Lymphatic

System

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 Functions
Fluid balance
3 L of fluid pass through the lymphatic capillaries Lymph
2 sources of Lymph
substances in plasma, such as ions, nutrients, gases and
proteins
substances such as hormones, enzymes and waste products

Lipid absorption
Lacteals absorbs lipids and other substances from the digestive
tract.
Chyle white lipid content

Defense
filter microorganisms and toxins in the lymph node and spleen
fight infections filter blood and lymph to remove pathogen
Anatomy of the
Lymphatic System
Figure 14.1
 Components
Lymph
fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water
and some solutes
Lymphocytes
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Tonsils
Spleen
Thymus gland
 Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels
Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to circulatory
system
Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue spaces

Lymphatic capillaries
tiny, closed-ended vessels
fluid moves easily into because it lacks basement
membrane
overlapping squamous cells acts as valve
present in most tissues of the body
join to form lymphatic vessels
 Lymphatic vessels
resemble small veins
where lymphatic capillaries join
one way valves

3 factors causing the compression of lymphatic vessels

1. Contraction of surrounding skeletal muscle during activity

2. Periodic contraction of smooth muscle in the lymphatic

vessel wall

3. Pressure changes in the thorax during breathing

 Right lymphatic duct
where lymphatic vessels from
right upper limb and right
head, neck, chest empty
empties into right subclavian
vein

Thoracic duct
rest of body empties from
lymphatic vessels
empties into left subclavian
vein
Figure 14.2
 Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils

palatine tonsils on each

side of oral cavity

pharyngeal tonsils near

internal opening of nasal
cavity (adenoid)

lingual tonsils posterior

surface of tongue

form a protective ring of

lymphatic tissue around
nasal and oral cavities
 Lymph nodes
rounded structures that vary in size
located near lymphatic vessels
groin, armpit, neck
lymph passes through lymph nodes before entering
blood
lymph moves through and immune system is activated
(lymphocytes produced) if foreign substances are
detected
removal of microbes by macrophages

Capsule
connective tissue surrounding the lymph node
Trabeculae
extension of capsule, divide into 2 compartments
containing lymphatic tissue and sinuses
Figure 14.4
 Spleen
size of clenched fist
located in left, superior corner of the abdomen
filters blood
detect and respond to foreign substances
destroy old red blood cells
blood reservoir
Splenic blood vessels and splenic capsule

2 specialized lymphatic tissue in the spleen

white pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding arteries
red pulp: contains macrophages and red blood cells that
connect to veins
Figure 14.5
 Thymus gland

bilobed gland
located on sternum
stops growing at age 1
at age 60 decreases in size
produces and matures lymphocytes called T-cells
protection against pathogens

Capsule thin connective tissue covering each lobe

Trabeculae divide each lobe into lobules
Cortex dark staining area with numerous lymphocytes
Medulla lighter stain; fewer lymphocytes
 Immunity
ability to resist damage from foreign substances
Ex. Microbes, toxins, cancer cells

Types of immunity
innate
body recognizes and destroy pathogen same response

adaptive
body recognizes and destroy pathogen improves each time
pathogen is encountered

SPECIFICITY recognize a particular substance

MEMORY remember the previous encounter with a
particular substance faster, stronger and long lasting
 Innate Immunity

Present at birth

Defense against any pathogen

Accomplished by physical barriers, chemical mediators,

cells, and inflammatory response
 Physical Barriers

First line of defense

Skin and mucous membranes to act as barriers

Tears, saliva, urine wash away pathogens

 Chemical Mediators
chemicals that can kill microbes and prevent their entry into cells

Lysozyme
found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria

Mucous membranes (mucus)

prevent entry of microbes

Histamine
promote inflammation by causing vasodilation and stimulating
phagocytosis

Interferons
proteins that protect against viral infections by stimulating surrounding
cells to produce antiviral proteins

Complement
promote inflammation and phagocytosis; can directly lyse bacterial cells
 Cells

White blood cells

produce in red bone marrow and lymphatic tissue that fight
foreign substances

Phagocytic cells
ingest and destroy foreign substances
Ex. neutrophils and macrophages

Neutrophils
first to respond to infection but die quickly
 Macrophages
monocytes
leave blood and enter tissues
can ingest more than neutrophils
protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in spleen and
liver
given specific names for certain areas of body
Kupffer cells in liver
Dust cells in lungs
Microglia in the central nervous system
 Basophils
made in red bone marrow
motile leave blood and enter infected tissues
can release histamine

Mast cells
made in red bone marrow
non-motile found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital
tract
can release histamine and leukotrienes

Eosinophils
produced in red bone marrow
release chemicals to reduce inflammation (allergies and asthma)

Natural Killer Cells

type of lymphocyte; produce in red bone marrow
recognize classes of cells such as tumor cells or virus infected cells
release chemicals to lyse cells
 Inflammatory
Response
involves chemical and
cells due to injury

signaled by presence of
foreign substance

stimulates release of
chemical mediators
 2 Kinds of Inflammation
Local inflammation
confined to a specific area of the body
redness, heat, and swelling due to increased blood flow and
increased vascular permeability.

Systemic inflammation
distributed throughout the body.
Fever
due to increase number of neutrophils and secretion of pyrogen
which affects bodys temperature.
promotes activities of the immune system such as phagocytosis and
inhibits the growth of the microorganisms
 Adaptive Immunity
Defense that involves specific recognition to a specific
antigen
Acquired after birth
Reacts when innate defenses dont work
exhibits memory and specificity
Uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)

2 types
antibody-mediated B cells and antibodies in plasma cells
cell-mediated T cells
Cytotoxic T cells effects of cell mediated immunity
Helper T cells can promote or inhibit the activity of both types
 Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity
Antigen
substance that stimulates immune response
Ex. Bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs, etc.

Foreign antigen
introduce from the outside of the body; can produce allergic
reaction overreaction of the immune system

Self-antigen
molecule produced by persons body that stimulates immune
system response

Antibody
proteins the body produces in response to antigen
 Origin and Development of Lymphocytes

Stem cells
red bone marrow
give rise to all blood cells
give rise to some pre T cells and pre B cells

Lymphocytes
type of white blood cell
involved in adaptive immunity
develop from stem cells
differentiate into specific lymphocytes such as B or T cells
 B cells
type of lymphocytes
involved in antibody-mediated immunity
originate from stem cells
mature in red bone marrow
move to lymphatic tissue after mature
lead to production of antibodies

T cells
type of lymphocyte
involved in cell-mediated immunity
mature in thymus gland
move to lymphatic tissue after mature

30
 Antigen Recognition
Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on their surface

Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-cell receptors

on T cells

Each receptor only binds with a specific antigen

When antigen receptors combine with antigen the

lymphocyte is activated and adaptive immunity begins
 Major histocompatibility complex molecule (MHC)

contain binding sites for antigens

specific for certain antigens
hold and present a processed antigen on the surface of
the cell membrane
bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells and stimulate
response

Cytokines

proteins secreted by a cell that regulates neighboring

cells
Ex. Interleukin 1 released by macrophages stimulates
helper T cells
 Lymphocyte Proliferation
1. After antigen is processed and present to helper T
cells, helper T cell produces interleukin-2 and
interleukin 2-receptors

2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and stimulates

more helper T cells production

3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B cells

4. B cells produce antibodies

 Dual Nature of Immune System
Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of immune responses:
antibody-mediated and cell-mediated

Antigens can trigger both types of responses

Both types are able to recognize self vs. non-self, use

specificity, and have memory

37
 Antibody-Mediated
effective against antigens in body fluids (blood and
lymph)

effective against extracellular antigens such as bacteria,

viruses, toxins

uses B cells to produce antibodies

38
 Antibody Structure
Letter Y shape

Variable region
V of Y
bind to epitopes
of antigen using
antigen- binding
site

Constant region
stem of Y
each class of
immunoglobulin
has same
structure 39
 Antigen-binding site
site on antibody where antigen binds

Valence
number of antigen-binding sites on antibody

5 immunoglobulins used to destroy antigens

IgG - circulate in the blood and other body fluids, defending against
invading bacteria and viruses.
IgM - main antibody produced in an initial attack by a specific bacterial
or viral antigen
IgA - neutralize bacteria and viruses and prevent them from entering
the body or reaching the internal organs.
IgE - responsible for allergic reactions.

IgD assists B cells in recognizing specific antigens.

40
 Effects of Antibodies
Inactivate antigen

Bind antigens together

Active complement cascades

Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals

Facilitate phagocytosis
 Antibody Production
Primary response
1st exposure of B cell to antigen
B cell undergoes division and forms plasma cell and
memory cells

Plasma cells
produce antibodies
3-14 days to produce to be effective against antigen
person develop disease symptoms
Secondary Response
Memory cells
occurs when immune system is exposed to antigen that has
been seen before

B memory cells quickly divided to form plasma cells which

produce antibodies

produces new memory cells

Better protection
time required in producing antibodies is less
more plasma cells and antibodies are produced

No disease symptoms develop and the person is

IMMUNE
 Cell-Mediated Immunity

effective against antigens in cells and tissues

effective against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa

uses different types of T cells

47
 Types of T cells
Helper T cells (TH)
activate macrophages
help form B cells
promote production of Tc

Cytotoxic T cells (Tc)

precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)

destroys antigen on contact

Regulatory T cells (Tr)

turn off immune system response when antigen is gone 48
2 main effects of Cytotoxic T cells
 Types of Adaptive Immunity
Naturally Acquired Immunity

Active
natural exposure to antigens causes production of antibodies
can be lifelong immunity
Ex. Mononucleosis

Passive
transfer of antibodies from mother to child
Ex. Breast milk or placenta

51
Artificially Acquired Immunity

Active
injection of antigens using vaccines which cause the
production of antibodies
long lasting immunity without disease symptoms

vaccine or immunization
process of introducing killed, live, or inactivated
pathogen
stimulate the response of the immune system but will
not cause the disease symptoms

Passive
injection of antibodies from another person or animal
52
 IMMUNOTHERAPHY
treats disease by altering immune system function
or by directly attacking harmful cells.

Examples
administering cytokines to promote inflammation
monoclonal antibodies to treat tumors
Effects of aging on Lymphatic System
Aging has little effect on the lymphatic systems ability to
remove fluid from tissues, absorbs lipids from the digestive tract,
or remove defective red blood cells from the blood

Decreased helper T cell proliferation results in decreased

antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immune responses

Primary and secondary antibody decrease

Decrease the ability to resist intracellular pathogens