Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc

Analysis of cable-stayed bridges during construction

by cantilever methods
Pao-Hsii Wang *, Tzu-Yang Tang, Hou-Nong Zheng
Structural Mechanics Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Chung-Yuan University, Chung-Li, Taiwan, ROC
Received 24 December 2002; accepted 15 November 2003

Abstract
The aim of this study concerns with the analysis of cable-stayed bridges at dierent erection stages during con-
struction using the cantilever method. A nite element computation procedure is set up for the shape nding analysis of
such structures during erection procedures. Two computational processes are established, one is a forward process
analysis and the other is a backward process analysis. The former is performed by following the sequence of erection
stages in bridge construction and the latter is carried out in the reverse direction of erection procedures. Both processes
can be successfully applied for nding the initial shape of bridge structures during erection procedures. The structural
behavior of the bridge structure at dierent erection stages has been examined in details, such as the pretension required
in cable-stays and the corresponding structural congurations of the bridge, etc. The results of shape nding analysis at
each erection stage not only provide the necessary data for the purpose of structural analysis and design, but also can be
used for checking and controlling the erection procedure of the cable-stayed bridge during construction. The designed
shape (pretension in cables and conguration) of the bridge can then be achieved and constructed.

2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cable-stayed bridge; Initial shape; Forward process analysis; Backward process analysis

1. Introduction size and complicated nonlinear structural behaviors, the

Over the last half century a large number of cable-
stayed bridges has been built or are under construction
all over the world. The rapid progress of this kind of
bridges is mainly due to the development of computer
technology, high strength steel cables, orthotropic steel
decks and construction technology [1,2,5,6]. Because of
its aesthetic appeal, economic grounds and the ease of
erection, the cable-stayed bridge is considered as most
suitable for medium to long span bridges with spans
ranging from 200 to about 1000 m [2,5]. As a matter of
fact, the longer span length is, the more exible the
bridge structural system behaves. Because of their huge
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886-3-265-4207; fax: +886-3-
265-4299.
E-mail address: phwang@cycu.edu.tw (P.-H. Wang).
analysis of cable-stayed bridges is much more compli-
cated than that of conventional bridges, such as truss
and girder bridges. The sources of nonlinearity in cable-
stayed bridges mainly include the cable sag, beam-col-
umn and large deection eects. A lot of studies on this
kind of bridges have been done in the last half century
[46,9,10]. But few papers presented concerns with the
analysis of cable-stayed bridges during erection stages in
construction. Some papers concerning with the erection
procedure of cable-stayed bridges focus only on
improving the construction technology and technicality
[6,7,11], but not the analysis. The purpose of this paper
is to present a nite element computation procedure for
the shape nding analysis of bridge structures during
construction based on the cantilever method, in which a
forward process analysis and a backward analysis by
using both the linear computation procedure and the
nonlinear computation procedures are set up.

0045-7949/$ - see front matter
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compstruc.2003.11.003
330 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

2. Finite element formulation y

u1 x
2.1. Finite element model Sag

Based on the nite element concept, a cable-stayed

bridge can be considered as an assembly of a nite q R2
number of cable and beam-column (for girder and
tower) elements. In this study some assumptions are qL2
qR 1
made as follows. The material is homogeneous and qL 1 Sag
R

isotropic and behaves linearly elastically. The external L

loads are displacement independent. All cables are xed
to the tower and to the girder at their joints of attach-
ment. Large displacements and large rotations are al- uj : Element Coordinates
lowed, but strain is small. The following geometric Y q : System Coordinates
x, y : Local Coordinate System
nonlinearities are taken into consideration in the anal- X, Y : Global Coordinate System
X
ysis of cable-stayed bridges. 0

Fig. 1. Plane cable element with sag.

2.1.1. Cable sag eect
The elastic cable is assumed to be perfectly exible
and possesses only tension stiness; it is incapable of
resisting compression, shear and bending forces.
When the weight of the cable is neglected, the cable
element can be considered as a straight member. But
under the action of its own dead load and axial ten-
sile force, a cable supported at its end will sag into a
catenary shape. The axial stiness of a cable will change
with changing sag. When a straight cable element for
a whole inclined cable stay is used in the analysis, the
sag eect has to be taken into account. On the consid-
eration of the sag nonlinearity in the inclined cable
stays, it is convenient to use an equivalent straight
cable element with an equivalent modulus of elastic-
ity, which can well describe the catenary action of the
cable.
The concept of the cable equivalent modulus of
elasticity Eeq was rst introduced by Ernst in 1965 [3]. If
the change in tension in a cable during a load increment
is not large, the axial stiness of the cable will not
change signicantly and the equivalent modulus of
elasticity of the cable can be considered constant during
the load increment, and is given by
E will aect the axial stiness. The element bending sti-
Eeq 2 ness decreases for a compression axial force and in-
1 wL AE
12T 3
in which Eeq is the equivalent cable modulus of elastic-
ity, E the eective cable material modulus of elasticity,
A the cross-sectional area, w the cable weight per unit
length, L the horizontal projected length of the cable
and T is the tensile force in the cable.
When the inclined cable stay is represented by a
single equivalent straight cable element with one coor-
dinate (relative axial deformation) u1 Dl, as shown in
Fig. 1, the stiness matrix KEjk of the cable element has
the value as follows:
(h i
Eeq A
for u1 > 0
KEjk KE11 l
0 for u1 < 0
where l is the chord length of cable element. The cable
stiness vanishes and no element force exists for u1 < 0,
i.e., when shortening occurs. If the cable sag eect is
neglected, the stiness matrix for a linear cable element
becomes KEjk KE EA=l, where Eeq is replaced
by E.
2.1.2. Beam-column eect
Since a high pretension force exists in inclined cable
stays, the towers and part of the girders are subjected to
a large compression action; this means that the beam-
column eect has to be taken into consideration for
girders and towers of the cable-stayed bridge. For the
beam-column element, the engineering beam theory is
employed and no shear strain is considered. In a beam-
column, lateral deection and axial force are interrelated
such that its bending stiness is dependent on the ele-
ment axial forces, and the presence of bending moments
creases for a tension force.
The plane beam-column element shown in Fig. 2 is
employed in this study. The beam-column element is
straight member with constant cross-section. It has three
element coordinates, two for end rotations, u1 , u2 and
one for the relative axial deformation u3 Dl, where Dl
is the element axial elongation or shortening. The ele-
ment force corresponding to uj is denoted by Sj , in which
S1 and S2 are the end moments and S3 is the axial force.
When the beam-column eect has to be taken into
consideration, the beam-column element stiness matrix
has the following form [4,5]:
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346 331

x oaja o2 uj
u3 aja;b qc
oqb oqa oqb
y O.F.
3 D. coordinate transformation coefficients of
P3
u2
BM
second-order
u1 q R2
The nonlinear transformation coecients of the rst-
q L2 R q R1 order and the second-order, aja and aja;b , for the straight
Y q R3 cable element and the beam-column element can be
L X
found in Refs. [12,13]. With the help of the nonlinear
q L1
qL 3 transformation coecients aja and aja;b , the tangent
system stiness matrix can be built up with standard
u : Element Coordinates
nite element procedure by assembling the element
j
Y q : System Coordinates stiness matrices [8,1214].
x , y : Local Coordinates System
X
X, Y : Global Coordinates System
0 2.2. Linearized system equation
Fig. 2. 3 D.O.F. plane beam-column element.
In nonlinear statics the linearized nite element sys-
tem equation can be derived by the virtual work prin-
2 3 ciple as follows [8]:
C Ct 0
EI 4 S
KEjk KE33 Ct CS 0 5 DPan u Pan 2 Kab
n
 Dqnb ; a 1; 2; . . . . . . ; N
l
0 0 Rt A=I
for Pan 6 Pa 6 Pan1
where E is the modulus of elasticity, A the cross-sectional P P
area, I the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area where 2 Kab n
EL KEjk aja akb EL Sjn anja;b n Kj  n bja;b
n n n
j j
and l the element length. The stability functions CS , Ct n Kb  n ba P is the tangent system stiness matrix,
n n n n
and Rt can be expressed in terms of the element axial u Pa Pa EL Sj aja the unbalanced forces at nth load

force S3 and the end moments S1 and S2 and can be step in statics, DPan Pan1 Pan the load increments,
found in Refs. [4,12]. Dqna qn1
a qna the displacement
P increments, KEjk the
If the beam-column eect is not considered, the ele- element stiness matrix, EL the summation over all

ment stiness matrix KEjk of a beam column element elements, and N is the number of degree of freedom
becomes the usual linear form as (D.O.F.). The superscript j denotes the nodal number.
2 3 The subscripts a; b; c; . . . denote the number of the sys-
4 2 0 tem coordinate and j; k; l; . . . are the number of the
EI 4
KEjk KE33 2 4 0 5 element coordinate. The index summation convention is
l
0 0 A=I used here for the superscripts and subscripts. Letters
printed in bold-face type, e.g. Kj , bja , represent vectors,
where Kj the external nodal load vectors, Wj the dis-
2.1.3. Large displacement eect placement vectors corresponding to Kj and bja oWj =
In general, cable-stayed bridges have a larger span oqa is the basis vector. The dot notation between vectors
and less weight than that of conventional steel and means scalar product. The superscript n denotes the
reinforced concrete bridges. Large deections may easily number of load step, e.g., qnb qb jPa Pan , and the number
appear in cable-stayed bridges. Hence, the large dis- 2 means iteration matrix of second-order.
placement eect has to be considered in the analysis The linearized system equation represents a set of
and the equilibrium equations have to be set up based on linear algebraic equations in small load interval. This
the deformed position [1214]. In general, the relation- linearized system equation can be solved with the
ship between element coordinates uj and the system NewtonRaphson method in which the equilibrium
coordinates qa can be expressed by uj uj qa where uj iteration is performed as follows:
may be nonlinear functions of qa when large deections
occur. By taking the dierentiation we have duj aja dqa The equilibrium position is found for load step n.
with Set up and solve the linearized system equation for
ouj load step n 1
aja qb
oqa DPan u Pan 2 Kab
n
 Dqnb
coordinate transformation coefficients
of first-order and Dqnb is found.
332 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

Set i 0, i Dqnb Dqnb , i n

qb qnb , and i1 n
qb conditions, the specied boundary conditions, and the
i n
qb i Dqnb . requirements of the architectural design should be sat-
ki Dqnb k ised. For shape nding computation, the dead load of
If ki qnb k
6 e (e is the convergence tolerance),then girders and towers is taken into account and the dead
i1
qn1
b qnb , and begin next load step, else i load of cables is neglected, but cable sag nonlinearity
i 1, and solve i n
u Pa
i2 n
Kab  i Dqnb , with i1 qnb induced by cable dead load is included. The computa-
i n
qb i Dqnb and repeat convergence tolerance check. tion for shape nding is performed by using the two-
loop iteration method, i.e., equilibrium iteration loop
2.3. Linear system equation and shape iteration loop, and can be started with an
estimated tension force in inclined cables [1214]. Based
In linear statics, the system equation has a linear on a reference conguration (the architectural designed
form as follows: form) with no deection and zero prestress in girders

and towers, the equilibrium position of the cable-stayed
Pa Ta Kab  qb ; a 1; 2; . . . ; N bridges under the action of dead load is rst determined,

where Ta the generalized initial internal forces, Kab
P nonlinear computation procedure is used. Although this
EL KEjk aja akb the linear system stiness matrix. All the
element stiness matrices KEjk and the transformation
coecients aja are constant in linear statics. The element
displacements are calculated with uj aja qa .
3. Shape nding analysis of cable-stayed bridges
The major work of the structural analysis of the
whole cable-stayed bridge consists of the initial shape
analysis, static deection analysis and dynamic response
analysis, etc. Based on the determined correct initial
shape, a meaningful static and dynamic analysis of
cable-stayed bridges can then be performed. The work in
this study is focused on the initial shape (shape nding)
analysis to nd the geometric conguration and pre-
forces in members of cable-stayed bridges. The analysis
can be performed in two dierent ways: one is a linear
computation procedure (linear theory) and the other is a
nonlinear computation procedure (nonlinear theory). In
the former case, all the nonlinearities of cable-stayed
bridges are neglected and only the linear elastic cable
and beam-column elements and linear constant coordi-
nate transformation coecients are used in the com-
putation. In the latter case, all the nonlinearities of
cable-stayed bridges are taken into consideration, i.e.,
the nonlinear cable element with sag eect and the beam-
column element including stability function coecients
as well as nonlinear coordinate transformation coe-
cients are used in the analysis. The details of the initial
shape analysis are referred to Refs. [5,1214]. Theoreti-
cally, a more accurate (exact) solution can be obtained
only by the nonlinear theory. And through iterative
computation a convergent solution can be obtained and
a more smooth shape of the bridge girder can be found.
The initial shape of a cable-stayed bridge provides
the geometric conguration as well as the prestress dis-
tribution of the bridge under the action of the dead load
of girders and towers and the pretension force in in-
clined cable stays. The relations for the equilibrium
where the equilibrium iteration will be carried out if the
rst determined conguration satises the equilibrium
conditions and the boundary conditions, the require-
ments of architectural design are, in general, not ful-
lled. Since the bridge span is large and no pretension
forces exist in inclined cables, quite large deections and
huge bending moments may appear in the girders and
towers. Another iteration has to be carried out in order
to reduce the deections and to smooth the bending
moments in the girder, and nally to nd the correct
initial shape. Such an iteration procedure is named the
shape iteration. For shape iteration, the element axial
forces determined in the previous step will be taken as
the initial element forces for the next iteration and the
equilibrium conguration under the action of dead load
and such initial forces will be determined anew.
During shape iteration, several control points on the
girder (usually the nodes intersected by the girder and the
cable) will be chosen for checking whether the conver-
gence tolerance is achieved or not. In each shape iteration
the ratio of the vertical displacement at control points to
the main span length will be checked. To avoid deections
and bending moments of tower to appear, the conver-
gence check can also be done in a similar way for the tower
deections, where several control points, e.g., tip of the
tower and nodes intersected by the tower and the cable,
are chosen and the ratio of the horizontal displacement
at control points to the tower height will be checked.
The convergence tolerance for shape iterations can
be expressed in the following form:
qa
6 es
Ls
where qa is the displacement at control points, Ls is the
reference length chosen for shape iteration. The refer-
ence length is set equal to the main span length for
checking the girder deection and set equal to the tower
height for checking the tower deection.
The shape iteration will be repeated until the con-
vergence tolerance es , say 10 4 , is achieved. When the
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346
convergence tolerance for shape iteration is reached,
computation will be stopped and the initial shape of the
cable-stayed bridge is found. Both the shape iteration
and the equilibrium iteration are carried out in the
nonlinear computation procedure. In the linear com-
putation procedure, shape nding is carried out by
shape iteration without considering the equilibrium
iteration.
The procedure of shape nding analysis of cable-
stayed bridges is briey summarized in the following:
(1) Input the geometric and physical data of the bridge.
(2) Input the dead load of girders and towers.
(3) Input the reference conguration (designed shape)
of the bridge.
(4) Input suitably estimated initial forces in cable stays
to start the computation.
(5) Find equilibrium position
(i) Linear procedure
Linear cable and beam-column elements and
linear constant coordinate transformation
coecients aja are used.
Set up and solve the linear system equation
for qa (equilibrium position).
No equilibrium iteration is carried out.
(ii) Nonlinear procedure
Nonlinear cable element with sag eect and
beam-column element and nonlinear coordi-
nate transformation coecients aja , aja;b are
used.
Set up and solve the incremental linearized
system equation for Dqa .
Equilibrium iteration is performed by using
the NewtonRaphson method.
(6) Shape iteration
Check if the convergence tolerance
qa
6 es
Ls
is achieved or not.
If converged, the equilibrium conguration is the
desired initial shape. Otherwise, the newly ob-
tained axial forces of members are taken as initial
element forces, repeat steps 5 and 6.
(7) Output of the initial shape including geometric con-
guration and element forces.
4. Shape nding analysis during erection procedures
For constructing the bridge and predicting the
structural behaviors of the bridge during its erection
procedures, the geometric conguration and preforces in
members of the bridge structure at each erection stage
have to be known and examined in details. The aim of
333
this paper is to set up a nite element computation
procedure to compute and nd the initial shape of the
bridge structure at each erection stage systematically. In
the following the erection procedure of the cantilever
method will be shortly explained and then the two
analysis methods, the forward process analysis and the
backward process analysis, for the shape nding of the
bridge structures during erection procedures will be
introduced in details.
4.1. Erection by the cantilever method
The ease of erection is one of the main reasons for the
success of cable-stayed bridges over the last half century
[5,6,11]. Because of their self-anchored cable systems,
the cantilever method has been widely used for the gir-
der erection of cable-stayed bridges. The cantilever
method is considered as the natural and logical solution
for constructing the cable-stayed bridges of large span,
where new girder segments are installed and then sup-
ported by new cable stays in each erection stage, and the
construction process keeps going stage-by-stage until the
bridge is completed. Since no auxiliary supports are
needed for constructing the bridge girder in the canti-
lever method, a lot of construction cost and time can be
saved. There are two basic alternates in the cantilever
method. One is named herein the single cantilever
method and the other is the double cantilever method.
In the former the side span girders of the bridge are
erected on auxiliary piers and afterwards the stiening
girder in main span is erected by one-sided free can-
tilevering until the span centre or the anchor pier on the
far end is reached. In the latter, the bridge girder is
erected from both side of the tower towards the anchor
piers and the main span centre by double-sided free
cantilevering [5,6,11]. In this study the double cantilever
method is considered. But the concept and the analysis
method presented here can also be applied to the single
cantilever method.
As an example, the erection procedure of a harp
cable-stayed bridge performed by the double cantilever
method is summarized as follows and illustrated in
Fig. 3:
Stage 1. The Pylons are erected.
Stage 2. The rst pair of girder segments B1 is in-
stalled.
Stage 3. The stayed cables C1 are installed and
stressed initially to elevate the girders and relieve
their bending moments.
Stage 4. The pair of girder segments B2 are installed.
Stage 5. The stayed cables C2 are installed and
stressed.
Stage 6. The girder segments B3 are installed.
Stage 7. The stayed cables C3 are installed and
stressed.
334 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

Stage 1

Ci = number of cable
Bi = number of beam segment

L (left tower) R (right tower)

Stage 2

B1 B1 B1 B1

Stage 3
C1 C1 C1 C1

B1 B1 B1 B1

Stage 4

C1 C1 C1 C1

B2 B1 B1 B2 B2 B1 B1 B2

Stage 5
C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C1 C1 C1

B2 B1 B1 B2 B2 B1 B1 B2

Stage 6
C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C1 C1 C1

B3 B2 B1 B1 B2 B3 B3 B2 B1 B1 B2 B3

Stage 7
C3 C3 C3 C3
C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C1 C1 C1

B3 B2 B1 B1 B2 B3 B3 B2 B1 B1 B2 B3

Stage 8
C3 C3 C3 C3
C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C1 C1 C1

B3 B2 B1 B1 B2 B3 B4 B4 B3 B2 B1 B1 B2 B3

L R

Fig. 3. Erection stages of harp cable-stayed bridges.

Stage 8. Girder segments B4 is installed and the
bridge is closed at the main span centre.
4.2. Forward process analysis (FPA)
The forward process analysis of cable-stayed bridges
during construction is performed by following the se-
quence of erection stages in bridge construction. The
nite element model of the harp cable-stayed bridge at
dierent erection stages is shown in Fig. 4, in which the
nodal and element numbering of the symmetric harp
cable-stayed bridge at each erection stages are given. In
the gure, NU the number of degrees of freedom,
NE number of elements, NJ number of nodes, and
ISB semi-bandwidth of the system stiness matrix.
There are three system displacements at each node in the
plane model of cable-stayed bridges, one rotation and
two translation displacements. The computation of the
forward process analysis is rst started from the single
pylon at stage 1 as shown in Fig. 4 and then continued at
stages 2, 3, . . ., stage-by-stage, until stage 8, where the
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346 335

5
Stage 1 NU=15
4 NE=4
NU = number of D.O.F. NJ=5
3
NE = number of elements ISB=6
2 NJ = number of nodes
1 ISB = semi-bandwidth of system
stiffness matrix
L
i = nodal number
5
i = element number Stage 2 NU=21
4 NE=6
3 NJ=7
6 7
ISB=18
2
1

5 NU=21
Stage 3
4 NE=8
NJ=7
3
ISB=18
6 2 7
1

5 Stage 4 NU=27
4 NE=10
NJ=9
3
ISB=18
8 6 2 7 9
1

5 Stage 5 NU=27
4
NE=12
NJ=9
3 ISB=18
8 6 2 7 9
1

5 NU=33
Stage 6
4 NE=14
3
NJ=11
ISB=18
10 8 6 2 7 9 11
1

5 NU=33
Stage 7
4 NE=16
3
NJ=11
ISB=21
10 8 6 2 7 9 11
1

5 14
Stage 8 NU=69
NE=34
4 17 NJ=23
3
ISB=21
20
10 8 6 2 7 9 11 12 13 16 19 22 21 18 15
1 23

L R

Fig. 4. Node and element numbering of harp cable-stayed bridges at dierent erection stages.

bridge is closed at the main span centre and the analysis
of the bridge during girder construction is completed. In
each stage the geometric conguration and internal
forces of members of the bridge structure will be deter-
mined.
At erection stages of even number (2, 4, 6) only the
new girder segments are installed and the exterior stayed
cables are not yet in place. Relatively large vertical dis-
placements and bending moments of the girder may
appear. At erection stages of odd number (3, 5, 7) the
new exterior stayed cables are installed at the tip of
the new girder segments and then stressed to lift up the
girders to certain elevation in order to relieve the
bending moment in girders and to keep the bridge girder
in desired correct position. The stressing force needed in
cables and the girder elevation have to be determined at
each erection stage by the shape nding procedure de-
scribed in the previous section. In the forward process
analysis, shape iteration has to be done in order to keep
the stiening girder in horizontal position (a upward
precamber is allowed).
Since the cables will be stressed after new girder
segments and stayed cables are installed at the stage of
odd number, an initial estimated force in cables is nee-
ded to start the shape iteration computation. The esti-
mated cable force is determined in this study by setting
336 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

Fig. 5. Estimation of the initial cable force.

the tip displacement of girder segment caused by dead (3) Stage k 7

load w and weight of machine equipment Weq to be equal (i) Remodeling the analysis model
to that of the cable pretension force T0 , as shown in Fig.
3wl8W
5, where T 8 sin a eq is the estimated initial cable force
used to start the shape iteration, EI and l are exural
rigidity and length of the girder segment respectively,
a is the inclined angle of the cable.
For illustration, the erection stages 57 shown in Fig.
4 are chosen for explaining the computation procedure
of the forward process analysis which is summarized
as follows:
(1) Stage k 5
After nding the shape of the bridge structure at
stage k 5, the geometric conguration and the ini-
tial force in members are known.
(2) Stage k 6
(i) Remodeling the analysis model
Based on the determined (constructed) structural
shape at stage k 5, the girder element of num-
ber , are installed and the analysis model is
13 14
rebuilt for stage k 6 as shown in Fig. 4. The
number of nodes, elements and system coordi-
nates is renumbered as shown in Fig. 4. The total
degree of freedom of the bridge structure be-
comes NU 33, and the total number of nodes
and elements are NJ 11, NE 14, respec-
tively. If the system coordinates are ordered by
following the numbering of nodes the semi-band
width of the system stiness matrix becomes
ISB 18.
(ii) Find the equilibrium position
The equilibrium position of the bridge structure
at stage 6 is determined anew by solving the sta-
tic system equation. Equilibrium iteration is car-
ried out if the nonlinear theory is used.
(iii) No shape iteration is performed here, since the
exterior cables at the tip of the girders are not
yet installed.
The cables of number , 15 16are newly installed
and will be stressed in situ. The rebuilt analysis
model at stage k 7 has NU 33, NE 16,
NJ 11 and ISB 21, as shown in Fig. 4.
(ii) Input the estimated initial forces of cables and
dead load of the girder and the tower.
(iii) Find the equilibrium position
The equilibrium position is determined anew by
solving the static system equation. Equilibrium
iteration is carried out if the nonlinear theory
is used.
(iv) Shape iteration is carried out
Check if the elevation of girders and the deec-
tion of towers satisfy the convergence tolerance
of shape iteration or not.
If not, the shape iteration has to be repeated.
If yes, the initial shape (geometry and member pre-
forces) of the bridge structure at stage k 7 is
found and the computation is stopped.
(4) Computation is continued for the next stage until
the nal stage is reached, i.e., the bridge is com-
pletely constructed.
The ow chart of the forward process analysis is
given in Fig. 6. The forward process analysis follows
exactly the actual sequence of the erection procedure
of the bridge. The advantage of the forward process
analysis is that the real-time factors of the bridge can be
taken into account, such as creep and shrinkage of
concrete, and any alteration in design, etc.
4.3. Backward process analysis (BPA)
In contrast to the forward process analysis, the
backward process analysis of cable-stayed bridges dur-
ing construction is carried out by following the direction
reversed to the sequence of erection stages in the bridge
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346 337

start

input the geometric and physical data of the bridge

input the reference configuration of the bridge

k=0
DO _ LOOP k = 1,2,....., k end
k = no. of stage erection
k = k+1 k end = last stage erection

install girder segments (k = even)

install and stress cables (k = odd > 1)

rebuild the analysis model

reset NU,NE,NJ,ISB

input dead load of members

input estimated initial cable forces

set up and solve the system equation

find the equilibrium position and element forces no

equilibrium
linear no iteration
set q = 0.0 computation q
<
take the determined axial q
yes
forces of members as
initial element forces yes
no
k = odd
yes

shape
no iteration
q
<s
Ls

yes

update and output initial shape

(k k
) o k
nodal coordinates X , Y and element forces S j
end of DO _ LOOP

stop

Fig. 6. Flow chart of the forward process analysis for shape nding of the cable-stayed bridge during construction.

construction. The computation of the backward process on the far end of anchor piers. After releasing girder
analysis is started with the completed whole cable-stayed segments the bridge is then remodeled and reanalyzed
bridge (stage k 8 as shown in Fig. 4) by releasing one under the action of dead load and the internal force of
or one pair of girder segments at the main span centre or members determined in the previous stage in order to
338 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346
nd the new initial shape which provides the geometric
conguration and member forces of the bridge structure
at the new (current) stage. Stage-by-stage, the girder
segments and adjointing stayed cables are released, and
the analysis model is rebuilt and the computation is
continued repeatedly until the nal stage is reached. At
the nal stage (k 1) there is only the pylons existed as
shown in Fig. 4. In the backward process analysis, the
initial shape (the geometric conguration and member
forces) of the whole cable-stayed bridge has to be found
rst by using the shape nding procedure presented in
Section 3. After releasing girder segments and cable
stays, the conguration and member forces of the bridge
structure are determined anew at each stage by solving
the static system equation. When the nonlinear theory is
used, the linearized system equation is used and the
equilibrium iteration with NewtonRaphson approach
is performed.
Similarly, here take stages k 7, 6, 5 shown in Fig. 4
as an example for illustrating the computation proce-
dure of the backward process analysis. The computation
process is briey summarized as follows:
(1) Stage k 7
After nding the shape of the bridge structure at
stage k 7, the geometric conguration and the ini-
tial force in all members are known.
(2) Stage k 6
(i) Remodeling the analysis model
Based on the determined structural shape at stage
k 7, the exterior cables of number , are re-
15 16
leased. The analysis model of the bridge structure
at stage k 6 is rebuilt as shown in Fig. 4, with
NU 33, NE 14, NJ 11, ISB 18.
(ii) Find the equilibrium position
The equilibrium position of the bridge structure
at stage k 6 is determined anew under the
action of dead load of girders and towers, and
the internal forces in members obtained in the
previous stage k 7. The newly determined equi-
librium position oers the geometric congura-
tion and member forces of the bridge structure
at the new stage k 6. Equilibrium iteration is
carried out when the nonlinear theory is used.
(iii) No shape iteration is required.
(3) Stage k 5
(i) Remodeling the analysis model
Based on the determined structural shape at
stage k 6, the exterior girder segments of num-
ber , are then released and the analysis model
13 14
for stage k 5 is rebuilt as shown in Fig. 4. The
model has NU 27, NE 12, NJ 9, ISB 18.
(ii) Find the equilibrium position
Similarly, the shape of the bridge structure at
stage k 5 is determined again under the ac-
tion of dead load and the internal forces of
members provided by the structure at the previ-
ous stage k 6. Similarly, equilibrium iteration
is carried out when the nonlinear theory is used.
(iii) No shape iteration is required.
(4) Repeatedly continue the computation for the next
stage until the nal stage (k 1) is reached.
The ow chart of the backward process analysis is
given in Fig. 7. The advantage of the backward process
analysis is that no shape iteration is required at each
erection stage. The shape at each stage determined by the
equilibrium condition is the desired correct position of the
bridge for the next erection stage, in which the girder is
precambered upwards. The disadvantage of this method is
that the real-time factors of the bridge during construc-
tion, such as creep and shrinkage of concrete as well as any
alteration in design, cannot be included, because the
computation is performed backwards from the completed
bridge.
5. Example: the harp cable-stayed bridge
As an example, a three span symmetric harp cable-
stayed bridge as shown in Fig. 8 is taken for the shape
nding analysis of the bridge during the erection pro-
cedure using the double cantilever method. The bridge
has two pylons of 260 ft high and 12 stayed cables ar-
ranged in a harp form. The main span of the bridge is
1100 ft and the side span 450 ft. The nite element model
of the whole bridge consists of 12 cable elements, 14
beam-column elements for the stiening girder and 8
beam-column elements for the pylons. This harp cable-
stayed bridge is erected by double cantilever method and
there are 8 erection stages for constructing the girder of
the bridge. The length of each girder segment is 50 ft and
only at closing stage of the main span the girder segment
length is 100 ft.
5.1. Whole bridge analysis
The initial shape of the whole harp cable-stayed
bridge is rst determined herein by the two-loop itera-
tion shape nding method, where both shape iteration
and equilibrium iteration are performed by using the
linear and the nonlinear computation procedures. Three
cycles of shape iteration are needed for nding the
convergent initial shape of the whole harp cable-stayed
bridge, as shown in Fig. 9.
5.2. Forward process analysis (FPA)
As described in the previous section, the forward
process analysis is performed exactly by following the
sequence of erection stages in construction. The com-
putation is started from the single pylon at stage 1 and
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346 339

start

input the geometric and physical data of the bridge

input the reference configuration of the bridge

k = kend

shape finding of the whole cable-stayed bridge

DO LOOP k = k end , k end 1,..... 2,1
k = no. of erection stage
k = k 1 k end = last erection stage

release girder segments (k = odd )

release exterior cable-stays (k = even)

rebuild the analysis model

reset NU,NE,NJ,ISB

input dead load of members

k 1

input the nodal coordinates X , Y (
k 1
)
and element
o
k 1
forces S j determined in previous stage

set up and solve the system equation

find the equilibrium position and element forces no

equilibrium
linear no iteration
computation q
<
q
yes
yes

update and output initial shape

( )
o
k k k
nodal coordinates X , Y and element forces S j
end of DO _ LOOP

stop

Fig. 7. Flow chart of the backward process analysis for shape nding of the cable-stayed bridge during construction.

carried out stage-by-stage until stage 8 is reached, i.e.,
the bridge girder is completely erected. The results of the
forward process analysis are listed in Tables 1 and 2 and
plotted in Figs. 10 and 11. In Table 1 the variation of the
vertical displacement of control points on the bridge
girder at dierent erection stages during shape nding
computation are listed. The variation of cable forces at
dierent erection stages are given in Table 2. There exists
small dierence between the results determined by the
linear and the nonlinear computation procedure. The
340 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

2532.29 Kips 2561.63 2561.63 2532.29

2399.69 2356.55 2356.55 2399.69
2052.48 2027.11 2027.11 2052.48

0.1310 ft
(DISPLACEMENT ENLARGED BY 10 TIMES)

REFERENCE POSITION
DURING SHAPE ITERATION (NSI=1,2)
INITIAL SHAPE DETERMINED (NSI=3)
= 0.1310 ft = DEFLECTION AT MID-SPAN
s = 10-4= TOLERANCE OF SHAPE ITERATION

Fig. 9. Initial shape nding of symmetric harp cable-stayed

bridge (based on nonlinear computation procedure).

Fig. 8. Symmetric harp cable-stayed.

results determined by the nonlinear computation pro-
cedure will be considered as the correct result in the
study.
In Fig. 10 the congurations of the bridge structure
at each erection stage are plotted and the vertical dis-
placements of the girder tip and cable forces are also
given, where NSI means the number of shape iterations
(S.I.) needed for the convergent solution. As shown in
Fig. 10, only the pylon exists at erection stage 1 and
due to dead load action there is a downward displace-
ment of 0.0082 ft at its top end. At stages 2, 4 and 6, only
the new girder segments are installed but not the exte-
rior cable stays, so the equilibrium position is deter-
mined anew without shape iteration. But at stages 3, 5
and 7, the new exterior cable stays are installed and
stressed. Therefore, the shape iteration is carried out at
these stages to nd the new equilibrium position.
Through shape iteration, the girder is kept in horizon-
tal position and certain bending moment in girders is
relieved. Finally, at stage 8 the shape iteration is carried

Table 1
Vertical displacement (ft) of control points determined by FPA at dierent erection stages during shape nding
Erection NSI Linear analysis Nonlinear analysis
stages k NODE5 NODE7 NODE9 NODE11 NODE5 NODE7 NODE9 NODE11
1 1 )0.0082 )0.0082
2 1 )0.0161 )0.6825 )0.0161 )0.6825
3 1 )0.0196 )0.0256 )0.0196 )0.0255
4 1 )0.0372 )1.3248 )4.5129 )0.0372 )1.3383 )4.5466
5 1 )0.0408 )0.3698 )0.4778 )0.0408 )0.3766 )0.4986
2 )0.0011 )0.1554 0.0090 )0.0010 )0.1560 0.0057
3 )0.0003 )0.1071 0.0550 )0.0003 )0.1069 0.0548
6 1 )0.0755 )0.5662 )2.8326 )6.8255 )0.0764 )0.5785 )2.9340 )7.0327
7 1 )0.0751 )0.5879 )1.0458 )0.6125 )0.0753 )0.6230 )1.2983 )1.3049
2 )0.0018 )0.2244 )0.3438 0.1036 )0.0017 )0.1928 )0.2828 0.1117
3 )0.0006 )0.1078 )0.1931 0.0696 )0.0005 )0.0933 )0.1479 0.1103
4 )0.0003 )0.0484 )0.1167 0.0402 )0.0003 )0.0447 )0.0901 0.0764
5 )0.0002 )0.0177 )0.0745 0.0238
8 1 )0.1044 )0.5957 )1.4328 )2.3296 )0.1066 )0.9160 )2.2901 )3.7576
2 )0.0025 0.0267 )0.0125 )0.2684 )0.0038 0.0066 )0.0982 )0.5279
3 )0.0002 0.0680 0.1026 )0.0635 )0.0005 0.0710 0.1065 )0.1466
4 )0.0001 0.0640 0.1191 )0.0739
5 )0.0001 0.0560 0.1152 )0.0460
6 )0.0001 0.0516 0.1112 )0.0308
7 )0.0001 0.0496 0.1083 )0.0216
Remarks: NSInumbers of shape iteration; italicised data means convergent solution. Convergence tolerance e 10 4 , main span is
1100 ft. When iteration cycles exceed 20 times the computation is considered as not convergent and will be stopped. FPA Forward
process analysis.
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346 341

Table 2
Cable forces (kips) determined by FPA at dierent erection stages during shape nding
Erection NSI Linear analysis Nonlinear analysis
stages k EL7 EL11 EL15 EL16 EL7 EL11 EL15 EL16
1 1
2 1
3 1 813.7 813.8
4 1 3092.0 3074.7
5 1 1359.6 1166.2 1362.5 1161.6
2 1636.4 1152.0 1639.8 1150.7
3 1829.1 1098.9 1831.3 1098.4
6 1 2545.2 3479.3 2566.5 3475.8
7 1 1652.0 1593.9 1394.9 1394.9 1696.9 1758.9 1270.4 1270.4
2 2045.4 1898.7 1210.2 1210.2 2032.0 2005.5 1157.9 1157.9
3 2234.7 2071.3 1091.1 1091.1 2195.1 2136.3 1065.4 1065.4
4 2319.0 2176.1 1022.9 1022.9 2273.1 2216.6 1010.6 1010.6
5 2349.3 2243.4 982.8 982.8
8 1 2277.7 2498.3 2250.1 2238.1 2287.8 2729.0 1967.8 1936.7
2 2223.0 2496.9 2419.0 2434.7 2183.6 2708.2 2264.0 2267.0
3 2175.6 2469.6 2461.2 2488.5 2099.2 2644.9 2355.7 2373.2
4 2052.9 2594.9 2404.6 2430.0
5 2032.6 2558.1 2435.7 2465.7
6 2027.7 2530.1 2456.5 2489.4
7 2031.5 2508.1 2471.0 2505.8
Remarks: NSInumbers of shape iteration; italicised data means convergent solution. Convergence tolerance e 10 4 , main span is
1100 ft. When iteration cycles exceed 20 times the computation is considered as not convergent and will be stopped. Cable element
EL7, EL11, EL15 and EL16 locates between node numbers 3 and 6, 4 and 8, 5 and 10 and 5 and 11, respectively.

Fig. 10. Congurations of harp cable-stayed bridge during erection stages (forward process analysis, double cantilever method).
342 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

tension force (10 Kips)

cable element 3-7
3 cable element 4-9

3
2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)

10
compression force (10 3 Kips)

pylon element 1-2

8 pylon element 3-4
6

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)

10
compression force (10 Kips)

girder element 2-7

8 girder element 7-9
3

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)

100
bending moment (103 Kips-ft)

girder element 2-7

80
girder element 7-9
60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)

Fig. 11. Variation of member forces during erection stages (forward process analysis).

out for the whole bridge once more in order to ensure
the designed bridge form is achieved. The nal results
at stage 8 (the bridge is completed) are almost identi-
cal to that obtained by the whole bridge analysis. The
variation curve of selected member forces at dierent
stages during erection procedure are plotted in Fig. 11,
in which it can be seen that the compression force in
pylon and girder increases monotonously and ap-
proaches to the nal values at stage 8, and the bending
moment of the girder oscillates during the erection
procedure and decreases dramatically when the adjoin-
ting cable stays are installed and stressed at stages 3, 5
and 7.
The results in Tables 1 and 2 and Figs. 10 and 11 oer
the necessary data which can be used for checking
and controlling the real-time erection procedure of the
cable-stayed bridge during construction. The designed
shape (conguration of girders and pretension in cables)
of cable-stayed bridge can then be ensured and con-
structed.
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346 343

5.3. Backward process analysis (BPA) ments and adjointing cables and the shape nding
computation is continued for each stage until stage 1 is
The backward process analysis of the harp cable- reached, where only the pylon exists. Similarly, the
stayed bridges during the erection procedure is per- variation of the vertical displacement of control points
formed by following the reverse direction of the on the girder and the axial force in cables at dierent
sequence of erection stages in bridge construction. The erection stages during shape nding are given in Tables 3
computation is started from the completed whole cable- and 4. Since no shape iteration is needed, computation
stayed bridge, i.e., from the stage 8 as shown in Fig. 12. required by the backward process analysis is easier and
By removing the centre girder segments at main span faster than that of the forward process analysis.
and the roller support at anchor piers, the analysis The congurations of the bridge structure and the
model is rebuilt for the bridge structure at the next stage cable forces at dierent erection stages determined by
(k 7) and the shape of the released bridge structure is the backward process analysis using nonlinear compu-
determined anew. Then, stage-by-stage, the analysis tation procedure are plotted in Fig. 12. It can be evi-
model is rebuilt at each stage by removing girder seg- dently seen that the girder tip moves upwards after

STAGE 8 STAGE 4
2531.5 2560.9 2561.0 2531.5 kips
2400.3 2356.9 2356.8 2400.4
2053.8 2027.9 2028.0 2053.7 3683.8 3680.0 kips

+3.3002 ft
+0.1304 ft

STAGE 7 STAGE 3
1123.2 1125.5 kips
2148.7 2146.0
1396.1 1392.3 kips
2052.5 2046.5
-1.0691 ft -0.4819 ft

STAGE 6 STAGE 2
3756.8 3758.1 kips
2320.7 2314.3
+0.6412 ft
+4.3743 ft

STAGE 5 STAGE 1 -0.0978 ft

1341.4 1342.8 kips
1684.4 1677.9
-1.3194 ft

"+" represents downward displacement

Fig. 12. Congurations of harp cable-stayed bridges during erection stages (backward process analysis, double cantilever method).

Table 3
Vertical displacement (ft) at control points determined by BPA at dierent erection stages during shape nding
Erection NSI Linear analysis Nonlinear analysis
stages k NODE5 NODE7 NODE9 NODE11 NODE5 NODE7 NODE9 NODE11
8 1 0.0000 0.0115 0.0508 0.0689 )0.0010 0.0304 0.0719 )0.0274
7 1 0.0297 )0.0397 0.2029 1.0582 0.0282 0.0083 0.3078 1.0691
6 1 0.0309 )0.2157 )1.6999 )4.8236 0.0288 )0.1548 )1.4555 )4.3743
5 1 0.0641 0.2125 1.0662 0.0622 0.2726 1.3194
4 1 0.0681 )0.8238 )3.3117 0.0662 )0.8210 )3.3002
3 1 0.0856 0.4717 0.0836 0.4819
2 1 0.0921 )0.6510 0.0901 )0.6412
1 1 0.0998 0.0978
Remarks: NSI 1, since no shape iteration is required in the backward process analysis (BPA).
344 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346

Table 4
Cable forces (kips) determined by BPA at dierent erection stages during shape nding
Erection NSI Linear analysis Nonlinear analysis
stages k EL7 EL11 EL15 EL16 EL7 EL11 EL15 EL16
8 1 2112.9 2186.6 2669.0 2711.9 2053.8 2400.3 2531.5 2560.9
7 1 2119.2 1957.1 1212.6 1223.0 2052.5 2148.7 1123.2 1125.5
6 1 2411.6 3690.3 2320.7 3756.8
5 1 1772.4 1281.6 1684.4 1341.4
4 1 3676.9 3683.8
3 1 1398.0 1396.1
2 1
1 1
Remarks: Cable element EL7, EL11, EL15 and EL16 locates between node numbers 3 and 6, 4 and 8, 5 and 10 and 5 and 11,
respectively. NSI 1, since no shape iteration is required in the backward process analysis (BPA).

4
tension force (10 Kips)

cable element 3-7

3 cable element 4-9
3

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)
compression force (103 Kips) compression force (103 Kips)

10
pylon element 1-2
8 pylon element 3-4
6

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)

10
girder element 2-7
8 girder element 7-9
6

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
erection stage (k)
bending moment (103 Kips-ft)

80
girder element 2-7
60 girder element 7-9
40

20

-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

erection stage (k)

Fig. 13. Variation of member forces during erection stages (backward process analysis).
 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346
removing a girder segments as shown at stages 7, 5 and 3
in Fig. 12. The upward tip displacements can be con-
sidered as the necessary precamber of the girder for the
next erection stage during construction. The precamber
is very helpful for keeping the bridge girder in original
designed conguration and for reducing the bending
moment in girders. As shown at stages 6, 4 and 2 in Fig.
12, where the exterior cable stays are removed, but not
the adjointing girder segment, large downward dis-
placements at the tip of the girder will occur and the
bending moment in girders becomes quite large. Finally
the variation curve of selected member forces at dierent
stages during erection procedure are plotted in Fig. 13.
It is also seen in Fig. 13 that the compression force in the
pylon and the girder increases monotonously and the
bending moment of the girder oscillates during erection
procedure.
Similarly, the backward process analysis can also
oer the necessary data for checking and controlling the
real-time erection procedure of the cable-stayed bridge
during construction.
6. Conclusion
A nite element computation procedure is set up for
the shape nding analysis of cable-stayed bridges during
erection procedures. Two computational process are
established: the forward process analysis (FPA) and the
backward process analysis (BPA). The forward process
analysis of cable-stayed bridges during construction is
performed by following the sequence of erection stages
in bridge construction, while the backward process
analysis follows the reverse direction of the sequence of
the bridge erection procedure. At each erection stage,
the nite element analysis model is rebuilt, then the
system equation is set up and solved anew under the
action of dead load and member forces determined in
the previous stage for nding the corresponding new
initial shape. Based on the numerical analysis in the
study some conclusions are made as follows:
1. Both the FPA and BPA methods can be success-
fully and eciently used for nding the congura-
tions and preforces in members of the bridge
structure at dierent erection stages during the gir-
der construction using the cantilever method.
2. Both the FPA and BPA methods can oer the nec-
essary data which can be used for checking and
controlling the real erection procedures of the
cable-stayed bridge during construction, and to en-
sure that the designed shape (conguration of gird-
ers and pretension in cables) of cable-stayed bridges
can be achieved and constructed.
3. Although only an example of the harp cable-stayed
bridge constructed by the double cantilever method
345
is presented in the study, both the FPA and BPA
methods can also be applied to bridges constructed
by the single cantilever method.
4. In the FPA method, shape iteration has to be per-
formed and the computation becomes time-con-
suming.
5. No shape iteration is required in the BPA method
and the computation in BPA is faster than that in
FPA.
6. The disadvantage of the BPA method is that the
real-time factors of the bridge cannot be taken into
consideration, such as creep and shrinkage of con-
crete, weight of machine equipments and design
alteration during construction, since the analysis is
started from a completed whole bridge and carried
out backwards stage-by-stage.
7. The advantage of the FPA method is that the above
mentioned real-time factors of the bridge can be
taken into account and the computation can be
changed and repeated by following the actual erec-
tion procedure during real construction.
8. The solution of the BPA method is unique and of-
fers the accurate conguration and member pre-
forces of the bridge structure at dierent erection
stages. The precamber of the bridge girder exists
automatically in the solution and can keep the gird-
ers in horizon and eectively reduce their bending
moments when girder segments are installed at the
next erection stage.
9. The solution of the FPA method is not unique, since
shape iteration is carried out at erection stages. The
numerical results depends on the estimated cable ini-
tial forces used for starting the computation of
shape iterations. There are many possible solutions
existed. The nal results determined by the FPA
method at the nal erection stage, i.e., at the stage
of girder closing at bridge mid-span or anchor piers,
may be quite dierent from that of the designed
shape of the bridge (the results of initial shape anal-
ysis of the whole bridge). Therefore the shape itera-
tion has to be done once again at the end of the last
erection stage where the girder is closed, in order to
ensure the designed shape of the bridge is achieved.
10. The initial shape analysis of the whole bridge is nec-
essary for both the FPA and BPA methods. Its re-
sults are used for starting the computation in the
BPA method and used as a basis for checking the
correctness of the results determined by the FPA
method.
In both methods, either the linear computation pro-
cedure (linear theory) or the nonlinear computation
procedure (nonlinear theory) can be employed. Analysis
of cable-stayed bridges using the nonlinear theory oers
theoretically more accurate results than that determined
by the linear theory. But the computation becomes more
346 P.-H. Wang et al. / Computers and Structures 82 (2004) 329346
complicated and time-consuming when the nonlinear
theory is utilized. From the view of engineering practice,
linear theory can be used for shape nding analysis,
which oers acceptable results in many cases.
Acknowledgement
The research was sponsored by a grant under no.
NSC 89-2211-E-033-009 from the National Science
Council, Taiwan, Republic of China.
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