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Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139

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Forensic Science International


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

An evaluation of soil chemistry in human cadaver decomposition


islands: Potential for estimating postmortem interval (PMI)
J.P. Fanchera,* , J.A. Aitkenhead-Petersonb , T. Farrisc, K. Mixd, A.P. Schwabb , D.J. Wescotta ,
M.D. Hamiltona
a
Department of Anthropology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, United States
b
Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, United States
c
Forensic and Investigative Science, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, United States
d
Department of Agriculture, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 24 March 2017 Soil samples from the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility (FARF) at Texas State University, San
Received in revised form 28 July 2017 Marcos, TX, were analyzed for multiple soil characteristics from cadaver decomposition islands to a depth
Accepted 2 August 2017 of 5 centimeters (cm) from 63 human decomposition sites, as well as depths up to 15 cm in a subset of
Available online 18 August 2017 11 of the cadaver decomposition islands plus control soils. Postmortem interval (PMI) of the cadaver
decomposition islands ranged from 6 to 1752 days. Some soil chemistry, including nitrate-N (NO3-N),
Keywords: ammonium-N (NH4-N), and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), peaked at early PMI values and their
Forensic anthropology concentrations at 05 cm returned to near control values over time likely due to translocation down the
Postmortem interval estimation
soil prole. Other soil chemistry, including dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic nitrogen
Cadaver decomposition island
(DON), orthophosphate-P (PO4-P), sodium (Na+), and potassium (K+), remained higher than the control
Soil taphonomy
soil up to a PMI of 1752 days postmortem. The body mass index (BMI) of the cadaver appeared to have
some effect on the cadaver decomposition island chemistry. To estimate PMI using soil chemistry,
backward, stepwise multiple regression analysis was used with PMI as the dependent variable and soil
chemistry, body mass index (BMI) and physical soil characteristics such as saturated hydraulic
conductivity as independent variables. Measures of soil parameters derived from predator and microbial
mediated decomposition of human remains shows promise in estimating PMI to within 365 days for a
period up to nearly ve years. This persistent change in soil chemistry extends the ability to estimate PMI
beyond the traditionally utilized methods of entomology and taphonomy in support of medical-legal
investigations, humanitarian recovery efforts, and criminal and civil cases.
2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of decay. These compounds can be predictably identied using


both routine and advanced quantitative soil analysis techniques
This research investigated the post-depositional events [24]. These and other research results support experimental
associated with the effects of surface human decomposition on methods to predict postmortem interval (PMI) using decomposi-
the underlying soils of the border lands of the Texas Hill Country at tional byproducts [47].
the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility (FARF) near San Many studies of surface decomposition soil chemistry have
Marcos, Texas. Research conducted on the decomposition byprod- been completed over relatively short time spans of 100 days or less
ucts of human cadavers deposited on the soil surface serves to [59], with other longer term studies ranging from 200 days to
document the taphonomic processes of human tissue breakdown three years also reported [24,1012]. Research conducted at the
and soil deposition of decomposition products [1]. Decomposition University of Tennessees Anthropological Research Facility (ARF)
affects the surrounding soil chemistry by leaving behind volatile has shown that continual reuse of body deposition sites at their
and persistent compounds that are associated with different stages decomposition research facility has left the soil saturated with
decomposition products that may affect these research outcomes
[2]. This study aimed to address these factors by extending the
* Corresponding author at: 266 ELA, 601 University Dr, San Marcos, TX 78666- study time frame to surface decomposition sites that were older
4684, United States. than three years, and by utilizing pristine sites that had never been
E-mail address: jpf17@txstate.edu (J.P. Fancher).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.08.002
0379-0738/ 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139 131

reused, since the reuse of surface decomposition sites at FARF had Table 1
Characteristics of the dominant two-soil series at the study site [Organic matter
not yet occurred, leaving an undisturbed record of soil changes for
(OM), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), cation exchange capacity (CEC)].
nearly all deposition sites over the time period ranging from
2008 to 2014. Depth Clay Sand Silt OM Ksat CEC
In spite of increasing research in this area, many of the soil cm % % % % mm h1 cmol charge kg soil1
deposition processes associated with human cadaver decomposi- Rumple RUD 025 30 33.5 36.5 2 9.72 20
tion are still not well understood and are dependent on local Comfort CrD 015 42.5 28.1 29.4 6 3.6 30
environmental factors [13]. Recent studies of other surface
decomposition sites have looked at changes in carbon and nitrogen
content, diffuse reectance near infrared (DR-NIR) spectroscopy,
soil pH, soil moisture content, soil extractable phosphorus, decomposition islands sampled occurred on the soil at which
lipid-phosphorus, and total extracted DNA [2,3,13,14]. The research Comfort dominated and 31 of the cadaver decomposition islands
described here extends beyond these studies by measuring the sampled occurred on the soil at which Rumple dominated (Table 1).
common elements of nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus for 2.2. Cadaver decomposition island sample site selection
comparative value and adding several other elemental measures
to determine if any other factors that are commonly available for Three a-priori conditions had to exist before a cadaver
measure from a soil laboratory were signicant in predicting PMI. decomposition island was accepted for sampling. The rst was
The ora, fauna, and microbes associated with surface that the exact location and donation identication number needed
decomposition at FARF reect natural biomes in a relatively to be conrmed in order to have an accurate recorded history of
pristine ranchland environment, and they have left a record of soil location and timing of the cadaver placement (regardless whether
changes that are unique to this area. These soil changes have never the cadaver was still present or had been previously removed). This
been studied. The purpose of this research was to investigate the was accomplished by identifying a wooden stake marker that was
differential effects of surface human decomposition on soil positioned at the head of the cadaver placement, as well as
chemistry over time in an attempt to predict PMI. Changes in physically identifying the presence of a cadaver decomposition
soil chemistry reect the ecological conditions created by the island. The second was that all donor placement sites had to be
decomposition process. It was hypothesized that these changes pristine (used only once) and at least one meter away from any
may provide a quantitative method of estimating PMI. This study adjacent donor site. This eliminated double body placement sites
was undertaken by sampling and analyzing soil samples from and any site that had close spatial overlap with another cadaver
surface decomposition sites that were stratied by date over a one placement site. Slope at the FARF site is minimal, <1%, unlike the
month to almost ve-year period using a cross-sectional design donor facility at University of Tennessee where the slope is steeper
(i.e. taking all samples at the same time period). necessitating a greater distance between cadavers [4]. The third
condition was to select sites that were widely dispersed across
2. Material and methods FARF in order to capture the variability of the soils and hence soil
characteristics.
2.1. Site description Evaluation of existing records and a physical survey of the FARF
site found that routine marking of decomposition sites with stakes
The FARF location is on the Freeman Ranch, San Marcos, Texas. and mapping of decomposition sites did not begin until November,
This outdoor human decomposition laboratory operates a willed- 2011. Most pre-2011 placement sites were not accurately recorded
body anatomical donation program that serves as a resource for or identiable. This made the identication of exact sites to sample
researching forensic questions such as postmortem interval timing before November, 2011, impossible except for a very few sites.
and rates of decomposition [15]. FARF recorded 201 donations that Some cadaver decomposition islands were identied that may
were placed on the site between 2008 and the start of this study in have come from early dates, but if they could not be denitely
July, 2014. Vegetation is perennial grassland which has been identied and linked to a specic donation they were rejected as
invaded by ashe juniper (Juniperus ashei), and soil is a shallow stony sites for this study.
clay which has weathered from dolomite limestone. Annual Five control sites were also sampled. These were taken at the
precipitation is 857 mm and mean annual temperature is 19.4 C four corners of the FARF area (a fenced 5-acre plot), plus one
[16,17]. sample from near the center. The corner control sites were located
The FARF donor site has two-soil series present; (1) Comfort- by measuring a 5 meter (m) by 5 m square along the fence lines of
Rock outcrop complex (CrD) comprising 70% Comfort and 15% Rock each corner and taking the sample at the corner of the square
outcrop and (2) the well-drained Rumple-Comfort association farthest from the fence corner at a diagonal distance of
(RUD) comprising 60% Rumple which is a Clayey-skeletal, mixed approximately 7.07 m. The central control site soil was taken in
thermic Typic Argiustoll and 20% Comfort which is a a shaded area consisting of mixed tree cover near the center of the
clayey-skeletal, mixed, thermic Lithic Argiustoll [18]. A Delta site. At the time of the control sample removals, all sites were
Premium X-Ray Fluorescence analyzer (XRF) (Olympus Corpora- greater than 20 m from the nearest cadaver decomposition sites
tion of the Americas, Center Valley, PA, USA) was used on air-dried except for Control #3 at the southwest corner and Control #5 at the
and sieved soils (<2 mm) collected from control locations and a center. These two control sites were greater than 10 meters away
subset of selected cadaver decomposition islands (n = 11) which from the closest surface decomposition site, but less than 20 m.
were not obviously aligned with CrD or RUD soil series when
examining the soil map for the area [19] (soil web: https:// 2.3. Sampling the cadaver decomposition islands
casoilresource.lawr.ucdavis.edu/gmap/). We were able to
determine where at the study site the divide between CrD and 2.3.1. Sampling 05 cm depth
RUD soil series occurred and more importantly, which cadaver The sample technique was guided by standardized methods
decomposition islands occurred on which soil series. The XRF used in recently published articles [24]. All samples were taken
returned data on potassium (K), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), from the center of either the cadaver decomposition islands if the
iron (Fe), copper (Cu), arsenic (As), zirconium (Zr) and lead (Pb), body had been removed or from under the groin area if the body
which are more reective of soil geology. Thirty-two of the cadaver was still in place. A one piece stainless steel tubular soil sampler
132 J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139

(1500 long  3/400 diameter, Tubular Soil Sampler, Forestry Suppliers, (Shimadzu Corp. Houston, TX, USA). Dissolved organic carbon
Inc., Jackson, MS, USA) was used to take samples to the rst 5 cm of (DOC) was measured as non-purgeable carbon using USEPA
the soil [4,20,21]. Care was taken to remove overlying organic method 415.1 which entailed acidifying the sample (2 M HCl to
debris such as grass, leaves, twigs, or matted gravel before the pH 2) and sparging for 4 minutes with Carbon-free air. Ammoni-
sample was taken. A thin metal probe was used to locate sites that um-N (the nitrogen portion of ammonium; NH4-N) was analyzed
could be consistently sampled to the 5 cm depth. One soil sample using the phenate hypochlorite method with sodium nitroprusside
was taken from each of the identied cadaver decomposition enhancement (USEPA method 350.1). Nitrate-N (the nitrogen
island sites. Following its use after each cadaver decomposition portion of nitrate; NO3-N) was analyzed using Cadmium-Copper
island sample was taken, the soil probe was cleaned with dry paper (Cd-Cu) reduction (USEPA method 353.3). Orthophosphate-P (the
towels and rinsed with DDW and dried before reuse to minimize phosphate portion of orthophosphate; PO4-P) was quantied using
cross-contamination. the ammonium molybdate method. Colorimetric methods were
All samples were collected in the month of July 2014 in order to performed with a Smartchem Discrete Analyzer (Model
keep the environmental conditions as consistent and stable as 200 Westco Scientic Instruments Inc., Brookeld, CT, USA).
possible. July weather conditions in the FARF region is character- Calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium
ized as being hot and dry with very little daily variation. Each (Na+) were quantied by ion chromatography using an Ionpac
sample was immediately placed in a 3 1/200 W  500 D cotton soil CS16 analytical and Ionpac CG16 guard column for separation and
sample bag and labeled, and then placed in a brown paper bag and 20 mM methanesulfonic acid as eluent at a ow rate of 1 mL min1
allowed to air dry for 1421 days. Once dried, soils were crushed and injection volume of 10 mL using a Dionex ICS 1000 (Dionex
and sieved through a 2 mm sieve to remove stones, roots and other Corp. Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) is the
debris. Air-drying and sieving to <2 mm is recommended as a difference of total dissolved nitrogen minus the sum of ammoni-
preferred standard method for the chemical analyses of soils um-N and nitrate-N [TDN (NH4-N + NO3-N)]. Dissolved inorganic
because its weight remains relatively constant and biological carbon (DIC) was calculated as the difference between total carbon
activity is low during storage [22]. and dissolved organic carbon (TC DOC). For the 015 cm soil
extracts only dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic
2.3.2. Sampling 015 cm depth nitrogen (DON), nitrate-N (NO3-N), ammonium-N (NH4-N) and
A subset of 11 cadaver decomposition islands plus control soils orthophosphate-P (PO4-P) were measured. For all chemical
from the two-soil series CrD and RUD were sampled in December analysis NIST traceable, laboratory standards and replicate samples
2015 to a depth of 15 cm in 5 cm increments to examine the were included in instrument runs after every 10 samples to
potential for decomposition products to migrate down the soil monitor instrument precision.
prole. The method of sampling and soil processing was the same
as described for the 05 cm samples. 2.6. Assessment of PMI and body mass

2.4. Soil extraction Postmortem interval (PMI) was sometimes difcult to judge
because some of the donations were not received until many days
While many standard methods of measuring soil chemical after death. Because the standard procedure was to keep donations
constituents exist, prior work on grave soil has shown that in coolers before outdoor placement at FARF, it was decided to use
specically dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic the date of placement of the donation as a proxy for the date of
nitrogen (DON), nitrate-N (NO3-N), ammonium-N (NH4-N) and death because decomposition had been minimized by refrigeration
orthophosphate-P (PO4-P) are prevalent [3,14,23]. For DOC and until placement. An additional variable was calculated for each
DON extractions from soils, a standard method is not available [24]. donation that measured the body mass index (BMI).
DOC and DON (often measured as ninhydrin reactive nitrogen) The body mass index is a formula that standardizes stature and
occurrence is prevalent in grave soils [3,5,14,23]. To remedy this we weight into one variable that can then be related to body fat
developed a method specically for grave soil which would extract content and obesity [26]. It is well known that increased BMI,
a maximum mass of DOC and DON and have minimal effect on especially in the obese range of over 30, increases the risk of early
nitrate-N (NO3-N) and ammonium-N (NH4-N) extracts based on death due to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and many other
studies examining (a) different soil extractants on DOC and DON chronic and acute conditions [27]. Body mass has also been
recovery [25] and (b) different sieve sizes, soil extractants, soil: associated with different soil chemistry proles for decomposition
extractant ratios, shaking times, and temperatures [24]. [8]. The research conducted for this project presented an
An aliquot of 3 g of the sieved soil was combined with 30 mL of opportunity to use the body mass index as a variable to assess
ultra-pure water (Barnstead Ultrapure water purication system) soil chemistry differences in the obese and non-obese. BMI was
in a 50 mL high density polyethylene (HDPE) centrifuge tube. calculated for each case based on height and weight data recorded
Centrifuge tubes were shaken for approximately 20 h (generally at intake. While the BMI is often not known in criminal cases or at
overnight) at 5060 rpm. The samples were then centrifuged at death scenes involving decomposing remains, an assessment of
19,974  g-force at 25  C for 15 min. The supernatant was removed clothing size found at the scene may help estimate BMI of the
and pH and electrical conductivity were quantied. The superna- victim.
tant was then ltered through Whatman GF/F glass ber lters to
remove any remaining oating organic material. 2.7. Statistical analyses

2.5. Chemical analyses of water extracts of cadaver decomposition Data screening for the water extracts of control and cadaver
island soils decomposition island soils was completed using IBM SPSS (v23)
following a multivariate procedure to make sure that the data were
Total carbon (TC) was measured using a high-temperature an accurate representation of what was measured and that the
Pt-catalyzed combustion with a Shimadzu TOC-VCSH. Dissolved data met the underlying assumptions of the analysis procedures
organic carbon (DOC) and total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) were [28]. The data were screened for missing values, outliers, and
measured using high-temperature Pt-catalyzed combustion with a normal distribution, and adjustments or transformations to the
Shimadzu TOC-VCSH and Shimadzu total measuring unit TNM-1 data were considered based on these results. To determine which
J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139 133

cadaver decomposition islands were associated with CrD or RUD Sodium showed two peaks in concentration in the CrD soils and
soil series a cluster analysis using Wards method with squared displayed a large increase early on in the RUD soils at 35 days
Euclidean distance was performed on the data associated with the postmortem (902 mg g soil1) before reaching ambient concen-
XRF scans. trations at 767 days postmortem (Fig. 1). Potassium (K+) started to
Backward stepwise regression analysis was applied to the full increase at 14 days postmortem (138 mg g soil1) in the CrD soils
dataset in order to determine which physical and chemical soil and at 33 days postmortem (255 mg g soil1) in the RUD soils
characteristics could be used in a predictive model for estimating (Fig. 2). Both magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+) had similar
PMI. Models were also produced using the CrD and RUD soil series patterns, both increasing sharply in the CrD soil to concentrations
separately. Body mass index has been shown to affect decomposi- almost four times that observed in the control soils (Fig. 1). There
tion products in soil [29] and so further models (Models 46) was no obvious pattern that could be interpreted with magnesium
assessed data for cadaver decomposition islands containing (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+). Nitrate-N (NO3-N) showed an increase
cadavers with BMI < 25, BMI < 30 and BMI > 30 on their efcacy in concentration at 272 days postmortem (92 mg g soil1) in the
of estimating PMI. Physical and chemical data selected for in the CrD soils and at 171 days postmortem (122 mg g soil1) in the RUD
analysis for each model was then used in partial least squares (PLS) soils (Fig. 2). Nitrate-N (NO3-N) concentrations returned to
regression analysis with a full cross validation in The Unscrambler ambient concentrations at about 851 days postmortem in CrD
X software (Camo Software Inc., Woodbridge, NJ, USA). The full and 684 days postmortem in RUD. Ammonium-N (NH4-N) showed
cross validation method is often preferred over a test set validation an increase in CrD at 14 days postmortem (30 mg g soil1) and was
when the sample size is limited such as this study (n = 6320) [30]. 507 mg g soil1 at 33 days postmortem in the RUD soil (Fig. 1).
Statistical analysis was also completed using accumulated degree Ammonium-N (NH4-N) returned to near ambient concentrations
days (ADD) at base 4  C but the resultant models only improved the at 732 days postmortem in CrD and at at 659 days postmortem in
models slightly (R2 change 0.02) and so their data are not included. RUD (Fig. 2). Orthophosphate-P (PO4-P) displayed dual peaks in
It was also noted that for these data PMI and ADD at base 4  C were both the CrD and RUD soil cadaver decomposition islands (Fig. 2).
highly correlated (Pearson Correlation 0.996; p = 0.001) Highest concentrations of PO4-P recorded in the cadaver decom-
position islands were 56 mg g soil1 at 272 days postmortem in CrD
3. Results and 86 mg g soil1 at 132 days postmortem in RUD (Fig. 2).
Although orthophosphate-P (PO4-P) appeared to return to ambient
3.1. Control samples soil concentrations in some cadaver decomposition islands, there
was not a general return to ambient concentrations.
The mean chemical constituents of the control soils from the Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) doubled in concentration
RUD and CrD soil series were calculated (Table 2). These data (721 mg g soil1) at 6 days postmortem in CrD and increased
represent the baseline soil data for the FARF site for the month of 13-fold (4984 mg g soil1) by 33 days postmortem in RUD
July when the cadaver decomposition islands were sampled. Only (Fig. 2). Highest DOC concentrations observed were 10,409 mg g
two of the chemical constituents measured were signicantly soil1 at 14 days postmortem in CrD and 10,905 mg g soil1 at
different among the two control soil series, ammonium-N (NH4-N) 132 days postmortem in RUD. In general DOC concentrations did
and potassium (K+). Ammonium-N (NH4-N) was signicantly not return to ambient concentrations over the time period studied
higher in the RUD soil series (6.1  0.3 mg g soil1) when compared in either of the soil series. Dissolved organic nitrogen (DON)
to the CrD soil series (3.4  1.1 mg g soil1) and potassium (K+) was peaked at 253 mg g soil1 at 263 days postmortem in CrD and at
signicantly higher in the CrD soil series (70  8 mg g soil1) when 619 mg g soil1 at 132 days postmortem in RUD (Fig. 2). DON in
compared to the RUD soil series (41  6 mg g soil1). In general pH general did not return to ambient concentrations over the time
ranged from 6.0 to 6.2, electrical conductivity from 105 to period of this study. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) did not
126 mS cm1, nitrate-N (NO3) from 2.6 to 5.6 mg g soil1, ortho- appear to have any specic pattern although one could argue that
phosphate-P (PO4-P) from 0.4 to 1.2 mg g soil1, dissolved organic 3 peaks show in both soil series with concentrations dropping
carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) from 258 to below ambient between the peaks, or that some cadaver
350 and 14 to 22 mg g soil1 respectively. For the cations, sodium decomposition islands had low DIC concentrations. Highest DIC
(Na+) ranged 8387, magnesium (Mg2+) ranged 2946 and calcium was observed at 519 days postmortem 301 mg g soil1 in CrD and at
(Ca2+) ranged 159293 mg g soil1 among the control soils (Table 2). 140 days postmortem 396 mg g soil1 in RUD (Fig. 2).
3.2. Cadaver decomposition island samples
3.3. Using soil physical and chemical characteristics to estimate PMI
Samples retrieved from the cadaver decomposition island sites
had in general very different concentrations when compared to the Several models were constructed to estimate PMI of the cadaver
control soils (Figs. 1 and 2). In some cadaver decomposition islands decomposition islands (Table 3). Model 1 included all cadaver
pH is lower or higher than the pH observed in the control soils and decomposition islands sampled (n = 63) and the resultant model
showed no specic pattern (Fig. 1). Electrical conductivity (EC) had an R2 value of 0.38 and a cross-validation R2 value of 0.30
tended to increase over time to approximately 694 days in CrD and (Table 3). Model 1 under-predicted 46% and over-predicted 54% of
684 days postmortem in RUD soils. There were some instances the PMIs with 90% of the PMIs estimated to within 365 days
where EC had returned to ambient concentration earlier (Fig. 1). (Tables 3 and 4). Model 2 examined just the RUD soil series (n = 31)

Table 2
Mean chemistry of the two control soils for the July 2014 soils.  is standard deviation. Difference in lower case letters indicates signicant difference at a < 0.05 [potential of
hydrogen (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), nitrate-N (NO3-N), ammonium-N (NH4-N), orthophosphate-P (PO4-P), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic nitrogen
(DON), inorganic carbon (IC), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg+2), calcium (Ca+2)].

pH EC NO3-N NH4-N PO4-P DOC DON IC Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+


mS cm1 mgg soil1
a a
CrD 6.0  0.3 126  48 5.6  6.2 3.4  1.1 0.4  0.4 258  57 14  5 78  69 83  14 70  8 46  5 293  106
b b
RUD 6.2  0.0 105  21 2.6  1.9 6.1  0.3 1.2  1.1 350  21 22  3 32  31 87  26 41  6 29  11 159  67
134 J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139

Fig. 1. pH, EC and base cation chemistry for the CrD and RUD series Cadaver decomposition islands and control soils at 5 cm depth. Black columns are concentrations of control
soils and white columns are concentrations of cadaver decomposition island soils. PMI is the time since body was placed on the soil surface where 0 represents control soil
[potential of hydrogen (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+)].

and had a R2 value of 0.35 and a cross-validation R2 value of 0.25. 3.4.1. Nitrate-N (NO3-N)
Model 2 tended to over-predict PMI (71%) but 90% of estimated In the cadaver decomposition islands in CrD soil at 05 cm
PMIs were within 365 days (Tables 3 and 4). Model 3 examined depth, nitrate-N (NO3-N) concentrations ranged from 66 to
the CrD soil series (n = 32) and returned a R2 of 0.51 and cross- 233 mg g soil1 and in the RUD soil from 36 to 245 mg g soil1,
validation R2 of 0.44; 94% of estimated PMIs were within higher than the controls which had concentrations of 4 and
365 days (Tables 3 and 4). Using BMI tended to produce better 8 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soil series respectively. At 510 cm
models; for Model 4 which used only BMI values <25 (normal depth, control soils had 2 and 9 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils
weight) (n = 28) the model returned a R2 value of 0.74 and a cross- and cadaver decomposition island soil concentrations ranged from
validation R2 value of 0.33. For Model 4, 86% of the cadaver 3 to 175 mg g soil1. At 1015 cm depth control soils had 3 and
decomposition island estimated PMIs were within 365 days. 5 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils and concentrations in the
Model 5 used BMI values of <30 (overweight and normal weight) cadaver decomposition islands ranged from 4 to 178 mg g soil1
(n = 43) and returned a R2 value of 0.65 and a cross-validation R2 (Fig. 3).
of 0.32 with 86% of the cadaver decomposition island estimated
PMIs within 365 days. Model 6 included only those cadaver 3.4.2. Ammonium-N (NH4-N)
decomposition islands where BMI of the cadaver was >30 Ammonium-N (NH4-N) concentrations also displayed translo-
(obese) (n = 20) and this returned the highest model R2 (0.89) and cation to deeper soil (Fig. 3). Control soils had 7 and 5 mg g soil1
highest cross validation R2 (0.51) but only 80% of the cadaver for CrD and RUD soils at a 05 cm depth respectively whereas in the
decomposition islands were estimated within 365 days postmor- cadaver decomposition islands NH4-N concentrations ranged from
tem (Tables 3 and 4). 9 to 111 mg g soil1. At 510 cm depth control soils had 1 and
8 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils and the cadaver decomposition
island concentrations of NH4-N ranged from 1 to 86 mg g soil1. At
3.4. Using soil physical and chemical characteristics at three depths to 1015 cm depth the control soils had NH4-N concentrations of
estimate PMI 2 and 3 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils and the cadaver
decomposition islands had concentrations ranging from 2 to
Eleven cadaver decomposition island soils and two control soils 57 mg g soil1 (Fig. 3).
were sampled in December 2015 to depths of 15 cm or depth of
refusal. It was apparent from this exercise that cadaver decompo- 3.4.3. Dissolved organic nitrogen (DON)
sition products migrate deeper than the 5 cm typically sampled Dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentrations displayed
(Fig. 3). Soil to a depth of 15 cm could not be retrieved from some translocation to deeper soil (Fig. 3). Control soils had 7 and
cadaver decomposition islands either because the soil was too 6 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils respectively at a 05 cm depth
rocky or perhaps because of adipocere formation [23]. whereas in the cadaver decomposition islands DON concentrations
J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139 135

Fig. 2. Soil nutrient chemistry for the CrD and RUD series Cadaver decomposition islands and control soils at 5 cm depth. Black columns are concentrations of control soils and
white columns are concentrations of cadaver decomposition island soils. PMI is the time since body was placed on the soil surface where 0 represents control soil [nitrate-N
(NO3-N), ammonium-N (NH4-N), orthophosphate-P (PO4-P), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC)].

Table 3
Strength of models and their cross validation for the soils collected at 05 cm depth.

Model Cadaver decomposition n= Model Cross validation Independent variables useda


islands sampled
Slope Offset RMSE R2 Slope Offset RMSE R2
1 All 63 0.38 303.01 250.78 0.38 0.35 314.62 270.40 0.30 1
2 RUD 31 0.35 329.13 295.56 0.35 0.27 369.93 328.76 0.25 2
3 CrD 32 0.51 226.80 181.26 0.51 0.48 242.69 200.86 0.44 3
4 BMI < 25 28 0.74 98.28 166.72 0.74 0.34 241.12 279.00 0.33 4
5 BMI < 30 43 0.65 147.44 182.46 0.65 0.38 238.46 260.18 0.32 5
6 BMI > 30 20 0.89 69.41 95.80 0.89 1.10 126.07 314.33 0.51 6
a
Model 1: BMI, Na+ NO3-N, pH, NH4-N, EC, Ca2+, DOC; Model 2: pH, EC, NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, DON, DIC, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, BMI; Model 3: pH, DOC, DIC, Na+, BMI; Model 4: Ksat,
pH, EC, NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, DOC, Na+, Ca2+; Model 5: BMI, pH, EC, NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, DON, DIC, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+; Model 6: BMI, pH, EC, NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, DOC, DON,
DIC, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+.

Table 4
Percent under- and over-predictions by the models and percentage of PMIs estimated within 100, 200 and 365 days postmortem for the soils collected at 05 cm.

Model Under predict (%) Over predict (%) % <100 days % <200 days % <365 days % >365 days
1 46 54 32 70 90 10
2 29 71 42 65 90 10
3 41 59 34 75 94 6
4 46 54 39 57 86 14
5 47 53 23 60 86 14
6 60 40 25 50 80 20

ranged from 14 to 126 mg g soil1. At 510 cm depth control soils


had 10 and 14 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils and the cadaver 3.4.4. Orthophosphate-P (PO4-P)
decomposition island concentrations of DON ranged from 0 to Both control soils had 1 mg g soil1 at a 05 cm depth whereas in
47 mg g soil1. At 1015 cm depth the control soils had DON the cadaver decomposition islands orthophosphate-P (PO4-P)
concentrations of 11 mg g soil1 for both CrD and RUD soils and the concentrations ranged from 5 to 42 mg g soil1. At 510 cm depth,
cadaver decomposition islands had DON concentrations ranging control soils had 1 and 2 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soils and the
from 0 to 47 mg g soil1 (Fig. 3). cadaver decomposition island concentrations of PO4-P ranged from
136 J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139

Fig. 3. Soil nutrient chemistry for the CrD and RUD series cadaver decomposition islands and control soils at 5 cm increments to a depth of 15 cm depth plotted against PMI.
PMI is the time since body was placed on the soil surface where 0 represents control soil. Numbers above columns in the top right panel indicate BMI of the cadavers [nitrate-N
(NO3-N), ammonium-N (NH4-N), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), orthophosphate-P (PO4-P)].

1 to 17 mg g soil1. At 1015 cm depth both control soils had PO4-P 3.4.6. Investigating PMI estimation using soil obtained at different
concentrations of 1 mg g soil1 and the cadaver decomposition depths
islands had concentrations ranging from 1 to 17 mg g soil1 (Fig. 3). Three depth models were produced; (1) 05 cm depth, (2)
010 cm depth and (3) 015 cm to assess which depth is the most
3.4.5. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) appropriate to sample in these soil types to estimate PMI.
At depths to 15 cm it is expected to observe high dissolved Additionally, the water extractable chemistry, BMI, and physical
organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in soil and so DOC did not soil parameters [per cent clay (%Clay), per cent sand (%Sand), and
appear to have such difference attributed to decomposition saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat)] were used in backward
products (Fig. 4). In the cadaver decomposition islands at a depth stepwise regression analysis to determine the highest adjusted R2
of 05 cm DOC concentrations ranged from 386 to 1659 mg g soil1, and thus the independent variables needed. The dependent
generally higher than the controls which had concentrations of variable (PMI) and independent variables were then used in
388 and 181 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD soil series respectively. At partial least squares regression analysis with a full cross validation.
510 cm depth, control soils had 235 and 234 mg g soil1 for CrD Model 1 (05 cm depth) needed BMI and dissolved organic carbon
and RUD soils and DOC concentrations ranged from 158 to (DOC) to achieve an R2 of 0.15 for the model and R2 of 0 in cross
690 mg g soil1 in cadaver decomposition island soils. At 1015 cm validation; 61% of the PMIs were predicted to within 200 days
depth, control soils had 174 and 230 mg g soil1 for CrD and RUD postmortem. Model 2 (010 cm depth) needed BMI, ammonium-N
soils and DOC concentrations in the cadaver decomposition islands (NH4-N)and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) as independent
ranged from 181 to 576 mg g soil1 (Fig. 4). variables to achieve R2 of 0.88 for the model and R2 of 0.79 for the
cross validation; 85% of the PMIs were predicted to within 200 days
postmortem. Model 3 (015 cm depth) also needed BMI, NH4N and
DON as independent variables. R2 for Model 3 was 0.91 with an R2
of 0.77 for the cross-validation. 85% of the PMIs were estimated to
within 200 days postmortem (Table 5).

4. Discussion

This study sought to examine the soil chemistry of 63 cadaver


decomposition islands at a depth of 05 cm ranging in time from
6 to 1752 days postmortem and a subset of 11 cadaver decomposi-
tion islands to depths of 15 cm in an attempt to construct a model
for the estimation of PMI in a forensic context. In general, cadavers
are either immediately placed outdoors at FARF on receipt of their
bodies or are refrigerated until placed in the facility. Postmortem
interval is used with the exception that it is the date that the
Fig. 4. Soil nutrient chemistry for the CrD and RUD series cadaver decomposition refrigerated cadaver was placed on the surface of the ground at the
islands and control soils at 5 cm increments to a depth of 15 cm depth plotted FARF site and not necessarily the time since death, with the
against PMI. PMI is the time since body was placed on the soil surface where
assumption that refrigeration slows the decomposition process
0 represents control soil [dissolved organic carbon(DOC)].
J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139 137

Table 5
Models and full cross-validations to estimate PMI using soil depth [dissolved organic carbon (DOC), body mass index (BMI), ammonium-N (NH4-N), dissolved organic nitrogen
(DON)].

Model n= Model Cross validation Prediction (%) Variables used

Slope Offset RMSE R2 Slope Offset RMSE R2 <100 days <200 days <300 days
05 cm 13 0.15 414.69 252.61 0.15 0.04 485.45 252.61 0 46 61 69 DOC, BMI
010 cm 13 0.88 57.5 94.07 0.88 0.8 96.08 135.74 0.79 62 85 100 NH4-N,DON, BMI
015 cm 13 0.91 46.21 84.33 0.91 0.81 77.68 141.62 0.77 54 85 100 NH4-N,DON, BMI

until the bodies are placed at FARF and active decomposition study within 1 year postmortem for cadaver decomposition islands
proceeds. This investigation represented an effort to gather up to 1752 days or almost 5 years using cadaver decomposition
baseline soils data from a limited number of control sites at FARF island soils to a depth of 5 cm. This study also substantiates the
and an extensive cross-sectional set of data for soils from concept that living decomposers ultimately leave measurable
decomposition sites representing an initial almost 5 year period quantities of organic and inorganic materials behind in the soil
of site use. The research design described in this project set a goal which migrate to soil depths that can be used for forensic purposes.
of eliminating multi-use or cross-contaminated sites, preventing A major question revealed in our study is whether an endpoint,
the problem of site saturation for this study. Damann et al. [2], or return to baseline soil chemistry, actually occurs for cadaver
echoed by Carter et al. [34], recommended incorporating early and decomposition islands. Expectations are typically that soil
repeated ecological surveys throughout the lifecycle of human microbes cycle the nutrients and other compounds in the purge
donor facilities in order to monitor the possibility of saturation or uids where most are lost as volatiles with an eventual return of
changes in the native soil environment that may result from the soil baseline chemistry. However, our study indicated that
constant decay of human remains and constant use for research nutrients translocate further down the soil prole to depths
and education activities. Unfortunately, Damann et al. [2] only exceeding the commonly sampled 57 cm [2,4,14,36]. In our
collected soils across the Tennessee donor facility to a depth of separate study examining a subset of 11 cadaver decomposition
5 cm in a deep, well-drained, clayey soil, and the likelihood of islands on the two-soil series to 015 cm depth at 5 cm increments,
vertical transport to depths greater than 5 cm is highly likely based it was evident that decomposition products are migrating down
on the observed vertical translocation in our study. The large the soil prole at FARF and thus this migration of decomposition
amounts of nutrient materials deposited in the soils underneath products should be considered when selecting a depth to sample
human decomposition sites have been documented to persist at for producing models to estimate PMI in other soil textures.
depths of 7 cm in measurable amounts for nearly 5 years after It was not possible to control for seasonal and environmental
initial placement of cadavers at FARF [35]. placement factors between each cadaver in an equal manner, nor
Vass et al. [4] were among the rst to attempt to estimate PMI was it possible to control for life history factors such as disease and
using the soil obtained from human cadaver decomposition physical attributes for each individual. Despite the design
islands. Aitkenhead-Peterson et al. [14] also attempted to estimate limitations imposed by cross-sectional studies, however, what
PMI from fourteen individual human cadaver decomposition this design approach did allow for was the collection and analysis
islands using soil chemistry and diffuse reectance of soil from of a large number of samples in a short period of time. An
a single cadaver decomposition island sampled multiple times alternative design would be to use systematic observations of the
between 580 and 1269 days postmortem with a UVvis-near- same set of cadavers over a long time period, as well as controlling
infrared spectrometer at the FARF human donor facilty. Soil for life history factors. This longitudinal approach would afford a
chemistry also needed some input with respect to intital mass of more accurate, chronological sequencing of decomposition prod-
the cadavers, and the diffuse reectance method found that ucts in the soil record, but also may introduce sampling error due
wavelengths of 7002500 nm provided the best predictive model to repeatedly disturbing the soils during testing activities [3]. It
for PMI. The soils data collected in the current study have been also would likely limit the number of subjects entered into the
used to provide models for estimating PMIs specic for the FARF observation pool, and would extend the research project time-
site or soil series in the region. This is an important aspect to frame by a number of years.
consider because of the soil texture and rockiness encountered at Most crime scenes have undisturbed soil (no frequent or
FARF. Indeed, decomposition product migration and the depth at previous soil sampling) which is important when attempting to
which one samples a cadaver decomposition island should be model or estimate PMI. Continual soil sampling of a cadaver
considered at all crime scenes and human donor facilities because decomposition island may initiate early aerobic conditions which
of soil textural differences and the concomitant difference in would affect estimation of PMI from a physically undisturbed
saturated hydraulic conductivity. However, the models established cadaver decomposition island as is often found at a crime scene. In
in this research and the protocols developed for this study can be general the cadaver purge will render the cadaver decomposition
used to initiate similar research projects at other donor facilities or island anaerobic [3,13]. Under these conditions ammonium-N
localities examining for similar variables. This project goes beyond (NH4-N) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentrations will
the traditional methods of estimating PMI that have primarily and be high and nitrate-N (NO3-N) concentrations will decrease as soil
traditionally relied upon entomology and invertebrate succession microbes utilize the oxygen for respiration [13]. Under anaerobic
[31] and physical decomposition stages [3235]. While these are conditions, ammonium-N (NH4-N) cannot be nitried because the
extremely important within the rst year of human decomposi- function must be carried out in aerobic conditions [14]. The peak of
tion, we sought to provide an alternative method of PMI prediction nitrate-N (NO3-N) observed is an indication that the cadaver
using cadaver decomposition island soils for decomposition sites decompositon island is now aerobic [13].
that were older, and thus outside the scope of entomological
indicators or decomposition stages/sequences. Multiple regression 4.1. Modeling PMI using cadaver decomposition island soil
models endorsed by partial least squares regression analysis and
full cross-validations based on soil chemistry are introduced which One of the most signicant ndings of this research is that soil
are able to predict PMI over longer time periods; in the case of this chemistry at 05 cm depth was able to estimate PMI with a
138 J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139

relatively good rate of success for a maximum of almost 5 years analysis of the impact of changing amounts of triglyceride (fat)
(4 years and 8 months) after cadaver placement, and the models levels may also give indications of underlying bacterial activity in
produced with 63 individual cadaver decomposition islands were decomposition [21]. Knowing the BMI was crucial to the success of
improved when soils were taken at deeper depths accounting for our estimation of PMI and this was also shown in the research of
translocation of decomposition products. Soil characteristics used Vass et al. [4] and Aitkenhead-Peterson et al. [13]. At a crime scene,
in the best model for soil at 05 cm was Model 3 which comprised the length of the body and clothing size, especially when the victim
only those donors with BMI <25; soil characteristics used in this is skeletonized or an advanced stage of decomposition, may render
model included saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), pH, an estimation of BMI possible.
electrical conductivity (EC), nitrate-N (NO3-N), ammonium-N
(NH4-N), orthophosphate-P (PO4-P), dissolved organic carbon 4.3. Recommendations for future research
(DOC), sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+). The best model in the
soil depth study was for soil taken at 010 cm (Model 2) and Recommendations for future research include (1) sampling to
independent variables used in the estimation of PMI were BMI, 15 cm depth in 5 cm increments in the cadaver decomposition
ammonium-N (NH4-N) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). Our island soils at the FARF site; for other cadaver decomposition
research lends some validation to previous research that carcass islands at either crime scenes or donor sites, sampling depth
mass of pigs can inuence the decomposition rate and nitrogen should be determined based on soil texture and saturated
release into grave soil [8]. It also supports other large mammal hydraulic conductivity; and (2) recognizing the inuence of BMI
studies that have shown that carcass remains can be detected for is a generalizable concept that can be incorporated for all
very long periods of 5 years or longer in xeric environments that decomposition sites. It is recommended that future research
are characterized by dry, hot or cold, environments [37,38]. Most consider investigating the relationship of PMI and BMI, especially
signicantly, these results show that measuring elements and in relation to stages of decomposition.
compounds left behind in soils associated with human decompo- In summary, there are two main points to be taken from this
sition can be used to model an estimate of PMI. research:
Standard operating procedures for soil collection, processing
and chemical analyses must be standardized for soil scientists, A. Changes in cadaver decomposition island soil parameters have
forensic anthropologists and law enforcement personnel for crime been detected for almost 5 years, and probably can be for longer
scene work. Collection protocols must recognize that soil scientists time periods. Our study indicated that there are persistent
will not normally collect from crime scenes and so a protocol must changes in soil chemistry from human decomposition sites.
be simple enough to be carried out by law enforcement agencies B. Body mass matters in how a human decomposes and leaves
and based upon physical soil characteristics obtainable on site identiable chemical traces in the soil. Formulas that predict
using an application such as Soil Web [19] which will give an PMI need to be assessed using BMI as a variable (if known) to
indication of soil texture and saturated hydraulic conductivity. modify calculations or use different formulas for different BMI
Processing of these soils should include air-drying either prior to ranges. BMI as a co-factor needs to be further researched in
delivery to the testing laboratory, or at the testing laboratory on order to nd possible relationships with stages of decomposi-
receipt of the soil. Air-drying the soils rather than leaving them tion, especially how body composition can be related to
moist in plastic containers will ensure that microbial processing of decomposition rate.
nutrients is minimal once they are dry. Based on the water
extractable nutrient content of grave soils measured in our
research it is important to note that both dissolved organic carbon 5. Conclusion
(DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) are included in PMI
estimations. There are no standard methods available for their This research complimented and supplemented other methods
extraction from soils [24] but longer shaking times were shown to commonly used to predict PMI, especially entomology succession
extract more DOC compared to shorter shaking times [24]. Volatile patterns and anthropological observation of decomposition
fatty acids (VFAs), a subset of DOC extracted from grave soil, were sequences. The timeframe of entomological techniques focuses
also recognised as important in the prediction of PMI in the work on the seasonal and temporal changes associated with early to
conducted by Vass et al. [4]. While it is recognised that drying and advanced stages of decomposition when the insect decomposers
rewetting soils for soil extraction will cause a ush of nutrients, are most active, a timeframe commonly extending from days to
and that an extended shaking time may cause mineralization or possibly weeks and a few months. The anthropological techniques
immobilization of these nutrients by re-activated microbes, we of observing stages of decomposition extend from early, moist
believe this is minimal. For example, when both control soils and stages to advanced skeletonization and osseous deterioration.
cadaver decomposition island soils are processed in the same However, PMI estimation becomes more difcult with advanced
manner even with a ush of nutrients due to drying and re-wetting timeframes, and here is where the analysis of the cadaver
there is still difference in nutrients when comparing them. decomposition island soil becomes pertinent. Soil analysis offers
Furthermore, when Jones and Willett [24] extracted soils at the advantage of site-specic estimations of PMI that begin in the
different temperatures there was no signicant difference in the early stage of decomposition and extend for many years. This will
amount of DOC extracted, suggesting that microbes had minimal be a benet to all workers who conduct medical-legal inves-
affect on retrievable DOC. tigations for criminal, civil, and humanitarian cases in similar
ecological or geographical regions.
4.2. Body mass index (BMI)
Acknowledgements
It seems intuitive that a larger body will deposit greater amonts
of nutrients into the soil, but this differential effect now has been This work was supported by a Thesis Research Support
quantied using the body mass index (BMI) scale as a body mass Fellowship awarded by Texas State University, Fall 2014.
segregation tool. A greater sample size that includes more cases in The Forensic Anthropology Research Facility, Texas State
the middle range of BMI between 25 and 30 is needed to complete University, allowed sampling of soils at the outdoor research
the sequence of BMI ranges with statistical signicance. Further facility. The laboratory analysis of all samples was completed at
J.P. Fancher et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 130139 139

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