Machining

Machining
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
"Machine shop" redirects here. For the record label, see Machine Shop Recordings.
New Guinea in 1943. Mobile Machine Shop truck of the US Army with machinists working
on automotive parts.
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (January 2010)
Conventional machining is a collection of material-working processes in which power-

driven machine tools, such as saws, lathes, milling machines, and drill presses, are used with
a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry.
Machining is a part of the manufacture of almost all metal products, and it is common for
other materials, such as wood and plastic, to be machined. A person who specializes in
machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where machining is done is
called a machine shop. Much of modern day machining is controlled by computers using
computer numerical control (CNC) machining. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or
both.
The precise meaning of the term "machining" has evolved over the past 1.5 centuries as
technology has advanced. During the Machine Age, it referred to (what we today might call)
the "traditional" machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching,
sawing, shaping, planing, reaming, and tapping, or sometimes to grinding. Since the advent
of new technologies such as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining,
electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, the retronym
"conventional machining" can be used to differentiate the classic technologies from the newer
ones. The term "machining" without qualification usually implies conventional machining.
Since the rise of additive manufacturing (most especially since the 2000s), material-adding
techniques have begun to fulfill some of the same part-creation needs that were traditionally
filled with machining (which is about material removal). Therefore, in recent years material-
removing processes (traditional machining and the newer types) are often being
retronymously classified, in thought and language, as subtractive manufacturing methods.
In narrow contexts, additive and subtractive methods may compete with each other. In the
broad context of entire industries, their relationship is complementary.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Machining operations
o 1.1 Circle interpolating
2 Overview of machining technology
o 2.1 Types of machining operation
o 2.2 The cutting tool
3 Cutting conditions
4 Stages in metal cutting
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] Machining operations

Making a shipboard manhole cover in the machine shop of the aircraft carrier USS John C.
Stennis.
The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other
operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching
and sawing.
Turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the primary method of
moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tool used in
turning.
Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting
edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines are the principal machine tool
used in milling.
Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing
a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with the
workpiece. Drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but sometimes on
lathes or mills.
Miscellaneous operations are operations that strictly speaking may not be machining
operations in that they may not be swarf producing operations but these operations are
performed at a typical machine tool. Burnishing is an example of a miscellaneous
operation. Burnishing produces no swarf but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or drill
press.
An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to
create a finished product. A finished product would be a workpiece that meets the
specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For example,
a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool
that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool
can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the required diameter and
surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other
tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and
grinding machines. Many of these same techniques are used in woodworking.
More recent, advanced machining techniques include electrical discharge machining (EDM),
electro-chemical erosion, laser cutting, or water jet cutting to shape metal workpieces.
As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which

consists of one or more workrooms containing major machine tools. Although a machine
shop can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses maintain internal machine shops which
support specialized needs of the business.
Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set
out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Beside the obvious problems related to correct
dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct finish or surface smoothness on the
workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a workpiece may be caused
by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently, this
poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and the
appearance of waves on the machined surfaces of the workpiece.
Basic machining process.
[edit] Circle interpolating
The orbital drilling principle
Circle interpolating, also known as orbital drilling, is a process for creating holes using
machine cutters.
Orbital drilling is based on rotating a cutting tool around its own axis and simultaneously
about a centre axis which is off-set from the axis of the cutting tool. The cutting tool can then
be moved simultaneously in an axial direction to drill or machine a hole and/or combined
with an arbitrary sidewards motion to machine an opening or cavity.
By adjusting the offset, a cutting tool of a specific diameter can be used to drill holes of
different diameters as illustrated. This implies that the cutting tool inventory can be
substantially reduced.
The term orbital drilling comes from that the cutting tool orbits around the hole center. The
mechanically forced, dynamic offset in orbital drilling has several advantages compared to
conventional drilling that drastically increases the hole precision. The lower thrust force
results in a burr-less hole when drilling in metals. When drilling in composite materials the
problem with delamination is eliminated.[2]
[edit] Overview of machining technology

Machining is not just one process; it is a group of processes. The common feature is the use
of a cutting tool to form a chip that is removed from the workpart, called swarf. To perform
the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and work. This relative motion is
achieved in most machining operation by means of a primary motion, called "cutting speed"
and a secondary motion called "feed'". The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work
surface, combined with these motions, produce the desired shape of the resulting work
surface.
[edit] Types of machining operation

There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a
certain part geometry and surface texture.
In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating
workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The speed motion in turning is provided by the
rotating workpart, and the feed motion is achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in a
direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that is typically
has two or four cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into
the workpart to form the round hole.
In boring, the tool is used to enlarge an already available hole. It is a fine finishing operation
used in the final stages of product manufacture.
In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to the material
to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to
the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The
two basic forms of milling are:
Peripheral milling
Face milling
Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing.
Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category of
machining.
[edit] The cutting tool
Main article: Cutting tool (machining)
A "numerical controlled machining cell machinist" monitors a B-1B aircraft part being
manufactured.
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate chip from the parent work
material. Connected to the cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool:
The rake face; and

The flank.
The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is
called the rake angle "". It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work
surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative. The flank of the tool provides a clearance
between the tool and the newly formed work surface, thus protecting the surface from
abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This angle between the work surface and the flank
surface is called the relief angle. There are two basic types of cutting tools:
Single point tool; and

Multiple-cutting-edge tool
A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boreing and planing. During
machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the workpart.
The point is sometimes rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.
Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion
relative to the workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-cutting-edge
tools. Although the shapes of these tools are different from a single-point tool, many elements
of tool geometry are similar.
[edit] Cutting conditions

Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation. The
primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must be
moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion, called the feed. The
remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original work
surface, called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the
cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain
operations, their product can be used to obtain the material removal rate for the process:
where
the material removal rate in mm3/s, (in3/s),

the cutting speed in m/s, (ft/min),
the feed in mm, (in),
the depth of cut in mm, (in).
Note: All units must be converted to the corresponding decimal (or USCU) units.
[edit] Stages in metal cutting

Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and
cutting conditions:
Roughing cuts, and

Finishing cuts
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as
rapidly as possible, in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some
material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used to
complete the part and achieve the final dimension, tolerances, and surface finish. In
production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on the work,
followed by one or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths
feeds of .04-1.25 mm/rev (0.015-0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.520 mm (0.100-0.750 in)
are typical. Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths - feeds of 0.0125-
0.04 mm/rev (0.0005-0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75-2.0 mm (0.030-0.075 in) are typical.
Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.
A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting
tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper
cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting condition.
Today other forms of metal cutting are becoming increasingly popular. An example of this is
water jet cutting. Water jet cutting involves pressurized water in excess of 90,000 PSI and is
able to cut metal and have a finished product. This process is called cold cutting, and it
increases efficiency as opposed to laser and plasma cutting.
[edit] See also
Abrasive flow machining Machinability
Abrasive jet machining Machining vibrations
Biomachining
Design for manufacturability for CNC machining
[edit] References
1. ^ Albert 2011.
2. ^ Orbital Drilling Goes Mainstream for the Dreamliner, Aerospace Engineering &
Manufacturing, SAE International Publications, March 2009, p. 32
[edit] Bibliography
Albert, Mark [Editor in Chief] (2011-01-17), "Subtractive plus additive equals more
than ( - + + = > ): subtractive and additive processes can be combined to develop
innovative manufacturing methods that are superior to conventional methods ['Mark:
My Word' columnEditor's Commentary"], Modern Machine Shop (Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA: Gardner Publications Inc) 83 (9): 14,
http://www.mmsonline.com/columns/subtractive-plus-additive-equals-more-than.
[edit] Further reading

Groover, Mikell P. (2007). "Theory of Metal Machining". Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing (3rd ed ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 491504.
ISBN 0471744859.
Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; McCauley, Christopher J.; Heald, Ricardo M. (2004),
Machinery's Handbook (27th ed.), Industrial Press, ISBN 978-0831127008.
"Machine Tool Practices", 6th edition, by R.R.; Kibbe, J.E.; Neely, R.O.; Meyer &
W.T.; White, ISBN 0-13-270232-0, 2nd printing, copyright 1999, 1995, 1991, 1987,
1982 and 1979 by Prentice Hall.
[edit] External links

Machining: An Introduction
Elementary knowledge of metalworking
Drill And Bore With A Face Mill
[show]v d e Metalworking
[hide] Machining and computing
2.5D CAD CAM G-code Numerical control (NC
Computer-aided engineering
and CNC) Stewart platform
Die head Drill Drill bit Drill bit shank Drill bit
Drilling and threading sizes Drill and tap size chart Drilling Jig borer Tap
and die Tap wrench Threading
Abrasive Angle grinder Bench grinder Coated
abrasives Cylindrical grinder Diamond plate Flick
grinder Dresser Grinding Grinding machine
Grinding and lapping
Grinding wheel Jig grinder Lapping Sanding
Sharpening stone Spark testing Surface grinder Tool
and cutter grinder
Electrical discharge machining Electrochemical
machining Endmill Engraving Hobbing Lathe
Machining and milling
Machine tool Machining Milling cutter Milling
machine Planer Pantograph Shaper
Angle plate Chuck Collet Jig Fixture Indexing
Machine tooling head Lathe center Machine taper Magnetic base
Mandrel Rotary table Wiggler
Chatter Cutting fluid Speeds and feeds Swarf
Terminology
(chips) Tolerance Tramp oil
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining"

Categories: Machining
Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2010 | All articles
needing additional references
Personal tools
Log in / create account
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages

Azrbaycanca
Boarisch
Catal
Deutsch
Eesti
Espaol

Franais

Magyar
Nederlands

Polski
Portugus

Slovenina
Suomi
Svenska
Trke

This page was last modified on 23 April 2011 at 15:36.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Tool and cutter grinder

View of a typical setup on a T&C grinder

This article does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (June 2008)
A tool and cutter grinder is used to sharpen milling cutters and tool bits along with a host of
other cutting tools.
It is an extremely versatile machine used to perform a variety of grinding operations: surface,

cylindrical, or complex shapes. The image shows a manually operated setup, however highly
automated Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines are becoming increasingly
common due to the complexities involved in the process.
The operation of this machine (in particular, the manually operated variety) requires a high
level of skill. The two main skills needed are understanding of the relationship between the
grinding wheel and the metal being cut and knowledge of tool geometry. The illustrated set-
up is only one of many combinations available. The huge variety in shapes and types of
machining cutters requires flexibility in usage. A variety of dedicated fixtures are included
that allow cylindrical grinding operations or complex angles to be ground. The vise shown
can swivel in three planes.
The table moves longitudinally and laterally, the head can swivel as well as being adjustable
in the horizontal plane, as visible in the first image. This flexibility in the head allows the
critical clearance angles required by the various cutters to be achieved.
Contents
[hide]
1 CNC tool and cutter grinder

2 Radius grinder
3 D-bit grinder
4 See also
[edit] CNC tool and cutter grinder

A modern CNC tool grinder with automatic wheel pack exchanger and tool loading
capabilities.
Today's tool and cutter grinder is typically a CNC machine tool, usually 4, 5, or 6 axes, which
produces endmills, drills, etc. which are widely used in the metal cutting industry.
Modern CNC tool and cutter grinders enhance productivity by typically offering features
such as automatic tool loading as well as the ability to support multiple grinding wheels. High
levels of automation, as well as automatic in-machine tool measurement and compensation,
allow extended periods of unmanned production. With careful process configuration and
appropriate tool support, tolerances less than 5 micrometres (0.0002") can be consistently
achieved even on the most complex parts.
Apart from manufacturing, in-machine tool measurement using touch-probe or laser

technology allows cutting tools to be reconditioned. During normal use, cutting edges either
wear and/or chip. The geometric features of cutting tools can be automatically measured
within the CNC tool grinder and the tool ground to return cutting surfaces to optimal
condition.
Significant software advancements have allowed CNC tool and cutter grinders to be utilized
in a wide range of industries. Advanced CNC grinders feature sophisticated software that
allows geometrically complex parts to be designed either parametrically or by using third
party CAD/CAM software. 3D simulation of the entire grinding process and the finished part
is possible as well as detection of any potential mechanical collisions and calculation of
production time. Such features allow parts to be designed and verified, as well as the
production process optimized, entirely within the software environment.
Tool and cutter grinders can be adapted to manufacturing precision machine components.
The machine, when used for these purposes more likely would be called a CNC Grinding
System.
CNC Grinding Systems are widely used to produce parts for aerospace, medical, automotive,
and other industries. Extremely hard and exotic materials are generally no problem for today's
grinding systems and the multi-axis machines are capable of generating quite complex
geometries.
[edit] Radius grinder

A radius grinder (or radius tool grinder) is a special grinder used for grinding the most
complex tool forms, and is the historical predecessor to the CNC tool and cutter grinder. Like
the CNC grinder, it may be used for other tasks where grinding spherical surfaces is
necessary. The tool itself consists of three parts: The grinder head, work table, and holding
fixture. The grinder head has three degrees of freedom. Vertical movement, movement into
the workpeice, and tilt. These are generally set statically, and left fixed throughout
operations. The work table is a T-slotted X-axis table mounted on top of a radial fixture.
Mounting the X axis on top of the radius table, as opposed to the other way around, allows
for complex and accurate radius grinds. The holding fixtures can be anything one can mount
on a slotted table, but most commonly used is a collet or chuck fixture that indexes and has a
separate Y movement to allow accurate depth setting and endmill sharpening. The dressers
used on these grinders are usually quite expensive, and can dress the grinding wheel itself
with a particular radius.
[edit] D-bit grinder

D bit grinder
The D-bit grinder is a tool bit grinder that specializes in the grinding of D-bit cutters for
pantograph milling machines. Pantographs are a variety of milling machine used to create
cavities for the dies used in the molding process, they are being rapidly replaced by CNC
machining centers.
[edit] See also

Angle grinder
Bench grinder
Flick grinder
Surface grinder
and cutter grinder
machining Endmill Engraving Hobbing Lathe
Machining and milling
Terminology
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_and_cutter_grinder"

Categories: Grinders
Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from June 2008 | All articles lacking sources
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
This page was last modified on 19 October 2010 at 19:14.

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Mill (grinding)
Mill
A tabletop hammer mill
Other names Grinding mill
Uses Grinding
Related items Mortar and pestle

Expeller
Extruder
A grinding mill is a unit operation designed to break a solid material into smaller pieces.
There are many different types of grinding mills and many types of materials processed in
them. Historically mills were powered by hand (mortar and pestle), working animal, wind
(windmill) or water (watermill). Today they are also powered by electricity.
The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the
structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces. After the grinding the state of the
solid is changed: the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape.
Grinding may serve the following purposes in engineering:
increase of the surface area of a solid

manufacturing of a solid with a desired grain size
pulping of resources
Contents
[hide]
1 Grinding laws
2 Grinding machines
o 2.1 Ball mill
o 2.2 Rod mill
o 2.3 Autogenous mill
o 2.4 SAG mill
o 2.5 Pebble mill
o 2.6 High pressure grinding rolls
o 2.7 Buhrstone mill
o 2.8 Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill)
o 2.9 Tower mill
o 2.10 Vibratory mill
3 Types of grinding mills
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
[edit] Grinding laws

In spite of a great number of studies in the field of fracture schemes there is no formula
known which connects the technical grinding work with grinding results. To calculate the
needed grinding work against the grain size changing three half-empirical models are used.
These can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the energy required
to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead,
experimentation has to be performed to determine any relationship.[1]
Kick for d > 50 mm
Bond[2] for 50 mm > d > 0.05 mm
Von Rittinger for d < 0.05 mm
with W as grinding work in kJ/kg, c as grinding coefficient, dA as grain size of the source
material and dE as grain size of the ground material.
A reliable value for the grain sizes dA and dE is d80. This value signifies that 80% (mass) of
the solid matter has a smaller grain size. The Bond's grinding coefficient for different
materials can be found in various literature. To calculate the KICK's and Rittinger's
coefficients following formulas can be used
with the limits of Bond's range: upper dBU = 50 mm and lower dBL = 0.05 mm.
To evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material (1) and of the
ground material (2) is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain
disposition. There are several definitions for this characteristic value:
Grinding degree referring to grain size d80
Instead of the value of d80 also d50 or other grain diameter can be used.
Grinding degree referring to specific surface

The specific surface area referring to volume Sv and the specific surface area referring
to mass Sm can be found out through experiments.
Pretended grinding degree
The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid matter in
this formula.
[edit] Grinding machines

In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction
through attrition and compressive forces at the grain size level. See also crusher for
mechanisms producing larger particles. Since the grinding process needs generally a lot of
energy, an original experimental way to measure the energy used locally during milling with
different machines was proposed recently.[3]
Operation of a ball mill
[edit] Ball mill
A typical type of fine grinder is the ball mill. A slightly inclined or horizontal rotating
cylinder is partially filled with balls, usually stone or metal, which grinds material to the
necessary fineness by friction and impact with the tumbling balls. Ball mills normally operate
with an approximate ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their smaller
(comparatively) diameter and longer length, and often have a length 1.5 to 2.5 times the
diameter. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other. Ball mills
are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of
mineral processing. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m (28') in diameter with a 22
MW motor[4], drawing approximately 0.0011% of the total world's power (see List of
countries by electricity consumption). However, small versions of ball mills can be found in
laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance.
The power predictions for ball mills typically use the following form of the Bond equation:[2]
where
E is the energy (kilowatt-hours per metric or short ton)

Wi is the work index measured in a laboratory ball mill (kilowatt-hours per metric or
short ton)
P80 is the mill circuit product size in micrometers
F80 is the mill circuit feed size in micrometers.
[edit] Rod mill

A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles.[citation needed]
But note that the term 'rod mill' is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes
rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals.
[edit] Autogenous mill
Autogenous mills are so-called due to the self-grinding of the ore: a rotating drum throws
larger rocks of ore in a cascading motion which causes impact breakage of larger rocks and
compressive grinding of finer particles. It is similar in operation to a SAG mill as described
below but does not use steel balls in the mill. Also known as ROM or "Run Of Mine"
grinding.
[edit] SAG mill
Principle of SAG Mill operation
SAG is an acronym for Semi-Autogenous Grinding. SAG mills are essentially autogenous
mills, but utilize grinding balls to aid in grinding like in a ball mill. A SAG mill is generally
used as a primary or first stage grinding solution. The SAG mills use a minimal ball charge of
6 to 15%. SAG mills can be as large as 42' in diameter, with up to a 28 MW motor.
Attrition in the grinding balls causes grinding of finer particles. SAG mills are characterized
by their large diameter and short length as compared to ball mills. The inside of the mill is
lined with lifting plates to lift the material inside up and around the inside of the mill, where
it then falls off the plates into the rest of the ore. SAG mills are primarily used in the gold,
copper and platinum industries with applications also in the lead, zinc, silver, alumina and
nickel industries.
[edit] Pebble mill
A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between rock pebbles and ore particles. May be
used where product contamination by iron from steel balls must be avoided.
[edit] High pressure grinding rolls
In high pressure grinding rolls, often referred to as HPGRs, the ore is fed between two rollers
which are pushed firmly together while their rotating motion pushes the ore through a small
gap between them. Extreme pressure causes the rocks to fracture into finer particles and also
causes microfracturing at the grain size level. HPGRs are often considered as being more
efficient than grinding mills, although they are not as common as grinding mills since they
are a newer technology.
HPGRs consist of a pair of horizontal cylindrical rollers through which material is passed.
The two rollers rotate in opposite directions, "nipping" and crushing material between them.
A similar type of intermediate crusher is the edge runner, which consists of a circular pan
with two or more heavy wheels known as mullers rotating within it; material to be crushed is
shoved underneath the wheels using attached plow blades.
[edit] Buhrstone mill
Another type of fine grinder commonly used is the buhrstone mill, which is similar to old-
fashioned flour mills.
[edit] Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill)
Type of fine grinder which uses a free impact of rock or ore particles with a wear plate. High
speed of the motion of particles is achieved with a rotating accelerator. This type of mill uses
the same principle as VSI Crusher
[edit] Tower mill
Tower mills, often called vertical mills, stirred mills or regrind mills, are a more efficient
means of grinding material at smaller particle sizes, and can be used after ball mills in a
grinding process. Like ball mills, grinding balls are often added to stirred mills to help grind
ore, however these mills contain a large screw mounted vertically to lift and grind material.
In tower mills, there is no cascading action as in standard grinding mills. Stirred mills are also
common for mixing quicklime (CaO) into a lime slurry.
[edit] Vibratory mill
[edit] Types of grinding mills

Ball mill
Colloid mill
Conical mill
Disintegrator
Disk mill
Edge mill
Gristmill, also called flour mill or corn mill
Hammer mill
Jet mill
Mortar and pestle
Pellet mill
Planetary mill
Stirred mill
Vibratory mill
VSI mill
Wiley mill
Windmill
[edit] See also

Burr grinder
Coffee grinder
Expeller
Extruder
Grist mill
Herb grinder
Millstone
Rock crusher
[edit] References
1. ^ Thomas, A (1999). "Fractures, fractals and breakage energy of mineral particles".
International Journal of Mineral Processing 57: 285. doi:10.1016/S0301-7516(99)00029-0.
2. ^ a b Mineral Beneficiation The Third Theory of Comminution Document Summary.
Onemine.org. Retrieved on 2010-10-09.
3. ^ Baron, M.; Chamayou, A.; Marchioro, L.; Raffi, J. (2005). "Radicalar probes to measure the
action of energy on granular materials". Advanced Powder Technology 16: 199.
doi:10.1163/1568552053750242.
4. ^ "ABB". ABB Communications. ABB Communications.
http://www.abb.com/cawp/seitp202/8231666baa1c0a45c1257842002fe89b.aspx.

Animation of Horizontal Grinder
Video of fine grinder in mining application
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill_(grinding)"

Categories: Grinding mills | Mining equipment
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced
statements from May 2008
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Aragons
Azrbaycanca
Brezhoneg

Catal

esky
Deitsch
Deutsch
Espaol
Esperanto
Franais
Galego
Ido
Italiano
Kreyl ayisyen
Ltzebuergesch
Lietuvi
Magyar
Nederlands

Norsk (bokml)
Norsk (nynorsk)
Occitan
Polski
Polski
Portugus
Romn
Runa Simi

Simple English
Slovenina
Suomi
Svenska
Trke

Vneto
Walon

This page was last modified on 19 March 2011 at 05:50.

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Threading (manufacturing)
Threading is the process of creating a screw thread. More screw threads are produced each
year than any other machine element.[1] There are many methods of generating threads,
including subtractive methods (many kinds of thread cutting and grinding, as detailed below);
deformative or transformative methods (rolling and forming; molding and casting); additive
methods (such as 3D printing); or combinations thereof.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview of methods (comparison, selection, etc)

2 Subtractive methods
o 2.1 Thread cutting
2.1.1 Taps and dies
2.1.2 Single-point threading
2.1.3 Thread milling
2.1.3.1 Thrilling
o 2.2 Thread grinding
o 2.3 Thread lapping
o 2.4 Threading with EDM
3 Deformative or transformative methods
o 3.1 Thread forming and rolling
o 3.2 Thread casting and molding
4 Additive methods
5 Combinations of subtractive, additive, deformative, or transformative methods
6 Inspection
7 History
8 References
o 8.1 Bibliography
9 Further reading
10 External links
[edit] Overview of methods (comparison, selection, etc)

There are various methods for generating screw threads. The method chosen for any one
application is chosen based on constraintstime; money; degree of precision needed (or not
needed); what equipment is already available; what equipment purchases could be justified
based on resulting unit price of the threaded part (which depends on how many parts are
planned); etc.
In general, certain thread-generating processes tend to fall along certain portions of the
spectrum from toolroom-made parts to mass-produced parts, although there can be
considerable overlap. For example, thread lapping following thread grinding would fall only
on the extreme toolroom end of the spectrum, while thread rolling is a large and diverse area
of practice that is used for everything from microlathe leadscrews (somewhat pricey and very
precise) to the cheapest deck screws (very affordable and with precision to spare).
Threads of metal fasteners are usually created on a thread rolling machine. They may also be
cut with a lathe, tap or die. Rolled threads are stronger than cut threads, with increases of
10% to 20% in tensile strength and possibly more in fatigue resistance and wear
resistance.[2][3]
[edit] Subtractive methods

[edit] Thread cutting
Thread cutting, as compared to thread forming and rolling, is used when full thread depth is
required, the quantity is small, the blank is not very accurate, threading up to a shoulder is
required, threading a tapered thread, or the material is brittle.[4]
[edit] Taps and dies

Main articles: Tap and die and Die head
A common method of threading is cutting with taps and dies. Unlike drill bits, hand taps do
not automatically remove the chips they create. A hand tap cannot cut its threads in a single
rotation because it creates long chips which quickly jam the tap (an effect known as
"crowding"[citation needed]), possibly breaking it. Therefore, in manual thread cutting, normal
wrench usage is to cut the threads 1/2 to 2/3 of a turn (180 to 240 degree rotation), then
reverse the tap for about 1/6 of a turn (60 degrees) until the chips are broken by the back
edges of the cutters. It may be necessary to periodically remove the tap from the hole to clear
the chips, especially when a blind hole is threaded.
For continuous tapping operations (i.e., power tapping) specialized spiral point or "gun" taps
are used to eject the chips and prevent crowding.
[edit] Single-point threading
Single-point threading, also colloquially called single-pointing (or just thread cutting
when the context is implicit), is an operation that uses a single-point tool to produce a thread
form on a cylinder or cone. The tool moves linearly while the precise rotation of the
workpiece determines the lead of the thread. The process can be done to create external or
internal threads (male or female). In external thread cutting, the piece can either be held in a
chuck or mounted between two centers. With internal thread cutting, the piece is held in a
chuck. The tool moves across the piece linearly, taking chips off the workpiece with each
pass. Usually 5 to 7 light cuts create the correct depth of the thread.[5]
The coordination of various machine elements including leadscrew, slide rest, and change
gears was the technological advance that allowed the invention of the screw-cutting lathe,
which was the origin of single-point threading as we know it today.
Today engine lathes and CNC lathes are the commonly used machines for single-point
threading. On CNC machines, the process is quick and easy (relative to manual control) due
to the machine's ability to constantly track the relationship of the tool position and spindle
position (called "spindle synchronization"). CNC software includes "canned cycles", that is,
preprogrammed subroutines, that obviate the manual programming of a single-point
threading cycle. Parameters are entered (e.g., thread size, tool offset, length of thread), and
the machine does the rest.
All threading could feasibly be done using a single-point tool, but because of the high speed
and thus low unit cost of other methods (e.g., tapping, die threading, and thread rolling and
forming), single-point threading is usually only used when other factors of the manufacturing
process happen to favor it (e.g., if only a few threads need to be made,[6] if an unusual or
unique thread is required,[6] or if there is a need for very high concentricity with other part
features machined during the same setup[7]).
[edit] Thread milling

A diagram of a solid single-form thread cutting tool
A solid multiple-form thread cutting tool

The path a multiple-form thread cutting tool travels to create an external thread.
Threads may be milled with a rotating milling cutter if the correct helical toolpath can be
arranged. This has been possible mechanically since the early nineteenth century, but it was
never a commonplace method of threading until the widespread dissemination of affordable,
fast, precise CNC. Since that development, internal and external threads are often milled.
Some advantages of thread milling, as compared to single-point cutting, are a better surface
finish; improved concentricity in some cases; and that a left- or right-hand thread can be
created with the same tool.[8] Additionally, for large, awkward workpieces (such as a fire
hydrant casting), it is simply easier to let the workpiece sit stationary on a table while all
needed machining operations are performed on it with rotating tools, as opposed to rigging it
up for rotation around the axis of each set of threads (that is, for the "arms" and "mouth" of
the hydrant).
There are various types of thread milling, including several variants of form-milling and a
combination of drilling and threading with one cutter, called thrilling.
Form-milling uses either a single- or multiple-form cutter. In one variant of form-milling, the
single-form cutter is tilted to the helix angle of the thread and then fed radially into the blank.
The blank is then slowly rotated as the cutter is precisely moved along the axis of the blank,
which cuts the thread into the blank. This can be done in one pass, if the cutter is fed to the
full thread depth, or in two passes, with the first not being to the full thread depth. This
process is mainly used on threads larger than 1.5 in (38 mm). It is commonly used to cut
large-lead or multiple-lead threads. A similar variant using a multiple-form cutter exists, in
which the process completes the thread in one revolution around the blank. The cutter must
be longer than the desired thread length. Using a multiple-form cutter is faster than using a
single-form cutter but it is limited to threads with a helix angle less than 3. It is also limited
to blanks of a substantial diameter and no longer than 2 in (51 mm).[9]
Another variant of form-milling involves holding the cutter's axis orthogonally (no canting to
the thread's helix angle) and feeding the cutter in a toolpath that will generate the thread.[10]
The part is usually a stationary workpiece, such as a boss on a valve body (in external thread
milling) or a hole in a plate or block (in internal thread milling). This type of thread milling
uses essentially the same concept as contouring with an endmill or ball-nose mill, but the
cutter and toolpath are arranged specifically to define the "contour" of a thread. The toolpath
is achieved either using helical interpolation (which is circular interpolation in one plane
[typically XY] with simultaneous linear interpolation along a third axis [typically Z]; the
CNC control model must be one that supports using the third axis)[10] or a simulation of it
using extremely small increments of 3-axes linear interpolation (which is not practical to
program manually but can be programmed easily with CAD/CAM software).[11] The cutter
geometry reflects the thread pitch but not its lead; the lead (thread helix angle) is determined
by the toolpath.[12] Tapered threads can be cut either with a tapered multiple-form cutter that
completes the thread in one revolution using helical interpolation,[13] or with a straight or
tapered cutter (of single- or multiple-form) whose toolpath is one or more revolutions but
cannot use helical interpolation and must use CAD/CAM software to generate a contour-like
simulation of helical interpolation.[13]
The tooling used for thread milling can be solid or indexable. For internal threads, solid
cutters are generally limited to holes larger than 6 mm (0.24 in),[12] and indexable internal
thread cutting tools are limited to holes larger than 12 mm (0.47 in). The advantage is that
when the insert wears out it is easily and more cost effectively replaced. The disadvantage is
the cycle time is generally longer than solid tools. Note that solid multiple-form thread
cutting tools look similar to taps, but they differ in that the cutting tool does not have a
backtaper and there is not a lead-in chamfer. This lack of a lead-in chamfer allows the threads
to be formed within one pitch length of the bottom of a blind hole.[14]
[edit] Thrilling
Thrilling is the process of drilling and threading internal threads using a specialized cutting
tool on a CNC mill. The cutting tool tip is shaped like a drill, while the shank has a thread
shaped form. The cutter first plunges to drill the hole. Then the thread is circularly
interpolated just like the multiple-form cutter described above. The advantage is this process
eliminates a tool, tool holder, and tool change. The disadvantage is that the process is limited
to hole depth no greater than three times the diameter of the tool.[15]
[edit] Thread grinding
Thread grinding is done on a grinding machine using specially dressed grinding wheels
matching the shape of the threads. The process is usually used to produce accurate threads or
threads in hard materials; a common application is ball screw mechanisms.[citation needed] There
are three types: center-type grinding with axial feed, center-type infeed thread grinding and
centerless thread grinding. Center-type grinding with an axial feed is the most common of
the three. It is similar to cutting a thread on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool, except the
cutting tool is replaced with a grinding wheel. Usually a single ribbed wheel is used, although
multiple ribbed wheels are also available. To complete the thread multiple passes are
commonly required. Center-type infeed thread grinding use a grinding wheel with multiple
ribs that is longer than the length of the desired thread. First, the grinding wheel is fed into
the blank to the full thread depth. Then the blank is slowly rotated through approximately 1.5
turns while axially advancing through one pitch per revolution. Finally, the centerless thread
grinding process is used to make head-less set screws in a similar method as centerless
grinding. The blanks are hopper-fed to the grinding wheels, where the thread is fully formed.
Common centerless thread grinding production rates are 60 to 70 pieces per minute for a
0.5 in (13 mm) long set screw.[15]
[edit] Thread lapping
Rarely, thread cutting or grinding (usually the latter) will be followed by thread lapping in
order to achieve the highest precision and surface finish achievable. This is a toolroom
practice when the highest precision is required, rarely employed except for the leadscrews or
ballscrews of high-end machine tools.
[edit] Threading with EDM
Internal threads can be electrical discharge machined (EDM) into hard materials using a
sinker style machine.
[edit] Deformative or transformative methods

[edit] Thread forming and rolling
The thread forming and rolling concept

Page 23 of Colvin FH, Stanley FA (eds) (1914): American Machinists' Handbook, 2nd ed. New York
and London: McGraw-Hill. Summarizes screw thread rolling practice as of 1914.
Thread forming and thread rolling are processes for forming screw threads, with the former
referring to creating internal threads and the latter external threads. In both of these processes
threads are formed into a blank by pressing a shaped die against the blank, in a process
similar to knurling. These processes are used for large production runs because typical
production rates are around one piece per second. Forming and rolling produce no swarf and
less material is required because the blank size starts smaller than a blank required for cutting
threads; there is typically a 15 to 20% material savings in the blank, by weight.[15] A rolled
thread can often be easily recognized because the thread has a larger diameter than the blank
rod from which it has been made; however, necks and undercuts can be cut or rolled onto
blanks with threads that are not rolled. Also, the end of the screw usually looks a bit different
from the end of a cut-thread screw.[3]
Materials are limited to ductile materials because the threads are cold formed, however this
increases the thread's yield strength, surface finish, hardness, and wear resistance.[15] Also,
materials with good deformation characteristics are necessary for rolling; these materials
include softer (more ductile) metals and exclude brittle materials, such as cast iron.
Tolerances are typically 0.001 in. (0.025 mm), but tolerances as tight as 0.0006 in
(0.015 mm) are achievable. Surface finishes range from 6 to 32 micro-inches.[16]
There are four main types of thread rolling, named after the configuration of the dies: flat
dies, two-die cylindrical, three-die cylindrical, and planetary dies. The flat die system has
two flat dies, the bottom one is held stationary and the other slides. The blank is placed on
one end of the stationary die and then the moving die slides over the blank, which causes the
blank to roll between the two dies forming the threads. Before the moving die reaches the end
of its stroke the blank rolls off the stationary die in a finished form. The two-die cylindrical
process is used to produce threads up to 6 in (150 mm) in diameter and 20 in (510 mm) in
length. There are two types of three-die processes; the first has the three dies move radially
out from the center to let the blank enter the dies and then closes and rotates to roll the
threads. This type of process is commonly employed on turret lathes and screw machines.
The second type takes the form of a self-opening die head. This type is more common than
the former, but is limited by not being able form the last 1.5 to 2 threads against shoulders.
Planetary dies are use to mass produce threads up to 1 in (25 mm) in diameter.[4][15]
Thread forming is performed using a fluteless tap, or roll tap,[17] which closely resembles a
cutting tap without the flutes. There are lobes periodically spaces around the tap that actually
do the thread forming as the tap is advanced into a properly sized hole. Since the tap does not
produce chips, there is no need to periodically back out the tap to clear away chips, which, in
a cutting tap, can jam and break the tap. Thus thread forming is particularly suited to taping
blind holes, which are tougher to tap with a cutting tap due to the chip build-up in the hole.
Note that the tap drill size differs from that used for a cutting tap and that an accurate hole
size is required because a slightly undersized hole can break the tap. Proper lubrication is
essential because of the frictional forces involved, therefore a lubricating oil is used instead
of cutting oil.[2][4]
When considering the blank diameter tolerance, a change in blank diameter will affect the
major diameter by an approximate ratio of 3 to 1. Production rates are usually three to five
times faster than thread cutting.[citation needed]
Flat die thread rolling

Planetary thread rolling
Two-die cylindrical rolling
T
t
Production rates[5][16]
Thread diameter [in.] Flat dies [pieces/min] Cylindrical [pieces/min] Planetary [pieces/min]
1/8 40 to 500 75 to 300 450 to 2000
1/4 40 to 400 60 to 150 250 to 1200
1/2 25 to 90 50 to 100 100 to 400
3/4 20 to 60 5 to 10 -
1h 15 to 50 1 to 50 -
r
ee-die cylindrical rolling
Tool styles [edit]

Description Application Thread
Flat dies Machine, tapping and wood screws casting and
molding
Cylindrical in-feed 2 dies Large or balanced screws
Cylindrical in-feed 3 dies Tube fitting, spark plugs In casting
Planetary dies High volumes screws, sheet metal screws, and drive screws and molding
the threads
are directly formed by the geometry of the mold cavity in the mold or die. When the material
freezes in the mold, it retains the shape after the mold is removed. The material is heated to a
liquid, or mixed with a liquid that will either dry or cure (such as plaster or cement).
Alternately, the material may be forced into a mold as a powder and compressed into a solid,
as with graphite.
Although the first thoughts that come to mind for most machinists regarding threading are of
thread cutting processes (such as tapping, single-pointing, or helical milling), Smid points out
that, when plastic bottles for food, beverages, personal care products, and other consumer
products are considered, it is actually plastic molding that is the principal method (by sheer
volume) of thread generation in manufacturing today.[18] Of course, this fact highlights the
importance of the moldmaker's getting the mold just right (in preparation for millions of
cycles, usually at high speed).
Cast threads in metal parts may be finished by machining, or may be left in the as-cast state.
(The same can be said of cast gear teeth.) Whether or not to bother with the additional
expense of a machining operation depends on the application. For parts where the extra
precision and surface finish is not strictly necessary (although it might be nice), the
machining is forgone in order to achieve a lower cost. With sand casting parts this means a
rather rough finish; but with molded plastic or die-cast metal, the threads can be very nice
indeed straight from the mold or die. A common example of molded plastic threads is on
soda (pop) bottles. A common example of die-cast threads is on cable glands
(connectors/fittings).
[edit] Additive methods

Many, perhaps most, threaded parts have potential to be generated via additive
manufacturing, of which there are many variants, including fused deposition modeling, direct
metal laser sintering, 3D printing, solid freeform fabrication, layered object manufacturing,
and stereolithography. Most additive technologies are still on the laboratory end of their
historical development, but further commercialization is picking up speed. Additive methods
today generally produce a rough surface finish, which suggests that their earliest commercial
wins will be in parts that don't require secondary finishing by subtractive methods.
[edit] Combinations of subtractive, additive, deformative,

or transformative methods
Often subtractive, additive, deformative, or transformative methods are combined in
whatever ways are advantageous. Such multidisciplinary manufacturing falls under
classifications including rapid prototyping, desktop manufacturing, direct manufacturing,
direct digital manufacturing, digital fabrication, instant manufacturing, or on-demand
manufacturing.
[edit] Inspection
Inspection of the finished screw threads can be achieved in various ways, with the expense of
the method tailored to the requirements of the product application. Shop-floor inspection of a
thread is often as simple as running a nut onto it (for male threads) or a bolt into it (for female
threads). This is plenty good enough for many applications (e.g., MRO or hobbyist work),
although it is not good enough for most commercial manufacturing. Higher-precision
methods are discussed below.
Commercial-grade inspection of screw threads can involve most of the same inspection
methods and tools used to inspect other manufactured products, such as micrometers; vernier
or dial calipers; surface plates and height gauges; gauge blocks; optical comparators; white
light scanners; and coordinate-measuring machines (CMMs). Even industrial radiography
(including industrial CT scanning) can be used, for example, to inspect internal thread
geometry in the way that an optical comparator can inspect external thread geometry.
Conical micrometer anvils, specifically suited to resting on the sides of the thread, are made
for various thread angles, with 60 being the most common. Mics with such anvils are usually
called "thread mics". Users who lack thread mics rely instead on the "3-wire method", which
involves placing 3 short pieces of wire (or gauge pins) of known diameter into the valleys of
the thread and then measuring from wire to wire with standard (flat) anvils. A conversion
factor (produced by a straightforward trigonometric calculation) is then multiplied with the
measured value to infer a measurement of the thread's pitch diameter. Tables of these
conversion factors were established many decades ago for all standard thread sizes, so today
a user need only take the measurement and then perform the table lookup (as opposed to
recalculating each time). The 3-wire method is also used when high precision is needed to
inspect a specific diameter, commonly the pitch diameter, or on specialty threads such as
multi-start or when the thread angle is not 60. Ball-shaped micrometer anvils can be used in
similar fashion (same trigonometric relationship, less cumbersome to use). Digital calipers
and micrometers can send each measurement datum as it occurs through an interface
(commonly RS-232) to storage and as input to software, in which case the table lookup is
done in an automated way, and quality assurance and quality control can be achieved using
statistical process control.
[edit] History
Each method of thread generation has its own detailed history. Therefore a comprehensive
discussion is beyond the scope of this article; but much historical information is available in
related articles, including:
Screw > History

Screw-cutting lathe > History
Automatic lathe > History
Screw thread > History of standardization
Turret lathe [various sections]
Casting (metalworking) and its family of articles (e.g., Sand casting > History)
Grinding (abrasive cutting) and its family of articles
Additive manufacturing > Historical development and broadening applications
Various specific additive manufacturing articles (e.g., digital fabricator, direct digital
manufacturing, 3D printing, rapid prototyping, solid freeform fabrication)
List of emerging technologies
[edit] References
1. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 741.
2. ^ a b Green 1996, pp. 18281830.
3. ^ a b Green 1996, p. 1842
4. ^ a b c Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 758.
5. ^ a b Todd, Allen & Alting 1994, pp. 149150.
6. ^ a b http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Screw.html Accessed on January 11, 2009
7. ^ Sherline (1996). "Sherline End Mill Holders". Instructions for Using Milling Machine Accessories.
Sherline. http://www.sherline.com/3079inst.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-25.
10. ^ a b Smid 2008, pp. 433442.
11. ^ Smid 2008, p. 443.
12. ^ a b Smid 2008, p. 435.
13. ^ a b Smid 2008, p. 442.
14. ^ Stephenson & Agapiou 2006, pp. 235236.
15. ^ a b c d e Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 756.
16. ^ a b Todd, Allen & Alting 1994, p. 324.
17. ^ Stephenson & Agapiou 1997, p. 260.
18. ^ Smid 2008.
[edit] Bibliography
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Green, Robert E. et al. (eds) (1996), Machinery's Handbook (25 ed.), New York, NY, USA:
Industrial Press, ISBN 978-0-8311-2575-2, http://www.worldcat.org/title/machinerys-
handbook/oclc/473691581.
Smid, Peter (2008), CNC Programming Handbook (3 ed.), New York, NY, USA: Industrial
Press, ISBN 9780831133474, LCCN 2007-045901.
Stephenson, David A.; Agapiou, John S. (1997), Metal cutting theory and practice, Marcel
Dekker, ISBN 9780824795795, http://books.google.com/books?id=19AdVu1O4fQC.
Stephenson, David A.; Agapiou, John S. (2006), Metal cutting theory and practice (2nd ed.),
CRC Press, ISBN 9780824758882,
http://books.google.com/books?id=PvK72Ymaj10Cpg=PA235.
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Alting, Leo (1994), Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide,
Industrial Press Inc., ISBN 0-8311-3049-0,
http://books.google.com/books?id=6x1smAf_PAcC.
[edit] Further reading

Colvin, Fred H. (1947), Sixty Years with Men and Machines, New York and London: McGraw-
Hill, LCCN 47-003762. Available as a reprint from Lindsay Publications (ISBN 978-0-917914-
86-7). Foreword by Ralph Flanders.
Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut,
USA: Yale University Press, LCCN 16-011753, http://books.google.com/books?id=X-
EJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926
(LCCN 27-024075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, IL, USA (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-
7).
Roe, Joseph Wickham (1937), James Hartness: A Representative of the Machine Age at Its
Best, New York, New York, USA: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, LCCN 37-
016470; OCLC 3456642, http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3456642.
Rybczynski, Witold (2000), One good turn: a natural history of the screwdriver and the screw,
Scribner, ISBN 978-0-684-86729-8, OCLC 462234518, LCCN 00-036988. Various
republications (paperback, e-book, braille, etc).

A video of thread milling with a single-form cutting tool
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threading_(manufacturing)"

Categories: Threading (manufacturing) | Machining
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from
December 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010 | Articles using legacy
format in Template:LCCN
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Eesti

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Pellet mill
A pellet mill, also known as a pellet press,[1] is a type of mill or machine press used to create
pellets from powdered material. Pellet mills are unlike grinding mills, in that they combine
small materials into a larger, homogeneous mass, rather than break large materials into
smaller pieces.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
o 1.1 Large-scale mills
o 1.2 Small-scale mills
2 Applications
3 References
4 External links
[edit] Types
There are many types of pellet mills that can be generally grouped into large-scale and small-
scale types.
[edit] Large-scale mills
There are two common types of large-scale pellet mills: flat die mills and ring die mills. Flat
die mills use a flat die with slots. The powder is introduced to the top of the die and as the die
rotates a roller presses the powder through the holes in the die. A cutter on the other side of
the die cuts the exposed pellet free from the die.[1] In the ring die there are radial slot
throughout the die. Powder is fed into the inside of the die and spreaders evenly distribute the
powder. Two rollers then compress the powder through the die holes. Two cutters are used to
cut the pellets free from the outside of the die.[2]
Large scale pellet mills are usually used to produce animal feed,[1] wood pellets, and fuel
pellets for use in a pellet stove.
[edit] Small-scale mills
A screw-type pellet mill
Small-scale mills are usually variations of screw presses or hydraulic presses. The same basic
process is used for both types. A die, also known as a mold, holds the uncompressed powder
in a shaped pocket. The pocket shape defined the final pellet shape. A platen is attached to
the end of the screw (in a screw press) or the ram (in a hydraulic press) which compresses the
powder.[3]
Some platens are heated to speed up the time it takes and improve the overall structure of the
pellet. They may also have water ports for quick cooling between uses.[citation needed]
[edit] Applications
One of the more common applications is to produce KBr pellets which are used in infrared
spectroscopy applications.
Animal feed pellets are usually a mixture of dry powdered feedstock, such as flour, sawdust,
or grass, and a wet ingredient, such as molasses or steam. Feedstocks for pellet mills can
sometimes break down and then re-form, or polymerize, under the extreme heat and pressure
of the pellet mill.[citation needed]
[edit] References
1. ^ a b c Pietsch, Wolfgang (2005), Agglomeration in Industry: Occurrence and Applications, 1,
Wiley-VCH, p. 254, ISBN 9783527305827,
http://books.google.com/books?id=aqQIdaIwpwYC&pg=RA1-PA189.
2. ^ Matz, Samuel A. (1991), The chemistry and technology of cereals as food and feed (2nd
ed.), Springer, p. 328, ISBN 9780442308308,
http://books.google.com/books?id=WKY0h5YrQVwC&pg=PA328.
3. ^ Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (1898), Tenth Annual Report of the Storrs
Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn. 1897, Pelton & King, pp. 208209,
http://books.google.com/books?id=A0MgAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA208.

Wood Pellet Mill Suppliers Wood pellet mill supplier from China with over 10
years experience.
[hide]v d eBioenergy
Algae fuel Bagasse Babassu oil
Biobutanol Biodiesel Biogas
Biofuels Biogasoline Cellulosic ethanol Corn
stover Ethanol fuel Methanol fuel
Stover Straw Vegetable oil
Barley Cassava Grape Hemp Maize
Oat Potato Rapeseed Rice Sorghum
Energy from foodstock
bicolor Soybean Sugarcane Sugar beet
Sunflower Wheat Yam
Arundo Big bluestem Camelina
Chinese tallow Duckweed Jatropha
Non-food energy crops
curcas Millettia pinnata Miscanthus
giganteus Switchgrass Wood fuel
Bioconversion Biomass heating systems
Biorefinery Fischer-Tropsch process
Technology
Industrial biotechnology Pellet mill
Pellet stove Thermal depolymerization
Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
Energy content of biofuel Energy crop
Concepts
Energy forestry EROEI Food vs. fuel
Sustainable biofuel
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellet_mill"
Categories: Machines
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced
statements from May 2010
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
This page was last modified on 11 May 2011 at 02:53.

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Surface grinding
Surface grinding is used to produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces. It is a widely used
abrasive machining process in which a spinning wheel covered in rough particles (grinding
wheel) cuts chips of metallic or non metallic substance from a workpiece, making a face of it
flat or smooth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Process
2 Equipment
o 2.1 Types of surface grinders
o 2.2 Grinding wheels for surface grinders
3 Lubrication
4 Effects on work material properties
5 See also
6 References
o 6.1 Bibliography
[edit] Process
Surface grinding is the most common of the grinding operations. It is a finishing process that
uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat surface of metallic or nonmetallic materials
to give them a more refined look or to attain a desired surface for a functional purpose.
The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a workholding device known as a

chuck, and a reciprocating table. The chuck holds the material in place while it is being
worked on. It can do this one of two ways: ferromagnetic pieces are held in place by a
magnetic chuck, while non-ferromagnetic and nonmetallic pieces are held in place by
vacuum or mechanical means. A machine vise (made from ferromagnetic steel or cast iron)
placed on the magnetic chuck can be used to hold non-ferromagnetic workpieces if only a
magnetic chuck is available.
Factors to consider in surface grinding are the material of the grinding wheel and the material
of the piece being worked on.
Typical workpiece materials include cast iron and minor steel. These two materials don't tend
to clog the grinding wheel while being processed. Other materials are aluminum, stainless
steel, brass and some plastics. When grinding at high temperatures, the material tends to
become weakened and is more inclined to corrode. This can also result in a loss of magnetism
in materials where this is applicable.
The grinding wheel is not limited to a cylindrical shape and can have a myriad of options that
are useful in transferring different geometries to the object being worked on. Straight wheels
can be dressed by the operator to produce custom geometries. When surface grinding an
object, one must keep in mind that the shape of the wheel will be transferred to the material
of the object like a mirror image.
Spark out is a term used when precision values are sought and literally means "until the
sparks are out (no more)". It involves passing the workpiece under the wheel, without
resetting the depth of cut, more than once and generally multiple times. This ensures that any
inconsistencies in the machine or workpiece are eliminated.
[edit] Equipment
Surface Grinder with electromagnetic chuck, inset shows a Manual magnetic chuck
A surface grinder is a machine tool used to provide precision ground surfaces, either to a
critical size or for the surface finish.
The typical precision of a surface grinder depends on the type and usage, however +/-
0.002 mm (+/- 0.0001") should be achievable on most surface grinders.
The machine consists of a table that traverses both longitudinally and across the face of the
wheel. The longitudinal feed is usually powered by hydraulics, as may the cross feed,
however any mixture of hand, electrical or hydraulic may be used depending on the ultimate
usage of the machine (i.e.: production, workshop, cost). The grinding wheel rotates in the
spindle head and is also adjustable for height, by any of the methods described previously.
Modern surface grinders are semi-automated, depth of cut and spark-out may be preset as to
the number of passes and once setup the machining process requires very little operator
intervention.
Depending on the workpiece material, the work is generally held by the use of a magnetic
chuck. This may be either an electromagnetic chuck, or a manually operated, permanent
magnet type chuck; both types are shown in the first image.
The machine has provision for the application of coolant as well as the extraction of metal
dust (metal and grinding particles).
[edit] Types of surface grinders
Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders The periphery (flat edge) of the wheel is
in contact with the workpiece, producing the flat surface. Peripheral grinding is used in high-
precision work on simple flat surfaces; tapers or angled surfaces; slots; flat surfaces next to
shoulders; recessed surfaces; and profiles.[1]
Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinders The face of a wheel (cup, cylinder, disc, or

segmental wheel) is used on the flat surface. Wheel-face grinding is often used for fast
material removal, but some machines can accomplish high-precision work. The workpiece is
held on a reciprocating table, which can be varied according to the task, or a rotary-table
machine, with continuous or indexed rotation. Indexing allows loading or unloading one
station while grinding operations are being performed on another.[2]
Disc grinders and double-disc grinders Disc grinding is similar to surface grinding, but
with a larger contact area between disc and workpiece. Disc grinders are available in both
vertical and horizontal spindle types. Double disc grinders work both sides of a workpiece
simultaneously. Disc grinders are capable of achieving especially fine tolerances.[2]
[edit] Grinding wheels for surface grinders
Main article: Grinding wheel
Aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, diamond, and cubic boron nitride (CBN) are four
commonly used abrasive materials for the surface of the grinding wheels. Of these materials,
aluminum oxide is the most common. Because of cost, diamond and CBN grinding wheels
are generally made with a core of less expensive material surrounded by a layer of diamond
or CBN. Diamond and CBN wheels are very hard and are capable of economically grinding
materials, such as ceramics and carbides, that cannot be ground by aluminum oxide or silicon
carbide wheels.
As with any grinding operation, the condition of the wheel is extremely important. Grinding
dressers are used to maintain the condition of the wheel, these may be table mounted or
mounted in the wheel head where they can be readily applied.
[edit] Lubrication
See also: Cutting fluid
Lubricants are sometimes used to cool the workpiece and wheel, lubricate the interface, and
remove swarf (chips). It must be applied directly to the cutting area to ensure that the fluid is
not carried away by the grinding wheel. Common lubricants include water-soluble chemical
fluids, water soluble oils, synthetic oils, and petroleum-based oils. The type of lubrication
used depends on the workpiece material and is outlined in the table below.[3]
Types of lubricants used for grinding based on workpiece material[3]

Workpiece
Lubricant
material
Aluminium Light duty oil
Brass Light duty oil
Cast iron Heavy duty emulsifiable oil, light duty chemical and synthetic oil
Mild steel Heavy duty water-soluble oil
Stainless steel Heavy duty emulsifiable oil, heavy duty chemical and synthetic oil
Water-soluble oil, dry, heavy duty emulsifiable oil, light duty chemical
Plastics
and synthetic oil
[edit] Effects on work material properties

The high temperatures encountered at the ground surface create residual stresses and a thin
martensitic layer may form on the part surface; this decreases the fatigue strength. In
ferromagnetic materials, if the temperature of the surface is raised beyond the Curie
temperature then it may lose some magnetic properties. Finally, the surface may be more
susceptible to corrosion.[4]
[edit] See also

Angle grinder
Bench grinder
Cylindrical grinder
Flick grinder
Grinding (abrasive cutting)
Tool and Cutter grinder
Jig grinder
Centerless grinding
[edit] References
1. ^ Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook (TMEH), 4th edition, Volume 1, Machining.
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983
2. ^ a b TMEH, Volume 1.
3. ^ a b Todd, Allen & Alting 1994, p. 141.
4. ^ Todd, Allen & Alting 1994, p. 139.
[edit] Bibliography
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Alting, Leo (1994), Manufacturing Processes
Reference Guide, Industrial Press Inc., ISBN 0-8311-3049-0,
http://books.google.com/?id=6x1smAf_PAcC.
and cutter grinder
Machining and milling machining Endmill Engraving Hobbing Lathe
Terminology
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_grinding"

Categories: Grinders | Grinding and lapping
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Diamond tool
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please
improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (December 2010)
removed. (February 2010)
A close-up of the segment of a diamond saw blade
A diamond tool is a cutting tool with diamond grains fixed on the functional parts of the tool
via a bonding material or another method.[1] As diamond is a superhard material, diamond
tools have many advantages comparing with the tools made with common abrasives such as
corundum and silicon carbide.
Contents
[hide]
1 Advantages
o 1.1 Advantages of diamond grinding tools
2 Categories
o 2.1 Categories by manufacturing method
o 2.2 Categories by use
3 Applications
o 3.1 Applicable materials
o 3.2 Applied domains
4 Some examples of diamond tools
o 4.1 Diamond dressing tools
o 4.2 PCD cutting tools
o 4.3 Polycrystalline diamond compacts
o 4.4 Diamond paste and slurry
o 4.5 Diamond electroplated tools
o 4.6 Single point diamond turning tools
o 4.7 Diamond saw blades
o 4.8 Diamond tipped grinding cups
o 4.9 Diamond tipped core bit or holesaw
o 4.10 PCD tool insert
o 4.11 PD tool insert
o 4.12 Polishing pads
o 4.13 Diamond wire cutting
o 4.14 Diamond saw chain
5 See also
6 References
[edit] Advantages
Diamond is almost the hardest material on the earth, and its hardness is much higher than
corundum and silicon carbide. Diamond also has high strength, good wear resistance and low
friction coefficient. So when used as an abrasive, it has many obvious advantages over the
common abrasives.
[edit] Advantages of diamond grinding tools
Diamond can be used to make grind tools, which have following advantages:
High grinding efficiency, Low grinding force: Less heat will be generated in the
grinding process. This can decrease or avoid burns and cracks on the surface of the
workpiece, and decrease equipment's wear and energy consumption.
High wear resistance: Diamond grinding tools' change in dimension is small. This
can lead to good grinding quality and high grinding precision.
Long lifespan, Long dressing period: This can greatly increase the work efficiency,
and improve the workers' labor environment and decrease their labor intensity.
Low comprehensive cost: The processing cost of each workpiece is lower.
[edit] Categories
There are thousands kinds of diamond tools. They can be categorized by their manufacturing
methods and their uses.
[edit] Categories by manufacturing method
According to their manufacturing methods or bond types, diamond tools can be categorized
to the following categories:[1]
Metal-bonded diamond tools: The tools' bonding material is metal mixture powder.
The functional parts of the tool are usually diamond segments. These tools include
metal-bonded diamond saw blades, diamond grinding cup wheels, diamond core drill
bits, etc. For metal-bonded diamond tools, the bond is one of the prime factors when
selecting which tool to use for cutting or grinding a specific material, depending on
how hard or abrasive the material is. The bond used is what dictates the rate at which
the metallic powders wear down and expose new diamond crystals at the surface,
maintaining an abrasive cutting surface. Different bond strengths are achieved by the
alloy mix of metallic powders chosen and how much heat and pressure are applied to
the sintered segment.
Resin-bonded diamond tools: The tools' bonding material is mainly resin powder.
An example of this tool is the resin-bonded diamond polishing pads used in the
construction industry.
Plated diamond tools: This tool is made by fixing the diamonds onto the tool's base
via electroplating method or via CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) method. This tool
can usually be made to have good processing precision.
Ceramic-bonded diamond tools: The tools' bonding material is usually the glass and
ceramic powder. This tool usually has the features of good chemical stability, small
elastic deformation, high brittleness, etc.
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD): They are normally made by sintering many micro-
size single diamond crystals in high temperature and high pressure. PCD has good
fracture toughness and good thermal stability, and can be used in making geological
drill bits.
Polycrystalline Diamond Composite or Compacts (PDC): They are made by
combining some layers of polycrystalline diamonds (PCD) with a layer of cemented
carbide liner in high temperature and high pressure. PDC has the advantages of
diamonds high wear resistance and carbides good toughness.
High-temperature brazed diamond tools: This tool is made by brazing a single
layer of diamonds onto the tool via some solder under the temperature of over 900 C.
This tool is a newly developed product. Its making technologies include vacuum
brazing and atmosphere-protected brazing. This tool has several advantages: the
solder can hold the diamonds very firmly, the single layer of diamonds' exposed
height can be 70%80% of their sizes, and the diamonds can be regularly arranged on
the tool.
[edit] Categories by use
If categorized by use, there are diamond grinding tools, diamond cutting tools (e.g., diamond
coated twist drill bits), diamond drilling tools, diamond sawing tools (e.g., diamond saw
blades), diamond drawing dies, etc.
[edit] Applications
[edit] Applicable materials
Diamond tools are suitable to process the following materials:
Carbide alloy
Hard or abrasive non-metallic materials, for example, stone, concrete, asphalt, glass,
ceramics, gem stone and semiconductor materials.
Non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, copper and their alloys, and some soft but
tough materials such as rubber and resin.
As diamonds can react with Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, V under the high temperatures generated in the
grinding processes, normally diamond tools are not suitable to process steels, including
common steels and various tough alloy steels, while the other superhard tool, CBN tool, is
suitable to process steels. The tools made with common abrasives (e.g. corundum and silicon
carbide) can also do the task.
[edit] Applied domains
Diamond tools are used in the following domains:
Geological or project exploration: Diamond geological drill bits, diamond oil drill
bits and diamond thin-wall drill bits are often used in these domains. The main
application of PCD drilling bits is in the oil and natural gas industries and the mining
industry.
Stone processing: Diamond circular saw blades, diamond gang saws, diamond band
saws are used to saw marble, granite and other stone blocks. Diamond wire saws are
used in stone quarries to exploit raw stone blocks. Shaped diamond tools are used to
process shaped stone. Resin-bonded diamond polishing pads are used to polish stone.
Construction: Medium or small sized diamond saw blades, diamond core drill bits
and some diamond grinding or polishing tools are often used in repairing roads,
remodeling buildings, processing building mateerials, etc.
Woodworking: Composite laminate flooring is widely used. It is wearable as stone.
PCD circular saw blades, profiling cutter, twist drill bits and other diamond tools are
used to process it.
Auto spare parts processing: PCD and PCBN cutting tools are used to meet the high
efficiency and low deviation processing requirements in this domain.
IT and home appliance products processing: High-precision super-thin diamond
cutting wheels are used to cut silicon slices. Resin-bonded diamond grinding wheels
are used to process ceramics in optical fiber industry.
Engineering ceramics processing: Engineering ceramics are widely used in many
industries. They have the properties of high toughness, high hardness, high-
temperature resistance. High-toughness and durable diamond grinding wheels are
developed to process them.
Carbide tools and other mechanical tools processing: Diamond tools are used to
gain high processing precision and efficiency.
Besides what are listed above, there are also other domains where diamond tools are applied,
for example, in medicine, Venezuelan scientist Humberto Fernandez Moran invented the
diamond scalpel for use in delicate surgeries.
Apart from to be used as an abrasive for its high hardness, diamond is also used to make
other products for its many other good properties such as high heat-conductivity, low fiction
coefficient, high chemical stability, high resistivity and high optical performances. These
applications include coatings on bearings and CDs, acting as lens and thermistors, making
high-voltage switches and sensors, etc.
[edit] Some examples of diamond tools

[edit] Diamond dressing tools
Diamond dressers consist of single-point or multipoint tools brazed to a steel shank, and are
used for the trueing and dressing of grinding wheels. The tools come in several types,
including: grit impregnated, blade type, crown type, and disc type. The advantages of
multipoint over single-point tools are:
1. The whole diamond can be used; in a single-point tool, when the point is blunt the
diamond must be reset, and after few resettings the diamond is wasted.
2. Multipoint tools have higher accuracy, especially in form grinding, where blade types
are used. Blades consist of elongated diamonds. The thickness is controlled and
blades are available in thicknesses from 0.75 to 1.40 millimeters (0.030 to 0.055 in).
3. Grit-type tools are of a tough grade, and can be used for bench grinders.
4. Since small points are used, the diamonds have a cutting edge with natural points,
unlike single-point tools, which have brutted points.
5. The cost of multipoint tools is lower, since smaller, less expensive diamonds are used.
[edit] PCD cutting tools
For more details on Synthetic diamond, see polycrystalline diamond.
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) is formed in a large High Temperature-High Pressure (HT-

HP) press, as either a diamond wafer on a backing of carbide, or forming a "vein" of diamond
within a carbide wafer or rod.
Most wafers are polished to a mirror finish, then cut with an electrical discharge machining
(EDM) tool into smaller, workable segments that are then brazed onto the sawblade, reamer,
drill, or other tool. Often they are EDM machined and/or ground an additional time to expose
the vein of diamond along the cutting edge. These tools are mostly used for the machining of
nonmetallic and nonferrous materials.
The grinding operation is combined with EDM for several reasons. For example, according to
Modern Machine Shop,[citation needed] the combination allows a higher material removal rate and
is therefore more cost effective. Also, the EDM process slightly affects the surface finish.
Grinding is used on the affected area to provide a finer final surface. The Beijing Institute of
Electro-Machining[citation needed] attributes a finer shaping and surface geometry to the
combination of the two processes into one.
The process itself is accomplished by combining the two elements from each individual
process into one grinding wheel. The diamond graphite wheel accomplishes the task of
grinding, while the graphite ring around the existing wheel serves as the EDM portion.
However, since diamond is not a conductive material, the bonding in the PCD work piece
must be ample enough to generate the conductivity necessary for the EDG process to work.
Polycrystalline diamond tools are used extensively in automotive and aerospace industries.
They are ideal for speed machining (9000 surface feet per minute or higher) in tough and
abrasive aluminum alloys, and high-abrasion processes such as carbon-fiber drilling and
ceramics. The diamond cutting edges make them last for extended periods before
replacement is needed. High volume processes, tight tolerances, and highly abrasive
processes are ideal for diamond tooling.
[edit] Polycrystalline diamond compacts
In the late 1970s, General Electric pioneered the technology of polycrystalline diamond
compacts (PDCs) as a replacement for natural diamonds in drill bits.[2] PDCs have been used
to cut through crystalline rock surfaces for extended periods of time in lab environments, and
these capabilities have now been implemented in harsh environments throughout the world.
As of August 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy claimed that nearly one-third of the total
footage drilled worldwide is being drilled with PDC bits, with a claimed savings of nearly
$100,000 per PDC bit as compared to roller-core bits.[3]
[edit] Diamond paste and slurry

Diamond pastes are used for polishing materials that require a mirror finish. They are often
used in metallurgical specimens, carbide dies, carbide seals, spectacle glass industry, and for
polishing diamonds.
[edit] Diamond electroplated tools
Diamond powder deposited through electroplating is used to make files (including nail files)
and in small grinding applications.
[edit] Single point diamond turning tools
Single point diamond turning (SPDT) utilizes a solid, flawless diamond as the cutting edge.
The single crystalline diamond can be natural or synthetic, and is sharpened to the desired
dimensions by mechanical grinding and polishing. The cutting edge of most diamond tools is
sharp to tens of nanometers, making it very effective for cutting non-ferrous materials with
high resolution. SPDT is a very accurate machining process, used to create finished
aspherical and irregular optics without the need for further polishing after completion. The
most accurate machine tool in the world, the LODTM, formerly at Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, had a profile accuracy estimated at 28 nm, while most machines seek a
roughness within that deviation.[4]
SPDT is used for optics, for flat surfaces where both surface finish and unusually high
dimensional accuracy are required, and when lapping would be uneconomical or impractical.
[edit] Diamond saw blades
For high-speed gas powered cut-off saws, walk-behind saws, handheld grinders, bridge saws,
table saws, tile saws, and other types of saws.
Concave blade
For cutting curves in countertops to install sinks or sculpt statues.
Tuck pointers
Thick diamond blades for restoration, involving grinding and replacing mortar.
Crack chasers
Thick V-shaped diamond blades for repairing cracks in concrete.
[edit] Diamond tipped grinding cups
Typically used on hand grinders for grinding concrete or stone.
[edit] Diamond tipped core bit or holesaw
Hollow steel tube with diamond tipped segments for drilling holes through concrete walls in
the construction industry, porcelain tiles or granite worktops in the domestic industry, or also
used for sample core extractions in the mining industry.
[edit] PCD tool insert
Used in machine tools for machining ceramics and high speed aluminum.
[edit] PD tool insert
Used in turning centers for optics and precision surfaces.
[edit] Polishing pads

Pads with diamond crystals for polishing marble and other fine stone.
[edit] Diamond wire cutting
Wire with diamond crystals for cutting.
[edit] Diamond saw chain
For cutting stone, concrete and brick with a special chainsaw.
[edit] See also

Diamond
Material properties of diamond
Superhard materials
Diamond blade
[edit] References
1. ^ a b "Categories of Diamond Tools".
http://www.diamondbladeselect.com/knowledge/categories-of-diamond-tools/.
2. ^ Journal of Petroleum Technology. "Legends of Drilling". pp. 5055.
http://www.energy4me.org/documents/Drilling_techology.pdf.
3. ^ National Renewable Enerty Laboratory (August 2000) Diamond-Cutter Drill Bits. United
States Department of Energy, p. 2. (Report). (DOE/GO 100098-482)
4. ^ The World's Most Accurate Lathe, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, April 2001
[hide]v d eTypes of tools

Broom Brush Floor buffer Hataki Mop Pipe cleaner Sponge
Cleaning tools
Squeegee Steam mop Tawashi Vacuum cleaner
Blade Bolt cutter Broach Ceramic tile cutter Chisel Coping
saw Countersink Diamond blade Diamond tool Drill bit
Endmill Emery cloth File Fretsaw Froe Glass cutter Grater
Cutting and Grinding wheel Hacksaw Hand saw Knife Milling cutter Miter
abrasive tools saw Nail clipper Pipecutter Plane Rasp Razor Reamer
Sandpaper Saw Scalpel Scissors Steel wool Surform
Switchblade Tap and die Thread restorer Tool bit Tumi Utility
knife Water jet cutter Wire brush Wire cutter Wire stripper
Adze Axe Billhook Bow saw Chainsaw Cultivator Earth
auger Edger Garden fork Garden hose Garden trowel Hatchet
Hedge trimmer Hoe Hori hori Irrigation sprinkler Lawn aerator
Garden tools Lawn mower Lawn sweeper Leaf blower Loppers Machete
Mattock Pickaxe Pitchfork Plough (plow) Post hole digger
Pruning shears (secateurs) Rake Roller Rotary tiller Scythe
Shovel Sickle Slasher Spade Splitting maul String trimmer
Block plane BNC inserter/remover Brace Bradawl Breaker bar
Card scraper Cat's paw Caulking gun Clamp Crimping pliers
Crowbar Grease gun Fish tape Hammer Hand truck Hawk Hex
key Jack Lug wrench Locking pliers Mallet Mitre box Monkey
Hand tools wrench Nut driver Paint roller Paintbrush Pipe wrench Pliers
Punch Punch down tool Putty knife Sink wrench Ratchet Scratch
awl Screwdriver Sledgehammer Spike maul Staple gun
Stitching awl Strap wrench Tire iron Torque wrench Trowel
Upholstery hammer Wrench (spanner)
Automatic lathe Broaching machine Drill press Gear shaper
Grinding machine Hobbing machine Jig borer Lathe
Machine tools
Metalworking lathe Milling machine Planer Screw machine
Shaper Turret lathe
Architect's scale Beam compass Caliper Chalk box Compass
Engineer's scale Flexible curve Jig Laser level Laser line level
Measuring and
Laser measuring tool Micrometer Pencil Plumb-bob Protractor
alignment tools
Ruler Scale Sliding T bevel Spirit level Square Straightedge
Tape measure
Angle grinder Bandsaw Belt sander Blow torch Chop saw
Circular saw Concrete saw Crusher Cutting torch Die grinder
Drill Glue gun Grinding machine Heat gun Impact wrench
Jigsaw Jointer Nail gun Needlegun scaler Radial arm saw
Power tools
Random orbital sander Reciprocating saw Rotary tool Router
table Sander Scroll saw Soldering gun Soldering iron Steam
box Table saw Thickness planer Welding Wood router Wood
shaper
Antique tools Backscratcher Comb Flashlight Halligan bar
Other
Kelly tool Ladder Toolbox Vise Workbench
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_tool"
Categories: Metalworking cutting tools | Cutting tools
Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing cleanup from December 2010 | All articles
needing cleanup | Articles needing additional references from February 2010 | All articles
needing additional references | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with
unsourced statements from September 2010
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Portugus

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Belt grinding
challenged and removed. (December 2008)
Belt grinding is a machining method to process metals and other materials, with the aid of
coated abrasives.
The basic difference between belt grinders and belt sanders is the material being machined.
Sanding is the machining of wood, grinding is the common name for machining metals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Applications
2 Grinding methods
o 2.1 Wide belt grinding
o 2.2 Changing variables
[edit] Applications
Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kinds of different applications. There are
three different applications of the belt grinding technology:
1. Finishing: surface roughness, removal of micro burrs, cosmetic finishes, polishing

2. Deburring: radiusing, burr removal, edge breaking
3. Stock removal: high stock removal, cleaning (e.g. of corrosion), eliminating mill or
tool marks, dimensioning
[edit] Grinding methods

Wide belt grinding is a familiar process in industry as well as home applications. There are
several basic methods for belt grinding:
Stroke belt
Platen belt
Wide belt
Backstand (pressure)
Centreless
Portable (manual)
In general there are three basic elements of the belt-grinding machine: work rest support,
grinding head and a regulating head. These components differ for all the methods but in
general the workpiece is pressed between the grinding head and the rest support. The
objective of the regulating head is to coordinate the belt pressure.
[edit] Wide belt grinding
One of the most common methods is wide belt grinding.
The belt grinding process is variable by adjusting certain parameters like belt speed, grinding
pressure, feed speed, durometer of the contact drum, size of the contact drum and the abrasive
belt that is used. The machines can be made for wet or dry operation. Furthermore a wide belt
grinding machine can be constructed with single or multiple heads. The first head is used for
coarse grinding and the next heads gradually make a finer finish. Wide belt grinding is also
used as a high stock removal method for special metals (e.g. stainless steel, titanium, and
nickel alloys).
[edit] Changing variables
There are several objectives possible for grinding with coated abrasives. Among them are the
right application (e.g. finish or stock removal), time saving and efficiency of the abrasive
tool.
To achieve the above objectives, it is essential to look in more detail to the variables, which
affect them. These include the work material properties, the grit and abrasive type of the
grinding belt, belt speed, belt sequences, contact wheel hardness and diameter, serration, type
of lubricant (or dry) and grinding pressure. Changing these variables will affect the
performances of the belt grinding process.
In the wide belt method, a contact wheel supports the abrasive belt. The selection of the
contact wheel and abrasive to match the grinding parameters required for a specific operation
is very critical. Stock removal generally requires a harder, serrated rubber contact wheel, and
coarse grade ceramic abrasives. Finishing generally requires the use of a smooth faced
contact wheel and fine grade abrasives.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_grinding"

Categories: Grinding and lapping
Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2008 | All articles lacking
sources
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Nederlands

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Belt grinding
challenged and removed. (December 2008)
Belt grinding is a machining method to process metals and other materials, with the aid of
coated abrasives.
The basic difference between belt grinders and belt sanders is the material being machined.
Sanding is the machining of wood, grinding is the common name for machining metals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Applications
2 Grinding methods
o 2.1 Wide belt grinding
o 2.2 Changing variables
[edit] Applications
Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kinds of different applications. There are
three different applications of the belt grinding technology:
1. Finishing: surface roughness, removal of micro burrs, cosmetic finishes, polishing

2. Deburring: radiusing, burr removal, edge breaking
3. Stock removal: high stock removal, cleaning (e.g. of corrosion), eliminating mill or
tool marks, dimensioning
[edit] Grinding methods

Wide belt grinding is a familiar process in industry as well as home applications. There are
several basic methods for belt grinding:
Stroke belt
Platen belt
Wide belt
Backstand (pressure)
Centreless
Portable (manual)
In general there are three basic elements of the belt-grinding machine: work rest support,
grinding head and a regulating head. These components differ for all the methods but in
general the workpiece is pressed between the grinding head and the rest support. The
objective of the regulating head is to coordinate the belt pressure.
[edit] Wide belt grinding
One of the most common methods is wide belt grinding.
The belt grinding process is variable by adjusting certain parameters like belt speed, grinding
pressure, feed speed, durometer of the contact drum, size of the contact drum and the abrasive
belt that is used. The machines can be made for wet or dry operation. Furthermore a wide belt
grinding machine can be constructed with single or multiple heads. The first head is used for
coarse grinding and the next heads gradually make a finer finish. Wide belt grinding is also
used as a high stock removal method for special metals (e.g. stainless steel, titanium, and
nickel alloys).
[edit] Changing variables

There are several objectives possible for grinding with coated abrasives. Among them are the
right application (e.g. finish or stock removal), time saving and efficiency of the abrasive
tool.
To achieve the above objectives, it is essential to look in more detail to the variables, which
affect them. These include the work material properties, the grit and abrasive type of the
grinding belt, belt speed, belt sequences, contact wheel hardness and diameter, serration, type
of lubricant (or dry) and grinding pressure. Changing these variables will affect the
performances of the belt grinding process.
In the wide belt method, a contact wheel supports the abrasive belt. The selection of the
contact wheel and abrasive to match the grinding parameters required for a specific operation
is very critical. Stock removal generally requires a harder, serrated rubber contact wheel, and
coarse grade ceramic abrasives. Finishing generally requires the use of a smooth faced
contact wheel and fine grade abrasives.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_grinding"

Categories: Grinding and lapping
Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2008 | All articles lacking
sources
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Nederlands

organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Lathe (metal)
Center lathe with DRO and chuck guard. Size is 460 mm swing x 1000 mm between centers
A metal lathe or metalworking lathe is a large class of lathes designed for precisely
machining relatively hard materials. They were originally designed to machine metals;
however, with the advent of plastics and other materials, and with their inherent versatility,
they are used in a wide range of applications, and a broad range of materials. In machining
jargon, where the larger context is already understood, they are usually simply called lathes,
or else referred to by more-specific subtype names (toolroom lathe, turret lathe, etc.). These
rigid machine tools remove material from a rotating workpiece via the (typically linear)
movements of various cutting tools, such as tool bits and drill bits.
Contents
[hide]
1 Construction
o 1.1 Headstock
o 1.2 Bed
o 1.3 Feed and lead screws
o 1.4 Carriage
1.4.1 Cross-slide
1.4.2 Compound rest
1.4.3 Toolpost
o 1.5 Tailstock
o 1.6 Steady and follower rests
2 Types of metal lathes
o 2.1 Center lathe / engine lathe / bench lathe
o 2.2 Toolroom lathe
o 2.3 Turret lathe and capstan lathe
o 2.4 Gang-tool lathe
o 2.5 Multispindle lathe
o 2.6 CNC lathe / CNC turning center
o 2.7 Swiss-style lathe / Swiss turning center
o 2.8 Combination lathe / 3-in-1 machine
o 2.9 Mini-lathe and micro-lathe
o 2.10 Wheel lathe
o 2.11 Brake lathe
3 References
4 Bibliography
5 External links
[edit] Construction
The design of lathes can vary greatly depending on the intended application; however, basic
features are common to most types. These machines consist of (at the least) a headstock, bed,
carriage, and tailstock. Better machines are solidly constructed with broad bearing surfaces
(slides or ways) for stability, and manufactured with great precision. This helps ensure the
components manufactured on the machines can meet the required tolerances and
repeatability.
[edit] Headstock
Headstock with legend, numbers and text within the description refer to those in the image
The headstock (H1) houses the main spindle (H4), speed change mechanism (H2,H3), and
change gears (H10). The headstock is required to be made as robust as possible due to the
cutting forces involved, which can distort a lightly built housing, and induce harmonic
vibrations that will transfer through to the workpiece, reducing the quality of the finished
workpiece.
The main spindle is generally hollow to allow long bars to extend through to the work area.
This reduces preparation and waste of material. The spindle runs in precision bearings and is
fitted with some means of attaching workholding devices such as chucks or faceplates. This
end of the spindle usually also has an included taper, frequently a Morse taper, to allow the
insertion of tapers and centers. On older machines the spindle was directly driven by a flat
belt pulley with lower speeds available by manipulating the bull gear. Later machines use a
gear box driven by a dedicated electric motor. A fully geared head allows the operator to
select speeds entirely through the gearbox.
[edit] Bed
The bed is a robust base that connects to the headstock and permits the carriage and tailstock
to be aligned parallel with the axis of the spindle. This is facilitated by hardened and ground
ways which restrain the carriage and tailstock in a set track. The carriage travels by means of
a rack and pinion system, leadscrew of accurate pitch, or feedscrew.
Types of beds include inverted "V" beds, flat beds, and combination "V" and flat beds. "V"
and combination beds are used for precision and light duty work, while flat beds are used for
heavy duty work.[citation needed]
When a lathe is installed, the first step is to level it, which refers to making sure the bed is not
twisted or bowed. There is no need to make the machine exactly horizontal, but it must be
entirely untwisted to achieve accurate cutting geometry. A precision level is a useful tool for
identifying and removing any twist. It is advisable also to use such a level along the bed to
detect bending, in the case of a lathe with more than four mounting points. In both instances
the level is used as a comparator rather than an absolute reference.
[edit] Feed and lead screws
The feedscrew (H8) is a long driveshaft that allows a series of gears to drive the carriage
mechanisms. These gears are located in the apron of the carriage. Both the feedscrew and
leadscrew (H7) are driven by either the change gears (on the quadrant) or an intermediate
gearbox known as a quick change gearbox (H6) or Norton gearbox. These intermediate
gears allow the correct ratio and direction to be set for cutting threads or worm gears.
Tumbler gears (operated by H5) are provided between the spindle and gear train along with a
quadrant plate that enables a gear train of the correct ratio and direction to be introduced.
This provides a constant relationship between the number of turns the spindle makes, to the
number of turns the leadscrew makes. This ratio allows screwthreads to be cut on the
workpiece without the aid of a die.
Some lathes have only one leadscrew that serves all carriage-moving purposes. For screw
cutting, a half nut is engaged to be driven by the leadscrew's thread; and for general power
feed, a key engages with a keyway cut into the leadscrew to drive a pinion along a rack that is
mounted along the lathe bed.
The leadscrew will be manufactured to either imperial or metric standards and will require a
conversion ratio to be introduced to create thread forms from a different family. To
accurately convert from one thread form to the other requires a 127-tooth gear, or on lathes
not large enough to mount one, an approximation may be used. Multiples of 3 and 7 giving a
ratio of 63:1 can be used to cut fairly loose threads. This conversion ratio is often built into
the quick change gearboxes.
The precise ratio required to convert a lathe with an Imperial (inch) leadscrew to metric
(millimeter) threading is 100 / 127 = 0.7874... . The best approximation with the fewest total
teeth is very often 37 / 47 = 0.7872... . This transposition gives a constant -0.020 percent error
over all customary and model-maker's metric pitches (0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.60,
0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00, 2.50, 3.00, 3.50, 4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.50 and
6.00mm).
[edit] Carriage
Carriage with legend, numbers and text within the description refer to those in the image
In its simplest form the carriage holds the tool bit and moves it longitudinally (turning) or
perpendicularly (facing) under the control of the operator. The operator moves the carriage
manually via the handwheel (5a) or automatically by engaging the feed shaft with the
carriage feed mechanism (5c). This provides some relief for the operator as the movement of
the carriage becomes power assisted. The handwheels (2a, 3b, 5a) on the carriage and its
related slides are usually calibrated, both for ease of use and to assist in making reproducible
cuts. The carriage typically comprises a top casting, known as the saddle (4), and a side
casting, known as the apron (5).
[edit] Cross-slide
The cross-slide (3) rides on the carriage and has a feedscrew that travels perpendicular to the
main spindle axis. This permits facing operations to be performed, and the depth of cut to be
adjusted. This feedscrew can be engaged, through a gear train, to the feed shaft (mentioned
previously) to provide automated 'power feed' movement to the cross-slide. On most lathes,
only one direction can be engaged at a time as an interlock mechanism will shut out the
second gear train.
[edit] Compound rest
The compound rest (or top slide) (2) is usually where the tool post is mounted. It provides a
smaller amount of movement (less than the cross-slide) along its axis via another feedscrew.
The compound rest axis can be adjusted independently of the carriage or cross-slide. It is
used for turning tapers, to control depth of cut when screwcutting or precision facing, or to
obtain finer feeds (under manual control) than the feed shaft permits. Usually, the compound
rest has a protractor marked in its base (2b), enabling the operator to adjust its axis to precise
angles.
The slide rest can be traced to the fifteenth century. In 1718 the tool-supporting slide rest
with a set of gears was introduced by a Russian inventor Andrey Nartov and had limited
usage in the Russian industry.[1] In the eighteenth century the slide rest was also used on
French ornamental turning lathes. The suite of gun boring mills at the Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich, in the 1780s by the Verbruggan family also had slide rests. The story has long
circulated that Henry Maudslay invented it, but he did not (and never claimed so). The legend
that Maudslay invented the slide rest originated with James Nasmyth, who wrote
ambiguously about it in his Remarks on the Introduction of the Slide Principle, 1841; later
writers misunderstood, and propagated the error. However, Maudslay did help to disseminate
the idea widely. It is highly probable that he saw it when he was working at the Arsenal as a
boy. In 1794, whilst he was working for Joseph Bramah, he made one, and when he had his
own workshop used it extensively in the lathes he made and sold there. Coupled with the
network of engineers he trained, this ensured the slide rest became widely known and copied
by other lathe makers, and so diffused throughout British engineering workshops. A practical
and versatile screw-cutting lathe incorporating the trio of leadscrew, change gears, and slide
rest was Maudslay's most important achievement.
The first fully documented, all-metal slide rest lathe was invented by Jacques de Vaucanson
around 1751. It was described in the Encyclopdie a long time before Maudslay invented and
perfected his version. It is likely that Maudslay was not aware of Vaucanson's work, since his
first versions of the slide rest had many errors that were not present in the Vaucanson lathe.
[edit] Toolpost
The tool bit is mounted in the toolpost (1) which may be of the American lantern style,
traditional four-sided square style, or a quick-change style such as the multifix arrangement
pictured. The advantage of a quick change set-up is to allow an unlimited number of tools to
be used (up to the number of holders available) rather than being limited to one tool with the
lantern style, or to four tools with the four-sided type. Interchangeable tool holders allow all
tools to be preset to a center height that does not change, even if the holder is removed from
the machine.
[edit] Tailstock
Tailstock with legend, numbers and text within the description refer to those in the image
The tailstock is a toolholder directly mounted on the spindle axis, opposite the headstock.
The spindle (T5) does not rotate but does travel longitudinally under the action of a
leadscrew and handwheel (T1). The spindle includes a taper to hold drill bits, centers and
other tooling. The tailstock can be positioned along the bed and clamped (T6) in position as
required. There is also provision to offset the tailstock (T4) from the spindles axis, this is
useful for turning small tapers.
The image shows a reduction gear box (T2) between the handwheel and spindle, this is a
feature found only in the larger center lathes, where large drills may necessitate the extra
leverage.
[edit] Steady and follower rests
A steady rest
Workpieces often need to be supported more than the chuck and/or centers can support them,
because cutting metal produces tremendous forces that tend to vibrate or even bend the
workpiece. This extra support can be provided by a steady rest (also called a steady, a fixed
steady, a center rest, or sometimes, confusingly, a center). It stands stationary from a rigid
mounting on the bed, and it supports the workpiece at the rest's center, typically with three
contact points 120 apart. A follower rest (also called a follower or a travelling steady) is
similar, but it is mounted to the carriage rather than the bed, which means that as the tool bit
moves, the follower rest "follows along" (because they are both rigidly connected to the same
moving carriage).[2] Follower rests can provide support that directly counteracts the springing
force of the tool bit, right at the region of the workpiece being cut at any moment. In this
respect they are analogous to a box tool.
A follower rest
[edit] Types of metal lathes

There are many variants of lathes within the metalworking field. Some variations are not all
that obvious, and others are more a niche area. For example, a centering lathe is a dual head
machine where the work remains fixed and the heads move towards the workpiece and
machine a center drill hole into each end. The resulting workpiece may then be used
"between centers" in another operation. The usage of the term metal lathe may also be
considered somewhat outdated these days, plastics and other composite materials are in wide
use and with appropriate modifications, the same principles and techniques may be applied to
their machining as that used for metal.
[edit] Center lathe / engine lathe / bench lathe
Two-speed back gears in a cone-head lathe.

A typical center lathe.
The terms center lathe, engine lathe, and bench lathe all refer to a basic type of lathe that
may be considered the archetypical class of metalworking lathe most often used by the
general machinist or machining hobbyist. The name bench lathe implies a version of this
class small enough to be mounted on a workbench (but still full-featured, and larger than
mini-lathes or micro-lathes). The construction of a center lathe is detailed above, but
depending on the year of manufacture, size, price range, or desired features, even these lathes
can vary widely between models.
Engine lathe is the name applied to a traditional late-19th-century or 20th-century lathe with
automatic feed to the cutting tool, as opposed to early lathes which were used with hand-held
tools, or lathes with manual feed only. The usage of "engine" here is in the mechanical-device
sense, not the prime-mover sense, as in the steam engines which were the standard industrial
power source for many years. The works would have one large steam engine which would
provide power to all the machines via a line shaft system of belts. Therefore early engine
lathes were generally 'cone heads', in that the spindle usually had attached to it a multi-step
pulley called a cone pulley designed to accept a flat belt. Different spindle speeds could be
obtained by moving the flat belt to different steps on the cone pulley. Cone-head lathes
usually had a countershaft (layshaft) on the back side of the cone which could be engaged to
provide a lower set of speeds than was obtainable by direct belt drive. These gears were
called back gears. Larger lathes sometimes had two-speed back gears which could be shifted
to provide a still lower set of speeds.
When electric motors started to become common in the early 20th century, many cone-head
lathes were converted to electric power. At the same time the state of the art in gear and
bearing practice was advancing to the point that manufacturers began to make fully geared
headstocks, using gearboxes analogous to automobile transmissions to obtain various spindle
speeds and feed rates while transmitting the higher amounts of power needed to take full
advantage of high speed steel tools.
The inexpensive availability of electronics has again changed the way speed control may be
applied by allowing continuously variable motor speed from the maximum down to almost
zero RPM. (This had been tried in the late 19th century but was not found satisfactory at the
time. Subsequent improvements have made it viable again.)
[edit] Toolroom lathe
A toolroom lathe is a lathe optimized for toolroom work. It is essentially just a top-of-the-line
center lathe, with all of the best optional features that may be omitted from less expensive
models, such as a collet closer, taper attachment, and others. There has also been an
implication over the years of selective assembly and extra fitting, with every care taken in the
building of a toolroom model to make it the smoothest-running, most-accurate version of the
machine that can be built. However, within one brand, the quality difference between a
regular model and its corresponding toolroom model depends on the builder and in some
cases has been partly marketing psychology. For name-brand machine tool builders who
made only high-quality tools, there wasn't necessarily any lack of quality in the base-model
product for the "luxury model" to improve upon. In other cases, especially when comparing
different brands, the quality differential between (1) an entry-level center lathe built to
compete on price, and (2) a toolroom lathe meant to compete only on quality and not on
price, can be objectively demonstrated by measuring TIR, vibration, etc. In any case, because
of their fully-ticked-off option list and (real or implied) higher quality, toolroom lathes are
more expensive than entry-level center lathes.
[edit] Turret lathe and capstan lathe
Main article: Turret lathe
Turret lathes and capstan lathes are members of a class of lathes that are used for repetitive
production of duplicate parts (which by the nature of their cutting process are usually
interchangeable). It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the turret, which is an
indexable toolholder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a
different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need for the operator to perform
setup tasks in between (such as installing or uninstalling tools) nor to control the toolpath.
(The latter is due to the toolpath's being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion
[via the mechanical limits placed on it by the turret's slide and stops] or via IT-directed
servomechanisms [on computer numerical controlled (CNC) lathes].)
There is a tremendous variety of turret lathe and capstan lathe designs, reflecting the variety
of work that they do.
[edit] Gang-tool lathe
A gang-tool lathe is one that has a row of tools set up on its cross-slide, which is long and flat
and is similar to a milling machine table. The idea is essentially the same as with turret lathes:
to set up multiple tools and then easily index between them for each part-cutting cycle.
Instead of being rotary like a turret, the indexable tool group is linear.
[edit] Multispindle lathe
See also: screw machine
Multispindle lathes have more than one spindle and automated control (whether via cams or
CNC). They are production machines specializing in high-volume production. The smaller
types are usually called screw machines, while the larger variants are usually called
automatic chucking machines, automatic chuckers, or simply chuckers. Screw machines
usually work from bar stock, while chuckers automatically chuck up individual blanks from a
magazine. Typical minimum profitable production lot size on a screw machine is in the
thousands of parts due to the large setup time. Once set up, a screw machine can rapidly and
efficiently produce thousands of parts on a continuous basis with high accuracy, low cycle
time, and very little human intervention. (The latter two points drive down the unit cost per
interchangeable part much lower than could be achieved without these machines.)
Rotary transfer machines might also be included under the category of multispindle lathes,
although they defy traditional classification. They are large, expensive, modular machine
tools with many CNC axes that combine the capabilities of lathes, milling machines, and
pallet changers.
[edit] CNC lathe / CNC turning center

CNC lathe with milling capabilities
An example turned vase and view of the tool turret
CNC lathes are rapidly replacing the older production lathes (multispindle, etc.) due to their
ease of setting and operation. They are designed to use modern carbide tooling and fully use
modern processes. The part may be designed and the toolpaths programmed by the
CAD/CAM process, and the resulting file uploaded to the machine, and once set and trialled
the machine will continue to turn out parts under the occasional supervision of an operator.
The machine is controlled electronically via a computer menu style interface, the program
may be modified and displayed at the machine, along with a simulated view of the process.
The setter/operator needs a high level of skill to perform the process, however the knowledge
base is broader compared to the older production machines where intimate knowledge of
each machine was considered essential. These machines are often set and operated by the
same person, where the operator will supervise a small number of machines (cell).
The design of a CNC lathe has parts are still recognizable, the turret holds the tools and
indexes them as needed. The machines are often totally enclosed, due in large part to
Occupational health and safety (OH&S) issues.
With the advent of cheap computers, free operating systems such as Linux, and open source
CNC software, the entry price of CNC machines has plummeted.[citation needed]
[edit] Swiss-style lathe / Swiss turning center
A view inside the enclosure of a CNC Swiss-style lathe/screw machine.
For work requiring extreme accuracy (sometimes holding tolerances as small as a few tenths
of a thousandth of an inch), a Swiss-style lathe is often used. A Swiss-style lathe holds the
workpiece with both a collet and a guide bushing. The collet sits behind the guide bushing,
and the tools sit in front of the guide bushing, holding stationary on the Z axis. To cut
lengthwise along the part, the tools will move in and the material itself will move back and
forth along the Z axis. This allows all the work to be done on the material near the guide
bushing where it is more rigid, making them ideal for working on slender workpieces as the
part is held firmly with little chance of deflection or vibration occurring.
This style of lathe is also available with CNC controllers to further increase its versatility.
Most CNC Swiss-style lathes today use two spindles. The main spindle is used with the guide
bushing for the main machining operations. The secondary spindle is located behind the part,
aligned on the Z axis. In simple operation it picks up the part as it is cut off (aka parted off)
and accepts it for second operations, then ejects it into a bin, eliminating the need to have an
operator manually change each part, as is often the case with standard CNC turning centers.
This makes them very efficient, as these machines are capable of fast cycle times, producing
simple parts in one cycle (i.e. no need for a second machine to finish the part with second
operations), in as little as 1015 seconds. This makes them ideal for large production runs of
small-diameter parts.
Additionally, as many Swiss lathes incorporate a secondary spindle, or 'sub-spindle', they also
incorporate 'live tooling'. Live tools are rotary cutting tools that are powered by a small motor
independently of the spindle motor(s). Live tools increase the intricacy of components that
can be manufactured by the Swiss lathe. For instance, automatically producing a part with a
hole drilled perpendicular to the main axis (the axis of rotation of the spindles) is very
economical with live tooling, and similarly uneconomical if done as a 'secondary operation'
after machining by the Swiss lathe is complete. A 'Secondary operation' is a machining
operation requiring a partially completed part to be secured in a second machine to complete
the manufacturing process. Generally, advanced CAD/CAM software uses live tools in
addition to the main spindles so that most parts that can be drawn by a CAD system can
actually be manufactured by the machines that the CAD/CAM software support.
[edit] Combination lathe / 3-in-1 machine
A combination lathe, often known as a 3-in-1 machine, introduces drilling or milling

operations into the design of the lathe. These machines have a milling column rising up above
the lathe bed, and they utilize the carriage and topslide as the X and Y axes for the milling
column. The 3-in-1 name comes from the idea of having a lathe, milling machine, and drill
press all in one affordable machine tool. These are exclusive to the hobbyist and MRO
markets, as they inevitably involve compromises in size, features, rigidity, and precision in
order to remain affordable. Nevertheless, they meet the demand of their niche quite well, and
are capable of high accuracy given enough time and skill. They may be found in smaller,
non-machine-oriented businesses where the occasional small part must be machined,
especially where the exacting tolerances of expensive toolroom machines, besides being
unaffordable, would be overkill for the application anyway from an engineering perspective.
[edit] Mini-lathe and micro-lathe
Mini-lathes and micro-lathes are miniature versions of a general-purpose center lathe (engine
lathe). They typically have swings in the range of 3" to 7" (70 mm to 170 mm) diameter (in
other words, 1.5" to 3.5" (30 mm to 80 mm) radius). They are small and affordable lathes for
the home workshop or MRO shop. The same advantages and disadvantages apply to these
machines as explained earlier regarding 3-in-1 machines.
As found elsewhere in English-language orthography, there is variation in the styling of the

prefixes in these machines' names. They are alternately styled as mini lathe, minilathe, and
mini-lathe and as micro lathe, microlathe, and micro-lathe.
[edit] Wheel lathe
A lathe for turning the wheels of railway locomotives and rolling stock [3]
[edit] Brake lathe
A lathe specialized for the task of resurfacing brake drums and discs in automotive or truck
garages.
[edit] References
1. ^ Nartov's biography (Russian)
2. ^ Burghardt 1919, p. 118.
3. ^ 2003/04 Overhaul Archive - February 2004

removed. (June 2008)
[edit] Bibliography
Burghardt, Henry D. (1919), Machine Tool Operation, 1 (1st ed.), New York, NY, USA:
McGraw-Hill, LCCN 20-026190.

Medieval and Renaissance lathes
The development of the lathe
Spring pole lathe
On ye art and mystery of Turning
Video showing the gang tool concept
Video showing a CNC screw machine cycle
2.5D CAD CAM G-code Numerical control (NC and CNC)
Stewart platform
Die head Drill Drill bit Drill bit shank Drill bit sizes Drill and
Drilling and threading tap size chart Drilling Jig borer Tap and die Tap wrench
Threading
Abrasive Angle grinder Bench grinder Coated abrasives
Cylindrical grinder Diamond plate Flick grinder Dresser
Grinding and lapping Grinding Grinding machine Grinding wheel Jig grinder
Lapping Sanding Sharpening stone Spark testing Surface
grinder Tool and cutter grinder
Electrical discharge machining Electrochemical machining
Machining and milling Endmill Engraving Hobbing Lathe Machine tool Machining
Milling cutter Milling machine Planer Pantograph Shaper
Angle plate Chuck Collet Jig Fixture Indexing head Lathe
Machine tooling center Machine taper Magnetic base Mandrel Rotary table
Wiggler
Chatter Cutting fluid Speeds and feeds Swarf (chips)
Terminology
Tolerance Tramp oil
[show]v d eTypes of tools

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathe_(metal)"
Categories: Lathes | Metalworking tools
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from
June 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010 | Articles needing additional
references from June 2008 | All articles needing additional references | Articles using legacy format
in Template:LCCN
Personal tools
Namespaces
Article
Discussion
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
Actions
Search
Special:Search
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
What links here

Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages

Catal
esky
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Espaol
Esperanto

Franais
Italiano

Magyar
Nederlands

Norsk (bokml)
Polski
Portugus

Slovenina
Slovenina
/ Srpski
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog


Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
organization.
Contact us
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers

Machining

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Machining

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Machining

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Conventional machining is a collection of material-working processes in which power-

[edit] Machining operations

As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which

Basic machining process.

[edit] Circle interpolating

The orbital drilling principle

[edit] Overview of machining technology

[edit] Types of machining operation

[edit] The cutting tool

Main article: Cutting tool (machining)

The rake face; and

Single point tool; and

[edit] Cutting conditions

the material removal rate in mm3/s, (in3/s),

[edit] Stages in metal cutting

Roughing cuts, and

[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining"

Log in / create account

What links here

This page was last modified on 23 April 2011 at 15:36.

Tool and cutter grinder

View of a typical setup on a T&C grinder

It is an extremely versatile machine used to perform a variety of grinding operations: surface,

1 CNC tool and cutter grinder

[edit] CNC tool and cutter grinder

Apart from manufacturing, in-machine tool measurement using touch-probe or laser

[edit] Radius grinder

[edit] D-bit grinder

[edit] See also

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_and_cutter_grinder"

What links here

This page was last modified on 19 October 2010 at 19:14.

A tabletop hammer mill

Other names Grinding mill

Related items Mortar and pestle

Grinding may serve the following purposes in engineering:

increase of the surface area of a solid

[edit] Grinding laws

Kick for d > 50 mm

Bond[2] for 50 mm > d > 0.05 mm

Von Rittinger for d < 0.05 mm

Grinding degree referring to grain size d80

Grinding degree referring to specific surface

Pretended grinding degree

[edit] Grinding machines

Operation of a ball mill

[edit] Ball mill

E is the energy (kilowatt-hours per metric or short ton)

[edit] Rod mill

[edit] Autogenous mill

[edit] SAG mill

Principle of SAG Mill operation

[edit] Pebble mill

[edit] High pressure grinding rolls

[edit] Buhrstone mill

[edit] Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill)

[edit] Tower mill

[edit] Vibratory mill

[edit] Types of grinding mills

[edit] See also