Technical Article

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Steel Structures 6 (2006) 393-407

Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete

Composite Bridges: State of the Art
Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi * and Airong Chen
1, 2

1
PhD Candidate, Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
Professor, Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Abstract
This research presents the current state of the art in steel-concrete composite structures. The focus is on steel beamconcrete
deck connections and the effects of their interaction. First, analysis and design methods of composite bridge structures,
connections between components, the reliability and life cycle of bridges, new concrete-steel bridge system forms, and the
development of alternative materials used in composite bridges were reviewed with some potential applications. The conceptual
ideas on new forms of connectors and the application of hollow core slab decks in composite bridge structures were also
presented.
Keywords: Bridge, Composite bridge, Connector, Conceptual, Perfobond connector, Voided slab modeling.

1. Introduction new types of connections, the enhancement of bridge

The design and construction of bridges have evolved
for the past thousands of years at different rates. The
extensive use of the automobile and the development of
modern highway networks increased the rate of construction
reliability, and the use of alternative forms and materials,
such as Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) and Inorganic
Phosphate Cement (IPC) to form new types of hybrid
bridges, (Galambos, 2000), (Brozzetti, 2000), (Batista
and Ghavami, 2005), (Nakamura, 1998), (Nakamura et

of different types of bridges and necessitated the further al., 2002), (Wan et al ., 2005) and (Roover ., 2002).
et al

development of the exact science of bridge construction.
The evolution of bridges is the result of a combination of
developments in construction materials, structural forms,
and design and analysis methods. Composite structures
were introduced to serve as a highly competitive type of
bridge comparable to common types of bridges such as
concrete and prestressed concrete bridges due to their
reduced weight and quick and cost-effective erection.
(Hayward, 1988), (Ansourian, 1988), (Haensel, 1998) and
(Saul, 1998) The use of steel-concrete composite decks as
part of other types of bridges such as cable-stayed bridge
types were also conducted and adopted as an alternative
solution (Reis and Pedro, 2004), (Combault and Teyssandier,
2005). Composite bridges may also be used in constructing
concrete bridges to elevate the structure from the ground
level, whereas steel girders can support formwork and
reinforcement (Collin and Lundmark, 2002). Extensive
investigation in recent decades in countries such as the
USA, France, Brazil, Japan, China, and all over the world
focused on the development of steel-concrete composite
bridges, their design and analysis methods, creation of
*Corresponding author
Tel: +86-13524823687; Tel: +86-21-65983116-5204
E-mail: suhaibdarzi@yahoo.com, a.chen@mail.tongji.edu.cn
As the state of the art in the development of the hybrid
bridge with special attention to composite steel-concrete
bridges, it can be seen that the direction being taken by
research studies focuses on: (1) analysis and design
methods of composite bridge structures; (2) connections
between composite bridge components (steel girder-
concrete deck connection); (3) performance of composite
bridges with the overall structure life (reliability and life
cycle of bridges); (4) establishment of new concrete-steel
bridge systems; and (5) the development of alternative
materials to be used in composite bridges.
2. Analysis and Design of Composite Bridge
Structures
There are two existing types of composite bridges,
namely I-girder and Box-girder composite bridges, as
shown in Fig. 1. The methods of analysis for both types
of composite bridges have two main categories: (1)
adoptive and analytical method to calculate structural
stress; (2) computation of a response of a section to
different load histories using numerical methods, such as
the finite element method, as well as the design methods
depending on the use of numerical methods or adopting
the method stated by country-specific building codes,
394 Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi and Airong Chen
Figure 1.Typical components of composite bridges (Chen
and Duan, 2000).
which mainly depend on experiments. Nowadays, several
codes are available to support the design of composite
bridges, such as Chinese Code (GBJ, 1988), AISC
Specification, and AASHTO-LRFD. (Chinese code, GBJ.,
1988), (AISC Specification, 2005), (AISC Commentary,
2005b), (FHWA/NHI, 2003) (AASHTO, 1994), (Salmon
and Johanson, 1990) and (Chen and Duan, 2000) However,
the development of design and analytical methods of
composite bridges comprised the development of numerical
and analytical models that usually accompanied experimental
tests, with the aim of obtaining the best simulation and
the most accurate results. There is the Guyon-Massonnet
method, stated by Guyon (1949), Massonnet (1950), and
Morice and Little (1956), and other methods with a wide
application range and yield good results in many
configurations including composite superstructures
(Ansourian, 1988), (Betti and Gjelsvik, 1996), and (Lee,
2005). The applicability and accuracy of the finite-element
method makes it more attractive as a design and analysis
tool for composite bridge structures (Buckner and Viest,
1988).
2.1. Load-carrying capacity of composite steel-
concrete bridges
The load-carrying capacity of composite bridges is an
important factor that affects the overall and nonlinear
bridge behaviors, which were investigated using different
finite-element models such as ADINA code (Thimmhardy
et al ., 1995), the ABAQUS software, (Thevendran .,
et al
1999), and FORTRAN languages, (Fu ., 2003) and
et al
Figure 2. Development of shear forces during composite
action (Menkulasi, 2002).
by developing different models and using different types
of elements (Adeli and Zhang, 1995), (Zhang and Aktad,
1997), (Nowak and Szerszen, 1998), (Barth, 1998),
(Bradford ., 2001), (Topkaya and Williamson, 2003),
et al
(DallAsta and Zona, 2002), (DallAsta and Zona, 2004),
(Chung and Sotelino, 2005). The stiffness and capacity of
steel-concrete composite beams were also investigated
through analytical means (Nie et al., 2005). The effects of
secondary elements such as barriers, sidewalks, and
diaphragms on increasing the load-carrying capacity of
girder bridges were also investigated, with an aim to
evaluate the potential benefit of secondary elements in the
system reliability of girder bridges (Eamon and Nowak,
2004) and (Eamon and Nowak, 2005). The research studies
aimed at providing a better understanding of bridge
behavior and developing good and efficient methods for
getting the most accurate results.
2.2. Steel girder-concrete deck interaction (Composite
action)
The interaction between steel girder and concrete deck
slab was investigated considering the effect of partial and
full interaction, developed from the horizontal shear force
at the interface between the steel beam and concrete slab,
on the composite bridges behavior, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3,
aiming to investigate the maximum flexural capacity and
performance of bridges (Oehlers ., 1997), (Earls and
et al
Shah, 2002) and (Nie and Cai, 2003). Different finite-
element models were used such as beam element (Ayoub
and Filippou, 2000). The short- and long-term behavior
of composite bridges was also considered (Zhou .,et al
2004), (Fragiacomo et al., 2004), (Liang ., 2005).
et al
2.3. The effect of concrete flange width on composite
bridge behavior
In composite steel-concrete bridges, different types of
steel can be used in girders, such as carbon steel, high-
strength low-alloy steel, heat-treated low-alloy steel and
high-strength heat-treated alloy steel. The designs were
mainly based on steel properties such as girder shapes,
thickness, yield stress of steel ( ), tensile strength of
Fy
steel ( ), and modulus of elasticity ( ). The reinforced
Fu Es
concrete bridge decks compressive strength ( ) also fc'
affects the design in terms of reinforcement properties in
 Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges: State of the Art
Figure 3. Strain variation in composite beam. (a) No
interaction. (b) Partial interaction. (c) Composite interaction
(Salmon and Johnson, 1990).
addition to the concrete modulus of elasticity . (Salmon
EC
and Johanson, 1990). The transformed area of concrete is
usually used to calculate the composite section properties
using the ratio ( =n ES/EC ). The concrete modulus of
elasticity can be calculated according to the ACI Code,
EC
(ACI Committee 318, 1999), or according to AISC
specifications LRFD approximate formula (AISC
Specification, 2005). The width of top flanges comprised
the concrete slab and top steel beam flange known as
effective width ( ), Fig. 4, depends on the equivalent
bE
area carrying the compression force. The practical
simplifications of the effective width for design purposes
are given by several codes such as: AISC Specification
(LRFD-I3.1 and ASD-I1), AASHTO LRFD, British
Specification (BS5400), Canadian Specification, Chinese
Code (GBJ 1988), Japanese Specification, EU (Eurocode4),
which mainly depends on span length (Chiewanichakorn
et al., 2004a).
Finite-element modeling was used to define steel-
concrete composite bridge girder flange width, which was
conducted employing an investigation of nonlinear finite-
element analysis modeling, using ABAQUS software,
developing effective slab width definition for determining
the effective slab width for steel-concrete composite bridge
girders (Chiewanichakorn ., 2004a), (Chiewanichakorn
et al
et ., 2004b). A numerical comparison between the
al
effective flange width provisions in the USA, Britain,
Canada, Japan, and European Committee was also conducted
(Ahn, 2004). The evaluation of effective width in elastic
and plastic analysis of steel-concrete composite beams
was also performed through experimental tests, investigating
both cases of sagging and hogging bending moments
presenting a simple modification of Eurocode 4 (Amadio
et ., 2004). The shear-resisting mechanisms and the
al
395
Figure 4. Effective width b
E
of steel-concrete composite
beams.
strength of composite beams was also investigated using
static loading tests considering the shear span aspect
ratio, width and thickness of concrete flanges, and the
theories concerning elasticity and plasticity. The vertical
shear that the steel beam resisted was calculated based on
strain measurements, finding that the concrete flange
could sustain 33-56% of the total ultimate shear applied
to composite beam specimens. The shear strength equations
that considered shear contributions of both steel beam
and concrete flange were included (Nie ., 2004).
et al
2.4. The load distribution on composite steel-concrete
bridges
The effect of inelastic force distribution in longitudinal
and transverse directions with inelastic deformations,
reactions, and moments, on composite bridge behavior
was examined by grillage analysis (Bakht and Jaeger,
1992) (Barker ., 1996), and by field test, showing that
et al
bridge systems have a significant ability to redistribute
force effects (Barker, 1999). The finite-element modeling,
using SAP90 and ICES-STRUDL programs is also
performed, investigating wheel-load distribution factor
comparing with AASHTO and experiments yielding
similar load distribution factors (Mabsout ., 1997).
et al
The axial force effective width was then introduced as
a parameter that affects load distribution, which differs
from the bending effective width (Cai , 1998). The
et al.
finite-element method using the ABAQUS software was
also used in deducing expressions for moment and
deflecting distribution factors (Sennah and Kennedy,
1999). The shear distribution characteristics under dead
load and under AASHTO live loadings on multiple steel
box-girder bridges were also investigated (Sennah .,
et al
2003). The finite-element model, ABAQUS software, was
used in the analysis of bridge prototypes with various
geometries, and AASHTO truck loading conditions,
investigating distribution of flexural stresses, deflection,
shears, and reactions (Samaan ., 2002). The effect of
et al
non-uniform torsion, load distribution factors, and
location of access hatches on the behavior and design of
composite curved box-girder bridges accounted through
developing a grillage model computer program (El-Tawil
and Okeil, 2002).
396 Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi and Airong Chen
2.5. The continuity of composite steel-concrete bridge
The continuity of composite bridges was also investigated,
comparing with conditions with simple support. The
continuity has many advantages such as: higher span-to-
depth ratio, less deflection, and higher stiffness. The
finite-element analysis method, ANSYS software, laboratory
and field tests were used to investigate the performance
of continuous-span composite bridges (El-Arabaty .,et al
1996). The finite element, ABAQUS software, and
experimental tests were also performed to investigate
both the skew and continuity influence on longitudinal
moments in girders (Ebeido and Kennedy, 1996) and
(Lne and Lebet, 2005). A model of steel and concrete
composite beams subjected to negative bending was
presented, accounting for nonlinear structural behavior on
negative bending moment regions using a numerical
procedure, (Manfredi ., 1999), analytical and experimental
et al
procedures. (Barker et, 2000), (Fabbrocino
al. .,et al
2000) and (Fabbrocino ., 2002). The three-dimensional
et al
finite element model was used to investigate composite
beams in combined bending and shear accounting for
geometric and material nonlinearity (Liang ., 2004).
et al
The slip effect with negative bending was also investigated
(Nie et ., 2004). Studies were also performed for
al
longitudinal prestress in continuous composite bridges to
estimate their behavior in the elastic and plastic range
(Shim and Chang, 2003), (Ryu ., 2004), (Ryu and
et al
Chang, 2005) and (Shiming, 2005).
2.6. The long-term behavior of composite steel-
concrete bridge
The long-term behavior of the concrete deck slab was
investigated with an aim to understand the full behavior of
the composite steel-concrete bridge system. The transverse
cracking in concrete slabs was studied by in-situ
measurements, laboratory tests and numerical simulations,
establishing criteria based on restraint coefficient showing
the most critical tensile stresses and the effects of casting
sequence (Lebet and Ducret, 1998). The creep and shrinkage
effects for composite box girder bridge with sequencing
were investigated by developing a numerical model that
adopted the layer approach, as well as through experiments
and field examinations for actual bridges under construction.
The ultimate shrinkage strain recommended in specifications
significantly differs from actual drying shrinkage rate.
The effect of drying shrinkage in terms of ultimate
shrinkage strain is more important than concrete casting
sequences based on the ACI Code. (Kwak , 2000a),
et al.
(Kwak ., 2000b) and (Kwak and Seo, 2000) The
et al
open-grid lightweight deck was investigated, with the aim
to improve design methods through experimental testing
and numerical and analytical means (Huang , 2002).
et al.
The steel-concrete composite beams time-dependent analysis
under service conditions was investigated adopting a
beam model that accounted for slippage at deck-girder
interface and for time-dependent behavior of concrete
(Jurkiewiez ., 2005).
et al
2.7. The dynamic response of composite steel-concrete
bridges
The dynamic response of composite bridges was
investigated to establish a better understanding of the
dynamic effects of composite steel-concrete bridges. A
three-dimensional dynamic finite element analysis of a
multi-girder steel bridge, both with and without diaphragms,
was performed comparing with field dynamic tests,
developing techniques used to evaluate the function and
effectiveness of diaphragms in transverse distribution of
traffic loads (Tedesco et al ., 1995). The finite-element
model, ANSYS software, was used to study the dynamic
response of the composite bridge including parapets and
diaphragms in bridge models. (Barefoot et al., 1997) Modal
analysis and identification ascertaining the characteristics
of composite bridges was performed, concluding that
damage in bridges may be reflected in the changes of
natural frequencies or modes of natural vibration. (Fryba
and Pirner, 2001) A damage-estimation method using
ambient vibration data caused by traffic loadings was
presented, identifying operational modal properties,
assessment of damage locations, and severities by
performing an experimental study on bridge model
subjected to vehicle loadings measuring vertical accelerations
while vehicles are running (Yun et al., 2002). The dynamic
impact factors for straight composite concrete deck-steel
girder cellular bridges under AASHTO truck loading was
determined using three-dimensional finite-element models,
ABAQUS software, finding that the truck speed affects
the impact factor of straight bridges. (Zhang , 2003)
et al.
A finite-element formulation for free-vibration analysis of
horizontally curved steel I-girder bridges, including warping
degree of freedom, was presented. A computer program
using FORTRAN77 language was developed, comparable
with ABAQUS software and applied to investigate the
free vibration characteristics of bridges (Yoon et., al
2005). A finite-element model was used for damage
detection and long-term health monitoring through the
measurement of ambient vibration for the Qingzhou
cable-stayed bridge over the Ming River (Ren and Peng,
2005).
3. Composite Bridges Component
Connections
Nowadays, different types of shear connectors are
available, such as (1) stud connectors; (2) channel
connectors; (3) angle connectors; (4) spiral connectors;
(5) tendon (or bent-up bar types) connectors; (6)
perfobond connectors; and (7) T-shape connectors, Fig. 5-
8. Generally, connectors are classified as either rigid or
flexible, depending on the distribution of shear forces and
functions between strength and deformations. Most codes
consider the stud and channel shear connector types in
design simplification, such as Chinese Code (GBJ 1988),
AISC Specification, and AASHTO-LRFD. (Chinese code,
GBJ., 1988), (AISC specification, 2005) and (AASHTO,
 Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges: State of the Art
Figure 5.Structures of stud, channel, spiral and angle
shear connectors (Salmon and Johanson, 1990).
Figure 6.Structures of steel tendon, and steel mould
shear connectors (Chinese code GBJ17-88, 1988).
Structures of steel tendon and steel mould shear
Figure 7.
connectors types.
Stud, perfobond, and t-shape shear connectors
Figure 8.
types. (Valente and Cruz, 2004).
1994) Shear connectors are important and their details
were investigated and developed through different
research studies conducted to fully understand the
behavior of bridges under different types of loads, dead
load and live load, which necessitate the development of
different shear connector types. (Zellner, 1988) A new
phenomenological law for the shear connection between
steel girder and concrete slab that considers stiffness and
strength degradation, and a correlation study with available
push-pull tests on shear connectors were performed to
validate the model, applying the steel-concrete composite
frame element (Salari and Spacone, 2001). The strength
397
of shear connectors, mechanism of failure and basic criteria
used to define shear connector strength was investigated
by analyzing the expressions and recommendations given
by Eurocode 4, given as a commentary on strength of
shear connectors in composite beams (Rankovi and
Dreni, 2002).
3.1. The effect of shear connector ductility on
composite bridges
The provision of adequate shear connection between
tension and compression-resisting components of composite
flexural members is essential to ensure the robust performance
of such structural members under load. Ductility requirements
were investigated defining ductility in terms of the behavior
of composite cross-sections in consideration of connection
performance suggesting ductility improvement (Patrick
and Bridge, 1988). The moment-curvature relationships
derived were ductile (strain-hardening) or non-ductile
(strain-softening). Geometric properties and limitations of
continuous composite beam were investigated to ensure
sufficient ductility for the development of a plastic design
mechanism of collapse before local and lateral buckling
of steel or compressive failure of concrete. (Kemp, 1988)
Tests on cold-formed beams, joints and frames, with
finite-element analyses were carried out, concluding that
cold-formed components can be used in plastic design, as
they meet the requirements of some connections, especially
with their high ductility and capacity. (Wilkinson, 1999)
and (Hanaor, 2000) Finite-element analyses of composite
beam connected to a concrete slab used to show that the
required level of connection ductility is parasitic on
compliance of the connections. (Sebastian, 2003) Magnitudes
of the affecting maximum slip requirement was identified
suggesting an assessment method with general applications,
enables assessing connection efficiency to the bending
collapse of composite beams as a useful guide at the initial
stage of structure design as no demanding sophisticated
analysis is required (Bullo and Marco, 2004).
3.2. Effect of shear connectors in partial interaction
The connection largely influences the global behavior
of composite bridges and its modeling was a key issue in
the analysis of such types of structures. The effect of
partial restraints on the response of composite beam was
investigated with deformable shear connectors using
distributed spring, accounting for the shear deformation
using displacement- and force-based elements and in
consideration of bond-slip between element components.
(Salari et al., 1998) and (Salari and Spacone, 2001) The
load-slip behavior and shear capacity of composite beam
stud obtained from experimental push-off tests were
simulated using the finite-element model. (Lam and El-
Lobody, 2002) The maximum deflection with partial shear
interaction was calculated suggesting a procedure to
obtain the stiffness value of shear connectors. (Wang,
1998) A structural behavior reliable analysis of composite
beams subjected to sagging moment due to short-term
398 Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi and Airong Chen

loads was performed using a numerical procedure introducing

an explicit relationship between slip and interaction force
given by each connector. (Fabbrocino ., 1999) A
et al

specialized stub element with empirical nonlinear shear

force-slip relationships was used at the concrete slab-steel
beam interface to permit nonlinear finite-element modeling
of either full or partial shear connector action. (Sebastian
and McConnel, 2000) The finite-element model with flexible
shear connection was also presented using displacement
field with the exact solution of Newmarks differential
equation employing only one element per member,
establishing the criterion for partial interaction effects.
(Faella et al., 2002) A procedure to predict the partial-
interaction strain distribution from standard full-
interaction analyses using a magnification factor was
suggested for the investigation of the effect of partial- Figure 9. The alternate shear connector (Klaiber ., 2000).
et al

interaction endurance. (Seracino , 2001) and (Seracino

et al.

et al., 2004) The experimental and analytical studies to

simulate partial-interaction behavior using push-out results
for steel-concrete composite members was presented
performing nonlinear structural analysis predicting partial-
interaction behavior of composite members. (Jeong .,
et al

2005).
3.3. Fatigue and cyclic load effects on shear connectors

The fatigue and cyclic load has also affected the behavior
of composite steel-concrete bridges by affecting shear on
shear connectors. The behavior of shear connectors under
fatigue and cyclic load was investigated suggesting a fatigue
procedure, which allowed the estimation of strength
reduction of stud shear connectors. (Oehlers, 1995) and
(Oehlers ., 2000) Direct shear test was used simulating
et al
the actual behavior of studs under reverse cyclic loading.
The load-induced fatigue of welded bridges components
due to primary stress should be considered. (Gattesco and
Giuriani, 1996) and (Nishikawa et al., 1998). The reliability
of stud connectors design for fatigue was inconsistent as
real stress ranges were less than those calculated in design.
(Johnson, 2000) Analytical and experimental studies for
the design of shear connection in a precast deck system
were performed investigating the characteristics of shear
connection and fatigue endurance through push tests
estimating bridge behavior using finite-element analysis.
(Shim et al., 2001) Fatigue tests conducted on full-scale
slender plate-girders showed that the levels of minimum
and maximum load used during fatigue testing, weld quality,
shape and magnitude of the initial imperfections, etc.,
have a large influence on fatigue performance (Crocetti,
2003).
3.4. New innovative connectors
Figure 10. Unfilled grid deck composite with reinforced-
concrete slab using alternative shear connectors (Higgins
and Mitchell, 2001).
2000) Static and fatigue tests were also performed on
composite bridge decks with alternative shear connectors
consisted of concrete-filled holes located in the webs of
grid main bars and friction along the web embedded in
the slab, Fig. 10. It was determined that the shear
connection location and not the control fatigue behavior
of deck was involved in positive bending, and no fatigue
cracking of steel grid was observed in negative bending
(Higgins and Mitchell, 2001).
The development and implementation of large stud
diameters were presented, which increased the speed of
bridge construction and future deck replacement, and
reduced the vulnerability to damage of studs and girder
top flange during deck removal. The studs can also be
placed in one row only, over the web centerline, freeing
up most of the top flange width and improving safety
conditions for field workers. (Badie ., 2002), (Shim
et al

An alternate shear connector (AS), shown in Fig. 9, et al., 2004) and (Lee ., 2005) Results of push tests
et al

was developed subjected to static and cyclic loading in
both push-out specimens and composite beam tests,
determining the fatigue strength of ASC. The ASC was
effective in creating full composite action during service
load tests, and no bond failure appeared. (Klaiber .,
et al
with new types of shear connectors, namely Perfobond
connectors were presented obtaining the load capacity of
new shear connectors. It also helped describe the connection
behavior used for shear connection in steel-concrete
composite bridge. (Studnicka ., 2000), (Valente and
et al
 Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges: State of the Art
Cruz, 2004) and (Kim and Jeong, 2005) Horizontal shear
connectors without welding were studied through a steel-
concrete composite beam static bending test, which showed
behavior similar to steel-concrete composite beams with
classical connectors, great ductility, flexural failure mode
(plastic hinge), and low relative movements at steel-concrete
interface (Jurkiewiez and Hottier, 2005).
4. Reliability and Life Cycle of Composite
Bridges
The reliability and life cycle of composite bridge designed
by AASHTOs (LFD) method and LRFD method for
conditions of maximum design load, overloading, and fatigue
load, the ultimate flexural capacity limit state was measured
in terms of reliability index, using Monte Carlo simulations.
The value of the reliability index was a function of
compactness classification, method of design, beam spacing,
span length, and section size. (Tabsh, 1996) The reliability
index of steel girder highway bridges designed by AASHTO
(LRFD) strength limit state was examined based on the
stochastic finite-element method (SFEM), modeling bridges
as a grillage beam systems including basic design variables
such as sectional properties and various dead and live
loads. (Liu, 2002) Frangopol and his co-workers performed
a series of investigations on the reliability of bridges
considering life cycles and maintenance effects on the
total life cost of bridges, investigating and estimating the
reliability of highway bridges using different models.
(Enright and Frangopol, 1999) The cost-benefit analysis
of reliability-based bridge management decision was
investigated, which was considered as a guide in determining
the optimum strategy in the face of uncertainties and
fiscal constraints, identifying the optimum maintenance
scenario using a computer program called Life-Cycle
Analysis of Deteriorating Structures (LCADS), which
considered the effect of maintenance interventions. It also
identified the maintenance strategy that best balances cost
and reliability index profile over a specified time horizon.
(Frangopol et al ., 2001) (Kong and Frangopol, 2003) A
relationship between maintenance intervention cost and
effect of intervention on system reliability was also predicted.
(Kong and Frangopol, 2004) Variability and sensitivity
analyses were used to investigate the characteristics of
input random variables (Kong and Frangopol, 2005).
5. Establishing New Steel-Concrete Bridge
Systems Forms
New structural forms of composite steel-concrete bridges
were invented and suggested to be used in the last decades.
Such composite bridges were used in Japan, using concrete-
filled pipes or rolled H-girders that have high strength and
ductility, whereas filled concrete restricts local buckling of
steel plates. (Nakamura et al., 2002) Partially encased
composite I-girder bridges were also investigated by
performing bending and shear tests using analytical
399
Figure 11. Bridge girder consisting of steel tube filled
with reinforced concrete (Mossahebi et al., 2005).
methods to calculate the bending and shear strength of
encased composite girders. (Nakamura and Narita, 2003)
An experimental investigation into the behavior of steel
tube filled with reinforced concrete bridge girder made
composite with an overlying concrete deck, Fig. 11, were
conducted, providing information for the assessment of
various erection scenarios. A moment curvature analysis
was used to predict the ultimate capacity of the system.
(Mossahebi et , 2005) The concept of voided slab
al.
(hollow core slab) in conjunction with steel beam to form
a type of composite beam or flooring system to be used
in multistory buildings were established through a series
of studies presented using finite-element modeling, ABAQUS
software, with experiments using precast hollow-core floor
slabs, modeling the headed stud shear connectors. The
advantages of using such types of structure with shear
studs, such as in terms of shorter construction duration,
were also discussed along with a presentation of related
experiments. (Lam ., 2000), (Lam, 2002), (Lam and
et al
Uy, 2003) and (Lam, 2005).
6. Development of New Structural Materials
Used in Composite Bridges
The development of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
material and their usage as a structural member in bridge
construction as lighter, more durable alternatives to steel
and concrete was also investigated using the finite-element
model, examining the bifurcation buckling problem with
various loading and boundary conditions. (Lin ., 1996) et al
The analysis and design of FRP composite deck-and-
stringer bridges was presented, developing a simplified
design analysis procedure based on first-order shear
deformation macro-flexibility SDMF orthotropic plate
solution. (Salim ., 1997) A combined analytical and
et al
experimental study of cellular box decks and wide-flange
I-beam stringer FRP composite bridges was presented
including the design, modeling and experimental and
numerical verification, predicting efficient FRP sections
and simplified design equations for new and replacement
highway bridge system. (Brown, 1998) A study including
testing and analysis of pultruded, hybrid double-web
beam (DWB) developed for use in bridge construction,
400 Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi and Airong Chen
Figure 12. The GFRP bridge system: (a) the bridge, (b)
cross-section geometry of GFRP panel (Wan ., 2005).
et al
determining the bending modulus, shear stiffness, failure
mode and ultimate capacity. (Schniepp, 2002) Developments
were also presented, emphasizing the aspects of transition,
critical advantages offered by inherent anisotropy of
composites, and efficient designs for such new materials.
(Karbhari, 2004) The fatigue and strength for experimental
qualifications were performed for FRP composite bridge
deck, using hollow glass and carbon FRP tubes. (Kumar
et al., 2004) The bi-directional plate-bending behavior of
a pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRP) bridge
deck system with orthotropic material and system properties
was investigated by full-scale experiments and numerical
modeling. (Keller and Schollmayer, 2004) The structural
behaviors of the GFRP bridge deck system is shown in
Fig. 12 and was also investigated, as well as the development
of finite-element models using ANSYS 7.0 software. The
collected field measurements and laboratory tests concluded
that girder spacing plays a key role in deck performance,
and that the composite structure can sustain higher loads
than the non-composite structure with identical girders,
and the non-composite structure showed more efficient
distribution of deformations on the deck (Wan et .,
al
2005).
New materials such as Inorganic Phosphate Cement
(IPC) are also used in the construction of composite bridges
and were presented through an investigation performed
on the applicability of such materials in construction and
the usefulness of such materials in creating a new hybrid
bridge system. The finite-element method was used in the
design process of a modular composite bridge made of
Inorganic Phosphate Cement (IPC) sandwich panels, with
the connections designed with an aim to control the
distribution of stresses in the panels. The conclusion
showed that the result of the design was satisfactory and
could be the basis for the future realization of a prototype
bridge. (Roover et al ., 2002) The design and the joining
procedure of pedestrian bridges made of IPC sandwich
panels were also investigated by means of analytical and
numerical tools, showing that in spite of the low stiffness
of the glass fiber-reinforced IPC, the use of IPC still led
to realistic dimensions of the bridge structure (Roover et
al., 2003). An investigation on the development of IPC
for the construction of pedestrian bridges was also
presented, evaluating the numerical modeling and using
Figure 13. Types of shear connectors proposed for
investigation.
the results derived from experiments, establishing a finite
element model predict the behavior of the structure and
for the design of similar structures (Giannopoulos .,
et al
2003).
7. Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-
Concrete Composite Bridges
7.1. Development of new shear connectors
With the aim to enhance the composite performance of
steel-concrete composite bridges, we intend to investigate
new types of connectors with precast hollow core slab
deck as part of our PhD research in Tongji University,
Shanghai, China. The new shapes of perfobond shear
connectors depending on the analysis of horizontal shear
affects the interface between steel and concrete, and the
shape of failure of stud connectors. It is assumed that to
improve the interaction between the steel girder and the
concrete slab of composite steel-concrete bridges, three
shapes of perfobond shear connectors are suggested for
investigation, shown in Fig. 13, namely: (1) allows for
more main and secondary transverse reinforcement to be
passed through the holes of the connectors without
bending, with the top hole distance not greater than the
concrete cover; (2) produces better interaction between
concrete and connectors by increasing the length of
interaction, and increasing the area of concrete inside the
connector; (3) the direction of inclined strips suggesting
better resistance to horizontal shear force considered to
affect on connectors. Experimental investigation will be
performed using push-out tests to produce the resistance
capacity of connectors and bond between connector and
slab. Theoretical investigation will conducted by establishing
a model for the tested specimens using suitable finite-
element software (such as ANSYS); experimental results
 Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges: State of the Art
Figure 14. Composite steel beam with precast hollow
core floor slabs.
will be verified; and the work using the verified finite-
element model will be extended to study the factors
affecting connection behavior and interaction between
concrete slab and steel girder, and using a suitable
statistical method to predict an expression that cover the
strength of the new shapes of shear connectors.
7.2. Using a hollow core slab deck in composite steel-
concrete bridges
As previously mentioned, the hollow core reinforced
concrete slab was tested and used in the composite beam
of a multistory building, while the use of such types of
slabs in composite steel-concrete bridges is still not
widespread. The use of hollow core slab, shown in Fig.
(14), is assumed to produce several advantages, such as:
(1) reduces the weight of concrete (smaller dead load);
(2) establishes more economical bridges by reducing the
quantities of required concrete; (3) reduces the creep and
shrinkage's effects of the concrete slab; (4) uses precast
units connected together at site reduces the erection time.
Connecting such precast units with the steel beam is a
complex task, as it involves several factors such as types
of connectors, support conditions, availability of extra
reinforcement, and it uses a cast in placement slab, and
grouting materials. An experimental and theoretical
investigation is proposed to be conducted on hollow core
401
slab deck in conjunction with the new shapes of connectors
suggested above, both with simple and fixed support
conditions. Experiments are supposed to include casting a
bridge prototype in the laboratory and testing to failure,
followed by theoretical works including establishing a
model of the tested prototype using suitable finite-element
software (such as ANSYS), verifying by experiments,
and extending it to be used to study the effect of connection
behavior, effective slab width, transverse reinforcement,
slab geometries, and the reliability of the suggested section
and their effect on the construction process.
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