20/02/2017 PagesSteamAccumulators

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SteamEngineeringTutorials>TheBoilerHouse

Acompleteoverviewoftheneedforsteamstoragetomeetpeakloaddemandsinspecificindustries,includingthedesign,constructionand
operationofasteamaccumulator,withcalculations.

SteamAccumulators
Thepurposeofasteamaccumulatoristoreleasesteamwhenthedemandisgreaterthantheboilersabilitytosupplyatthattime,andtoacceptsteamwhen
demandislow.

Steamaccumulatorsaresometimesthoughtofasrelicsofthesteamagewithlittleapplicationinmodernindustry.ThefollowingSectionswithinthisModule
will:

Illustratehowasteamaccumulatorcanimprovetheoperationofamodernplant.

Discussthefactorswhichmakesteamaccumulatorsevenmorenecessarynow,thaninthepast.

Provideguidanceonthesizingandselectionofappropriateancillaryequipment.

Boilerdesign
Contemporaryboilersaresignificantlysmallerthantheircounterpartsofonly30yearsago.Thisreductioninboilersizehasbeenbroughtaboutbyusers,who
demandthatboilersbe:

Moreefficientintermsoffuelinputtosteamoutput.

Moreresponsivetochangesindemand.

Smaller,andsotakeuplessfloorspace.

Cheapertobuyandinstall.

Thesetargetshavebeenmetinpartbytodaysmoresophisticatedcontrols/burnerswhichrespondfasterandmoreaccuratelytochangesindemandthanthose
ofbygoneyears.However,aboilersresponsetochangesindemandisalsoaffectedbythelawsofnature,forexample:howmuchwateristobeheatedand
theheattransferareaavailabletotransferthatheatfromtheburnerflametothewater.

Responsetimeshavebeenimprovedbyphysicallyreducingtheexternaldimensionsoftheboilerforanygivenoutput,andbycrammingtheinsidesfulloftubes
toincreasetheheattransferarea.Thismeansthatthemodernboilerholdslesswater,andtheheattransferareaperkgofwaterisgreater.Considerthe
situationoftoday:

1.Steamdemandfromtheplantisincreased,andthepressureintheboilerfallstotheburnercontrolsetpoint.

2.Theburnercontrolpurgesthecombustionchamber,andtheburnerisignited.

3.Thelargeheattransferareaandthelowermassofwatercombinetorapidlyevaporatethewaterintheboilertosatisfythedemandforsteam.

AscoveredinModule3.7,BoilerFittingsandMountings,theenergystoredinaboileriscontainedinthewaterwhichisheldatsaturationtemperature.The
greatertheamountofwaterinsideaboiler,thegreatertheamountofstoredenergytocopewithchangesindemand/load.

Table3.22.1comparesanoldLancashireboilerofthe1950swithamodernpackagedboiler.Notethatthemodernpackagedboilercontainsonly20%ofthe
waterheldinasimilarlyratedLancashireboiler.Itfollowsfromthisthatthereserveofenergyheldinthemodernpackagedboilerisonly20%oftheLancashire
boiler.ThissuggeststhatthemodernpackagedboilercannotcopewithpeakdemandsinthewayanoldLancashireboilercould.

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AlsonotefromTable3.22.1,thatthesteamreleaseratefromthesurfaceofthewaterinsidethemodernpackagedboilerhasincreasedbyafactorof2.7.This
meansthatthesteamhasonly1/2.7(40%)ofthetimeavailableinaLancashireboilertoseparateitselffromthewater.Attimesofpeakdemandthismay
meanthatwetsteamisbeingexportedfromthemodernpackagedboiler,andpossiblyatalowerpressurethanthatwhichitwasdesignedtooperateCovered
inModule3.12ControllingTDSintheBoilerWater.

Waterwhichiscarriedoverwiththesteamwillbedirty(approximately3000ppmTDS),andwillcontaminatecontrolvalvesandheattransfersurfaces.Itmay
evenblocksomeofthesmallerorificesinpressuresensingdevices,steamtrapsandsoon.

Note:TheinformationtocreateTable3.22.1wassuppliedbyThermsave.ImperialunitsarealsoshownintheTabletoprovideaninsightintothefactorsapplied
inthedesigningofboilersinthepast.

Peakdemands
Steamdemandsonanyprocessplantarerarelysteady,butthesizeandtypeofthefluctuationsdependontheapplicationandtheindustry.Peaksmayoccur
onceaweekorevenonceadayduringstartup.

Thebiggestproblemscausedbypeakdemandsareusuallyassociatedwithbatchprocessingindustries:

Brewing.

Textiles.

Drycleaning.

Canning.

Lightweightconcreteblockmanufacturers.

Specialisedareasofthesteelmakingindustry.

Rubberindustrieswithlargeautoclaves.

Fortheseprocessesthepeaksmaybeheavyandlongterm,andmeasuredinfractionsofanhour.

Alternatively,loadcyclescanconsistofshorttermfrequentpeaksofshortdurationbutveryhighinstantaneousflowrate:

Hosieryfinishing.

Rubber.

Plasticandpolystyrenemoulding.

Steampeeling.

Hospitalandindustrialsterilisation.

Figure3.22.1,showsthatineachcasethedemandsarealmostinstantaneousandthepeaksarewellabovetheaverageload.Theresultofasuddendemand
onboilerplantisapressuredropintheboiler,becausetheboileranditsassociatedcombustionequipmentareunabletogeneratesteamattherateatwhichit
isbeingdrawnoff.

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Peakdemandsandsubsequentpressuredropsmayhavequiteseriousconsequencesonfactoryproduction.

Atworst,theresultisaboilerlockout,duetotheelevationofwaterlevelcausedbyrapidboiling,followedbyitscollapse.Thisisseenasalowwaterlevel
alarmbythelevelcontrols.

Atbest,thesteamproducediswetandcontaminated.This,coupledwithareductioninpressure,canleadto:

Increasedprocesstimes.

Areductioninproductqualityorevendamageorlossoftheproduct.

Waterhammerinthesteammainscausingdistresstopipeworkandfittings,andpossibledangertopersonnel.

Fortheboilerplant,peakdemandsareresponsiblefor:

Ahigherlevelofmaintenance.

Reducedboilerlife.

Reducedfuelefficiency.

Thisisbecausethecombustionequipmentiscontinuallycyclingfromlowtohighfire,andevenshuttingoffduringperiodsofverylowdemand,onlytofireagain
afewminuteslater,withallthepreandpostpurgechillingeffects.

Multipleoroversizedboilersmaybeusedinanefforttocopewithpeakdemands(andthesubsequentdipsindemand)whichinevitablyresultinlow
efficiencies.

Toillustratethispoint,itcanbeassumedthat:

Foranaveragesteamboiler,lessthan1%ofthelossesareduetoheatradiatedfromtheboilershell(forexample:1%oftheMaximumContinuousRating
(MCR)oftheboiler).

Ifaboileristhenproducing50%ofitsMCR,thelossesduetoradiationare2%relativetoitsproductionrate.

Ifaboilerisproducing25%ofitsMCRthelossesare4%ofitsproductionrate.

Andsoon,untilaboilerissimplymaintainedatapressurewithoutexportinganysteamtothefactory.Atthispoint,1%ofitsMCRisa100%lossrelativetoits
steamproductionrate.

Ifboilerplantissizedforpeakloads,problemsariseduetooversizingrelativetotheaveragedemand.Inpractice,aboilermayshutoffduringaperiodoflow
demand.Ifthisisthenfollowedbyasuddensurgeofdemandandtheboilerisnotfiring,analarmsituationmayarise.

Alarmswillring,theboilermaylockoutandsteamrecoverywillbeslowandarduous.

Inshort,peaksareresponsiblefor:

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Lossofproduction.

Reducedproductquality.

Increasedproductiontimes.

Poorqualitysteamfromtheboiler.

Lowfuelefficiency.

Highmaintenancecosts.

Reducedboilerlife.

Loadlevellingtechniques
Modernboilersareveryefficientwhenproperlyloadedandrespondquicklytoloadincreases,providedthattheboilerisfiring.However,conventionalshell
boilersaregenerallyunabletomeetlargepeakdemandsinasatisfactorywayandshouldbeprotectedfromlargefluctuatingloads.

Variousmethodsareusedinanattempttocreateastableloadpatterntoprotecttheboilerplantfromtheeffectsoflargefluctuatingloads.

Engineeringmethods:
Pressuremaintainingvalves(alsocalledsurplussingvalves)canbeusedasloadsheddingdevicesbyisolatingnonessentialpartsoftheplantandthereby
givingprioritytoessentialplant,atypicalarrangementisshowninFigure3.22.2.Thesuccessofthismethodagaindependsontheseverityofthepeaksand
theassumptionthattheboilerisfiringwhenthepeakdevelops.

Surplussingvalvescanalsobefitteddirectlytotheboileroronthesteammaintothefactory,asshowninFigure3.22.3.

Thesetpressureshouldbe:

Lessthanthehighfirecontrolpressure,topreventanyinterferenceofthesurplussingcontrolwiththeburnercontrols.

Highenoughtomaintainthepressureintheboileratasafelevel.

Intermsofsizingthesurplussingvalve,therequirementisforminimumpressuredrop.Asageneralindication,alinesizevalveshouldbeconsidered.

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Twoelementorthreeelementwaterlevelcontrol.Thesecanbesuccessfulaslongasthepeaksarenotviolentandtheboilerisfiringwhenthepeak
developstheboilermustalsohavesufficientcapacity.

Twoelementcontrolusesinputsfromtheboilerwaterlevelcontrolsandthesteamflowratetopositionthefeedwatercontrolvalve.

Threeelementcontrolusestheabovetwoelementsplusaninputfromafeedwaterflowmeasuringdevicetocontroltheincomingfeedwaterflowrate,ratherthan
justthepositionofthefeedwatercontrolvalve.(Thisthirdelementisonlyappropriateonboilerswhichusemodulatinglevelcontrolinboilerhouseswitha
feedwaterringmain.)

Example3.22.1

Aboilerisratedat5000kg/hFromandAt

Thehigh/lowfirepressuresettingsare11.3/12.0bargrespectively(12.3/13.0bara).

Thesurplussingvalvesettingis11.0barg(12.0bara).

1.Basedonavelocityofapproximately25m/s,a100mmsteammainwouldbeselected.

2.KvsofastandardDN100surplussingcontrolvalveis160m/h

3.Usingthefollowingmassflowequationforsaturatedsteamthepressuredownstreamofthesurplussingvalve(P2)canbecalculated:

Inthisexample,atlowfire,theboilerpressureisgivenas12barg(13bara).

ItcanbecalculatedfromEquation3.21.2thatthepressureafterthefullyopensurplussingvalveis11.89barg(12.89bara).

Consequently,thepressuredropissmall(0.11bar)andwouldnotbesignificantinnormaloperation.However,ifthepressureshouldfallto11.0barg,the
surplussingvalvewillstarttocloseinordertomaintainupstreampressure.

Theproportionalbandonthecontrollershouldbesetasnarrowaspossiblewithoutmakingthevalvehuntaboutthesetpoint.

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Bothmethodsofapplyingpressuremaintainingvalvesmayprovideprotectiontotheboilerplant,buttheywillnotovercomethefundamentalrequirementof
moresteamfortheprocess.

Managementmethods
Theseinclude,forexample,staggeredstartsonprocessestokeeppeakloadsaslowaspossible.Thismethodofsmoothingoutpeakscanbebeneficialtothe
boilerplantbutmaybedetrimentalandrestrictivetoproduction,havingmuchthesameeffectasthepressuremaintainingvalve.

Itis,however,impossibletosmoothoutshorttermpeaksusingonlymanagementmethods.

Inafactorywheretherearemanyindividualprocessesimposingsuchpeaksitispossibleforthistohavealevellingeffectontheload,butequallyso,itisalso
possibleforthemanyindividualprocessestopeaksimultaneously,withdisastrouseffects.

Iftheabovemethodsdonotprovidetherequiredstabilityofdemand,itmaybetimetoconsiderameansofstoringsteam.

Thesteamaccumulator
Themostappropriatemeansofprovidingcleandrysteaminstantaneously,tomeetapeakdemandistouseamethodofstoringsteamsothatitcanbe
releasedwhenrequired.Storingsteamasagasunderpressureisnotpracticalduetotheenormousstoragevolumerequiredatnormalboilerpressures.

Thisisbestexplainedinanexample:

IntheexampleusedlaterinthisModule,avesselwithavolumeof52.4misused.

Chargingpressureis10barg(specificvolume=0.177m/kg).

Dischargepressureis5barg(specificvolume=0.315m/kg).

Basedontheseparameters,theresultantenergystoredandreadyforinstantreleasetotheplantiscontainedin130kgofsteam.Thisamountstoonly5.2%of
theenergystoredandreadyforuse,comparedtoawaterfilledaccumulator.

Inpracticetherearetwowaysofgeneratingsteam:

Byaddingheattoboilingwater,indirectlyviaacombustiontubeandburner,asinaconventionalboiler.

Byreducingthepressureonwaterstoredatitssaturationtemperature.Thisresultsinanexcessofenergyinthewater,whichcausesaproportionofthewater
tochangeintosteam.

Thisphenomenonisknownasflashing,andtheequipmentusedtostorethepressurisedwateriscalledasteamaccumulator.Thereare,inprinciple,twotypes
ofsystemsavailableforsteamstoragethepressuredropaccumulatorandtheconstantpressureaccumulator.Thismoduleonlyconsiderstheformertype.

Asteamaccumulatoris,essentially,anextensionoftheenergystoragecapacityoftheboiler(s).Whensteamdemandfromtheplantislow,andtheboileris
capableofgeneratingmoresteamthanisrequired,thesurplussteamisinjectedintoamassofwaterstoredunderpressure.Overaperiodoftimethestored
watercontentwillincreaseintemperatureandpressureuntilitfinallyachievesthesaturationtemperatureforthepressureatwhichtheboilerisoperating.

Demandwillexceedthecapabilityoftheboilerwhen:

Aloadisappliedfasterthantheboilersabilitytorespondforexample,theburner(s)maybeextinguishedandapurgingcyclemustbecompletedbeforethe
burnercanbesafelyignited.Thismaytakeupto5minutes,andratherthanaddingheattotheboiler,thepurgingcyclewillactuallyhaveaslightcoolingeffect
onthewaterintheboiler.Addtothisthefactthattheflashingoftheboilerwaterwillcauseadropinwaterlevel,andtheboilerlevelcontrolsystemwill
automaticallycompensateforthisbybringingfeedwaterinat,forexample,90C.Thiswillhaveaquenchingeffectonthewateralreadyatsaturation
temperature,andwillaggravatethesituation.

Aheavydemandoccursoveralongerthannormalperiod.

Ineithercase,theresultisadropinpressureinsidethesteamaccumulator,andasaresultofthissomeofthehotwaterwillflashtosteam.Therateatwhich
thewaterflashestosteamisafunctionofthestoragepressure,andtherateatwhichsteamisrequiredbythesystembeingsupplied.

Charging
Thepressuredropsteamaccumulatorconsistsofacylindricalpressurevesselpartiallyfilledwithwater,atapointbetween50%and90%fulldependingonthe
application.Steamischargedbeneaththesurfaceofthewaterbyadistributionmanifold,whichisfittedwithaseriesofsteaminjectors,untiltheentirewater
contentisattherequiredpressureandtemperature.

Itisnaturalthatthewaterlevelwillriseandfallduringcharginganddischarging.

Ifthesteamaccumulatorischargedusingsaturated(orwet)steam,theremaybeasmallgaininwaterduetotheradiationlossesfromthevessel.Normally,a
slightlygreatermassofsteamisdischargedthanisadmitted.

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Asteamtrap(ballfloattype)isfittedattheworkinglevelandactsasalevellimiter,dischargingthesmallamountofsurpluswatertothecondensatereturn
system.

However,ifthesteamaccumulatorwerechargedusingsuperheatedsteam,oriftheradiationlossesareverysmall,therewouldbeagraduallossofwaterdue
toevaporation,andafeedvalveorpump,underthecontroloflevelprobes,wouldberequiredtomakeupthedeficit.

Discharging
Asapressuredropoccursinasteamaccumulatorwiththestoredwateratsaturationtemperature,flashsteamwillbegeneratedattheratedemandedbyany
loadabovetheboilercapacityconsequentlytheoverloadconditionwillbesatisfied.Whentheoverloadisfollowedbyademandbelowtheboilercapacitythe
steamaccumulatorischargedusingsurplussteamfromtheboiler.Thischargeanddischargecycleexplainsthenamesteamaccumulatorandcontinually
allowstheboilertofireuptoitsmaximumcontinuousrating.

Thecharging/dischargingcycle
Theaccumulatorneedstobefullychargedatthebeginningofitsdischargeperiod,forittooperatecorrectly.Toallowthis,twomaineventsmustbesatisfied:

1.Enoughtimemustbeavailablefromtheendofoneoverloadperiodtothebeginningofthenext,torechargethewaterstoredintheaccumulator.

2.Theaverageoffloadsteamdemandmustbelowerthantheboilercapacity(themaximumcontinuousratingorMCR),suchthatsufficientsurplusboiler
capacityisavailabletorechargethewaterstoredintheaccumulatorduringoffpeaktimes.

Othercriteriaarealsoimportanttoensuretheaccumulatorhasenoughcapacity,andthesemustbesatisfiedbythedesign:

1.Enoughwatermustbestoredtoprovidetherequiredamountofflashsteamduringthedischargeperiod.Thiscanbesatisfiedbyensuringtheaccumulator
volumeislargeenough.

2.Highersteamreleaserateswillproducewetsteam.Thevelocityandflowrateatwhichtheflashsteamisreleasedfromthewatersurfacemustbebelowa
predeterminedvalue.Thiscanbesatisfiedbyensuringthewatersurfaceareaislargeenoughwhich,inturn,dependsontheaccumulatorsize.

3.Theevaporationcapacitymustbesufficient.Thisdependsonthepressureatwhichthewaterisstoredwhenfullycharged(theboilerpressure)andthe
minimumpressureatwhichtheaccumulatorwilloperateattheendofthedischargeperiod(theaccumulatordesignpressure).Thelargerthedifferentialbetween
thesetwopressures,themoreflashsteamwillbeproduced.

4.Theaccumulatordesignpressuremustbehigherthanthedownstreamdistributionpressure.Thisisnecessarytocreateapressuredifferentialacrossthe
downstreampressurereducingvalve(PRV),toallowtherequiredflowfromtheaccumulatortotheplant.Theclosertheaccumulatorpressuretothedistribution
pressure,thesmallertheaccumulatorbutthisalsogivesasmallerpressuredifferentialacrossthePRV.ThisrequiresalargerPRVlargeenoughtopassthe
highestoverloaddemandwhentheaccumulatorisatitsdesignpressure(theminimumpressureintheaccumulatorattheendofthedischargingperiod).

Sizingasteamaccumulator
Asteamaccumulatorinthesteamsystemgivesincreasedstoragecapacity.Properdesignofthesteamaccumulatorensuresthatanyflowratecanbecatered
for.Therearenotheoreticallimitstothesizeofasteamaccumulator,butofcoursepracticalconsiderationswillimposerestrictions.

Inpracticethesteamaccumulatorvolumeisbasedonthestoragerequiredtomeetapeakdemand,withanallowablepressuredrop,whilststillsupplyingclean
drysteamatasuitablesteamreleasevelocityfromthewatersurface.Example3.22.2below,isusedtocalculatethepotentialofsteamcapacityinahorizontal
steamaccumulator.

Example3.22.2

Boiler:

Maximumcontinuousrating=5000kg/h

Normalworkingpressure=10barg(hf=781kJ/kg,fromsteamtables)

Burnerswitchingdifferential=1bar(0.5bareithersideof10barg)

Plantrequirements:

Maximuminstantaneousoverload=12000kg/h

Distributionpressure=5barg

Althoughthemaximuminstantaneousoverloadis12000kg/h,themeanvalueoftheoverloadshouldbeusedtosizetheaccumulator.

Thispreventsunnecessaryoversizingoftheaccumulator.Equally,itisnecessarytodetermineandusethemeanoffpeakloadinthesizingcalculation.Off
peakloadisanyloadbelowtheboilerMCR.

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Findingthemeanvalueoftheoverloadandoffpeakload

Therearethreepossiblemethodstoestablishthemeanloadsforexistingboilerplant:

1.Toguestimate,basedonexperience.

2.Tointerrogatetheexistingboilersteamoutputchartstoestablishthemeanloadsandthetimeperiodsoverwhichtheyoccur.

3.Toprogramasteammeterscomputertointegratethesteamloadoverboththeoverloadandoffpeakloadperiods.

Method1couldprovetoberatherreckless,ifanexpensiveaccumulatorendeduptoosmall.

However,iftheboilerplantisstillatthedesignstage,aneducatedguesswillbetheonlyoption.Fromthedesignersknowledgeoftheinstallation,itshouldbe
possibletogiveareasonableestimateofthemaximumplantload,theloaddiversity,andthetimesoverwhichtheyoccur.

Method2isquiteeasytoexpedite,andshouldgiveareasonablyaccurateresult.

Method3wouldprovidethemostaccurateresults,andthecostofthesteammeterissmallrelativetotheoverallcostofanaccumulatorproject.

Thefollowingprocedureshowshowtodeterminethemeansteamloadsfromanexistingchartrecordingtheloadpattern.TheprocedureisbuiltupfromFigure
3.22.4,whichshowstheflowpatternforExample3.22.2.

FromFigure3.22.4,itcanbeseenthattheoffpeakloadshavebeendividedupintothefollowingmeanloadsandtimeperiods.Fromthisdata,themean
surplusloadforeachoffpeakperiodcanbedetermined.

Themeansurplusflowiscalculatedinthefollowingway:

1stoffpeakload

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2ndoffpeakload

AsimilarexerciseiscarriedoutfortheoverloadperiodsfromFigure3.22.4.

1stoverload

2ndoverload

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Theaccumulatordesignpressureneedstobechosen,anditisusualtochooseapressure1barhigherthanthedistributionpressure.Thisgivesareasonable
flashsteamcapacity,withoutundulyoversizingthedownstreamPRV.

Inthisexamplethedistributionpressureis5barg,sotheaccumulatordesignpressurecaninitiallybeconsideredat6barg(Note:thewatermassistakenat
boilerworkingpressure).

Fromthisinformation,anaccumulatormaynowbesized.

Steamaccumulator:

Notethatthis2797kgofflashsteamwillbereleasedinthetimetakenforthepressuretodrop.Ifthishasbeenanhour,thesteamingrateis2797kg/hifit
wereover30minutes,thenthesteamingratewouldbe:

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Ifthesteamaccumulatorisconnectedtoaboilerratedat5000kg/h,andsupplyinganaveragedemandwithinitscapacity,thecombinedboilerand
accumulatoroutputscouldmeetaverageoverloadconditionsof5594+5000=10594kg/hfor30minutes.Thealternativeisanadditionalcombinationof
boilerscapableofgenerating10594kg/hfor30minuteswiththelimitationspreviouslynoted.

Itisnowpossibletochecktheaccumulatorsize.

ThefiguresasusedinExample3.22.2areusedbelowtofacilitatechecking.

Boiler

Maximumcontinuousrating=5000kg/h

Normalworkingpressure=10barg

Plantrequirements

Largestmeanoverload=10300kg/hfor30minutesevery95minutes

Pressure=5barg

Requiredsteamstorage=10300kg/h5000kg/hsteamsuppliedbytheboiler

Requiredsteamstorage=5300kg/h

However,steamisonlyrequiredfor30minuteseveryhour,sothesteamstoragerequiredmustbe:

Theamountofwaterrequiredtorelease2650kgofsteamisafunctionoftheproportionofflashsteamreleasedduetothedropinpressure.

Thissatifiesthecriterionofhavingenoughwatertoproducetherequiredamountofflashsteam.Itcanbeseenthatthestoragecapacityof2797kgisgreater
thanthestoragerequiredof2650kgofsteam.

Ifthesteamaccumulatorwillbechargedat10bargbytheboiler,anddischargedat6bargtotheplant,theproportionofflashsteamcanbecalculatedas
follows:

Thevesselcapacityislargerat87.9m,sothevesselsatisfiesthiscriterion.

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Usingthevesseldimensionsgivenearlier,thewatersurfaceareaisapproximately20.53mwhenfullycharged,atavolumeof90%ofthevesselcapacity.

Themaximumsteamingratefromtheaccumulatorisgivenas5300kg/h,therefore:

Empiricaltestworkshowsthattherateatwhichdrysteamcanbereleasedfromthesurfaceofwaterisafunctionofpressure.Aworkingapproximation
suggests:

Maximumreleaseratewithoutsteamentrainment(kg/mh)=220xpressure(bara)

ThesteamaccumulatorinExample3.22.2isoperatingat6barg(7bara).Themaximumreleaseratewithoutsteamentrainmentwillbe:

220x7bara=1540kg/mh

ThisisshowngraphicallyinFigure3.22.5.

Theexampleat258kg/mhiswellbelowthemaximumvalue,anddrysteamcanbeexpected.Hadthesteamreleaseratebeentoohigh,differentdiameters
andlengthsgivingthesamevesselvolumewouldneedtobeconsidered.

Itmustbeemphasisedthatthisisonlyanindication,anddesigndetailsshouldalwaysbedelegatedtospecialistmanufacturers.

Steamaccumulatorcontrolsandfittings
Thefollowingisareviewoftheequipmentrequiredforasteamaccumulatorinstallation,togetherwithsomeguidanceonsizingandselectionofappropriate
equipment.

UsingfiguresfromExample3.22.2:

Boiler:

Maximumcontinuousrating=5000kg/h

Normalworkingpressure=10barg

Accumulator:

Massofwaterrequiredforsteamstorage=65920kg(fullychargedand90%ofvesselvolume)

P1(boilerpressure)=10barg(fullycharged)

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P2(dischargepressure)=6barg(fullydischarged)

Plantrequirements:

Pressure=5barg

Largestmeanoverload=10300kg/hfor30minutesevery95minutes,ofwhich,5000kg/hissuppliedbytheboiler.

Fromthesefiguresitcanbededucedthat65920kgofwatermustbeheatedfromsaturationtemperatureat6bargtosaturationtemperatureat10bargin95
minutes.

Pipework

Thepipeworkbetweentheboilerandthesteamaccumulatorshouldbesized,aspernormalpractice,onasteamvelocityof25to30m/sandthemaximum
outputoftheboiler.

InthecaseofExample3.22.2,thiswouldrequireaDN100pipelinefromtheboilertotheaccumulator,tocarrytheboilerMaximumContinuousRating(MCR)of
5000kg/h@10barg.

ThepipeworkfromtheaccumulatortothedownstreamPRVshouldbesizedonthemaximuminstantaneousoverloadandavelocityofnomorethan20m/s.
ThiswouldrequireaDN250nominalborepipeforthisexample,withanaccumulatordesignpressureof6barg.

Stopvalve

Alinesizestopvalveisrequiredinadditiontotheboilercrownvalve.Asuitablyratedstopvalve,preferablyincaststeel,wouldbeappropriate.

Checkornonreturnvalve

Alinesizecheckvalveisrequiredtopreventreverseflowofthesteambacktotheboilerintheeventoftheboilerbeingdeliberatelyshutdown,orperhaps,the
boilerlockingout.

Adisccheckvalvewouldbeanappropriatechoice.

Surplussingvalve

Thesurplussingvalveisessentialtoensurethattherateatwhichsteamisflowingfromtheboilertotheaccumulatoriswithinthecapabilityoftheboiler.
Example3.22.1,showshowthevalvewouldbesized.

Pilotoperated,selfactingsurplussingvalvesmaybeusedinsmallerinstallations,providedthenarrow(andnonadjustable)proportionalbandisacceptable.A
pneumaticcontrollerandcontrolvalveismoreappropriatetolargerinstallations,andofferstheadvantageofanadjustableproportionalband.

ForthisapplicationaDN100pneumaticallyoperatedcontrolvalvewithappropriateoperatingandshutoffcapability,wouldbeselected.

Steaminjectionequipment
Aproperlysizedsteaminletpipemustfeedtowellbelowthewatersurfacelevelandintoasteamdistributionheader/manifoldsystemsuchasshowninFigure
3.22.6.

Thesteamisinjectedintothewater.

Itisimportanttorememberthattheinjectorcapacitywillreduceasthepressureinthevesselincreases,asthedifferentialpressurebetweentheinjectedsteam
andthevesselpressureisreduced.

Atverylowflowratesthesteamwilltendtoissuefromtheinjectorsclosesttothesteaminletpipe(s).

Thedesignoftheinletpipe(s)andthemanifoldsystem,togetherwiththeplacementoftheinjectors,mustprovideeveninjectionofsteamthroughoutthelength
oftheaccumulatorregardlessofactualsteamflowrate.

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Thedischargefromtheinjectorswillbeveryhotwaterandsteam,possiblywithsomecondensingsteambubbles,atveryhighvelocity,promotingturbulence
andmixinginthewatermass.Theyshouldnotdischargedirectlyagainst,orcloseto,thewallsofthevessel.Angledinstallationmaythereforebeadvisable.
Ideally,theyshouldalsobeangledindifferentdirectionstoassistwithmoreevendistribution.

AnominalarrangementisshowninFigure3.22.6.

Inverylongvessels,moreregulardistributionmaybeachievediftwoormoreinletpipesareused.Insuchcases,itisveryimportantthattheinletpipesare
carefullymanifoldedtogetherfromthesupplymain.

Alltheinjectorsshouldbeinstalledaslowdownintheaccumulatoraspossibletoensurethemaximumpossibleliquidheadabovethem.Itmayalsobe
appropriatetoinstalltheinjectorsataslightangletoavoiderosionofthevessel.

ManufacturerssizingtableswillgivetheKvsvalueofsteaminjectors(seeTable3.22.2)

UsingthedatafromTable3.22.2andreferringtoFigure3.22.8,anextractfromthesaturatedsteamsizingchartFigure3.22.9:

1.Drawalinehorizontallytotherightacrossfromthexaxisat11bara(10barg)untilitintersectsthecriticalpressuredropline,point(A).

2.Drawalineverticallydownthechartfrompoint(A)untilitintersectstheKvsvalueoftheinjector,point(B),(ForexampleKvs5.8foranIM25Minjector).

3.Drawalinehorizontallytotheleft,untilitintersectstheyaxis,point(C).Thevalueshownwillbethecapacityoftheinjector.

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(Approximately760kg/hforthisexample).

Sizingandquantifyingtheinjectors
Theaboveexercisegivesacapacityof760kg/hforoneinjectorbutthisonlyrelatestothestartofthechargingperiod,whenthevesselpressureisatits
lowest,andtheinjectorcapacityisatitshighest.

Itmustberememberedthat,asmoresteamisinjectedintothevessel,thevesselpressurewillrise,effectivelyreducingtheinjectorscapacities,untilthe
vesselpressuremayeventuallyequalisewiththeboilerpressure,andnoflowcantakeplace.

Becauseofthis,itisnotpracticaltousetheone(highest)flowrate,760kg/hinthisexample.

Instead,itisnecessarytofindthemeaninjectionrateoverthechargingperiod.

ThiscanbedonebyusingEquation3.21.2tocalculatetheflowatdifferentvesselpressures.(TheSpiraxSarcoEngineeringSupportCentrehasavalvesizing
utility,whichcanbeusedtocalculatetheinjectorcapacitieseasilyfromtheinjectorKvvaluesseehttp://www.spiraxsarco.com/esc)

Inthisexample,thevesselpressurewillvarybetween6bargand10barg.Thegreaterthenumberofpressurestaken,thegreatertheaccuracybut,ingeneral,
takingincrementsat10%ofthedifferencebetweenboilerandaccumulationpressurewillgiveareliablemeanvalue.Table3.22.3showsthecalculationsforan
IN25injector(1")withaKvof5.8.

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Thetotalflowof6076kg/hisdividedbythenumberofentries.itmustberememberedtoincludethezeroentryaswellhencethereareelevenentriesto
consider.

Itcanbeseenthatthemeanflowrateof553kg/hissomewhatlessthanthemaximumcapacityof759kg/h.Ifthemaximumcapacitywereusedtoquantifythe
numberofinjectors,thennotenoughinjectorswouldbechosen.

Thenumberofinjectorsrequiredcanbedeterminedbydividingthesteamflowbytheamountasingleinjectorcansupply.

Note:Anumberofsmallerinjectorswouldbepreferabletoonelargeinjectortoensurepropermixingwithinthesteamaccumulator.

Thissizingchartisempiricalandshouldnotbeusedforcriticalapplications

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Calculatingthetimerequiredtorechargethevessel
FromtheloadpatternsshowninFigure3.22.4,ithasbeenshownthattheminimumtimebetweenchargecyclesis95minutes.Itisnownecessarytocheck
thatthevesselcanberechargedinlesstimethanthis.

Ithasbeenshownthatthequantityofsteamusedduringthedischargeperiodis2650kg.

ThemeansurplusflowofsteamavailableduringtherechargingperiodhasbeencalculatedfromFigure3.22.4as2916kg/h.

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Thetimerequiredforrechargingisproportionaltotheratioofthemassofsteamusedduringdischargetotherateofsurplussteamflowingintheoffpeak
period:

Astherequiredrechargingtimeislessthanthetimebetweentheshortestoverloadcycleof95minutes,thebalancebetweentheoverloadtimeandthe
rechargingtimecanbesatisfiedbytheaccumulator.

Therefore,theaccumulatorsizeof7metreslongby4metresdiameterprovidessufficientcapacityforthisparticularexample.

Pressuregauge
Asuitablyrangedpressuregaugeisrequiredtoshowthepressurewithinthesteamaccumulator.

Ideallyitshouldbemarkedtoshow:

Minimumpressure(plantsteampressure).

Maximumpressure(boilersteampressure).

Vesselmaximumworkingpressure.

Safetyvalve
Ifthemaximumworkingpressureoftheaccumulatorisequalto,orgreaterthanthatoftheboiler,thenasafetyvalve(s)maynotberequired.

However,theusermaybeconcernedaboutotherlessobviousscenarios.Forexample,intheeventofaplantfire,iftheaccumulatorwerefullychargedandall
theinletsandoutletswereclosed,thepressureintheaccumulatorcouldrise.Adiscussionwiththeinsuranceinspectorwouldbeessentialbeforeadecisionis
made.

Aswithallsafetyvalveinstallations,thedischargeshouldbetoasafeareathroughanadequatelysizedventpipe,whichisproperlydrained.

Airventandvacuumbreaker
Whenthesteamaccumulatorstartsfromcold,thesteamspaceisfullofair.Thisairhasnoheatvalue,infactitwilladverselyaffectthesteamplant
performance(asdemonstratedinDaltonsLaw)andalsohavetheeffectofblanketingheatexchangesurfaces.Theairwillalsogiverisetocorrosioninthe
condensatesystem.

Theairmaybepurgedusingasimplecock,normallyleftopenuntilthesteamaccumulatorispressurisedtoabout0.5bar.Analternativetothecockisa
balancedpressureairvent,whichnotonlyrelievestheboilerplantoperatorofthetaskofmanuallypurgingair(andhenceensuringthatitisactuallydone),but
isalsomoredependableinpurginganyothergaseswhichaccumulateinthevesselduringuse.

Conversely,whenthesteamaccumulatoristakenoffline,thesteaminthesteamspacecondensesandleavesavacuum.Thisvacuumcausespressuretobe
exertedonthevesselfromtheoutside,andcanresultinairleakinginthroughtheinspectiondoors.Avacuumbreakerwillavoidthissituation.

Draincock
Thisvalvewouldbeusedtodrainthevesselformaintenanceandinspectionwork.

ADN40valvewouldbesuitableforthesizeoftheaccumulatorinExample3.22.2.

Overflow
AballfloattrapwithintegralthermostaticairventmustbefittedasinFigure3.22.10.Wheninstalledasshown,thewaterlevelinsidetheaccumulatorwillnot
riseabovethispointbecausethetrapwilloperateasanautomaticoverflowvalve.Whenthewaterleveldrops,thatis,whensteamisdrawnoffatafasterrate
thanitisreplaced,thetrapwillautomaticallyclosetopreventtheescapeofsteam.

Theuseofafloattrapwithanintegralthermostaticcapsuleasalevellimitingdevice,offerstheadditionaladvantageofairventing.

Thetrapshouldbeinstalledneartothegaugeglass.Thedischargefromthetrapshouldbedirectedbacktotheboilerfeedtank,takingcaretoavoidexcessive
backpressureorlift.

Thesizeoffloat/thermostatictrapwillvaryaccordingtothesizeoftheaccumulator,andwouldtypicallybesizeDN32orDN40forExample3.22.2.

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Waterlevelgauge
Thevariationinlevelwithinthesteamaccumulatorwillnotbegreatbecauseonly5%(approximately)ofthemassofwaterwillflashtosteam,however,some
meansofviewingthewaterlevelisessential.Clearlythegaugeshouldberatedtooperateatthesteamaccumulatormaximumworkingpressure.However,from
astockholdingandplantstandardisationpointofview,thereissomemeritinusingagaugethesameastheboiler.

Onlyasinglegaugeglassisrequired.

Pressurereducingstation
Apressurereducingstationisfittedtothedischarge.Asthepressurereducingvalveopenstomaintainthedownstreampressure,areductioninpressure
occursinthesteamaccumulatorcausingsomeofthewatertoflashtosteam.

Thepressurereducingvalveshouldbesizedonthefollowingdata:

P1=Accumulatorpressure(6bargonexample)

P2=Plantpressure(5bargonexample)

P=65=1bar

Flowrate=Maximumoverloadflowrate(12000kg/honexample)

AnappropriatevalvecannowbeselectedeitherfromthemanufacturerssizingchartsorusingthesaturatedsteamsizingchartshowninFigure3.22.9.

ForsizesuptoDN80,apilotoperatedselfactingvalvewouldbesuitable,whilstapneumaticallyactuatedcontrolvalveisappropriateonlargersizes.

Pipework
Itisappropriateatthispointtocheckthatthepipeworkbetweenthesteamaccumulatorpressurereducingstationandtheplantisadequatelysized.Thispipe
shouldbesizedaspernormalpracticeonasteamvelocityof25to30m/s,butusingthepeakflowratefromthesteamaccumulatorattheplantpressure,in
thisinstance5barg.

Typicalarrangementsofsteamaccumulators:
Figure3.22.11showsallthesteamgeneratedbytheboilerplantpassingthroughthesteamaccumulator.Thisisthemoremoderngenerallypreferred
arrangement.

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ThearrangementshowninFigure3.22.12wasmorecommonlyusedinthepastandisstillusefulwhenthesteamaccumulatormustbesitedsomedistance
fromthesteammain.However,thecheckvalvesshouldbecheckedregularly,asacombinationofstickingandpassingvalvescanresultinsteambeing
chargedtothesteamaccumulatorabovethesteamsurface,whichbringsnobenefit.

Figure3.22.13showsanarrangementwheresteamatboilerpressureisrequiredaswellassteamatalowerpressure.

Someprocessapplicationscannottoleratelowpressuresteam,andsteamatboilerpressuremayberequiredatalltimes(typicallyforadryingprocess).Ifa
peakloadiscausedbythehighpressureusers,thepressuremaintainingvalveinFigure3.22.13wouldsenseapressuredrop,andmodulatetowardsitsseat,
therebyreservinghighpressuresteamforthehighpressureusers,thusleavingthesteamaccumulatortosupplythelowpressuredemandduringthisperiod.In
thiswaythesystemsuppliesalowpressurefluctuatingloadviathesteamaccumulatorandthemaximumpossibleflowrateforthehighpressureloadis
ensuredbytheactionofthepressuremaintainingvalve.

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InFigure3.22.14,theboilerissteamingatitsnormaldesignpressure,forexample10bar,andthesteampassestovariableloadswhichrequirenotmorethan,
forexample5bar.PressurereducingvalveAisreducingpressurebetweentheboilerheaderandthedistributionmainintheplant,respondingtothepressure
sensedinthe5barline.

Ifthesteamdemandshouldexceedthecapacityofthissupplyfromtheboiler,andthepressureinthelowpressuremainfallsbelow,forexample4.8bar,valve
Bwillbegintoopenandsupplementthesupply.Thisdrawssteamfromthesteamaccumulator,andoverasustainedperiodthesteamaccumulatorpressure
willfall.ValveBisrespondingtothedownstreampressureinthedistributionmain,thusactingasapressurereducingvalvealso.Itscapacityshouldmatchthe
dischargeratepermittedforthesteamaccumulator,anditwillbesmallerthanpressurereducingvalveA.

ValveCisapressuremaintainingvalve,respondingtotheboilerpressure.Ifthepressurerisesbecauseofreduceddemandfromtheplant,pressure
maintainingvalveCopens.Steamisthenadmittedtothesteamaccumulatorthatisrechargedtowardsitsmaximumpressure,alittlebelowboilerpressure.
PressurereducingvalveBwillbeclosedatthistimebecausetheplantisreceivingsufficientsteamthroughthe(partiallyclosed)pressurereducingvalveA.

Practicalconsiderationsforsteamaccumulators
Bypasses

Inanyplant,theengineeringmanagermustendeavourtoprovideatleastaminimumserviceintheeventthatthesteamaccumulatoranditsassociated
equipmenteitherrequiresmaintenanceorbreaksdown.

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Thiswillincludetheprovisionofadequateandsafeisolationoftheaccumulatorwithvalves,andperhapssomemeansofprotectingtheboilerfromoverloadif
largechangesindemandcannotbeavoided.Themostobvioussolutionhereisastandbypressuremaintainingvalve.

Effectsontheboilerfiringrate

Thesteamaccumulatorandpressuremaintainingvalvetogetherprotecttheboilerfromoverloadconditionsandallowtheboilertooperateproperlyuptoits
designrating.Thisisimportanttoachievegoodefficienciesandatthesametimetosupplyclean,dry,saturatedsteam.Figures3.22.16and3.22.17illustrate
respectivelythefiringratewithoutasteamaccumulatorandthefiringratewithasteamaccumulator.

Steamquality

Whencorrectlydesignedandoperated,steamfromasteamaccumulatorisalwaysclean,andhasadrynessfractionquitecloseto1.Thesteamaccumulatoris
designedwithalargewatersurfaceandsufficientsteamspaceinordertoproducehighqualitysteamalmostinstantaneouslyduringperiodsofpeakdemand.In
thecaseofsomeverticalsteamaccumulatorsthesteamspaceisenlargedtocompensateforthesmallerwatersurface.

Water

Waterinthesteamaccumulatorissteamthathascondensedandisthereforecleanandpure,withatypicalTDSlevelof20100ppm(comparedwithashell
boilerTDSofseldomlessthan2000ppm)whichpromotesacleanandcomparativelystablewatersurface.Steamaccumulatorsaresometimesusedtoensure
cleansteamisprovidedwheresteamisindirectcontactwiththeproductasinhospitalandindustrialsterilisers,textilefinishingandcertainapplicationswithin
thefoodanddrinksindustry.

Oncetheaccumulatorhasbeenfilledwithwater,andatnormalrunningconditions,wateradditionsandoverflowratesareverysmallindeed.

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Ifsuperheatedsteamisused,theamountofwatertobeaddedwouldberelatedtotheamountofsuperheat,butsincethespecificheatofsuperheatedsteam
islowerthanwater,itwillhaveasmallereffectonchangesinwaterlevel.

Ifsaturatedsteamisused,theincreaseinwaterlevelissimplyafunctionofheatlossfromthevessel.Withproperinsulation,heatlossisminimal,sothe
increaseinwaterlevel,andhenceoverflowthroughthesteamtrap(usedasalevellimitingdevice)isalsominimal.

Steamaccumulatordesigns

ThesteamaccumulatorsdescribedandillustratedinthisModulehavebeenlargeandofahorizontalconfiguration.Steamaccumulatorsarealwaysdesigned
andmanufacturedtosuittheapplication,andvesselsofonly1mdiameterarenotuncommon.Itisalsousualforthesmallersteamaccumulatorstobeofa
verticalconfiguration(althoughlargeverticalsteamaccumulatorsexist).Eitherconfigurationcanmaintainthesamevaluesofstorageanddischargerate,andit
maybeeasiertofindspaceforaverticalunit.

Thestoragevessel

Thisisusuallythemostexpensivepartofasteamaccumulatorsystem,andwillbeindividuallydesignedforeachapplication.Itmustbedesignedtoholdthe
water/steamatthetemperaturesthatarerequiredfortheplant.Forindustrialplantthistypicallymeansbetween5and30bar,althoughpowerstationunitsmay
beratedupto150bar.

Typicallytheratioofdiametertototallengthisbetween1.4to1.6,butthiscanvarysubstantiallydependingonsiteconditions.

Steamaccumulatorsaregenerallycylindricalinformwithellipticalends,asthisisstructurallythemosteffectiveshape.Theywillbemanufacturedfromboiler
plate.InEuropethedesignandconstructionwillcomplywiththeEuropeanPressureEquipmentDirective97/23/EC.

Thegreatertheacceptablepressuredifferentialbetweentheboilerpressureandtheplantpressure,thegreatertheproportionofflashsteam,andhencethe
lowerthelivesteamcapacityrequired.

Inadditiontothelivestoragecapacity,thevesselmusthave:

Sufficientwaterinthebottomofthevessel,underminimumconditions,toaccommodateandcoverthesteaminjectors

Sufficientclearanceabovethewaterunderfullychargedconditionstogiveareasonablesurfaceareaforsteamrelease.Thisisimportantbecausethe
instantaneoussteamreleasevelocityalonecouldbethefinalcriteriaifthepeakloadsareheavyandabrupt.

Justifyingthecostofanaccumulator

Thereareseveralwaysinwhichthecapitalcostofanaccumulatorinstallationcanbejustified,andtheywilloftenpaybackinashortperiodoftime.The
followingpointsshouldbeconsideredduringaninitialanalysis.

Comparethecapitalcostofaboileronlyinstallationtomeetthepeakdemand,withthatofasmallerboilerusedwithanaccumulator

Estimatethefuelsavingsasaresultofasmallerboileroperatingclosertoitsmaximumoutputandonasteadierload.Inarecentcasestudy,abrewery
calculateda10%fuelsavingandapaybackperiodofapproximately18months

Asaresultoflevellingoutthepeaksandtroughsofsteamgeneration,determineiftheunitcostofthefuelwillbeless.Itmaythenbepossibletocontractfor
alowermaximumsupplyrate

Estimatethefinancialadvantageofreducedmaintenanceonboilerplant,steamcontrolvalves,andthesteamusingequipment.Thesebenefitswillresultfrom
asteadierboilerloadandbetterqualitysteam.

Conclusion
Steamaccumulatorsarenotoldfashionedrelicsfromthepast.Indeed,farfromit.Steamaccumulatorshavebeeninstalledthroughoutmodernindustry
includingbiotechnology,hospitalandindustrialsterilisation,producttestingrigs,printingandfoodmanufacturing,aswellasmoretraditionalindustriessuchas
breweriesanddyehouses.

Modernboilershavebecomesmallerandthereisalsoanincreaseintheuseofsmallwatertubeboilers,coilboilersandannularboilers,allofwhichare
efficient,butwhichreducethethermalcapacityofthesystem,andmakeitvulnerabletopeakloadproblems.

Therearemanyfurtherapplicationsforsteamaccumulators.Forlongtermpeakswhichtheboilerplantmustultimatelyhandle,asteamaccumulatorcanbe
usedtostore,forexample,5minutesofthepeakflowrate,allowingtimefortheboilerplanttoreachtheappropriateoutputsafely.Steamaccumulatorscanalso
beusedwithelectrodeorimmersionheaterboilerssothatsteamcanbegeneratedoffpeak,stored,andusedduringpeaktimes.Thepossibilitiesareendless.

Insummary,thesteamaccumulatorisanefficienttool,asitmaywellprovidethemostcosteffectivewayofsupplyingsteamtoabatchprocess.

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Acknowledgement

SpiraxSarcoacknowledgesthehelpandinformationprovidedby:

WilsonSteamStorageLtd.,Chesterfield,Derbyshire,S418NG

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