Natural fracture characterisation in a coal measure

succession: an analogue for coal seam methane and

tight gas reservoirs
D. Gillam1, T. Flottmann2 and R. Hillis1

Abstract
Reliable characterisation of natural fracture networks can improve management of tight gas reservoirs typical of
onshore Australia. However, characterisation of natural fracture networks in tight gas reservoirs is often hindered due to
poor sample availability (i.e. limited core and image logs) and the absence of quality outcrop. The Goonyella Riverside
coal mine in the northern Bowen Basin provides an analogue study for the development of natural fracture systems in a
mildly thrusted Permian coal measure succession. A total of 3,862 m of image log data from 18 closely spaced wells was
integrated with 3D seismic data and outcrop observations to characterise structural style and natural fracture development
at Goonyella Riverside. Three distinct stages of fracturing are observed and linked to the structural evolution of the area:
(i) coal cleats and compaction related normal faults formed during Late Permian burial and diagenesis, (ii) thrust faults
and subsidiary low-angle shear fractures formed during the Early to Mid Triassic Hunter Bowen Orogeny and (iii) tensile
joints formed during Cretaceous uplift and unloading. Different mechanical units including massive amalgamated
distributary channel sandstone bodies, laminated overbank deposits and coal seams display distinct fracture development,
defining the mechanical stratigraphy. Observations made in this study may be used to improve development drilling
design and reservoir management in naturally fractured tight gas reservoirs of onshore Australia.

Keywords: fractures, mechanical stratigraphy, coal, Bowen Basin, thrust fault

Introduction Early Permian-Triassic Coral

Basement Sea
Effective characterisation of natural fracture networks in the Regional Syncline
Jellinbah thrust fault Mackay
subsurface is often hindered due to limited core and/or image logs system

New
0 50 km
and absence of quality outcrop. A coal mine was sought for this study Goonyella

Eng
to improve our understanding of natural fracture development in a Riverside

lan
Moranbah

dO
coal measure succession and is intended as an analogue to assist

Ne
Collin

bo

rog
ramp 13
development of low permeability reservoirs in the Bowen and Cooper

Syn

en
sville

clin
Basins. The Goonyella Riverside open-cut and underground mine

oriu
Shelf

Mackay
was selected for its comprehensive data-set including a 3D seismic
m
survey, closely spaced wells with image log data and excellent
Co
me

Brisbane
exposure of structural features.
tP
Den

lat
Trou

The BHP Billiton Mitsubishi Alliance (BMA)-operated

for
ison

500 km
m
h g

Goonyella Riverside mine is located 30 km north of Moranbah and ramp 21

190 km southwest of Mackay (Fig. 1). Goonyella Riverside is ramp 6

3D seismic survey
operated as an open-cut coal mine with an underground development over under ground area

in progress. The Goonyella Lower and Goonyella Middle coal seams

ramp 4
dip 3-6 east and are mined from west to east in a series of open-cut Goonyella Under ground
pits up to 150 m deep that extend some 17 km from north to south Industrial
Area
exploration adit

(Fig. 1). The structures shown in Figure 1 have been mapped by ramp 3

Open cut pit

BMA and CSIRO geologists from open-cut mapping and well data 3D seismic survey over
(Esterle & Sliwa 2002). The underground development will mine the ramp 2
proposed underground mine
Goonyella Middle Seam using the longwall method over an area Roadway/ramp
Exploration adit
approximately 2.5 X 3 km to depths in the order of 300 m. A 3D
Structures interpreted from
seismic survey and closely spaced wells with image log data were N ramp 0
previous work
acquired by BMA over the underground area east of the open-cut to Thrust fault
Normal fault
predict mining conditions and are combined with open-cut 0 1 5 km Dyke
observations to form the data set for this study.
Figure 1. Location and layout of the BMA Goonyella Riverside coal mine
1. Australian School of Petroleum, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, showing the location of the underground development and 3D seismic
Australia. survey (Esterle and Sliwa 2002).
dgillam@asp.adelaide.edu.au, rhillis@asp.adelaide.edu.au
2. Santos Ltd, Santos House, 60 Edward St Brisbane, Qld 4001,
Australia.
Thomas.Flottmann@santos.com

PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004 357
 D. GILLAM, T. FLOTTMANN and R. HILLIS

BH 40993
Geological setting 0 500 m

Goonyella Riverside is in the northern Bowen Basin within the
foreland of the fold and thrust belt developed during the Triassic
Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. Goonyella Riverside is located on the
east-dipping western limb of a regional syncline referred to as the
Nebo Synclinorium (Fig. 1). Deformation in the area is typically
mild, characterised by open folds and minor thrusting (Dickins &
Malone 1973; Holcombe et al. 1997). The most significant
structure in the area is the regional Jellinbah thrust fault system,
some 15 km east of Goonyella Riverside (Fig. 1), formed at the end
of the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. The Jellinbah thrust fault is west-
verging and strikes approximately northsouth with maximum
throw in the order of 600800 m (Esterle & Sliwa 2002). A series
of subsidiary thrust faults with maximum throws in the order of 5
m are the most significant structural features at Goonyella
Riverside. The faults are imaged as low amplitude trends by the 3D
seismic survey and are exposed in outcrop (Figs 2, 3, 4). An
inherent problem with such a study is that large structural features
near the detection limit of petroleum seismic data (throw in the
order of 10 m) create deleterious mining conditions and are thus
avoided by the coal mining industry. The largest faults
encountered at Goonyella Riverside have maximum throw of
approximately 5 m which is at or below typical detection limits of
petroleum seismic data. It is therefore difficult to directly
relate/upscale structural observations made in coal mine studies to
100 m
GM0 top
200 m
Fault
GM0 base
Fault
Figure 4. East-west cross-line through borehole 40993. The coal seam
dips 2-10 towards east. The thrust faults dip approximately 30 east and
have maximum throw of ~5 m.
most hydrocarbon systems due to scaling effects. However, many
of the principles of deformation and fracturing at the coalmine-
scale are expected to apply at the petroleum-scale.
The coal seams mined at Goonyella Riverside are part of the
Late Permian Moranbah-German Creek coal measures. The coal
measures are approximately 700 m thick and were deposited in
response to the onset of Late Permian foreland loading prior to the
Hunter-Bowen Orogeny (Fielding et al. 1995). The three main coal
seams encountered at Goonyella Riverside are the Goonyella

West East
Interval transit time
150 (micro-sec/foot) 50

0 Gamma (API units) 200

1 Density (gm/cc) 3

20 m Amalgamated distributary channels

CS CS

Si Si
10 m
Coal seams over 1 m thick
Coal seam

Frontal ramp Detachment

Overbank-floodplain
Figure 2. Thrust fault exposed in the northern endwall of Goonyella
Riverside. The top of the coal seam forms an effective detachment surface
in the carbonaceous shale (CS) and siltstone (Si) sequence. Photo courtesy
of BMA

GUS

Sand prone
Fault
41870 41869
interval
200m
40998 41884
40997 40996

41868

41872
GMS
300m
Fault
40984 GL4 Coal prone
40995 40958
40994
interval
40993
41243
41242 GLS
41605

Figure 3. Amplitude map of the base of the Goonyella Middle Seam
(GMS) produced from the 3D seismic survey, faults appear as low
amplitude trends. Wells with image log data are shown with white circles
Figure 5. Wireline log suite from borehole 40996 showing the Goonyella
Riverside stratigraphy. The gamma ray is on the left of the figure and
increases from left to right. The density logs is on the right of the figure and
increases from left to right. The sonic log is on the right of the figure and
increase from right to left.

358 PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004
 NATURAL FRACTURE CHARACTERISATION IN A COAL MEASURE SUCCESSION
Lower Seam (GLS), the Goonyella Middle Seam (GMS) and the
Goonyella Upper Seam (GUS). The main seams are up to 10 m
thick with various splits and rider seams (Fig. 5). The coal seams
are separated by a variety of clastic interburden comprising
amalgamated fluvial distributary channel sandstones and flood-
plain sediments of fine-grained and thinly bedded sandstones,
siltstones and shale. Two distinct sediment stacking patterns have
created a coal-prone interval and a sand-prone interval. The coal-
prone interval extends down from the top of the GMS, comprising
thick coal seams separated by overbank clastic sediments. The
sand-prone interval overlies the coal-prone interval comprising
massive amalgamated channel sands separated by overbank clastic
sediments (Figs 5, 6).
Figure 6. The highwall between ramp 4-6 in front of the development
underground mine immediately west of the 3D seismic survey (Fig.
1)viewed towards north-east. The three types of mechanical units are
shown, coal seams, overbank and amalgamated distributary channels are
coloured blue, green and red respectively. The highwall is approximately
70 m high.
Mechanical stratigraphy
The mechanical stratigraphy has considerable bearing on
deformation and fracture development at Goonyella Riverside and
is defined by a series of mechanical units. A mechanical unit is one
or more stratigraphic units of relatively similar mechanical
properties that deform and fracture independently of other units
(Gross 1993; Odling et al. 1999; Underwood et al. 2003).
Mechanical units are a function of their composition and thus their
sedimentology. Detailed laboratory work as summarised in Table
1 shows that sandstone is the most competent and coal is the least
competent lithology at Goonyella Riverside (Seedsman 1998).
Sequences deposited in different environments have varying
proportions of sandstone, siltstone, shale and coal, thereby
defining mechanical units. It is emphasised that a sequence with
relatively similar mechanical properties comprising one or more
stratigraphic units define a mechanical unit rather than each
sedimentary unit (Underwood et al. 2003). A basic classification
has been constructed for this study with three types of mechanical
units defined by their composition (Figs 5, 6):
Table 1. Rock properties determined by geotechnical testing (Seedsman,
1998).
Property Sandstone Siltstone Coal
Density (g/cm3) 2.5 (0.1) 2.5 (0.1) 1.5 (0.2)
UCS (MPa) 45.9 (15.3) 36.0 (17) 9.3 (2.4)
Modulus (GPa) 11.5 (6.8) 8.2 (3.3) 3.4 (1.2)
Poissons Ratio 0.34 (0.1) 0.30 (0.1) 0.36 (0.15)
Friction Angle 27.7 (3.1) 25.7 (6.3) 30 (4.3)
PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004
I. Coal units. These units comprise seams up to 10 m thick of
banded coal with bright, vitrinite-rich and dull, inertinite
rich layers and occasional thin stone bands in the order of
100 mm thick. A single coal seam may act as numerous
individual mechanical units separated by bedding surfaces
between the different coal types and thin stone bands.
II. Overbank units. These units crudely group together all
rocks deposited in the overbank environment except coal,
and consist of lobate crevasse-splay sand bodies and layered
floodplain siltstone, shale and carbonaceous shale. A
package of overbank facies may act as numerous mechanical
units as thin as 100 mm.
III. Distributary channel units. These units consist of
sandstone deposited in amalgamated distributary channels
ranging from 540 m thick and typically behave as single,
massive mechanical units.
The sand-prone interval occurs above the GMS, comprising
thick distributary channel units separated by overbank units. The
coal-prone interval extends down from the top of the GMS and
comprises thick coal seams separated from overbank units by
effective slip surfaces (Fig. 2). Figure 6 shows the highwall
immediately west of the underground development. The photo has
been coloured according to the mechanical stratigraphy showing
coal, overbank and distributary channel units.
Fracture observations: outcrop
The highwalls at Goonyella Riverside could not be mapped in
detail due to occupational health and safety requirements.
However, several different types of structures were observed in the
mine workings and are used to constrain interpretation of the
subsurface data.
I. Coal cleats were observed in all coal seams and are
interpreted to have formed during Late Permian burial and
diagenesis. Cleat development is variable and appears to be
a function of the coal composition, as described by previous
authors for Bowen Basin and other coals (Pattison et al.
1995; Laubach et al. 1998; Pashin 1998). Face cleat spacing
in the bright vitrinite-rich layers is typically in the order of 5
mm. Face cleat spacing in the dull inertinite-rich layers is
more variable ranging from 20150 mm. The face cleats
generally strike east-west +/- 10 and the butt cleats are
arranged in an orthogonal pattern about the face cleats
typically striking northsouth +/- 20. The butt cleats are
less well developed and the spacing is more variable. The
face and butt cleats are locally overprinted in damage zones
around faults.
II. Thrust faults with maximum throw in the order of 5 m are the
dominant structures at Goonyella Riverside (Fig. 2). The
faults strike approximately northsouth and are subsidiary
structures to the regional Jellinbah fault, some 15 km east of
Goonyella Riverside. The faults display a ramp-flat geometry
and commonly detach along the coal-rock interface (Fig. 2).
The faults are characterised by a fault zone of milled rock
(cataclasite) in the order of a few mm thick and a damage zone
comprising low-angle shear fractures of similar orientation to
the thrust faults spaced in the order of 0.51 m (Fig. 7). The
thrust faults and associated damage zones are significant
hydraulic conduits within the in-situ stress field. The large
thrust fault shown in Figures 3 and 4 accounted for almost half
the groundwater entering the underground exploration adit
(Callow & Briese 2002).
III. Several non-pervasive, moderately dipping normal faults
(Fig. 8) were observed in the underground workings with
maximum throw in the order of 1 m. The faults strike
eastwest +/- 20 and dip 4570. The faults offset the top
359
 D. GILLAM, T. FLOTTMANN and R. HILLIS

Ob
Ss
2.0 m
CS

1.0 m CS

0 CNF
Ob

Figure 7. Thrust fault in the highwall near ramp 2 with coal in the Figure 9. Jointing (yellow arrows) in an 8 m thick distributary channel
hangingwall (top right) and siltstone in the footwall (bottom left). Fault sandstone (Ss) within an overbank (Ob) sequence. The joints terminate at
throw is in the order of 2 m with low angle fractures (white arrows) in the mechanical interfaces at the top and bottom of the sandstone with a spacing
damage zone. to height ratio of 0.75-0.9.

of the Goonyella Middle Seam and overlying units and in siltstones and shales within the overbank units due to
appear to die out in the Goonyella Middle Seam. There differences in rock properties during the loading-unloading
appears to be only minor damage along the fault surface with cycle (Voight & St. Pierre 1974; Engelder 1985).
some milling of the coal seams in a very thin zone in the
order of a few mm. The fault shown in Figure 8 is
interpreted as an accommodation structure within the Fracture identification: image logs
hangingwall of a larger thrust fault. Compaction-related A cumulative total of 3,862 m of slimline acoustic scanner
normal faults occur beneath massive sand bodies (CNF; Fig. 9). (SAS) image log data was acquired by BMA in 18 wells within the
underground area to help predict underground mining conditions.
The image logs have been used in this study for detailed analysis
of natural fracture development and the effects of mechanical
stratigraphy. Suites of wireline logs (sonic, density and gamma)
were acquired in the wells with image logs and are used in this
study to define the mechanical stratigraphy and link it to the image
log interpretation (Fig. 5).
Natural fractures appear as either complete or partial sinusoids
on an unwrapped image log and appear as low amplitude events
(brown sinusoids) on the amplitude images (Fig. 10). Fractures
5m that appear as distinct, complete or partial sinusoids are termed
high confidence picks. Fractures that are not readily picked have
Goonyella Middle Seam
more error associated with the interpretation and are termed low
1m
0 confidence picks. The confidence of the picks is a function of the
image quality, which in turn is a function of the impedance contrast
Figure 8. Small normal fault offsetting the top of the Goonyella Middle between fractures and host rock, fracture aperture and signal to
Seam. noise ratios (Rider 2000). The remainder of this study discusses
only high confidence fractures. Coal cleats are below SAS
IV. Near vertical joints are the youngest structural features at resolution and are not considered here. No attempt has been made
Goonyella Riverside. The joints have hackle and plume in this study to distinguish fracture aperture because the ability of
surface ornamentation characteristic of tensile failure.
No mineralisation was noted in any of the joints observed.
The dominant joint set strikes eastwest +/- 20 with a
minor northwestsoutheast striking set. The mechanical
stratigraphy controls joint occurrence, height and spacing.
Joint spacing generally appears proportional to joint height
in most of the exposures in the open-cut and underground
workings with spacing to height ratios in the range 0.71
(Fig. 9). The joint sets are similar to those described by
various authors for layered sedimentary sequences
throughout the world interpreted as a response to horizontal
tensile stresses created by minor expansion during uplift and
unloading (Engelder 1985; Price & Cosgrove 1990; Becker
& Gross 1996). The timing of joint development at
Goonyella Riverside is poorly constrained but is interpreted
to be related to Cretaceous uplift and unloading (Esterle &
Sliwa 2002). Joints are typically well developed in the Figure 10. High confidence high angle fractures (A & B) in a distributary
amalgamated channel units and in sandstone lenses within channel unit from borehole 41871 (left). High confidence, low angle fractures
the overbank units and are either absent or poorly developed (A, B & C) in an overbank unit from borehole 41869 (right). The amplitude
image is yellow-brown scale and the transit time image is grey scale.

360 PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004
 NATURAL FRACTURE CHARACTERISATION IN A COAL MEASURE SUCCESSION

s1
s2

s3 s3
s1
s2
s2
s1 s3

Normal fault regime Thrust fault regime Strike slip regime

s1 Maximum principal stress

Conjugate shear fractures s2 Intermediate principal stress
s3 Minimum principal stress
Tensile joints

Figure 11. Stereo and rose plot of all high confidence fractures showing Figure 12. Classification of fractures in accordance with basic Anderson
dominant east-west and north-south striking trends. theory. The figure demonstrates the expected orientation of shear and
tensile fractures in normal, reverse and strike slip stress regimes (Price and
acoustic image logs to predict fracture aperture is ambiguous. A Cosgrove, 1990).
total of 1,723 high confidence fractures were interpreted on the
SAS image logs and are presented in Figure 11 as stereo and rose
plots. Fractures occur in almost every orientation, yet the rose plot
shows a prominent eastwest striking trend and a northsouth
striking trend.

Fracture interpretation: image logs

The type and origin of each fracture set must be known in order
to facilitate successful fracture modelling. Fractures observed in
outcrop may be identified as either tensile, shear or mixed mode
based on surface ornamentation such as plume structures and
slickenlines or by other relationships such as infilling or offset
(Price & Cosgrove 1990; Davis & Reynolds 1996). These Figure 13. The plot on the left is of all high confidence low angle fractures
indicators are often not identifiable on image logs hence fractures (379), these show a dominant strike of north-south. The plot on the right is
identified on image logs must be classified in another manner. of all high confidence moderately dipping fractures (672), these show two
prominent strike directions, north-south and east-west. The plot in the
Observations made in the mine workings are used to help classify centre is of all high confidence high angle fractures (673), these show a
the fracture sets according to their dip angle and are in general dominant strike direction of east-west.
accordance with basic Andersonian theory (Fig. 12). The
orientation of the low, moderate and high-angle fractures
interpreted from the image log data is consistent with the fracture striking set may be anomalously high-angle shear fractures
orientations observed in outcrop and they are thus assumed to be of associated with the thrust faulting.
the same origin. Figure 13 shows combined rose and stereo plots The plots shown in Figure 13 show remarkably consistent
for all fractures observed on the image logs separated according to orientations as summarised in Table 2. Table 2 shows the dominant
dip angle. orientation of low, moderate and high-angle fractures grouped
The low-angle fractures (Fig. 13, left) have a dominant strike according to the mechanical units and as a combined total. Figures
of northsouth +/- 15 and are interpreted as small thrust faults and 15 and 16 demonstrate the variation in low and high-angle fracture
related damage zone fractures formed during the Early to Mid orientation between the wells. The figures demonstrate the
Triassic Hunter Bowen Orogeny. Several thrust faults are variability in average fracture orientation between wells and the
intersected by wells with image logs, including borehole 40993 difficulty of accurately representing the fracture network away
(Fig. 14). The fault shown in Figure 14 is an east-dipping thrust from the immediate well area.
fault with maximum throw in the order of 5 m and is resolvable in
the seismic volume (Figs 3, 4). Borehole 40993 intersects the fault
within an overbank unit 7 m below the Goonyella Middle Seam
(GMS). The fault has a 0.51 m thick fault zone comprising a
series of closely spaced low-angle fractures. A damage zone
comprising a series of low-angle fractures, spaced in the order of 1
m, surrounds the fault zone similar to the fault exposed in outcrop
shown in Figure7.
The high-angle fractures (Fig. 13, centre) have a dominant Table 2. The mean strike of the dominant fractures grouped according to
strike of eastwest +/- 5 generally have no offset and terminate at the mechanical units into low, moderate and high angle fracture sets.
bedding planes defining mechanical units. The high-angle
fractures are interpreted as uplift-related tensile joints. Unit Low Moderate High
The moderately dipping fractures (Fig. 13, right) have two
dominant strike directions, northsouth +/- 15 and eastwest +/- 15. Coal 15 105; 360 95
Some of the moderate-angle fractures may be small normal faults Overbank 360 90; 185 90
associated with sediment compaction or accommodation structures
Channel 350 145; 85 90; 135
associated with the thrusting. Some of the eastwest striking set
may be anomalously low-angle joints and some of the north-south Combined 360 90; 360 90

PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004 361
 D. GILLAM, T. FLOTTMANN and R. HILLIS

7593000 N

41871
(44)

41879
(44)

7592000 N

41870 41869
41884
40998 (20) 40997 (45)
(18) (13) 40996
(9) (8)

7591000 N

41868
(30)
Goonyella 41872
Middle Seam (42)
(GM0)
7590000 N

40984
(12)
40995 40993
41243 (30) 40958 40994
(10) (24) (7)
(6)
41605 41242
(5) (12)

7589000 N
N
0 200 m 1000 m

604000 E
602000 E

605000 E
603000 E
Figure 15. Low angle fracture orientation in each well. The orientations
presented are for all high confidence low angle fractures. The number of
high confidence fractures interpreted at each well is noted in brackets.

7593000 N

41871
(114)
41879
(58)

7592000 N

41869
(26)
41870
(22) 41884
40998 40997 (19)
(27) (24)
40996
7591000 N (100)

Low angle 41868

fractures (52)
41872
(38)

7590000 N

40984
Fault (19)
+ 40995 40993 40958 40994
41243 (22) (29) (15) (31)
Damage (35)
zone 41605 41242
(10) (36)

7589000 N
N
Low angle 0 200 m 1000 m
fractures
604000 E
602000 E

605000 E
603000 E

Figure 14. Acoustic image log of borehole 40993. Borehole 40993 Figure 16. High angle fracture orientation in each well. The number of
intersects the GMS 7 m above a seismically resolvable thrust fault (Fig 4). high confidence fractures in each well is noted in brackets.
Note the low angle fractures within the damage zone.

362 PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004
 NATURAL FRACTURE CHARACTERISATION IN A COAL MEASURE SUCCESSION

frequent in the overbank facies than in either the coal or

Fracture density analysis amalgamated channel units. High-angle fracture density is a
Orientation and density are two of the most important function of unit thickness, being highest in the coal seams and
characteristics of a fracture population. Variations within a fracture lowest in the channel units.
population may be due to sampling errors (Narr 1991) or spatial Most of the high-angle fractures are interpreted as uplift-
variations of either mechanical properties (Becker & Gross 1996; related and the primary controls on their distribution are lithology
Odling et al. 1999; Underwood et al. 2003) or applied strain and thickness of the individual mechanical units. Variation of
(Cooke et al. 2000; Hennings et al. 2000). Fractures must be uplift-related joint density can be accounted for by spatial
considered with regard to their origin in order to assess the spatial variations in the mechanical units sampled by the image logs.
variation in fracture density. The density of low, moderate and Thick distributary channel units with well developed but widely
high-angle fractures varies between the different mechanical units spaced joints have low fracture density which may appear even
and between wells. Fracture densities were weighted to account for lower due to sampling errors given the low angle between joint dip
the relative angle between the fracture plane and the borehole and the boreholes. Overbank units comprising high shale and
trajectory by dividing the raw fracture count by sinq, where q = siltstone content and low sandstone content also display limited
angle between borehole trajectory and dip of fracture plane (Narr joint development. Overbank units with numerous thin sandstone
1991). Table 3 and Figure 17 show the weighted and unweighted bodies tend to have well developed, more closely spaced joints
density of low, moderate and high-angle fractures in the different within the sandstone bodies and have high joint density
mechanical units. Low-angle fractures are significantly more Low-angle fractures have been shown in both outcrop and
image log data to cluster around larger thrust faults (Figs 7, 14).
The low-angle fracture density is related to deformation during the
Low angle fracture density
Hunter Bowen Orogeny and may be quantified by the proximity to
thrust faults. Figure 18 is a map of low-angle fracture density from
1
the image log data relative to seismically resolvable faults. The
Low angle fracture density (fractures/m)

Weighted values are unweighted and are a combined total for the different
0.9
Un-weighted units. The faults shown are near the bottom of the logged interval
0.8 at the base of the GMS. If the faults were projected to the top of
0.7 the logged interval they would be some 300500 m further west so
0.6 that at the middle of the logged interval, the largest fault would run
0.5 approximately through the middle of the high-density zone.
0.4
Figure 18 shows that the density of low-angle fractures
increases with proximity to the seismically resolvable thrust faults.
0.3
Variance is least in the direction parallel to thrust fault strike and is
0.2 greatest perpendicular to thrust fault strike. Such a result might
0.1 have been anticipated, but its verification has major implications
0 for reservoir exploitation in similar environments. The low-angle
Overbank Channels Coal fractures associated with the thrust faults may impart significant
permeability anisotropy and influence reservoir behaviour if the
fractures are open and hydraulically conductive.
High angle fracture density
Low-angle fracture density at Goonyella Riverside is also a
function of the mechanical stratigraphy. The effect of the
High angle fracture density (fractures/m )

1
Weighted mechanical stratigraphy may be analysed by comparing low-angle
0.9
Un-weighted fracture density within overbank units in the sand-prone and coal-
0.8
prone intervals (Table 4). The low-angle fracture density in
0.7
overbank units within the sand-prone interval (0.16/m) is
0.6 approximately 200% greater than in overbank units within the coal-
0.5 prone interval (0.08/m). The difference between the two intervals
0.4 can be explained in terms of mechanical stratigraphy, bedding
0.3 plane slip and strain partitioning. The overbank units are the least
0.2
Table 4. Density of thrust-related low angle fractures (<45) in the
0.1 overbank units within the coal-prone and sand-prone intervals.
0
Overbank Channels Coal Interval Cumulative thickness Sum Density

Sandstone-prone 1638.6 m 267 0.163/m

Figure 17. Comparison of low and high angle fracture density in the
different mechanical units for all wells. Coal-prone 786.2 m 61 0.078/m

Table 3. Unweighted and weighted fracture densities for low, moderate and high angle fractures in the different units.

Unit Low angle Medium angle High angle

Unweighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted

Coal 0.04 /m 0.05 /m 0.12 /m 0.23 /m 0.71 /m 3.97 /m
Overbank 0.14 /m 0.16 /m 0.23 /m 0.43 /m 0.12 /m 0.72 /m
Channels 0.03 /m 0.04 /m 0.07 /m 0.13 /m 0.09 /m 0.42 /m
Combined 0.09 /m 0.10 /m 0.17 /m 0.32 /m 0.17 /m 0.98 /m

PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004 363
 D. GILLAM, T. FLOTTMANN and R. HILLIS

0.17
ramp-flat geometries detaching along the top of coal seams.
41871 The thrust faults have damage zones characterised by low-
angle shear fractures spaced in the order of 0.51 m (Figs 7,
0.14
41879
14). Low-angle fracture density is greatest in the overbank
units and increases with proximity to the thrust faults.
Thrust fault-related low-angle fracture density increases
with proximity to thrust faults. Variance is least in the
direction parallel to fault strike and greatest perpendicular to
0.11 0.17
41869
fault strike (Fig. 18).
41870
0.05 0.08 41884 0.03 III. Tensile joints formed during the Cretaceous uplift and
40998 40997 0.09
40996 unloading. The joint sets are not expected to occur below a
few hundred metres. The dominant joint set strikes
eastwest +/- 20 with a minor northwestsoutheast striking
set. Joint density is directly controlled by mechanical
0.11
41868
stratigraphy and is proportional to the thickness of each
0.19 mechanical unit. Joints are most dense in coal seams and
41872
least dense in amalgamated channel units with spacing to
height ratios in the range 0.71 (Fig. 9). Within the overbank
units, joints are better developed in sandstone intervals than
0.07 siltstone and shale intervals due to differences in rock
40984
40993 0.10
0.03
properties during the loading-unloading cycle (Engelder
40995 40958
0.06 0.12 1985).
0.04 40994
0.06 41243
41605 41242
0.05
Discussion: implications for
Unweighted low angle fracture density
hydrocarbon development
Large fault picked on seismic (maximum throw <5 m)
>0.15 /m N The image log data used in this study is significantly more
Small fault picked on seismic (maximum throw <2 m)
0.1-0.15 /m
Large fault projected outside seismic volume
closely spaced than typical petroleum wells and demonstrates how
0.05-0.1 /m (Esterle and Sliwa, 2002) ineffectively a single well with image log data may represent a
Seismic survey 0 200 m 1000 m
<0.05 /m fracture network away from the immediate well area. However,
fracture networks can be accurately described from image log data
Figure 18. Contour map of unweighted low angle fracture density from if they are considered in the context of mechanical stratigraphy and
the entire logged interval. The faults shown are those resolvable on the local tectonic history.
seismic survey at the base of the GMS.
Fracture systems at the surface may not reflect fracture systems
at reservoir depth. Uplift-related joints are often the most prevalent
competent units within the sand-prone interval, and applied strain features in outcrop yet they are unlikely to occur deeper than a few
(during the Hunter Bowen Orogeny) is accommodated within the hundred metres (Davis & Reynolds 1996) and are probably absent
sand-prone interval via thrust faulting and associated fracturing in from most hydrocarbon systems in on-shore Australia. Conversely,
the overbank units. Within the coal-prone interval, the overbank tectonically-induced fractures that occur at reservoir depths will
units are the most competent and a significant portion of applied not exist at outcrop levels if the fractures are older than the
strain is accommodated via slip along coal-rock interfaces. outcropping rocks. This scenario occurs in the Surat-Bowen basins
Overbank units within the coal-prone interval are thus less fractured
where uplift-related fractures observed in outcrop of the Surat
than overbank units within the sand-prone interval.
Basin do not occur at reservoir depth in the underlying Bowen
Basin and tectonically-induced fractures present in Bowen Basin
Fracture development at reservoirs are not present in the outcropping, overlying Surat Basin
(Flottmann et al. 2002). When modelling a fracture system it is
Goonyella Riverside critical to identify which groups of fractures may occur at reservoir
Mechanical stratigraphy and the local tectonic history are the level. Of the fractures identified at Goonyella Riverside, coal
primary controls on fracture development at Goonyella Riverside. cleats, thrust faults and associated damage zones, and normal
Three distinct stages of fracturing have been identified by this study. faults are expected to occur at typical reservoir depths in similar
I. Coal cleats and compaction-related normal faults formed settings.
during Late Permian burial and diagenesis. Coal type is the Coal cleat development influences both reservoir permeability
principal control on cleat development. Face cleat spacing in and well completions/stimulations and is a primary control on the
the bright vitrinite-rich layers is typically in the order of 5 economic viability of coal seam methane projects (Gray 1987;
mm and spacing in the dull inertinite-rich layers is more Johnson et al. 2002; Zuber & Boyer 2002). Coal type appears to
variable ranging from 20150 mm. The face cleats generally be the most significant influence on cleat development. Vitrinite-
strike eastwest +/- 10 and the butt cleats are arranged in an rich layers typically have more closely spaced cleats providing
orthogonal pattern about the face cleats typically striking increased coal permeability and may improve the success of
northsouth +/- 20. cavitation completions. However, it is difficult to model discrete
II. Thrust faults and subsidiary low-angle fractures formed coal cleats from image log data because diagenetic coal cleats are
during the Early to Mid Triassic Hunter Bowen Orogeny. below image log resolution. An alternative method for coal cleat
The thrust faults strike near northsouth and are subsidiary modelling may be the prediction of coal type using sequence
structures of the regional Jellinbah thrust system. The faults stratigraphic approaches to predict vitrinite-rich intervals (Bocking
have maximum throw of approximately 5 m and display pers. comm. Bocking Associates CBM 2003).

364 PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004
 NATURAL FRACTURE CHARACTERISATION IN A COAL MEASURE SUCCESSION
Fault-related fractures similar to those at Goonyella Riverside
may provide high permeability streaks within otherwise tight
reservoirs provided the fractures are un-mineralised and
hydraulically conductive within the in-situ stress field. In fact, the
thrust fault and damage zone intersected by borehole 40993 (Figs
3, 14) accounted for almost half the ground water entering the
Goonyella Riverside underground exploration adit (Callow &
Briese 2002). Natural fractures are exploited in many mature
fields with low matrix permeability including fields within the San
Juan, Appalachian and Piceance basins of the USA. Fault-related
fractures similar to those observed at Goonyella Riverside (Figs 7,
14) are exploited in dolomites of the Trento-Black River play in the
Appalachian Basin (Laubach 2003). The fault zones frequently
have low permeability and act as flow baffles, but fractures within
damage zones beyond the fault zone significantly enhance
permeability and contribute substantially to reservoir performance
(Laubach 2003). In the San Juan Basin, continued gas production
from tight, lenticular sandstone reservoirs (0.0160 mD) of the
Mesaverde and Dakota formations is fracture dependent (Teufel
2003; Teufel & Herrin 2003). Well tests indicate horizontal
permeability anisotropy of approximately 10:1 within the fractured
Mesaverde reservoirs (Teufel & Herrin 2003). Fault-related
fracture swarms similar to those exploited in the USA could be
targeted for high-rate wells in existing Australian on-shore fields
by targeting seismically resolvable fault zones as observed at
Goonyella Riverside (Figs 3, 4, 14). Any offset/infill wells should
ideally avoid previously tapped fracture swarms to avoid drainage
interference and should be based on appropriate elliptical drainage
patterns (Bell & Babcock 1986; Hart et al. 2002; Teufel & Herrin
2003). Even with significant fault-related fracture permeability,
hydraulic fracture completions may be required to connect the
fractured intervals for commercial production (Cumella et al.
2002). However, difficulties may arise with hydraulic fracture
completions near faults due to fault-related stress perturbations and
the typically high-stress environment of onshore Australia (Bell &
Babcock 1986; Bell 1996; Hillis et al. 1998; Yale 2003).
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by Santos Ltd. The support of Doug
Dunn, Jared Armstrong, Rob Swann and Peter Brisbane of BMA is
greatly appreciated for providing project support, mine access and
data used in this study. Joan Esterle, Renate Sliwa, Philip Soole
and others at CSIRO Exploration and Mining are thanked for
access to the CSIRO Supermodel database and discussions on the
Bowen Basin geology. Mark Reilly of the ASP is thanked for field
assistance and Alan Sansome and Peter Crosdale are thanked for
reviews of this paper.
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366 PESA Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II Adelaide, 1922 September, 2004