available at:
http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/22/21262.pdf verified 8/15/2012.

Unit 1.4
A. Baldwin, Katers, J. 2008. Performance Analysis of Anaerobic Digestion Systems At Two Dairy Farms in Northeastern
Wisconsin. Research conducted at the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay for Focus on Energy. Available at:
http://www.renewwisconsin.org/biogas/AD/performanceanalysisdigestionsystems_finalreport.pdf verified 8/15/2012.

D. Grande. 2010. Report on Wisconsins Livestock Fenceline Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide Monitoring Project.
Research conducted by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Available at:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/AirQuality/documents/AgFencelineFinal.pdf verified 08/14/2012.

Lake Michigan Air Directors Consortium. 2007. Interim White Paper, Agricultural Emissions of Ammonia. Available at:
http://www.ladco.org/reports/control/white_papers/Ammonia_LADCO_030308.pdf verified 08/14/2012.

J. MacDonald, ODonoghue, E., McBride, W., Nehring, R, Sandretto, C., Mosheim, R. 2007. Profits, Costs, and the
Changing Structure of Dairy Farming. USDA Economic Research Service. Economic Research Report no. (ERR-47).
September. Available at:
www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err47/err47b.pdf verified 08/14/2012.

E. Odger, Struss, S. 2009. Final Report on Wisconsins Dairy and Livestock Odor and Air Emission Project. Wisconsin
Department of Agriculture, Trade and Consumer Protection, Madison, WI. Available at
http://datcp.wi.gov/uploads/Farms/pdf/CIGFinalReport.pdf verified 08/14/2012.

R.W. Pinder, Anderson, N., Strader R., Davidson, C., Adams, P. 2003. Ammonia Emissions from Dairy Farms: Develop-
ment of a Farm Model and Estimation of Emissions from the United States. Presented at the 12th International Emission
Inventory Conference Emission Inventories Applying New Technologies. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/conference/ei12/part/pinder.pdf verified 08/14/2012.

P. Taglia. 2010. Rethinking Biogas: An Emerging Energy Source in the Midwest. Produced by Clean Wisconsin. Available
at: http://ecw.org/project.php?workid=4&resultid=446 verified 08/14/2012.

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 20

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Protocol for Quantifying and Reporting the Performance of Anaerobic
Digestion Systems for Livestock Manures. Prepared by Eastern Research Group, Inc., Lexington, Mass. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/agstar/documents/protocol.pdf verified 08/14/2012.

A.C. Wilkie. 2000. Anaerobic Digestion: Holistic Bioprocessing of Animal Manures. In: Proceedings of the Animal
Residuals Management Conference, p.1-12. Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, Virginia.

Gould, M.C., P. Taglia. 2012. Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion. Module 1 in S. Lezberg, M.C. Gould and M. Jungswirth
(eds.). Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion Course. On-line Curriculum. Bioenergy Training Center.
http://fyi.uwex.edu/biotrainingcenter

Learningforlife

Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion 21