Professional Documents
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223 ELECTRONICS
EXPERIMENTERS
handbook
Build A Simple FM Transmitter
All About Voltage Doublers
Build A Speaker Protector
Color Bar Generator
hld Music On Hold To Virtually
Any Telephone
Semiconductor Memory
Technology
All About Cable TV's Infamous Bullet KEEP TABS ON YOUR ELECTRICITY USAGE
ED ENERGY (CENTS)
ENERGY CONSUMPrios .'!TOR
35 ill 1.0 - 1.5 'ON
Quad Power Supply XP -580 Triple Power Supply XP -620 AM/FM Transistor True RMS 4 1/2
Assembled $75 Digit Multimeter
$ 69.95 Radio Kit
2-20V @ 2A
Klt $50 with Training Course M-7007
12V @ IA 2 to 15V @ IA,
5V @ 3A IL* -2 to -15V@ IA Model AM/FM 108 $135
-5V @ .5A (or 4 to 30V @ 1A)
$27.95 .05% DC Accuracy
and 5V @ 3A
.1% Resistance
All the desired features for doing experiments. 14 Transistors 5 Diodes with Freq. Counter
Fully regulated and short circuit protected
Features short circuit protection, all supplies Data Hold
Makes a great school project
TECHNOLOGY
4 FUEL CELLS
19 EXPERIMENTS IN VOICE RECOGNITION
42 SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
65 CABLE TV'S INFAMOUS BULLET
75 AUDIO FORMAT CONFUSION
90 WILL BEASTY CABLES IMPROVE YOUR AUDIO?
119 VOLTAGE DOUBLERS
EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT
Brian C. Fenton, editor
Marc Spiwak, associate editor
Neil Sciater, assistant editor
Learning electronics can be fun! Teri Scaduto, assistant editor
Jeffrey K. Holtzman
computer editor
Welcome to the 1992 edition of the Radio -Electronics Robert A. Young, assistant editor
Experimenters Handbook! In buying this issue, you've Robert Grossblatt, circuits editor
taken the first step in what could be a rewarding experi- Larry Klein, audio editor
David Lachenbruch
ence for the education you'll gain and the fun you'll have. contributing editor
We've picked our favorite stories that have appeared in Don Lancaster
contributing editor
Radio -Electronics Magazine over the last year or so. Kathy Terenzi, editorial assistant
We've printing them here as 128 pages jam-packed with Andre Duzant, technical illustrator
great projects and the latest technology. Injae Lee, assistant illustrator
PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT
We've done our part. Now it's up to you. Have you always Ruby M. Yee, production director
Karen Tucker, advertising production
been fascinated by high -voltage sparks? Then build our Marcella Amoroso, production traffic
Tesla coil and learn how it works. Bothered by high
CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT
electric utility bills? Then build our energy consumption Jacqueline P. Cheeseboro,
monitor and keep track of how much individual appli- circulation director
ances consume. Concerned about low -frequency mag- Wendy Alanko,
circulation analyst
netic radiation? Build our magnetic -field monitor and Theresa Lombardo,
find out if you need to take action. circulation assistant
might be missing. Building electronic projects is a lot of Since some of the equipment and circuitry described in
Radio -Electronics Electronics Experimenter's Hand-
fun. And you'll learn something, too! book may relate to or be covered by U.S. patents. we
disclaim any liability for the infringement of such pat -
ants by the making, using, or selling of any such equip-
ment or circuitry, and suggests that anyone interested in
-THE EDITORS such projects consult a patent attorney.
2
I- , 1
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RYSANational IiiKonaubca and
Space M ministration
S. 78. 23444
FUEL
ylN.C,E. S1114>
$ c) P 27.5 TO 32.5 MC
8 REACTANT STORAGE
CELLS
.2370 KWH DELIVERED ENERGY
.168 POUNDS 02 FOR ECLSS
. 92 LB HCANK TOTAL LOADED
. 781 LB /TANK f QUANTITY/TANK
HYDROGEN DEWARS
OXYGEN DEWARS
FCP/ECLSS
HEAT EXCHANGER
PRODUCT WATER
.,zvo
Could fuel cells be
VALVE MODULE
920 VENT
the ideal energy
he! gl f source of tomorrow?
COOLANT LOOP PRELAUNCH
MAIN BUS DISTRIBUTION
UMBILICAL
ASSEMBLIES - TYPICAL
3 PLACES
FUEL CELL
POWER PLANTS (3)
SERVICE PANEL
OXYGEN DEWARS
(DISCONNECTED RALPH HUBSCHER
AT T-4 HOURS)
FUEL CELLS COULD POTENTIALLY BE converts potential chemical ener- WARNING!!This article deals with and
the most efficient and environ- gy of fuel into electricity. It oper- involves subject matter and the use of
mentally clean source of power ates at a constant -temperature materials and substances that may be
ever developed. Fuel cells are an during the electrochemical pro- hazardous to health and life. Do not at-
attractive alternative to conven- cess, therefore it's efficiency is tempt to implement or use the information
tional power generation because not limited by thermodynamic contained in this article unless you are
they are highly efficient, and pro- laws governing heat engines. experienced and skilled with respect to
such subject matter, materials and sub-
duce drinking water as an added Pollution is a result of combus- the publisher nor the au-
by-product. What more could you tion, industrial processing, and thor make any representations as to the
ask for in an energy source? The vehicle exhaust. Those pollu- accuracy of the information contained
principle of fuel cell operation tants consist of unburned fuel, herein and disclaim any liability for
was discovered by Sir William partially burned fuel, carbon, damages or injuries, whether caused by
Grove in 1839. He found that or resulting from inaccuracies of the infor-
carbon monoxide, carbon diox- mation, misinterpretations of the direc-
electricity could be generated by ide, dust, sulfur dioxide, nitrous tions, misapplication of the information or
supplying hydrogen and oxygen oxides and so on. Waste heat otherwise.
to two separate electrodes immer- from power plants warms up the
sed in sulfuric acid. For more rivers, causing havoc to the natu- where it is oxidized, releasing
than a century, however, fuel cells ral balance of fish and wildlife. electrons to the load. Oxidation is
remained a mere curiosity. And we all know of the devastat-
The theory of fuel cell operation ing effects of acid rain, which re- the process of removing one or
defied commercial applications sults from man-made emissions more electrons from an ion or
for so long because of technical of sulfur and nitrogen in the air. molecule. In fuel cells, hydrogen
and financial obstacles. It wasn't The by-product of a fuel -cell reac- ions are formed at the electrode
until the 1960's, during the tion, however, is water. Who by electrochemical oxidation of
growth of the space program, would object to that? the fuel. If the fuel is hydrogen,
that there was a renewed interest hydrogen ions are created by the
in developing fuel cell technology following ionization reaction:
H2 -.2H+ +2e
into a viable energy alternative to Fuel -cell chemistry Oxygen, air, or hydrogen perox-
standard power generation. Fuel cells operate by converting ide (a source of oxygen) is fed to
There are two important con- the potential energy of certain the cathode, where it is reduced,
cerns in conventional power gen- chemical reactions directly into whereby the 02 oxygen molecule
eration: efficiency and pollution. electrical current in a flameless, splits apart. Ionic conduction
Most of the power in the world is catalyzed reaction. Some types of completes the circuit through
generated from heat engines fuel cells work very well at room the electrolyte. Hydrogen and
using the heat from combustion temperature. oxygen react to form water, as
of fossil fuels. Mechanical sys- A basic fuel cell consists of an this chemical equation shows:
tems involve many energy con- anode ( + ) and cathode ( - ) sepa- 2 H2 + 02-02H20, or
version steps, and their efficien- rated by a conducting electrolyte Hydrogen + Oxygen-ontater
cies are limited by the laws of such as a solution of potassium If hydrazine is oxidized, addi-
thermodynamics. That results in hydroxide. A fuel, such as hydro- tional nitrogen is formed which
considerable power losses. gen gas, or hydrazine, is intro- is a normal constituent of air,
4 A fuel cell, on the other hand, duced to the negative electrode and also safe:
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5XP37 5
N21-14+ 02-.21120 + N2, or Hz oz
Hydrazine +Oxygen -Water + Nitrogen
You may be tempted to say that
if hydrogen is such a "clean" fuel,
we can just burn hydrogen in air
and get pure water as the com-
bustion product plus power.
Burning hydrogen would indeed
be a considerable improvement
over burning coal, oil, or gas-
oline. However, when air is
burned, a large amount of nitro-
gen is drawn into the combus-
tion chamber and heated to
roughly 1000C. At that tempera-
ture, it partially reacts with oxy-
GLASS -DISPERSION TUBE SEMIPERMEABLE
gen and forms oxides of nitrogen. WITH GLASS FRITS MEMBRANE
So, even though the reaction
product of the main reaction is
pure drinking water, the side re- FIG. 1-THE AUTHOR'S FUEL CELL uses two adjoining chambers separated by a semi-
permeable membrane. The chambers are filled with an electrolyte. Hydrogen is directed
action spoils it all by making the to one electrode, oxygen to the other.
resulting water unsuitable to
drink. If hydrogen and oxygen re-
act in a fuel cell at room tempera- GEL ION BRIDGE
ture, that problem is eliminated. IN GLASS ELECTRODE
"U" -TUBE
Space-age power
The desirable characteristics
of fuel cells led to the develop-
ment of various systems ranging
in size from 5 -watt portable ELECTROLYTE
units, to the kilowatt (kW) power
level for military applications, on FIG. 2-IONS TRAVEL ALONG a gel -on bridge in a glass tube placed in the electrolyte
up to large stationary plants de- solution.
livering megawatts of power. The
lower -power fuel cells were de-
signed primarily for the space
program and front-line military
use where ease of operation, low
maintenance, and low noise are
important.
Fuel cells are used solely for
power generation of space crafts
because of one chief advantage:
when power is required for more
than a few hours, the battery
weight per kilowatt-hour as a
function of its operational life is
far superior to that of conven-
tional battery cells. A relatively TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW
light -weight fuel cell can have a FIG. 3-THE CONTAINER used for the fuel cell consists of square -based 250-m1 poly-
lifespan of five to ten times that of ethylene bottles with holes cut in their sides. A round piece of fine glass was cemented in
a primary battery. with sealing wax and an additional layer of beeswax.
Fuel cells built between 1960
and 1970 for the Gemini and Ap-
ollo space missions and in 1980 electrolyte (SPE) technology in The Gemini system used three
for the Space Shuttle Orbiter are the construction of their fuel 1 -kW SPE fuel -cell stacks. The
among the most successful fuel cells. That type of fuel -cell assem- Apollo system used a larger 1.5 -
cells to date. They were needed bly consists of an ion -exchange kW fuel -cell stack based on a con-
because of their chief advantages membrane -electrode system with centrated 45% potassium -hydro-
over batteries-weight and life - gas distribution, current collec- xide electrolyte. The Apollo power
span. Those fuel cells used tion, heat removal, and water plant was designed to operate for
cryogenic reactants of hydrogen management. Many of those as- over 400 hours. The fuel cell in
and oxygen. semblies are bolted together be- Apollo 8 lasted for 440 hours, the
Some space -craft power gener- tween end plates to form an SPE system produced 292 kWh of
ation systems use solid polymer stack assembly. power, and 100 liters of water.
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STANDARD HANDBOOK
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Edited by Donald G. Fink ENGINEERS'
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Written and compiled by 115 Volume 1-768 pp., 1762 illus. technology, and CAD of electronic
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The Space Shuttle system was with semipermeable membranes
more advanced in design than ei- CHEMICALS USED IN FUEL and catalysts. Semipermeable
ther the Gemini or Apollo fuel CELLS means that only some ions can
cells. The Space Shuttle fuel cells Hydrogen-A colorless and pass through it but other matter
odorless gas which is sold com-
are 20 kilograms lighter and de- pressed in steel bottles. Small lab - is retained. In actual applica-
liver six to eight times as much size bottles are available together tions, separation of ions is not
power. Each fuel cell power plant with simple low-priced reducing perfect, and some leakage usu-
consists of a power section where valves. Hydrogen is not poi- ally occurs, and is permissible.
the chemical reaction occurs, sonous, but extremely flammable ibtal blockage on the other hand
and forms explosive mixtures with
and a compact accessory section air.
would inhibit a reaction. The fol-
connected to the power section, Oxygen-Also is sold in com- lowing materials could be used as
which controls and monitors the pressed form in lab -sized bottles. semipermeable membranes:
power section's performance. It is not toxic but must be kept Unglazed discs of baked clay
The three fuel -cell power plants from fire or flame since it will sup- (an old clay flower pot).
are coupled to the hydrogen and port combustion and can make a Fine glass frits (the partly
four alarm fire out of a glowing fused mixture of sand and fluxes
oxygen reactant subsystem and match.
the power distribution sub- Hydrazine-Anyone not used to which glass is made of).
system. The fuel cells generate working with dangerous chemi- Cellophane.
heat and water as by-products of cals should not handle this com- Wet plaster.
electrical power generation. The pound. It is carcinogenic and Moist, or hardened cement.
excess heat is directed to Freon should be dispensed in a hood Zinc oxide or zinc chloride
only. Hydrazine should be handled
coolant loops, and the water to a with rubber gloves. cement.
potable water storage subsystem. Hydrogen peroxide 30%-Most Certain types of plastic foam.
Some power specifications of everyone knows this chemical as a Silicic acid gel, prepared by
each fuel -cell power plant are: 3% solution for bleaching or slowly acidifying sodium silicate
2 kilowatts at 32.5 VDC. wound treatment. The 30% con- solution.
12 kilowatts at 27.5 VDC. centration will bleach the skin and Gelatin saturated with salt.
is dangerous when swallowed. Clay, cement or plaster discs
7 kilowatts continuous power. Handle with rubber gloves.
12 kilowatts peak. Sulfuric acid-It is poisonous should be as thin as possible.
All three fuel cell power plants when swallowed. It can blind you if The gels should be used to build
are capable of supplying a max- splashed in the eye. It will burn ion bridges according to Fig. 2.
imum continuous output of holes in your clothes. A solution in
water should be prepared by slow-
Glass frits can be bought at lab
21,000 watts with 15 minute ly pouring small amounts into
supply houses and are best for
peaks of 36,000 watts. plenty of cold water while stirring this use. If glass frits are used,
Some experimental fuel cells with a glass rod. Handle with rub- the gases move upward, and stay
have been considered for use ber gloves. in the proper place. Any fair sepa-
with vehicles. The major pro- Potassium hydroxide solution ration will do. The author used
hibiting factor in their use is the 30%-Potassium hydroxide is a two square polyethylene bottles
difficulty in reliably containing strong base and is poisonous. 300 and a large fine glass frit which
rams are dissolved in 900 milli- was glued into holes cut in the
hydrogen gas, and the possibility liters of cold water. Let it stand and
of an explosion. Also, special cool off. Store in a plastic bottle sides of the bottles (Fig. 3).
fuels such as hydrogen, meth- with cap. Handle with gloves, it In order to get hydrogen and
anol, and hydrazine are more ex- can damage the skin. oxygen to react at room tempera-
pensive than hydrocarbon fuels. Palladium dichloride-Dark ture they must be coaxed a little.
Many advanced fuel -cell de- brown crystals soluble in water. Without the proper catalyst,
Moderately poisonous when swal- nothing at all happens.
signs have been developed for lowed. Dissolve 2 grams in 100 mil-
power utility applications, but liliters of water. A catalyst is a compound that
because of the typical problems of hastens reactions without actu-
fuel storage and cost effec- ally taking part in the reaction. If
tiveness, they have not been chemicals are listed in the side- you set up a H2/O2 fuel cell with
widely used. bar. You must be familiar with sulfuric acid and carbon elec-
proper handling and disposal of trodes for instance, there will be
An experimental fuel cell any chemicals used. no electrical energy generated. If
The author was able to build a The author's experimental fuel platinum- or palladium -coated
successful experimental fuel cell cell uses two adjoining chambers carbon electrodes are used, the
by the technique described be- separated by a membrane, as reaction gets going. Union Car-
low. We must, however, issue this shown in Fig. 1. An electrode bide has used this method and
word of caution: This product with catalytic properties is placed supply such electrodes.
should NOT be built or experi- into each chamber. Both cham- The method the author used to
mented with in any way except bers are filled with a liquid elec- plate carbon was to wrap plati-
under the direct supervision of trolyte. One electrode is then num wire and a platinum net
someone who is highly qualified purged with hydrogen gas, the around the carbon rods, which
in the fields of chemistry or other with oxygen or air, and a works very well. An easy and low-
chemical engineering. Some voltmeter is connected across the priced way of producing a large
chemicals and gaseous by-prod- electrodes. surface of palladium is to coat
ucts in a fuel cell could be toxic In order to be able to build a nickel netting with palladium.
and/or explosive! All dangerous fuel cell you should be familiar That can be done by immersing a
on training, you
can experience
the rewards 386sx NEW!
TABLE 1
FUEL -CELL COMPONENTS THAT REACT AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
hydrogen 20 I/h oxygen 10 I/h platinum 30% potassium hydroxide platinum 988
hydrogen 20 I/h oxygen 10 I/h palladium on nickel 30% potassium hydroxide palladium
2 ml 24% hydrazine 10 drops 30% palladium on nickel 30% potassium hydroxide palladium
hydrate hydrogen peroxide
'This reaction was not tried by the author, but works according to literature on the subject
erable amounts of it for storage 100-ohm resistor connected Fuel cells have been run with
in their crystal lattices. A plati- across the 2 chambers. It can be "steam reformed" methyl alcohol.
num electrode saturated with hy- removed again after a few min- At 200C, methyl alcohol reacts
drogen, therefore, is practically utes. That helps overcome polar- with water to form hydrogen and
an electrode of solidified hydro- ization effects. The author mea- carbon dioxide as shown in the
gen. The pure metal is too expen- sured 998 mV after about 10 following equation:
sive, so palladinized nickel, minutes. lb compensate for the
slow start, the cell will generate a CH30H + H20 -3H2+ CO2, or
platinized carbon or Raney nick- methyl alcohol + water -hydrogen + carbon
el on a carrier matrix are the first voltage for some time after the dioxide
choice. hydrogen is turned off.
Impinger-type glass tubes with After you finish, the potassium At temperatures higher than
frits or aquarium -type disper- hydroxide solution should be room temperature many other re-
sion tubes are used as gas inlet poured into a well -capped plastic actions are possible. Some of
tubes. The electrodes are wound bottle. It can be used over again, them allow a separation and col-
around the tube in a coil. Copper but it will accumulate carbonate lection of the water formed.
wire leads are connected. The which makes it less effective. You're probably wondering why
electrolyte is a 30% potassium Some prefer diluted sulfuric acid fuel cells are not more widely
hydroxide solution. Oxygen and for the same purpose because it used. The first big drawback is
hydrogen can be bought in small keeps longer. Air can, in most cost, which is always a primary
laboratory bottles with reason- cases, be substituted for oxygen. consideration in power genera-
ably priced lab -reduction valves. The amount must be raised, tion. Hydrogen is an expensive
Hydrogen can also be produced however, since only 1/5 of air is fuel compared to other types of
from zinc and diluted hydro- oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide can fuels, and the storage of hydro-
chloric acid. That leaves you with be used in place of oxygen but it gen is still a problem. Perhaps in
2 a solution of zinc chloride which dilutes the electrolyte. the future, we'll use solar energy
is hazardous to the environment Hydrogen can be replaced with on a large scale to decompose
and must be disposed of in a hydrogen -containing gases such water into hydrogen and oxygen,
manner prescribed by law. as "city gas' produced from coal, which can then be stored. When
The entire experiment was containing hydrogen, methane, energy is needed, the two gases
cc
conducted in the open air in and carbon monoxide. Several can be recombined to water in a
12 order to allow the flammable hy- variations of fuel cell compo- fuel cell. R -E
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PHONE LINE VDC
charge to the lower threshold the
. -- (ON -HOOK) first time. Therefore, the first
43.6 flash of the LED is longer and
brighter than those that follow.
(OFF -HOOK) That's a nice touch, because all of
4.6
V the Phone Sentries in the house
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ICI -a PINS 12 AND 13, VDC (RELATIVE TO CIRCUIT GND)
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PROTECTED
BY R1 AND
shown here, or on perforated
INTERNAL ICI -a PIN 1 VDC
construction board of similar
DIODES IN size. The PC board is about the
IC1 -a
9 size of Bl, so housing the unit is
simple, and its construction is
straightforward. Figure 4 shows
the parts placement diagram;
use a socket for IC1, and install it
IC1-b PIN 3 VDC
using proper anti -static han-
dling techniques.
9
The Phone Sentry is small,
with several installation options.
Once you decide how to mount it,
you can select how to wire both
the phone line and LED1. If you
put the Phone Sentry inside an
IC1-b PIN 1 OR Vc2, VDC extension or a wall -mount jack,
then solder a foot of 22-AWG wire
6.3
9 to each input terminal.
If you use a small case for plug-
2.7
ging into a wall socket, solder the
green (tip) and red (ring) wires of
a modular plug -to -bare -wire
VLED1(THE OUTPUT), VDC phone cord, and clip the yellow
9 and black wires. You may want to
solder LED1 directly to the PC
board, or mount it in a visible
location with two 6 -inch pieces of
stiff wire.
FIG. 3-CIRCUIT WAVEFORMS OF THE Phone Sentry. Shown are the voltages on the You can mount both the PC
phone line, pins 12 and 13 of IC1-a, pin 11 of IC1-a, pin 3 of ICI -b, pin 1 of ICI -b (the voltage board and B1 in a standard desk
across C2), and across LED1. phone. Open the phone and se-
cure both the PC board and bat-
going back on -hook. tery clip to the baseplate with
The output of the oscillator double -sided foam tape. Drill a
(pin 3) is inverted and used to small hole in the dialing button
-R1- drive the indicator LED. When escutcheon, and use silicone sea-
D2
the oscillator's output is high, lant or an LED clip to mount
_mkt_ C1 R2 ) lc the output of the driver (pins 10 LED1. Connect the two input
and 4) is low, and the LED is off. wires to the tip and ring wires,
NDa When the oscillator output is low, insert Bl, replace the cover, and
-
R3-- 05 plug the phone back in.
44-
D4 C2- + -R4- -11114 the driver output is high, and the
LED is on. Since the capacitor If there's no space for the Phone
-o
PHONE discharge time (oscillator output Sentry and B1, use a small plastic
-o
LINE LED1 low) is much shorter than the box on the side of the phone for
charge time (oscillator output the PC board, B1, and LED1, and
FIG. 4-THE PARTS PLACEMENT DI- high), the LED is on much less pass the tip and ring wires
AGRAM of the Phone Sentry. You can time than it is off, resulting in a through a hole in the box and
mount LED1 in several ways, depending
on how you mount the PC board. very low duty cycle, and low bat- phone case to the connecting
tery drain. points inside the phone. For a
Because the capacitor starts wall phone, mount the same case
es low again and the process each cycle charged much higher near the wall jack and run the
repeats until the gating input is than the Schmitt input's upper wiring into the wall jack, so it's
again brought low by the phone threshold, it takes longer to dis- independent of the phone. R -E
Here are two simple
projects that will allow you
to control things using up to
eight voice commands.
EXPERIMENT
IN
VOICE
RECOGNITION DANIEL B. COOPER
SOME OF THE MOST FASCINATING for the VCP200. Rather than lim- Voice recognition
things that electronics experi- it this interesting device to a sin- The basic elements of voice or
menters can do are those that gle -purpose project, we are pres- speech recognition have been
seem impossible. Remote control enting two separate projects: one known for a number of years.
and voice synthesis are two areas is suitable for experimentation- Human speech consists of
of experimentation that were and also makes a nifty science - phonemes, which are the small-
once nearly impossible for hob- fair project-and the other is less est individual units of sound that
byists and amateurs to work ideal for experimentation but make up words and sentences.
with, but integrated circuits better for actual use in an ap- The "ah" sound in "father," the
have brought both within the plication of one sort or another. A "t" sound in "top," and the "rr"
reach of even novice tinkerers. variety of adjustments and inter- sound in "radio" are all examples
Another area that has always facing techniques will be dis- of phonemes. Any word in a par-
been very difficult to work with is cussed, and some flexible inter- ticular language can be created
voice recognition. And now there face and driver circuits will be by stringing together the proper
is a new IC which brings simple presented. None of the parts, sequence of phonemes and
speech -recognition technology with the exception of the VCP200 spaces of silence. Not all lan-
within the reach of novice experi- itself, are exotic or costly, and guages use the same phoneme
menters. most are probably in your junk sets; English, for example, lacks
Most voice -recognition proj- box or parts collection. a glottal stop and the click found
ects and experiments have used The experimenter's version is a in many African languages.
personal computers as the back- self-contained device with a mi- Electronic voice recognition
bone of the recognition device. A crophone and eight indicator consists of analyzing the ar-
number of voice -recognition ex- LED's. The addition of a power rangement of phonemes in a spo-
pansion cards for both Apple and supply is all that's needed. The ken sequence and matching
IBM-compatible computers are project will recognize eight words them against stored patterns or
available, but they're relatively and short phrases from almost templates to determine the word
costly and require the computer any speaker, and light the corre- or phrase. There are many varia-
in order to be usable. The voice - sponding LED in response. Out- tions in the actual processes
recognition IC, the VCP200 puts are provided for driving used for each of the three steps:
speaker -independent word rec- other circuits or devices. storing the patterns, analysis,
ognizes, is a stand-alone device The "working" version of the and matching. However, the
that provides all of the essential circuit eliminates the indicator basic techniques used for voice
elements for speech recognition LED's and their driver IC's, and recognition can be loosely
in a single 20 -pin package. uses a much smaller PC board. grouped into four categories.
However, it retains the eight out- In speaker -dependent voice
The project puts and all other circuitry, and recognition, the intended user of
There are a number of applica- is therefore more suitable for the recognition device "trains" it
tions, both serious and fun, building into a motorized model by carefully pronouncing the list
useful and merely entertaining, or other project. of recognized words, several 19
times each. The system creates
detailed templates, or patterns of LED
that speaker pronouncing those + 5V
INDICATORS//
words, and stores them. The sys-
tem will have a very high success
rate in recognizing that speaker O
pronouncing those words, but it
will be less able (if at all) to recog-
nize another speaker saying the
same words-and, of course, it MIC
will only recognize those specific LED
VCP
words that it has been trained to X800 DRIVER
recognize.
200
Q\
A discrete -word speech recog- HIGH -GAIN CLIPPING
nizer can only decode speech Amp COMPARATOR
when it is a series of separately 0
spoken words. It could not un- 0
derstand "Move the cursor to 0
field one," but the sequence 0
"Goto" (pause) "Field" (pause) 0
"One" would be understood. 0
Speaker -dependent discrete -
word recognition systems are the
most common types in use. FIG. 2-BLOCK DIAGRAM of the voice -recognition circuit. The VCP200 contains almost
A speaker -dependent con- all of the required circuitry, and needs only a power supply, microphone, and high -gain
nected -word recognition device amplifier with clipping comparator output for operation. The LED indicators and their
must be trained to recognize drivers are optional.
each different speaker's pronun-
ciation. However, more powerful marked. That natural variation speakers pronounce the word
analysis capabilities allow decod- makes it very difficult for a sys- "stop" with the following sim-
ing of words strung together in a tem to recognize, with a high suc- ilarities: an initial sibilant ('sss'),
long phrase or sentence. This cess rate, the same words spoken a short plosive ('t'), a soft vowel
type of recognizer coultl decode by different people. ('ah'), and a final plosive ('p'). By
voice matching selected phonemes
but is typically costly and com- recognition follows the principle and allowing for variation in the
plex. The success rates are also that all speakers have certain matching algorithm, the same
typically lower than for speaker - similarities in their pronuncia- words can be identified and de-
dependent discrete -word recog- tion. For example, nearly all coded from a variety of speakers.
nition systems.
A much more difficult process
is to decode the speech of a vari- PARTS LIST
ety of speakers. No two people
pronounce words in quite the All resistors are'/4-watt, 5% IC3-VCP200 speaker -independent
same way. When analyzed elec- R1-2200 ohms word recognizer
tronically and graphically, varia- R2-1000 ohms IC4, IC5-CD4011B quad NAND gate
tions, even with very similar - R3-10,000 ohms (optional, see text)
sounding speakers, are quite R4, R7-470,000 ohms Other components
R5-11,000 ohms JU1-switch or jumper (see text)
r R6, R8-5600 ohms MIC1-electret microphone
GROUND -4 1'I 1,20,1- RESET
R9-4700 ohms XTAL1-10 MHz crystal
R10-10 megohms Miscellaneous: PC board (See
+V 2 I 19 H MODE R11-100,000 ohms text), bus wire, SPST power switch,
+V-4 3 11 8 j -GROUND
R12-19-470 ohms SPDT mode switch, normally open
I Capacitors pushbutton reset switch, 9 -volt bat-
XTAL -4 4 17 r- +V
C1-0.22 ji,F, 16 -volts, tantalum tery or 8-15 volt DC power supply,
I. 9 -volt battery clip, three 14 -pin IC
16 r -+V C2, C3, C12-0.01 p,F disc
EXTAL -4 5
VCP200 `f C3-39 pF disc sockets, one 20 -pin IC socket,
GROUND -1'6 si I 15 t- LIGHTS
C5-4.7 pF disc mounting screws and standoffs,
C6 -C8--0.1 j.iF disc 4-40 x 3/8 -inch screw and nut,
AUDIO IN -I 7'1 114 1- LEFT TURN
C9, C10-27 pF disc hookup wire, solder, aluminum
GO IITIO/O141-4, 8,I I 131- RESET
C11-10 ILF, 16 -volt tantalum sheet for heatsink.
is Note: The VCP200 may be avail-
1 12 t- STOP
TURN RIGHT (YES/OFF1-I, 9 I
Semiconductors able from Radio Shack (it has
REVERSE (NOT SURE) -L10) `11r Row D1 -08 --red light -emitting diode been discontinued but many
(optional, see text) stores still stock them) as part
FIG. 1-THE PINOUT OF THE VCP200. The IC1-LM324A quad op -amp number 276-1308, or from VCPI,
output pins 8, 9, and 10 respond to dif- IC2-LM7805T 5 -volt, 1.5 -amp 1 Willings Place, Monterey, CA
ferent words or phrases, depending on voltage regulator 93940, for $14.95 postpaid.
20 the operating mode selected.
The drawbacks to speaker -in- phoneme analysis and matching pins 3, 6, and 1, and must pro-
dependent systems are that the program using a proprietary al- vide about 15 milliamps. Its os-
number of separately recogniz- gorithm. The algorithm analyzes cillator crystal connects to pins 4
able words is limited, the recog- a modified voice input signal and and 5, each of which must also be
nition success rate is generally matches it against a selection of tied to ground via 27-pF capaci-
lower than that of speaker -depen- stored word -recognition tem- tors to complete and stabilize the
dent systems, and the system can plates to identify twelve different oscillator tank circuit.
be easily fooled by similar words. words and short phrases: Yes, Pins 2, 16, 17, and 18 of the
For example, "swap," "stat," No, On, Off, Lights, Left 11.1rn, Re- VCP200 are not used in a stan-
"spat," "spot," and "spit" all have set, Stop, Slow Reverse, Turn dard application. They are spe-
phoneme patterns that are sim- Right, and Go. cial-purpose control pins that are
ilar to "stop." Most speaker -inde- The chip is switchable between usually tied to + V or ground, and
pendent word recognition sys- On/Off and Command modes. In are connected that way on our PC
tems will be unable to dis- the On/Off mode, it recognizes board. Generally, these pins may
tinguish between those words. only the two word pairs On/Off be ignored, as they are normally
Most dedicated voice- or word - and Yes/No. In the Command used to set the VCP200 into vari-
recognition systems are speaker - mode, it recognizes the other ous test and special -application
independent discrete -word eight words and phrases. A sepa- modes that are not useful to the
types. Although they have some rate output for each word is pro- experimenter.
severe limitations, they excel at vided, which is latched low when The reset input, pin 20, is held
simple voice -control tasks involv- the word is successfully recog- high for normal operation and
ing a few carefully chosen words nized. If the VCP200 cannot find brought low for a reset. A simple
and phrases. The VCP200 is a a close match among its word resistor -capacitor pair connected
speaker -independent discrete - templates, all eight outputs are to this pin will cause a power -on
word recognizer. left high. reset. The VCP200 can be man-
The dream of designers, con- The VCP200 is virtually a ually reset by strobing the pin low
trol engineers, and science -fic- stand-alone device, requiring at any time, by holding it low, you
tion writers is a system that can only a 10 -MHz crystal and four can safely disable the chip's oper-
recognize normal, connected passive components for opera- ation.
speech from a wide variety of tion. The only outside circuitry Pin 19 is the operation -mode
speakers. Despite much effort, that is required is a special input select input. When this pin is
no such system yet exists. The amplifier, built from a common high, the chip is set to the Yes/No
first successful "natural speech" op -amp, that delivers a sharply mode, and only Yes/Off (pin 9),
recognizer will almost certainly clipped and amplified voice sig- No/On (pin 8), and Not Sure (pin
demand the resources of a dedi- nal. That quasi -digital signal can 10), which indicates a recogni-
cated supercomputer to handle be easily analyzed by the micro- tion failure, are active. When pin
the massive analysis and com- processor. 19 is low, the VCP200 is placed in
putational steps required. How- The VCP200's biggest disad- the Command mode, and all
ever, keep in mind that speech vantage is the limited and non - eight outputs are active, with
synthesis, now achieved with expandable word list. However, each corresponding to a different
single dedicated IC's, also once considering that the chip is inex- recognized word or phrase.
required a full-sized computer. pensive and easy to use, that lim- The VCP200's audio input, pin
itation shouldn't bother anyone 7, requires an input signal that is
The VCP200 who is interested in exploring either quiescent, or swings past
The VCP200 speaker -indepen- voice -recognition technology the digital logic thresholds. That
dent word recognizer, from Voice without making a heavy invest- requirement translates into a
Control Products, Inc. (VCPI), is a ment of time or money. highly amplified, sharply clipped
mask -programmed Motorola Unfortunately for experimen- signal that is "shut off" when it is
6804 microprocessor. The 6804 ters, VCPI regards the VCP200's not of sufficient amplitude. Such
is a 20 -pin device that imple- program and word -recognition a signal is easy to achieve with a
ments most of the standard algorithm as proprietary infor- standard op -amp, as well see.
6800 -series instruction set and mation. Few details are available, Finally, pins 8 through 15 are
capabilities, and contains one and VCPI's literature and docu- the VCP200's outputs. During or
kilobyte of onboard ROM. Al- mentation discusses the tech- after a reset (pin 20 brought or
though an EPROM version is nology only in general terms. An held low), all eight outputs are
available for user development, interesting exercise for the ad- held high. When the chip suc-
production devices such as the vanced experimenter would be cessfully recognizes a word or
VCP200 use a ROM that is mask - attempting to work out the es- phrase in Command mode, the
programmed at the time of man- sential elements of the al- corresponding output will be
ufacture with the appropriate gorithm, using standard refer- latched low until the next recog-
data and control information. ence information on voice recog- nition attempt occurs. If the
That approach, used for many nition, digital analysis of analog VCP200 fails to find a match to
computationally -based special- signals, and pattern matching. an input signal, all eight outputs
purpose devices, is a viable alter- The pinout of the VCP200 is will remain high. In the Yes/No
native to designing a costly sin- shown in Fig. 1. The chip is mode, during or after a reset,
gle -purpose chip from scratch. powered from a single -ended 5 - pins 8, 9, and 10 (as well as the
The VCP200's ROM contains a volt supply, which connects to five unused outputs, pins 11-15)
po" R -E EXPERIMENTERS HANDBOOK
+5V
0 + 5V OUT
14
W 0 GO/NO-ON
C5 IC4-a
O470S2
C3
39pF 4.7pF 1/4 4011B T.) R13
LED1
R5 R11 4700 TURN RIGHT/
.7"11K 100K W1, 0 YES -OFF
t R1 C2 R4 R7
rr
72.2K
R2
0.01
R3
470K
Mok,
IC1 -a
1/4 LM324A
470K
ICI -b
IC4-b
1/4 4011B 0
LED2
R14
470S2 REVERSE/
C4 R6
MIC1 1K 10K 9 1/4 LM324A
0.01 O NOT SURE
84
5.6K
8 2 3 16 17
C1 I( Vis* IC4-c
10
10
0.22
1/4 4011B
12 LED3 R15
470c2
IC1-c 20 W 0 SLOW
1/4 LM324A
10
12
IC4-d 11 0/4/
R10 1/4 40118
13
10MEG Jul 0 LED4
NY* MODE
r0 11 R16
re ---4"r-0
IC3 [7
VCP200
470U
STOP
R9 12
C7 4.7K C8 14
0.1 0.1 0.1
rr
C9
13 IC5-a
1/4 4011B
O
27pF R17
LED5
14 470f2
W OTAXI
XTAL1
C10
27pF
10MHz
1 6 18
15
IC5-b
1/4 4011B 0
LED6 R18
4700
4/06 0 LEFT TURN
IC2
LM7805T
1 3
+5V
R19
470i2
9ils, 0 BUCKETS
12
11
9-12VDC IN IC5-d
C11 C12 4011B
0.01 13
10F L")fED8
GROUND
OUT
will be high. Some recognition ther quiescent (flat -line) or omission of LED's 1-8 and IC4
failures in the Yes/No mode can switching between the supply and IC5.
also cause all three active outputs limits-a quasi -digital signal. Power for the voltage regulator,
to go high. The output of the amplifier is IC2, can be from 7.5 to 15 volts.
passed to the VCP200's audio in- Since the circuit draws only
The circuit put, where the signal can then be about 22 milliamps peak, a 9 -volt
As said earlier, there are two analyzed. battery is a good choice. Capaci-
versions of the circuit. A block The VCP200's eight outputs tors C10 and CII filter and sta-
diagram of the experimenter's are made available, via current - bilize the regulator's output.
version is shown in Fig. 2. The limiting resistors, so that exter- The signal from the electret mi-
circuit contains a power supply, nal interface circuits maybe add- crophone, MIC1, is coupled to the
an input amplifier and com- ed to control motors, solenoids, LM324A op -amp, ICI, through
parator, the VCP200, and output and other active elements. Eight Cl. The amplifier uses IC1-a and
drivers. The power supply is LED's are added to give a quick IC1-b to form a two -stage device
quite conventional, using IC2, and easy indication of the cir- that amplifies the microphone
an LM7805T 5 -volt regulator. cuit's response. The LED's are signals with a gain of 500-800.
The input amplifier is not a driven by CMOS buffers, which That transforms the weak input
conventional design; the output isolate the LED's from the out- signal (under 5 mV) to a signal
signal, if it were connected to a puts, preventing either the in- that swings from one output lim-
speaker, would be quite distorted dicators or any outlying circuits it to the other, often with consid-
and unlistenable. The purpose of from interfering with each other. erable clipping.
the two -stage amplifier, with its Figure 3 shows the complete The amplifier has a restricted
overall gain of about 800, is to schematic for the experimenter's bandwidth, with a more or less
increase the microphone signal version of the voice -recognition flat response from about 500 Hz
to a useful level. The output is project. Note that the schematic to 9 kHz. Signals under 300 Hz
then passed to a comparator that of the working version would be and over 15 kHz are sharply at-
keeps the final output signal ei- exactly the same, except for the tenuated. That covers the
1
1
IIt
I
1 1 1
v,
I I
I
I
I
FIG. 4-AMPLIFIER (a) AND COMPARATOR (b) output waveforms. The comparator con-
verts the amplifier signal into a clipped, quasi -digital 4 -volt p -p signal only when the
amplitude of the amplifier's signal exceeds the comparator threshold. 23
VCP200's input range of 300 to RESET
5500 Hz, with some additional ---I I1
9V
headroom for the easily -lost 102
-R12-
-o+ 5V OUT
-o LIGHis
higher frequencies. The ampli- O
I
Ri11
J LED1
fier's characteristics are impor- C11
+ -R13- 0 LEFT TURN
tant, because the quality of the LED2
-61-J )
C12 104
04
R6 ici -R17- REVERSE
cient strength is present, and to + '
J in,
) 105
LED6
--GROUND OUT
(The fourth op -amp on the
LM324A, IC1-d is not used, and FIG. 5-THE COMPONENT LAYOUT for the experimenter's version. The "working" ver-
its pins are left unconnected.) sion parts layout is the same except for the smaller PC board that omits the LED's and
their drivers 1C4 and IC5.
The comparator's output re-
mains steady unless the input
signal swings past its threshold.
Input signals of less than 2.5
volts peak -to -peak will be ig-
nored. However, all signals stron-
ger than that will cause the
comparator's output to swing
from limit to limit, or about 4
volts peak -to -peak, which is
within one-half volt of each sup-
ply rail. A comparison of the am-
plifier and comparator output
signals is shown in Fig. 4.
Since the LM324A is operated FIG. 6-THE VOICE -RECOGNITION CIRCUIT offers eight voice -activated outputs for
from a single -ended supply, a experimenting with voice control.
"false ground" or offset voltage
must be provided. The offset, 19, is controlled by setting JU1. common chips could be sub-
along with the comparator On the PC board, JUl is actually stituted here, among them the
threshold voltage, is provided by three pads which may be con- CD4001B quad NOR gate and the
the voltage divider string R5 -R8 - nected to an SPDT switch, or CD4093B quad NAND Schmitt
R9. The amplifier offset is pro- simply jumpered. However, jum- trigger.
vided by the upper junction, and pering is not recommended; a
the comparator threshold by the switch will make it easier to ex- Construction
lower; C6 and C7 stabilize those periment with both operation Foil patterns are provided for
voltages. That design forces the modes. both versions. Although a PC
center voltage of the op -amp's The eight outputs, pins 8 board is recommended, perfo-
output signal to be separated by a through 15, are left open for the rated construction board and
volt or so from the comparator's experimenter to use as necessary. point-to-point wiring could also
threshold, and is the key to cor- Since the outputs are active -low, be used. If you use point-to-point
rect operation. Adjusting the di- they can sink about 10 mA and construction, be sure and keep
vider string is one of the ways source somewhat less. That is all wiring, especially in the area
that the circuit's performance sufficient enough to drive logic of the input amplifier, short. The
can be modified. devices and transistor drivers. If very high gain of the amp will
The output of the comparator high -current devices such as re- cause it to pick up and amplify
is then routed to pin 7 of the lays or motors are to be driven, a electrical noise if excessively long
VCP200. The 10 -MHz crystal, buffer/driver must be used. To connecting wires are used. You
XTAL1, provides the chip's mas- prevent damage to the VCP200 should use sockets for all the IC's
ter clock frequencies, with the from an accidental overload of an to make them easier to replace if
oscillator tank circuit completed output, 470 -ohm current -limit- necessary.
and stabilized by C9 and C10. 'lb ing resistors (R12-R19) are pro- If you are going to build the
provide a power -on reset, the RC vided. They limit the output experimenter's version of the
pair R11 and C8 hold the current to about 9.5 mA, even project, follow the parts -place-
VCP200's reset input low for a few under worst -case conditions. ment diagram shown in Fig. 5. If
milliseconds after power comes The eight LED indicators, you are going to build the smaller
on. As C8 charges through R11, LED I-LED8, are driven from "working" version, simply use
the reset pin is brought high, re- CMOS drivers IC4 and IC5, the smaller foil pattern; parts
setting the VCP200. which are CD4011B quad NAND placement is the same as the
The VCP200's mode input, pin gates. However, several other larger version, except that the
LED's and their drivers, IC4 and
IC5, are left out. On both, keep
the wire jumpers and resistors Command Pronunciation Comments
close to the board. Insert the disc
Yes yeSSS Both of these words should be
capacitors so that their bodies longer than "No" or "On," with
are seated against the board, but Off awFFF
emphasis on the final sibilant.
don't chip the dielectric material.
Be careful to observe the polarity No no These words should be kept very
on the two electrolytic capaci- On on
short. You'll find that almost any
tors, Cl and C11. short, sharp sound will be
Go go interpreted as one of these words.
The voltage regulator, IC2, re-
quires special mounting. The Lights LytSSS Emphasize L and S.
middle lead should be bent about Left Turn LeFFFT Turn Emphasize F and the two T's, and
0.1 inch farther from the body separate words clearly.
than the two side leads, and all A difficult word for the VCP200 to
three bends should be made so Reset rESSSeTT
recognize. Emphasize the first E, S,
that the regulator's mounting and final T.
hole lines up with the hole in the
board (see the photo in Fig. 6 for Stop SSSTawPP Emphasize T and P. Keep short, but
details.) If you are going to be longer than "Go".
using the project by itself, with Slow SSSIoh Emphasize S and vowel.
no outlying devices powered from Reverse rEverSSS Another difficult word for the
the board, no heatsink is needed VCP200. Emphasize first E and final
for the regulator. If you are going sibilant, but do not separate
to be powering other devices syllables.
from the regulator that will in-
crease the load to more than 100 Turn Right Turn-ryT Emphasize T's and slur words
milliamps, a heatsink should be together slightly.
added to the regulator. A flat alu-
minum stock heatsink can be a thick plastic base using spacers with nothing in between. If
bent into a shallow "U" shape and and screws, and the battery clip you're using an oscilloscope, look
installed under the regulator. Be- is secured by smaller screws. Al- for a 0-4 volt signal at pin 7, and
cause there is no space for a large though the prototype has no re- a 0 or 4 volt clipped signal at pin
heatsink, the current drawn set switch and is strapped into 14.
from the regulator should be lim- the Command mode, you can Once the board has passed
ited to no more than 250 mA even easily add the controls. Just use these tests, remove the power
when using as large a heatsink as a slightly larger mounting base and insert the rest of the IC's.
possible. and mount the switches in the When you reconnect power, all
For most experimenters, same manner. If you are using LED's should remain off, or if
mounting MIC1 directly to the the working version, and will be you're using a board without the
board will be adequate. In some using it as a part of a complete indicators, all of the outputs
cases, though, it maybe better to project or more complex setup, should be high. Say "Go. "The ap-
mount the microphone remotely. use your judgment as to mount- propriate LED should light (or
In that case, light -gauge shielded ing the board. the output will go low). 'fry the
cable should be used to connect other phrases to make other
the microphone to the board. Testing LED's light. Don't worry if the cir-
Electret microphones are polar- When you have the board (ei- cuit doesn't seem to respond
ized, so be sure the positive ter- ther style) finished, leave the IC's well-it takes a little practice to
minal is connected to the pad out of their sockets and connect speak the words and phrases
that leads to Cl and Rl. the power terminals to 9-15 volts clearly enough for the VCP200 to
If you like, the eight LED in- DC. Then check for + 5 volts DC understand. Table 1 explains how
dicators can be mounted re- at pin 3 of the regulator, pin 4 of to pronounce the words so that
motely with a length of ribbon IC1, pin 2 or 3 of IC3, and (with the VCP200 will understand
cable. If you mount them on the the experimenter's unit only) pin them.
board, be sure to position them 14 of IC4 and IC5.
all at an even height. How you Disconnect power, insert IC1, Modifications
finish the remaining steps de- and then connect power again. The gain of the amplifier may
pends on how you want to use the Check for an AC voltage at pin 7 be adjusted by changing the val-
board. For display and experi- of IC1. It should vary with the ue of R4, R7, or both. Adjusting
mentation, youll want the input level of sound up to about 2 volts R7 is preferred. The higher the
and outputs of the circuit easily peak. Check the voltage at pin 14 resistor values, the higher the
accessible with test points. Oth- of IC1. When the sound level is gain of the amplifier. Lowering
erwise you can hardwire driver high enough, a 2 -volt signal the gain will lessen the circuit's
circuits and the like directly to should be present. If the com- sensitivity to background noise,
the board. parator is functioning correctly, but will require the operator to
In the prototype, the PC board pin 14 should switch between no speak rather loudly and directly
and power switch are mounted to signal and a 2 -volt AC signal, into the microphone. Raising the 25
TOGGLED
SELECT
OUTPUT
+5V +5V
RESET
5
OUT
14 vi)i, D
14
OD .3
3 1/2 CD4013B
ss R0 TO
7 1/4 CD4011B
7 RESET PIN
(VCP200
100K
PIN 201
FIG. 7-BASIC POWER DRIVER CIRCUIT + 5V
for interfacing the project to motors,
lamps, or other high -current devices. The FIG. 8-TOGGLED, LATCHING interface FIG. 9-THIS CONTROL CIRCUIT allows
relay must have a 5 -volt coil, but can have circuit. The output switches states on the project to be latched into forward or
any arrangement of contacts suitable for successive occurrences of the associated reverse motion while permitting other
voice command. voice commands to be processed.
the application.
6
decode them. GO IN 0---1 2 CD4011B
0
DIGITAL
SINEWAVE SYNTHESIZER
Build this direct digital synthesizer,
and generate low -distortion sine waves digitally.
HOW OFTEN HAVE YOU WISHED YOU frequency synthesizer small whose length is arbitrarily set to
had one of those fancy frequency enough to fit on even the mes- one. The radial line labelled R is
generators that let you set your siest workbench. And it's perfect allowed to rotate about the circle
frequency accurately without for providing that odd -ball fre- through an angle P. which will be
having to fiddle with the uncali- quency that your new project referred to as the phase. Drawing
brated tuning knob? Without a needs. a horizontal line from the tip of R
high -quality frequency counter until it intersects with the ver-
and without nearly infinite pa- Direct digital synthesis tical axis defines the length S
tience, it is impossible to keep As the name implies, direct shown in the figure. As the radi-
your audio oscillator on frequen- digital synthesis (DDS) is a meth- us, R, is allowed to make a com-
cy without constant tweaking. If od of frequency generation that plete rotation around the circle,
you eliminate the expensive ex- uses digital methods rather than the length of S takes on all values
tras, while retaining resolution the traditional analog oscillator, between +1 and -1, while P var-
and stability, you'll end up with phase -locked loop, or bank of ies from 0 to 360 degrees. The
the synthesizer project presented crystals. The availability of fast length S is precisely the sine
in this article. digital circuits and D/A convert- function of P, sin(P). shown in
While this synthesizer doesn't ers make this technology avail- Fig. 2-a.
have the features of some very ex- able to the average electronics If, rather than allowing R to ro-
pensive products, it does provide enthusiast. tate smoothly around the circle,
1 -Hz resolution at over 500 kHz A review of trigonometry is im- we make 8 equal steps around
with crystal -controlled precision, portant to the understanding of the circle, then the values of S
all for less than $70. Once you DDS before delving into the de- form the stepwise approximation
add a suitable enclosure and tails of the electronics. Figure 1 shown in Fig. 2-b. As the number
power supply, you'll have a digital shows a circle with a radius of steps are increased, the ap- 27
(0,1)
instant, then by varying the step rather than incrementing its out-
size the number of steps around put by one on each clock pulse,
the circle can be varied. The the output advances by the value
fewer the steps, the faster the set by the step size programmer
complete circle is covered, hence on each clock pulse. The block
the higher the frequency of the labelled SIN(P) converts the value
(-1,0) (1,0)
sine -wave approximation. Note stored in the phase accumulator
that fewer steps means a coarser to a sine amplitude approxima-
approximation to the actual sine tion. The step size programmer is
function, with the output even- simply a bank of DIP switches,
tually reducing to a square wave, the phase accumulator is a series
(0 - 1)
which points out one of the limits of cascaded 4 -bit adders, and the
FIG. 1-THIS CIRCLE HAS A RADIUS of this technique. All we need SIN(P) block is a sine look -up ta-
whose length is arbitrarily set to one. As R now is a circuit that will syn- ble contained in an EPROM.
rotates around the circle, S takes on all chronize the variable -phase The digital data present at the
0.5,I
values between 1 and 1. steps to a precision clock. output of the SIN(P) block must
Figure 3-a shows a block di- be converted to an analog voltage
agram of the system. The block in order to be useful. A method
labelled Phase Accumulator re- for doing this is shown in Fig. 3-
petitively adds the value set by b, which consists of a D/A con-
0.0
/MENNEN! the Step Size Programmer to the
sum performing the function of
stepping the radius (R) about the
verter, filter, and output ampli-
fier. The filter helps to smooth out
the jagged steps in the sine ap-
0.5V 11111111111111111 circle in equal phase increments. proximation, while the output
The phase accumulator behaves amplifier buffers the output of
like a simple counter, except that the D/A converter. In the actual
-1.0V
1.0
PHASE
0.5 fc SIN(P) SIN(P)
ACCUMULATOR
0.0
1111111111101111 STEP SIZE
PROGRAMMER
_0.5
11111111111111
a
10
50
1.0
0.5
0.0
MEM"
MEM
SIN(P
N
I 10V
-N.-
LOW PASS
FILTER
N
BUFFER
-i. OUTPUT
FIG. 3-BLOCK DIAGRAM of the phase accumulator and phase -to -sine converter (a), and
_0.5 the block diagram of the digital -to -analog converter and output stage (b).
10
\ S22 5
\ 3.11 2
018 B. C20
0.101 B1111
0.11/F
12 O
A4 S4
14 13
A3 S3
A2 S
5 4
Al
8.1.. IC14
.= 7413283 IC17
R13 741.3374
4 71( 20
Vcc ?16 -ad> CLK
(x9)
CO C4 -IC DC
\1,19
ffIfffff S23/
B4
18 07 77 19
83 17 D6 06 18 S22/
\'.1; 521 /
231,101 8 9 10 \ 516
B2
B1 I3 04
05 05
04 12
15
520/
A4 S4 113 03
9 519/
14
A3 S3 112 02
6 518/
3
S2 4 01 01
5 517/
5
,A1
4
3 DO 00 2 S16/
8..1_ IC13
7413283 .i
S2 CO C4
1 20 \ S15 11
84
2 19 \$14 15
B3
S20
3 OHO 8 \S13 2
B2
S19
4
cr"o \ $12 6 S18
411
5 c" 15
6 12
A4 S4
10 517
6 S16
cr" 14
A3 S3
13
7 4 3
A2 S2
1
S15 30
FIG6
8 13 5
Al SI
514
9
10
0"00
12
11
84. 1012
7415283 IC16
v 013
S12
7016374
40-11JCLK 20
t16
7 CO CAL 41-..-C1 DC
C19 \$11 11
18 D7 19 S15
I)
0.10F \ S10 15
B3
17
D6 06 16 514 /
\ S9 B2 15 S13/
14 05 05
\ 58 B1 1 04 04 12 ,12/
12 .
I D3 03
9 011,/
14 3
02 02
sio/
3
S2 3 01 5 59/
5
I
S I n 00 2 S8/
R11 1C11 10
1012
4.7K , 7413233
4 7K
0.9; v 116
CO C40--
\ 57 11
414
\S6 15
B3
\ S5 2 B2
2 19 \S4 6
B1
34
12
Ad S4
10
14 13
A3 S3
6
0-"o A2 S2
6 c"o 15 5
Al SI 4
7 o 14
tO V
13 =- 741IC
%1 543 IC15
7611374 Id
9 o"0 2 V
11
10 11
t16 CI k
CO C4 1-1- a DC
\ S3 B4 18 19 S7 /
D7
\ S2 B3 06 ,)F 16 56 /
\S1 2
B2 14 05 15 55 /
\ so 6
BI
13
D4 04 12 54/
12
S4
10
D3 03
9 S3/
14
1 S3 D2 02
6 S2 /
a
S2 DI 01
5 S1 /
5
AlSI 4
DO DO
SO/
109
747 - 7413283
FIG. 5-HERE'S THE COMPLETE SCHEMATIC for the phase -accumulator circuitry. 29
+5V
1'CC o <7-c-cl
VtE POWER
v _L
-5V<
<GND
INPUT
J_ vFE 0
R2 C3
C6
V
24 v 1012; 0.1
1
PP
20 C12
IC3
OE
I
0.1
18 7413374 70 3
19
CE
n
IC2
2716 a OC
v 15
VR COMP
16 C10
100pF
1/2 LF353N
S5 _L 2 4
22
S19 A9 14
SI
3
A8
CI _K VR+ VLC
VA 3 IC4 a
8
HI R6
07 IOUT
S17 A7 D7
16 17
D7
16 R7 .c 15K iC11 C8
1001.IF
S16 A6 06 D6 06 02 3.3K 22pF
C9
S15
3
A5 D5
15 14
05 055 1
F13
IC:1
100pF
AM
8
FROM
FIG.5
S14 A4 D4
13
14 13
8
D4 042 1
9
04 DAC08 --)1 R9
R10
5 1K
S13 A3 D3 D3 03 135
1K
SINE
6
A2 D2
11 7
D2 02
6 10
B6 Alst -o
S12 OUT
10 4 11
7
Si 1 Al D1 D1 01 07
9 3 12
S10 AO DO DO 00 BS I(111T
V+
5
12 10 13
08
< CLK+ >-- - v 4.7K
'OA 1 ORO5i2
R3
12
1012
40444
1/6 74HC04
C2
IC5 f 0.1
CLK-
13
v XTAL1
T4.194304MHz
10 Cl RI
Vcc
30pF 1MEG
1/6 74HC04 14 R4
IC5 e
40 14 i IC8-a
1/2 74HC74 1
IC5-a
3.3K
Wit
10 0
PR
11 PR 1/6 74HC04 12
8 5
IC5 d IC5-c 0 D
)CLK
1/6 74HC04 1/6 74HC04 CLK < b
CL
C17 .....
CL
1/6 74HC04 22pF #-% 13 Y IC8-b
1/2 74HC74
NOT USED
implementation, the buffering accumulator. For the binary ac- than N/4 to minimize distortion
and the filtering functions are cumulator that we have here, the at the output.
combined. resolution is then fe/2N. If the
The frequency resolution of a step size programmer is set to a Circuitry
DDS system is set by the master binary value, M, then the output There are several manufac-
clock frequency, fc, and the frequency is M x fc/2N. The de- turers of complete integrated cir-
number of bits, N, in the phase sign presented here keeps M less cuits that can perform the digital
portion of the block diagram, but That matches the function to the rent proportional to the digital
these parts are expensive and not 2716 EPROM with its 11 -bit ad- value present on its 8 -bit parallel
readily available. Figure 4-a dress space and with its 8 -bit input. The current is set by R8 to
shows a partial schematic of the output range. A C -program used a maximum of 1.06 mA. The dig-
phase accumulator using compo- to generate the values in the table ital word presented to the D/A
nents that are inexpensive and is shown in Listing 1. Since the varies from 0 to 255, forcing the
easy to get. EPROM has only 11 address lines, current output to vary from 0 to
The complete phase ac- only 11 lines from the ac- (255/256) x 1.06 mA. The current
cumulator consists of six cumulator are used in this ap- is then fed to op -amp IC4-b
74LS283 4 -bit adders, with their plication. The 8 bits at the output which converts it to a voltage that
outputs latched by three of the EPROM are a digital repre- varies from 0 to approximately
74LS374 octal D flip-flops. The sentation of the amplitude of the 1.0 volt. The complete schematic
outputs of the 74LS374's are fed sine wave and must be converted for the phase accumulator cir-
back to the B inputs of the to an analog voltage before being cuit is shown in Fig. 5, and the
74LS283, which forces the sum filtered and buffered. schematic for the analog section
stored in the latches to be added Since simplicity and low-cost is shown in Fig. 6.
to the value set by the switches were design goals, the output of First -order filtering is accom-
on the A inputs. Since the the EPROM is latched by another plished by C9 in this conversion
74LS374 stores data only at the 74LS374, which allows the full stage. Op -amp IC4-a provides ad-
positive edge of its clock input, clock period for the EPROM out- ditional filtering to further
the fact that the data presented to put to settle, permitting the use smooth out the steps in the sine
its inputs will be changing short- of inexpensive slow EPROM's. approximation. The output of
ly after the clock causes no er- The latch also guarantees a glit- this two -pole filter is AC -coupled
rors. The delay through the latch ch -free input to the D/A converter to the output connection. Figure
and adder guarantee glitch -free section. 7 shows the relative response of
operation. At each clock pulse a Figure 4-b shows the D/A con- the filtering provided in the out-
new sum is present at the output verter circuitry. The D/A con- put stage. The corner frequency
of the latch. The output of each version is accomplished using a of the filter is set by the formula
adder then stabilizes with the DAC08 8 -bit D/A converter (an fo = 1/(2nVR7 x C10 x R6 x C11)
new sum allowing the cycle to re- MC1408 can be substituted with
peat continuously. This sum rep- some loss in performance). The which, for the values shown, is
resents the value P in the output of the converter is a cur- equal to 482 kHz. A high-speed
theoretical discussion, while the
value set by the DIP switch repre-
sents the size of each phase step. LISTING 1
The sine -wave lookup table is
contained within a single 2716 This program calculates the value of the sine function
EPROM providing phase -to -am- offset so that the 4th and 1st quadrants cause a code
plitude conversion. Although 24 from 0 to 255. Code is generated to fill a 2048 byte prom
(2716 or equivalent) for a full circle of 2*pi radians.
bits are available in the phase ac- Other size memory may be used by changing the value of
cumulator as implemented here, bytes in the declaration table. */
only 21 bits are used to maintain
compatibility with readily avail- #include <stdio.h>
able crystals. For those who wish #include <math.h>
to program their own EPROM, main()
both a hex dump of the contents
of the EPROM and an S -Record double p=0; /* phase input to sin fcn */
formatted hex dump for use with double S=0; /* output value of true sin fcn */
PROM programmers can be int s; /* amplitude truncated to 8 bits */
downloaded from the R -E BBS double sin(); /* true sin fcn */
(516-293-2283, 1200, 2400, 8N1) double pi=3.141592654;
in a file named DIGSYN.HEX. A int addr=0; /* address of EPROM */
programmed EPROM is available int bytes=2048; /* size of EPROM in bytes */
from the source shown in the printf(" 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8");
parts list. printf(" 9 a b c d e f \n");
The data in the EPROM repre- while (addr < bytes )
10 0
0 0
O
O
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0-00 4)4)
0 0 0 O 0 0
0 0-0-0
0 0 0 0 0+
20
30
0
O
0
9
0
0
00._A
0
0
O
:_.."
O
0
0
9
0
0
o
0---v9
po0---'9po0--po 0 0 0 0
0
-35 oU15 0 o
100kHz 300kHz 1 OMHz 3 OMHz II 5 ul7E 441/-4) 0000o
N :----7----,"0/-4:
10kHz 30kHz
FREQUENCY
o o
000c4eopooll \\c) 0
VEE
0
The 4558 op -amp we used is a 09-1 00 0
0
0 IT 0 0 Cr0
'/C7CN")\00)) 0 u3
good compromise between per-
formance and cost. 0 0 oo0-0o 1:0 0 0 0 0 04$ u.n 2
The clock for all functions is c )3,//e50-47 " >() CJ
R6-15,000 ohms
R8, R11-4700 ohms IR
I IC4 Cil
I
0451
Capacitors
C1-5-30 pF trimmer
C2, C3, C6, C12, C18 -C20--0.1 1.LF,
ceramic disc 102 GND
105
C4, C5 -not used
C7, C14, C15-10 ILE 35 volts,
electrolytic
C8-100 11F, 16 volts, electrolytic
0 W
C9, C10-100 pF, "eramic disc FIG. 8-PARTS-PLACEMENT DIAGRAM. Follow this diagram if you're using a PC board.
C11, C17-22 pF, ceramic disc The smaller IC outline beneath IC2 is for experimenting with a faster EPROM such as a
C13, C16-470 1.1,F, 16 volts, elec- 74S472 (see test).
EPROM
trolytic (optional for power supply)
Semiconductors
IC1-DACO8CN 8 -bit D/A converter
POWER
IC2-2716 2K x 8 -bit EPROM
INPUTS
IC3, IC15-1C17-DM74LS374N oc-
tal latch
IC4-LF353N dual op -amp
IC5-MM74HCO4N hex CMOS
inverter
IC6-LM7805 + 5 -volt regulator (op-
tional for power supply)
IC7-LM7905 -5 -volt regulator (op-
tional for power supply)
IC8-MM74HC74AN dual D -type
CMOS flip-flop
IC9-1C14-DM74LS283N 4 -bit
adder
BR1-1-amp bridge rectifier (optional
for power supply)
Other components
XTAL1-4.194304 MHz crystal
S1, S2 -10 -position DIP switch SINE WAVE OUTPUT DIP SWITCHES USED TO SET OUTPUT
PL1-AC line cord (optional for FREQUENCY
power supply) FIG. 9-THE COMPLETED UNIT. This compact PC board can easily be installed in almost
any kind of project case.
T1-120VAC/12.6VAC transformer
(optional for power supply)
damaging them. Use a grounded - built using wire -wrap methods
Miscellaneous: PC board, solder, tip soldering iron (if you've got for the digital section and point-
case, mounting hardware, etc. access to one) and ground your- to-point for the analog section. If
Note: The following items are self before picking up the board you're wire -wrapping the circuit,
available from NOVATECH IN- or an IC. Space for the optional some care must be applied to the
STRUMENTS, INC., 1530 East- power supply (shown in Fig. 6) is analog section to prevent digital
lake Ave. E, Suite 303, Seattle, not provided on the PC board, switching noise from getting into
WA 98102 (206) 328-6902: but it can be made on any kind of the output. The ground returns
board. The power -supply circuit for all of the analog section must
Complete kit of parts (except a is not critical, but be careful due connect to the power supply sep-
case and the optional power - to the line voltages present. Fig- arately from the digital section
supply parts)-$69.95 ure 9 shows the completed unit. and the analog bypass capacitors
Please add $5.00 shipping and Since the majority of the cir- must be connected as close as
handling. Washington State res- cuit is digital, simple wiring possible to the analog integrated
idents must add 8.2% sales tax. techniques can be used. The au- circuits. The oscillator, consist-
thor's original prototype was ing of IC5-a, RI, R4, Cl and 33
nect it to pin 5 of IC8-a. If you
don't have a counter, adjust Cl to
mid -range; with the crystal spec-
ified, your error should be no
more than about 0.02%. Apply
power and, using an insulated
adjustment tool, adjust Cl to ex-
actly 2.097152 MHz if you have a
counter connected. With an os-
cilloscope connected to the out-
put, vary the DIP switch setting;
you will see the frequency
change. For higher and higher
frequencies the distortion will in-
crease with the maximum distor-
tion at the highest setting.
The frequency output is equal
to the binary value set by the DIP
switches, with a logical 1 corre-
sponding to an "off' position. For
a switch setting of
001,1000,0110,1010,0000 (100
kHz), the author's prototype gave
FIG. 10-0 JrPUT OF THE AUTHOR'S PROTOTYPE at 100 kHz (5p.s/div. horizontal, 0.2Y/ the waveform shown in Fig. 10. A
div. vertical) spectrum -analyzer display of the
100 -kHz output is show in Fig.
11. Note that the harmonics are at
least 40 dB down, corresponding
to about 1% distortion. Varying
the least -significant DIP switch
will change the frequency output
by 1 Hz. Since the frequency is set
by the DIP switch and the ac-
curacy of the crystal oscillator,
the output will be the same even
after a power -down, power -up cy-
cle. 'Fable 1 summarizes the spec-
ifications for the completed dig-
ital synthesizer.
Experiments
If the digital parts are changed
from 74LS to 74F, the EPROM
changed to a bipolar PROM (such
as a 74S472 which is accommo-
dated on the circuit board), and
the clock oscillator replaced by a
faster one, the output frequency
FIG. 11-SPECTRUM ANALYZER PHOTOGRAPH of the 1100 -kHz output. (100 kHz/div. can be increased at the expense
horizontal, 10dB/div. vertical, 500 kHz center frequency, 1t0 kHz resolution bandwidth) of resolution. The author has
successfully operated the circuit
TABLE 1-SPECIFICATIONS up to a 5.0 -MHz output frequen-
cy, providing 10 Hz resolution.
Frequency Range: Hz to 524.287 kHz The circuit is simple and com-
Resolution:
1
et
rot V
1 C6
120VAC
INPUT
TESLA
D7
' SECONDARY
1N4936
a COIL
'VW
6
R8
.560 03 T2)
L3 ZN6678
pO
+ 5V
R11 R10 D10 -D13 0
9 15 R3 D2
3.3K 3.3K C3 1N4004 (x4)
16 2.2K 1N4934
10pF
2 4
R1
13 01 L2
1K I D8
1
0
TUNE SK9155 1N4936
6 IC1 R4
SG3524 2.2K
12
3.9K LED1
14 R9 D3 -D6
04 TUNE
R6 .56t2 1N4934 (x4)
C1
.001
1.2.2K I.- a L4 2N6678
D41
10
1-00 a HI N f41
D3*
C2
110pF
4 5 18 R5
2.2K
02
SK9155
8
C4
100 r 014-017
1N4004 (x4)
D51
D61
FIG. 2-SCHEMATIC FOR THE SOLID-STATE TESLA COIL. The secondary of the Tesla coil
appears like a series RLC circuit due to the self -capacitance of the coil with respect to
ground.
PARTS LIST
All resistors are Yo -watt, 5%, un- Q3, Q4 -2N6678 or SK9140 NPN net wire for T2 primary, 26 -gauge
less otherwise indicated. transistor hook-up wire for T2 secondary, 18 -
R1-1000 ohms, 10 -turn LED1-red LED. See text gauge magnet wire for both wind-
potentiometer Other components ings of T3, brass rod, discharge
R2-3900 ohms F1 -3 -amp, 250 -volt, fast -blow fuse ball, hardware, AC linecord, etc.
R3, R4-2200 ohms, 1/2 watt BR1-VM08 bridge rectifier, Varo
R5, R6-2200 ohms T1-hand-made transformer (the
R7-330 ohms, 1 watt core is TDK # PC3OEER25.5-Z Note: The following items are
R8, R9-0.56 ohms, 2 watts, and the bobbin is TDK # available from Corona Coil, PO
flameproof BEER-25.5-118CP) Box 474, Riverton, UT 84065
R10, R11-3300 ohms T2-hand-made transformer (the (801-254-7653):
Capacitors core is TDK # PC3OEC70-Z and Core, bobbin, and wire for T1, T2,
C1-0.001 F, 50 volts, 5%, polyester the bobbin is TDK # BEC-70-5116) and T3-$30.00
C2-110 pF, 50 volts, polyester T3-hand-made transformer (the Set of T1, T2, and T3 (as-
C3, C4-10 p.F, 35 volts, tantalum core is TDK # PC3OEER25.5-Z sembled)-$50.00
C5-330 F, 35 volts, electrolytic and the bobbin is TDK # Tesla secondary coil-$35.00
C6, C7-2 F, 200 volts, nonpolar BEER-25.5-118CP) PC board -615.00
film -type T4-115VAC/15VAC center -tapped Aluminum angle bracket
C8, CO 0.02 F,1000 volts, ceramic transformer (Triad F -132P) (heatsink and PC -board
disc S1-SPST key switch mount)-$5.00
Semiconductors Miscellaneous: enclosure, alumi- Please add 10% S&H for all items.
IC1-SG3524 pulse -width modulator num angle bracket, high -voltage
D1-MR751 diode wire (to connect main unit to Tesla A 124 -page book by the author,
D2-D6-1N4934 diode secondary), 30 -gauge magnet wire Modern Tesla Coil Theory, is
D7, D8 -1N4936 diode for Tesla secondary and L1 and L2, available for $19.95 plus $2.50
D9-not used 24 -gauge magnet wire for L3 and shipping from the Tesla Book
D1O-D17-1N4004 diode L4, 18 -gauge stranded hook-up Co., PO Box 12187, Tulle Vesta,
Q1, Q2-SK9155 power MOSFET wire for L5 and L6, 15 -gauge mag- CA 91912 (619-437-8515).
37
-s_o oco 000 r -o change the characteristics of the
BANANA TESLA
SECONDARY
coil and it may not operate with
PLUG/JACK
3-FO- OT H.V. WIRE the driver unless modifications
in the driver are made. Any
change in physical dimensions
or wire size will alter the resonant
C7 C6 + 017
frequency and effective imped-
07 D8 C41 ance of the coil. Any change to
the discharge electrode will effect
L5 L6
the maximum energy obtainable.
"015 The coil form for the secondary
De 014
02 - R9 -- winding is a standard 5 -gallon
T1 plastic container 10 inches in di-
01 -R8- ameter at the bottom, 12 inches
R7
-R4- -R6-
Ll
144_)10 in diameter at the top, and 14
D1 14_1)11
212
inches long. The bottom of the
GND
13
02
-R3-- -R5- container becomes the top of the
*D13
o- _
C3 coil. To make winding easier you
120 COM C9
oiI- R10 ) IC1 should drill a hole about an inch
VAC
IN
I
T1 12 PRIMARY 04 COLLECTOR
CORE
CORE
D1
EMITTER
L5
*po
als.4.-;!'ltasai 1.-.4.-1-1-.".`""
L2
03
b
COLLECTOR
FIG. 6-TRANSFORMER Ti IS MADE by winding coils Ll and L2 first (a). After putting a
layer of cellophane tape on top of the first windings, coils L3 and L4 are wound on top of Ll
and L2. Coils L5 and L6 are wound after the transformer is mounted on the board (b). See
text for detailed instructions.
STEPHEN J. BIGELOW
STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL OF DIGITAL structions or numerical con- relatively large amounts of elec-
information has sparked an ex- stants that do not change during trical and physical abuse, yet still
citing revolution in computers the life of a product. For example, maintain its contents. The auto-
and consumer electronics. You personal computers use perma- mobile industry uses ROM's ex-
find semiconductor memories in nent memory to hold the basic tensively in on -board computers.
nearly all "intelligent" electronic input/output system (BIOS) that
systems, including car radios. initializes the computer and pro- PROM
televisions, VCR's, compact -disc vides it with a core of low-level The programmable read only
players, and computers. Without functions. There are four basic memory (PROM) offers a tremen-
the on -going advances in memo- types of permanent memory: dous advantage over the ROM in
ry technology, the high-tech revo- ROM, PROM, EPROM, and that it can be programmed by the
lution would rapidly grind to a EEPROM. Let's discuss each end user, who is then less depen-
halt. type. dent on manufacturers' lead
In this article, we will examine times. A PROM can be "burned,"
several important concepts be- ROM or programmed, only once be-
hind semiconductor memory de- The read only memory (ROM) is cause it cannot be erased.
vices, including basic tech- the oldest and most straightfor- The term burn comes from the
nologies, memory organization ward type of permanent semicon- method used to program a
and configuration, design con- ductor memory. The information PROM. A factory -fresh PROM
siderations, and applications. that's programmed into a ROM is consists of a matrix of fusible
specified by the buyer, but the links. An intact link produces a
Memory types ROM itself must be built by the binary 0 at the selected location;
Semiconductor memory de- manufacturer. a burned (open -circuit) link pro-
vices can be classified in one of A ROM is relatively inflexible- duces a binary 1, as shown in
two ways: permanent or tempo- after it's been programmed, it can Fig. 1. (We'll discuss how to get at
rary. Although basic operating never be altered. If the informa- a particular location in a PROM
principles of both are similar, tion in a ROM must change, a later in this article.)
each _plays a different role, and whole new device must be man- To burn a PROM, a special
each has unique advantages and ufactured and substituted for the piece of equipment called a
disadvantages. We will discuss old ROM, and that is an expen- PROM burner generates high-en-
both types in detail. sive, time-consuming process. ergy pulses which destroy the de-
As the name suggests, infor- Hence the ROM is economically sired links to match the contents
mation in permanent memory is feasible only when used in great of a user data file.
retained at all times, even after volumes for thoroughly debug- PROM's are slightly more ex-
removal of system power. Perma- ged applications. pensive than ROM's on a per -unit
nent memory is also called non- One advantage of the ROM is basis, but their flexibility often
volatile and read-only memory. its ruggedness. Since the pro- justifies higher cost. Many
Permanent memory is most often gram is an actual physical part of PROM's are available through re-
42 used to store fixed program in - the device itself, it can withstand tail electronics outlets.
sunlight, fluorescent light and
ADDRESS COLUMN
"black -light", may contain
BUS SELECTOR enough UV to trigger random
BLOWN
charge dissipation and introduce
LINK errors in the device. So be sure to
(BINARY 1)
0 0 cover the quartz window with a
0 piece of opaque material.
0
EPROM's cost more than
0 PROM's, but cost -per -bit is actu-
ally lower because MOS tech-
nology allows the designer to
ROW squeeze several times more infor-
SELECTOR
mation in the same amount of
0 space. One disadvantage of the
0 EPROM is that it must be phys-
ically removed from the system to
0
be erased and re -programmed.
CELL
MATRIX
EEPROM's
The electrically erasable pro-
grammable read only memory
FIG. 1-A PROM BEFORE PROGRAMMING consists of a matrix of fused links joining each (EEPROM) is similar to the
row -column intersection. Programming blows desired links.
EPROM, but overcomes its main
disadvantage: the inability to
EPROM program it in -circuit. That fea-
The erasable programmable SOURCE ture offers exciting possibilities
read-only memory (EPROM) over- GATE 01 in applications where software
comes one of the main disadvan- DATA
BIT
MOS
TRANSISTER
must adapt to changes in the op-
tages of the PROM: its inability to erating environment.
be reused. After a link has been ci 74: DRAIN The EEPROM is no panacea,
burned, it can never be restored. STORAGE however. It's slower than other
By contrast, typical EPROM's can -I-CAPACITANCE types of memory, and it requires a
be reliably burned and erased relatively long time to update the
thousands of times. FIG. 2-IN AN EPROM, CAPACITANCE altered data. As a result,
The PROM is built around tra- across the gate -drain junction of a MOS EEPROM's are best suited for
ditional bipolar transistor tech- transistor provides storage. holding information that
nology, which uses both a great changes infrequently. Informa-
deal of power and occupies a lot of tion that changes often is best
space. The EPROM, on the other +V left to the work of temporary
hand, uses newer metal -oxide memory; the other broad class of
semiconductor (MOS) tech- DATA
0
DATA
0 semiconductor memory.
nology, which requires little cur- Q2 L(1) 4
rent and occupies little space. In Temporary memory
an EPROM, information is stored Information held in a tempo-
as small packets of charge buried 01 06 rary semiconductor memory de-
deep within the substrate of the 05 vice can be altered and updated
03
IC, as shown in Fig. 2. frequently, but will be main-
An EPROM is programmed tained only as long as power is
much like a PROM. A special C1 if. 7-s- C2 supplied to the device. If power
EPROM programmer selects an fails, memory contents will be
address in the device, places the lost. That type of memory is usu-
desired binary information on ROW
-0 DATA
ally referred to as volatile memo-
the data lines, and then pulses SELECT
ry. It is also known as random
the EPROM's PROGRAM pin. That FIG. 3-A FLIP-FLOP is the basic unit of access memory (RAM). The name
pulse is what locks the bit pat- storage in static RAM devices. refers to the fact that any location
tern into the substrate of the may be accessed as quickly as
chip. pre-programmed state. The UV any other. By contrast, in a se-
lb erase an EPROM, it's neces- light is introduced into the quential device like a tape drive,
sary to remove the charges in the EPROM through a transparent access speed depends on the lo-
IC's substrate. That's accom- quartz window in the top of the cation of the desired informa-
plished by exposing the circuit IC package. tion. However, random locations
(the die itself) to short -wave- Use caution when working in ROM's, PROM's, EPROM's, and
length ultraviolet (UV) light for a with EPROM's. Even though it EEPROM's can be accessed with
prescribed period of time. The ex- takes about 20 minutes of ex- equal speed. Nonetheless, when
citation created by the UV light posure to a concentrated UV light people speak of RAM, they almost
allows stored charge to dissipate, source to erase an EPROM, some invariably are referring to tempo-
so the IC gradually returns to its common sources of light, such as rary memory. 43
ROW
type has particular benefits and the IC, so the maximum number
'1' SELECT drawbacks. of cells is limited.
01 Static RAM Dynamic RAM
MOS
TRANSISTOR
Static RAM (SRAM) is the Dynamic RAM (DRAM) uses an
oldest and most straightforward entirely different technology to
DATA
form of temporary semiconduc- accomplish data storage. The key
Ct
TSTORAGE
tor memory. A typical SRAM con- difference lies in the design of the
CAPACITANCE sists of several flip-flops, or cells, cell itself. As shown in Fig. 4,
as shown in Fig. 3. Each cell each cell in a DRAM stores infor-
FIG. 4-CAPACITANCE is the basic unit of stores one bit of information; mation as a packet of charge
storage in the DRAM. multiple cells are arranged in a across a MOS transistor, similar
in principle to way the EPROM
works, but it is unlike the SRAM,
which uses a flip-flop to hold one
CONTROL
bit of data.
AND REFRESH To allow frequent updates,
ADDRESS
BUS
ADDRESS
BUFFER
LOGIC
CONTROL
each cell must be capable of
COLUMN
SELECT SIGNALS changing state almost instantly.
'lb allow rapid change, the stor-
age capacitance must be ex-
tremely low, so low in fact that it
cannot sustain its charge for
ROW
DYNAMIC MOS
MEMORY
DATA
DATA
more than a few milliseconds.
SELECT CELL
I/O
BUFFERS
BUS Therefore each DRAM location
MATRIX must be refreshed about every
two milliseconds. If a cell is not
refreshed, it will simply lose its
FIG. 5-INTERNAL DRAM STRUCTURE. The control refresh circuitry increases complex-
ity but drastically increases storage capacity.
data. However, refresh cannot
happen by itself; external circuit-
ry is required, as well as addi-
A0-" - tional circuitry within the DRAM
Al --a.- itself. Fig. 5 shows a block di-
PRE PROGRAMMED
ROW 32
BITS MEMORY CELL MATRIX
agram of the internal structure of
SELECT
A3-b-
a DRAM. The added complexity
and cost of refresh circuitry is the
ADDRESS
main disadvantage of DRAM.
LINES
8 8 8
On the other hand, DRAM of-
BITS BITS BITS BITS fers several distinct advantages
over SRAM. Storage capacity is
A5
1 OF 8 1 OF 8 1 OF 8
much greater. Common DRAM's
1 OF 8
A6
DECODER DECODER DECODER DECODER provide one megabit (22) of stor-
A7
age, and four -megabit IC's are
just over the horizon. In addi-
COLUMN tion, 16 -megabit memories are
SELECT being developed, and 64 -megabit
DRAM's are on the drawing
READ board.
ENABLE Power is another considera-
(CHIP SELECT) O O 0 tion. DRAM's require less current
DO D1 D2 D3,
OUTPUT
to operate; there are far fewer
BUFFERS
components per cell to dissipate
power. The power savings can be
FIG. 6-A BASIC ROM consists of row- and column -select circuitry, the memory array, substantial in applications that
and three -state output buffers. need a great deal of memory.
DRAM's also have a standby
Most electronic processing sys- two-dimensional array. 'lb access mode that essentially disables all
tems require at least some RAM. a particular cell, row and column functions except refresh. In
The amount that's required de- addresses must be set up, and standby mode, a DRAM requires
pends on the application. A sim- then several control signals must just a few milliwatts of power to
ple system, such as a program- be pulsed. maintain its information. In
mable digital thermostat, may Since data is always available some cases, the low power re-
require only a few bytes of RAM. from the flip-flop matrix, the quirement makes battery backup
But a computer may require mil- SRAM tends to be a fast device. practical. SRAM's also have a
lions of bytes of RAM. Its primary disadvantage is lim- standby mode, but they typically
There are two basic types of ited capacity. Each flip-flop oc- need more than 100 milliwatts of
RAM: static and dynamic. Each cupies a relatively large area on power. Now let's examine some of
the technologies used to fab- Memory operations
ricate semiconductor memory AO - To the external world, the or-
devices. Al
ganization of a semiconductor
MOS MEMORY CELL
A2 ROW
MATRIX
memory device appears as a se-
Fabrication technologies A3
SELECT
quence of locations. Each loca-
Every semiconductor memory A4 tion may have 1, 4, 8, or some
chip houses sophisticated, sen- A5 other number of bits, but re-
sitive microcircuitry. Each min- gardless of the number of bits per
ute component must be inte- location, each location has a
grated deep into the substrate of DATA
BUFFER COLUMN
unique address. The number of
the chip (or die), which itself I/O SELECT unique addresses depends on
rests within a hermetically sealed the number of address lines. If
case of plastic or ceramic. The CHIP there are 8 address lines, then
process of circuit integration in- SELECT A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 All there are 28 or 256 addresses. Al-
volves a complex combination of READ/WRITE though externally a semiconduc-
optical and chemical processes to DATA PIN
tor device appears to have a
form a working IC. Memory de- FIG. 7-THE BASIC SRAM is more compli- sequential organization, inter-
vices manufactured today are cated than a ROM because of the addition nally the cells are arranged in a
typically made using either bi- of a READ WRITE line. square.
polar or MOS fabrication tech- The relationship between the
nologies. In addition, a new MOS technology number of physical cells (bits)
hybrid of the two technologies, The development of MOS tech- and the number of logical loca-
called Bi-MOS, has begun to ap- nology is largely responsible for tions (addresses) depends on the
pear. Although the actual man- the incredible advances in high- number of bits per address. For
ufacturing processes of these tech electronics since the late example, a memory IC could have
kinds of devices are too involved 1970's. The materials and chemi- 1 megabit of cells arranged as
to cover here, we can review the cals used in MOS fabrication are 1 x 1 megabit, as 4 x 256K, or
characteristics and uses of those different from those used for bi- even as 8 x 128K. Internal decod-
technologies. polar fabrication, but the process ing circuitry varies depending on
is fundamentally the same. The how the organization is to appear
Bipolar technology most familiar MOS family is com- externally.
The bipolar transistor (with plementary MOS (CMOS), but For example, Fig. 6 represents
emitter, base, and collector) was there are many variations, in- a simple ROM. The format of the
the first component successfully cluding PMOS, NMOS, VMOS, ROM is 256 addresses with four
integrated into a semiconductor DMOS, and HMOS. bits per address. The memory ar-
wafer in the form of the TTL IC. CMOS, NMOS, and HMOS de- ray is a 32 x 32 square, giving
Many simple logic functions vices are the most widespread 256 addresses. And for 256 ad-
could thus be synthesized easily variations of MOS technology in dresses the chip requires eight
and efficiently. The resulting low use today. CMOS has been used address lines (28 = 256) to identi-
cost and high availability made extensively in memories, and to fy each location uniquely. The
TTL a mainstay of digital logic produce a family of devices that is lower five address lines (A0-A4)
design through the 60's and early functionally similar to the TTL select one of 32 possible rows
70's. Even to this day, TTL re- family. CMOS dissipates far less (25=32). The upper three
mains a cornerstone of basic log- power than TTL and can run on a (A5-A7) select one of eight col-
ic design. When memories were much wider range of supply volt- umns (23=8). There are four 1 -
needed, TTL was the obvious age (3-15 volts DC). N -channel of -8 decoders, so four columns
choice. MOS (NMOS) technology is used (one from each group of eight)
Although there are several to produce memories that are will be active for each selection.
SRAM chips in the TTL family fast, dissipate little power, and After a valid address is pre-
(notably the 74S200 and can fit many components on a sented to the address lines, the
74S201), TTL suffers from sev- chip. Although early devices re- data bits at the intersections of
eral major drawbacks that se- quired several supply voltages, the selected row and columns will
verely restrict the capacity of modern NMOS IC's operate from be sent through the respective 1 -
bipolar SRAM. First, bipolar logic a single 5 -volt supply. High-per- of -8 decoders to several three -
requires a relatively large area on formance MOS (HMOS ) is an state buffers. If the READ ENABLE
the chip for each logic gate. Many NMOS variation that's used in signal is brought low, the data
gates are needed to build a modern high-speed low -power present at the buffers will be de-
SRAM, so space is depleted microprocessors. livered to the ROM's output. But
rapidly. In addition, bipolar logic In spite of their obvious advan- when READ ENABLE is high, the
requires significant operating tages, all MOS devices suffer high impedance of the three -
current per gate. Since current from one key weakness: they're state buffer will simply discon-
ultimately translates into heat, extremely sensitive to static elec- nect the ROM's outputs from the
the number of cells is limited tricity. There are important pre- circuit.
even further. Size and power re- cautions that should be taken. SRAM's, along with PROM's,
straints usually limit the number Be sure to follow manufacturers' EPROM's, and EEPROM's, are
of bipolar memory cells to fewer guidelines for handling MOS de- more sophisticated. Figure 7
than 1000 bits. vices. shows a simple SRAM organized 45
as 4096 x 1. Addressing is sim-
ilar to the ROM in the previous RAS -0
example but, in this case, there CAS 0 CON1RO, REFRESH
are 12 address lines that provide RAW -0 LOGIC CONTROL
'''' ...........
ELECTRONIC FUSE
How do you troubleshoot power -related problems
without blowing fuse after fuse? Just use our electronic fuse!
T.L. PETRUZELLIS
THE ELECTRONIC FUSE IS A SEN- "trips," a red LED will light and ter to help reduce spikes and line
sitive fast -acting adjustable cir- power is cut off. When you're noise.
cuit breaker that will quickly ready to continue, simply press Op -amp ICI -a amplifies and
become one of your most useful the reset button. rectifies the AC input and applies
bench -top accessories. If you it to IC2-a, an LM339 com-
have been stumped by a faulty Circuit description parator, which is used to adjust
electronic circuit and consumed As shown in Fig. 1, two test the threshold, or current, via po-
a number of costly or hard -to -lo- leads are connected in series with tentiometer R4. A clamp is
cate fuses, you will appreciate the normally closed relay con- formed by D3 which holds the in-
this inexpensive circuit breaker. tacts of RY1, a 12 -amp fuse (Fl), put of IC2-b to a constant level. A
All you have to do is connect the and the two -turn primary of Tl, a filtered DC output is amplified by
electronic fuse to the device un- torroid transformer. The second- IC2-b and fed to Ql, a 2N3904
der repair, and then adjust the ary of T1 is wound underneath transistor. The transistor
current threshold control to the the primary on the half -inch tor- changes the output of IC2-b to
value you need anywhere from 1/20 riod. The secondary coil is 100 the proper level and polarity in
to 10 amperes. turns of 30 -gauge magnet wire order to trigger SCR1. When the
Additional applications for the with a total resistance of 8 to 10 input current exceeds the
electronic fuse include charging ohms. The secondary is con- threshold set by R4, the SCR will
circuits for marine/mobile/air- nected to a high -low RANGE turn on. The relay will now open
craft systems, as well as new cir- switch (S1). The switch connects and LED1 will indicate that the
cuit designs. The electronic to a resistor network to provide circuit has been "tripped." The
circuit breaker could be used stability and ease of operation. LED will remain on and the
after the design of a new circuit The low range permits values power to the device under test
to help choose the correct value from Vio to 6 amperes, and the will remain off until the reset but-
fuse. The electronic circuit high range includes values from ton (S3) is pressed.
breaker is connected in place of 1 to 10 amps, with overlapping Current consumption for the
the original fuse of the device un- between ranges. Capacitors Cl electronic fuse is about 10-15 mA
der repair or test. If the breaker and C2 form a high -frequency fil- at idle and about 100 mA when
PARTS LIST R2 R4
442K 165K
SI
All resistors are 1/4 -watt, 5%, un- MC1
less otherwise noted. 200pF R1 R3
R1-107,200 ohms, 1% 107.2K 387K
R2-442,000 ohms, 1% SEC.
R3-387,000 ohms, 1%
R4-165,000 ohms, 1% R6
300K
R5, R6-300,000 ohms
R7-50,000 ohms, audio -taper Vcc
R8
potentiometer D1
1.5K
R8-1500 ohms 1
1N914
D2
R9-12,000 ohms 1N914
IC1-a R12
R10-18,000 ohms IC2-b 4.71( 01
4 V2LM358 +V IC2-a
R11-13,000 ohms V4LM339 2N3904
R12-4700 ohms
R13-2000 ohms
t R5
300K
R7
25K
1/41M339
R10
18K
R14, R15-1000 ohms
Capacitors
C1-200 pF, 50 volts, ceramic FIG. 1-THE ELECTRONIC FUSE is almost like an adjustable circuit breaker, where you
C2-100 pF, 50 volts, ceramic can adjust the trip point anywhere from 0.1 to 12 amps.
C3, C4-1 F, 50 volts, electrolytic
C5-100 F, 50 volts, electrolytic
Semiconductors TO D.O.T.
1
IC1-LM358 low -power dual op -amp
IC2-LM339 quad comparator
D1-D3-1N914 diode
rc
S2 S1
04-1N4004 diode R4 C3-+ __44_ D1
I2
LED1-red light -emitting diode -C2-
SCR1-NTE 5404 silicon -controlled T1 -R6- D2
_J.,D3 I
rectifier SEC
R9 -rgr- -R8-* k101 5
Q1 -2N3904 NPN transistor C5
C4 C1
Other components IC2 ICI (
+
T1-hand-made transformer (see
text) on 0.5 -inch powdered -iron tor-
riod core
S1-DPDT toggle switch
PLASTIC
STRAP
R7
8LED1
-N
-R15- SCR1
D4 R14
R12)
R13
S2-SPST toggle switch J
S3-normally closed pushbutton
switch
F1 -12 -amp fast -blow fuse
RY1-DPDT relay, 12 -volt coil, 12 -
amp contacts (or use two sets of FIG. 2-PARTS PLACEMENT DIAGRAM. Because various controls are mounted directly
contacts in parallel, see text) on the PC board, you may have to drill tiny pilot holes on the circuit board in the center of
Miscellaneous: PC board, project each control location, place the unpopulated circuit board directly on top of the case, and
case, fuse holder, alligator clips, then transfer the holes before installing the components on the board.
30 -gauge magnet wire, 24 -gauge
stranded wire, 16 -gauge stranded the relay is pulled in. Both inte-
wire, PC -board scrap for wire grated circuits are single -supply
spool, hardware, solder, etc. types, so any 12 -volt battery or WRAP MAGNET WIRE HERE
-
torriod core (you unspool the
wire as you make the turns). The
ends of the 30 -gauge magnet wire
were stripped and carefully sol- 43/4 INCHES
dered to 24 -gauge wires. Five-
minute epoxy was then brushed F OIL PATTERN for the electronic fuse PC board.
FOIL
over the secondary coil. After the
glue dried, the two splices were the current setting that best rep-
glued to the edge of the torriod resents the desired fuse value.
with another spot of epoxy to re- 'Rum on the power switch S2, and
duce the stress on the 30 -gauge reset the electronic fuse by press-
wires. ing S3. Now turn on the device
The primary coil was wound being tested; if LEDI lights, the
over the secondary using two "fuse is blown" and you must re-
turns of 16 -gauge wire with in- set the circuit by pressing S3.
sulation heavy enough for about Continue to troubleshoot until
12 amps. Heavy linecord can be the repair is completed.
used for the primary if you like. Calibration of the Electronic
The torriod was placed over the Fuse was performed by using a
square notch on the end of the PC 1200 -watt heating element coil,
board (as shown in Fig. 2), and but an electric fry pan or toaster
attached to the board with a plas- could be used instead. The ther-
tic strip placed over the torriod FIG. 4-EVERYTHING EXCEPT the relay mostat in a fry pan must be
and fastened with two screws. and fuse are mounted on the PC board. turned up to maximum or dis-
One of the 16 -gauge wires was abled. The heater is connected to
connected in series with the 12 - the output of a variac and the
amp fuse; the other end of the 110VAC
input of the variac is connected
fuse was connected to an al- AMMETER in series with an ammeter and
ligator clip. The other 16 -gauge ELECTRONIC
10- 20 AMPS the electronic fuse (see Fig. 5).
wire was connected to one end of FUSE The variac output is slowly
RY1's normally closed contact. stepped up in small increments.
The remaining relay contact was A calibration sheet is placed un-
connected to another alligator 1200W
VARIAC
10 - 12A
der R4's adjust knob.
clip. Note that the relay used in HEATER Calibration must be done for
the prototype is a double -pole COIL both the high and low ranges. Be-
unit with the contacts wired in gin by selecting the low range,
parallel to handle higher current. FIG. 5-CALIBRATION IS PERFORMED and turn R4 clockwise to about
Figure 4 shows the prototype.
using a 1200 -watt heating element coil midway. Next turn on the variac
connected to the output of a variac (see and adjust for about 1 amp, then
A later version of the electronic text). rotate R4 to the trip point. Place a
fuse replaced the alligator clips pencil mark on the calibration
with a chassis -mounted female Operation
power receptacle. The device un- Operation of the electronic fuse sheet, back down the variac, and
is quite simple. The alligator reset S3. Bring up the variac to
der test is plugged into the outlet the point you just marked for one
on the electronic fuse and a 12 - clips connect to the fuse holder of
amp fuse is placed in the fuse the device under test, essentially amp, and watch the meter to en-
holder of the device being tested. substituting the electronic fuse sure that you are drawing one
The electronic fuse, set at the for the fuse that was in the origi- amp as the breaker "trips." Now
fuse value of the device being nal circuit. First choose the high - proceed with the next value, ad-
tested, will then fully protect the or low -sensitivity position of Si; just R4 past midway, set the vari-
faulty circuit until you have lo- the low range covers 'ho to 6 amps ac for two amps, and rotate R4
cated the problem. Then simply and the high range covers 1 to 10 down to the trip point. Repeat the
replace the original value fuse in amps with overlap between the procedure for each fuse value in
the circuit you just repaired. two ranges. Next adjust R7 for the low and high ranges. R -E
Build this inexpensive color -bar test
generator and brush up on your video skills.
THOMAS GOULD WB6P
IF YOU'RE INVOLVED IN TV SERVICING let's briefly discuss the various tically over the screen. As the
and repair, or just enjoy tinkering components that make up the beams scan, their currents and
around with video or amateur composite NTSC video signal: amplitudes change to create the
television, you'll be interested in synchronization, luminance, light and dark areas on the pic-
this color -bar test generator. This and chrominance information. ture -tube face and form the im-
convenient device produces an age that you see displayed on the
NTSC color -bar pattern that can The NTSC signal screen.
be used for video performance A typical NTSC composite color The composite video signal is
testing and monitor adjust- video signal is shown in Fig. 1-a. made up of three basic compo-
ments. For added flexibility, just (NTSC is the National lelevision nents: the scan control informa-
the encoder section can be used Systems Committee, who has set tion called the synchronizing
to generate composite video from the standards for color encoding pulses (Fig. 1-b), the luminance
your computer's RGB and sync and decoding systems in the U.S. signal, which is the brightness
outputs. With a dedicated color - since 1953.) The picture on a information and is often referred
bar generator, you can eliminate color TV is formed by three elec- to as the Y signal (Fig. 1-c), and
the need for a test tape or your tron beams of varying ampli- the color information called the
camera-all for under $70! tudes and phases: red, blue, and chrominance signal (Fig. 1-d).
Before we delve into the theory green. Each of those beams are Let's briefly discuss each type of
behind the color -bar generator, scanned horizontally and ver- video information.
start at the top are called vertical
YEL sync pulses, while those that
WHITE
CYAN
GRN
start scanning each line at the
MAGTA left are known as horizontal sync
V ii RED
BLUE
COMPOSITE COLOR pulses.
VIDEO
In the NTSC system, each
frame, of complete video image,
COLOR BURST contains 525 lines. That is ac-
complished by horizontally scan-
ning at approximately 15,750
lines per second, and vertically
scanning at 30 frames per sec-
ond. (The vertical scan rate is ac-
HORIZONTAL
tually 60 Hz, but it takes two
63.5ps SYNC
trips, or fields, down the screen
to complete one frame.) The pro-
a
cess of returning to start a new
scan is called retrace or flyback.
SYNCHRONIZING
COMPONENTS
Luminance
b
Black and white information is
contained in the Y or luminance
signal, which determines the in-
stantaneous brightness of the
electron beams as they scan over
LUMINANCE
SIGNAL
the screen. In fact, it is all that is
used for the single electron beam
BLACK -AND -WHITE in a black -and -white TV set. A
INFORMATION
negative -going video detector de-
r-
tects a luminance signal in
which the negative signal ex-
tremes correspond to bright
areas of the picture. The wave-
form shown in Fig. 1-c would,
COLOR
INFORMATION
therefore, produce vertical bars
of decreasing brightness from
left to right. Note that the output
L -COLOR BURST is black during retrace so the
electron beams will not be seen.
d
In the NTSC color system, the Y
signal is made from the red,
FIG. 1-A COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL (a) includes sync pulses (b), black -and -white green, and blue cameras by an
information (c), and the colorburst signal (d). additive technique: 30% of the
red signal, 59% of the green sig-
Synchronizing components sent to the camera telling it when nal, and 11% of the blue signal
In order for a picture to be re- to start at the top of the screen are added together to form the Y
produced properly, the TV re- and when to begin a new line at signal. The luminance signal can
ceiver must scan its screen the left of the screen. Those same also be expressed as
exactly in step with the camera in pulses are sent to the receiver Ey= .30ER + .59E0 +.11EB
the studio. To make sure the along with the video informa- where ER, EG, and EB are the volt-
camera and the receiver are syn- tion. The signals that tell the ages of the red, blue, and green
chronized, a series of pulses are camera and receiver when to signals, respectively.
The combination of different
amplitudes of color signals is
TP1
what determines the various
COMPOSITE shades of gray in a monochrome
SYNC
receiver-white having a lumi-
TP12 nance of one, black a luminance
SYNC CLOCK ? TP2 of zero. The ability of a receiver to
P\ COLOR
GENERATOR (J2B1 RED
1./ ENCODE
determine a corresponding level
COMPOSITEITP4
COMPOSITE
of gray from color levels is an im-
BLANKING
(J2C1 GREEN VIDEO
OUTPUT portant feature in the com-
(J2M BLUE > patibility of color and mono-
RGB GENERATOR
chrome TV's because the black -
and -white signals can be ob-
FIG. 2-A BLOCK DIAGRAM of the color -bar generator shows the main components of tained from the three primary
52 the circuit: RCA's CD22402E sync generator and Motorola's MC1377P color encoder. color signals.
TP6 +5V
I
TP6
R16 5V R15
0 oi1
14
1MEG
105
4.7K
-L
CD22482E a 4 13 BLUE
OB
XTAL2 c:11
GENLK GEN LCK R
24 90 PR R14 12 RED
IC2-a 1 TTL BLUE
503kHz OC Va4LS02
23 4.71(7' 7 3
IN
---
()CI FRE CLK IN 14 Vcc IC3-a 6 11 GREEN
OD
C19 '/274(574
TP1
100pF
4
0 0.I
GEN LCK RC
GEN LCK DLY
0p
1C018
3 >11/ 0- 10
0---
ENP
ENT
RCO
15
IC2-b 4 TEL RED
0 CL 1/4741.802
COMP SYNC r"-- 5
OMP 'YFP GEN
20
19
5V 14 2
CLK cc
16
R1 TP0.23
V CNTR RST V 1
10
ICI
114741802
16 12 9
4.76 V DRIVE SVD 7418183
11
10 15 IC3-1) 13
V RESET FRM SYNC TP4 IC2-d
14 V27412174
11
H CLAMP 12 V.174LS02
HPB UNUSED
TP2 12
V MPH
13
8 C25
13 .1
CLK
+12V TP12 0
0
J2A
0I COMP SYNC
IC6
MCI377P
c2
.1
K
55
--- VIDEO OUTPUT
J3-1
XTAL1 14 R2
PAUNTSC Vcc
\ TTL RED 3.1 17
561( .001
16
101 OSC 8.2VDC REF '444
C26
J2B C13= 18 1 1 R7
R10 + RED 10pF OSC BURST CONT
56 MC17 220p0 2
SYNC VIDEO OUT
75
1E4IF
RED 3 8
\ TTL GREEN
C12
C14 Ti RED Y IN
220pF GREEN 4 6
2 - 12pF GREEN -Y OUT
GREEN J2C R4
BLUE 5
Rtif5K M C16 BLUE CLAMP CAP 1.2K
16pF 10 19
+12V . CHROMA VCO CAP LI
TTL BLUE I( 1.01
C7 .01
13 CHROMA AMP R -Y CAP 12 000 r
C10 T. L2
G8
100pF
R6
220
GND B -Y CAP 77-1-1( C3 R5
K
F9
541< S C15 .1 1
165F -4--,000` C4
L_____J C8 .1
.001
R3 1` C11
w
6.86 47p1'
FIG. 3-SCHEMATIC OF THE COLOR -BAR GENERATOR. Sync generator IC5 provides the
composite -sync timing signals, color encoder IC6 takes the separate red, green, and blue
video signals and composite sync to generate the composite video signal. Chrominance
The color information, or chro-
minance, (which is ignored in a
black -and -white TV) is made up
of red, blue, and green signals re-
quired to drive the picture tube,
All resistors are Yo -watt, 5%, unless Motorola minus the luminance signal.
otherwise indicated. Other components
R1, R14, R15- 4700 ohms L1-400-ns delay line (TK1001)
Those "color -difference" signals
R2-56,000 ohms L2-30 H, 2.52 -MHz transformer are designated as R -Y (red
R3-6800 ohms (TK1603) minus Y), and B -Y (blue minus
R4, R5-1200 ohms XTAL1-3.58-MHz colorburst crystal Y). Color -difference signals are
R6-220 ohms XTAL2-503-kHz ceramic resonator used solely for color reproduc-
R7-75 ohms Miscellaneous: enclosure, stand- tion. A special matrix circuit in
R8 -R10 -5000 -ohm potentiometer offs for mounting circuit board, 4 -
R16-1 megohm pin friction -lock connector for J1,
the receiver can extract a G -Y
Capacitors straight -header connector for J2, (green minus Y) signal from the
C1 -C4, 010, C20, C24, C25-0.1 p.F, bi- 2 -pin friction -lock connector for J3, B -Y and R -Y signals. The ad-
polar electrolytic four shorting jumpers, wire, solder, vantage of changing the color sig-
C5, C8-1000 pF, mica etc. nals into color -difference signals
C6, C7-0.01 ILF, bi-polar electrolytic is the reduction of three color sig-
C9, C18, C19-100 pF, mica Note: The following items are nals into two.
C11-47 pF, mica available from Geko Labs, 13019
C12-2-12 pF variable ceramic capacitor 250th Place SE., Issaquah, WA The R -Y, B -Y, and G -Y sig-
026-10 pF, mica 98027-6730, (206) 392-0638: nals are decoded at the receiver
C13, C14-220 pF, mica etched, drilled and plated - by adding the Y signal back to
C15 -C17-15 RF, electrolytic through PC board $30.00; a com- each of the difference signals. A
Semiconductors plete kit including all parts, PC 3.58 -MHz subcarrier is sent by
C1-74LS163 counter board, and assembly instruc- the transmitter and used in the
C2 -74L02 quad NOR gate tions $80.00; a complete as-
C3-74LS74 flip-flop sembled and tested unit $125. receiver to restore the original
C4-not used Add $5.00 S & H with any order. color information.
C5-CD22402 sync generator, RCA Washington residents add 8.1% The frequency and phase angle
C6-MC1377 color encoder, sales tax. of the 3.58 -MHz subcarrier in the
receiver must be the same as that 53
Vpp CLK TP2
A
J2C
1 0-- - -R15-
GREEN
C19
XTAL2
401. C18
v- 020
01
1
IC1
!
R14 IC2
016
040
ID
0
B IC6
C2 C9
010
J2B R8[113
+ -CO.
R6-
1.0 RED P 1 C3-
1.19) 015 R5
-R3-
-+ -R7
CB C4
011
The 3.58 -MHz colorburst crys- board are shown in the article if
tal, XTAL1, is the reference os- you wish to make it yourself.
cillator for the chroma informa- Construction is fairly straight-
tion. Capacitor C12 allows fine forward. Install all components
tuning of the reference oscillator according to the parts placement
FIG. 4-OUTPUT SIGNALS of the color - to be exactly 3.579545 MHz. The diagram shown in Fig. 5. Make
bar generator. The TTL signals are re- combination of R2 and C5 set the sure C15 -C17 are inserted into
duced to 1 V p -p by R8, R9. and R10.
timing for the insertion of the the board with correct polarities.
colorburst signal on the back Install all IC's last, observing cor-
in the transmitter for proper porch of the composite video sig- rect orientation. Since the IC's
color reproduction. Syn- nal. The values used for R2 and are static sensitive, make sure
chronization is performed by C5 set the burst timing to ap- you follow the manufacturer's
transmitting a small sample of proximately 0.4 s after sync, recommendations for proper
the 3.58 -MHz subcarrier during and a burst width of 0.6 ps. The handling.
the horizontal snyc pulse. That network of L2, C9, R6, C8, Cli,
color sync interval is also known and R3 provide bandpass filter- Checkout
as the colorburst. The colorburst ing for the chroma component. A The measurements listed in
signal is used as a reference to delay for the luminance channel this section will help to make
synchronize the phase and am- ( -Y) is provided by R4, LI, and sure the video generator is work-
plitude of the color subcarrier. R5 to compensate for the internal ing properly. The power on tests
The colorburst also determines delay of the chroma signal. should be made with the + 12 -
the tint and saturation of the RGB generators IC1, IC2, and and + 5-V power sources on. Set
color that is displayed. IC3 make up the red, green, and R8, R9, and R10 to mid range. If
blue video signals that drive the you are the impatient type you
Theory of operation video encoder section to make can go right to the video output
Figure 2 shows a block di- the color bars. One half of IC1 is test point TP12 and see what you
agram, and Fig. 3 a schematic of used as a divide -by -2 counter, get. If you're lucky you'll have a
our video generator. Sync gener- which generates the 252 -kHz video signal that probably needs
ator IC5 is used to provide the clock for the four -bit counter ICI. some adjustments. If that's the
composite -sync timing signals. The non -inverted blue, red, and case you can proceed directly to
The outputs are composite sync, green signals are the divide -by -4, the video adjustments section. If
composite blanking, and a buff- -8, and -16 outputs of IC1, respec- not, proceed slowly through the
ered output of the sync oscillator. tively. The blue, red, and green following steps to isolate the
The sync generator uses a 503 - signals are inverted, and blank- problem and verify each of the
kHz ceramic resonator (XTAL2) ing is added by IC2. The TTL level listed voltages, frequencies and
as a base oscillator. The 503 -kHz is reduced to 1 volt p -p by R8, R9, waveforms. Keep in mind that
frequency is divided by 32 for the and R10, as shown in Fig. 4. you will need an oscilloscope for
horizontal sync, anti is further the video level adjustments.
divided to derive the vertical Construction Pin 2 of JI and +5 V-> 2000
sync -timing signals. Those sig- The video generator uses a ohms (power off)
nals are all combined into the double -sided PC board that is Pin 4 of J1 and +12 V-> 1
composite -sync signal which is available from the source men- megohm (power off)
sent to the MC131377 color en- tioned in the parts list. We recom- Power -on Itsts
coder (IC6). The color encoder mend that you use a PC board for + 12-V supply -57 mA
takes the separate red, green, this project because the frequen- + 5-V supply -29 mA
and blue video signals and com- cies involved require a large IC1 pin 16- + 5 V
posite sync to generate the corn - ground plane. Both the compo- IC2 pin 14- + 5 V
54 posite-video signal. nent and the solder side of the PC IC3 pin 14- + 5 V
61/2 INCHES
81 0101 1
so
- -
-- \
10.44: M----0
- - a.211- /
41/ 0-0
I
. ,-. %
\
011-ik
t
OD-
ii.
in
ID
/._ \
fm,
0
a,-
so
IC5 pin 19- + 5 V ICI pins 11-13 (TP6, 7 and 8)- IC6 pins 3-5-1 V p -p signal
IC5 pin 6 (TP2)-2.504-kHz, 5- Divided down signals as shown IC6 pins 17 and 18 -3.58 -MHz
V p -p (TTL level) square wave in Fig. 4 oscillator signal
IC5 pin 5 (TP1)-TTL-level Color Encoder IC6 pin 16-8.2 VDC
composite -sync signal IC6 pin 14-+ 12 V IC6 pin 1-Ramp signal
IC5 pin 13 (TP4)-TTL-level IC6 pin 2-TTL-level com- IC6 pins 10 and 13-Chroma
blanking signal posite -sync signal (Fig. 1-b) signal (Fig. 1-d)
IC3 pin 5 (TP5)-252-kHz IC6 pins 6 and 8-Luminance
signal signal (Fig. 1-c)
IC1 pins 11-13 (TP6, 7, 8)-Di- Amateur Television Quarterly IC6 pin 9-2 V p -p (Fig. 1-a
vided down signals This article originally appeared in ATVQ signal)
Sync Generator magazine. ATVQ is a quarterly publication Video Level Adjustments
105 pin 19- + 5 V featuring technical articles on subjects re- IC6 pin 4 (J2C)-Adjust R8 to 1
IC5 pin 5 (TP1)-TTL-level lated to ham radio, including VHF, UHF, V p -p
composite -sync signal amateur TV (AN), computer programs, IC6 pin 3 (J2B)-Adjust R10 to
IC5 pin 6 (TP2)-504-kHz, 5-V and repeater projects. ATV is enjoyed by
1 V p -p
p -p TTL-level square wave hams of all levels, from beginner to Extra
class. A subscription to this magazine is IC6 pin 5 (J2D)-Adjust R9 to 1
IC5 pin 13 (TP4 )-TTL-level available for $15 per year, $4.00 for a sam- V p -p
blanking signal ple copy (Visa and Mastercard are accept- J3 pin 1-Terminate into a 75 -
RGB Generator ed). For more information contact ohm connector
IC1 pin 16-+5 V Video Output (TP12)-Com-
IC2 pin 14- + 5 V Amateur Television Quarterly
1545 Lee St. #73 posite 1-V p -p signal. If you can't
IC3 pin 14-+5 V Des Plaines, IL 60018 get this signal, adjust R8 for the
IC3 pin 5 (TP5)-252-kHz (708) 298-2269 proper peak level and null out the
signal continued on page 129 55
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plied to the SELECT input, the routed back to the VCP200's reset ment you
output will latch high. The next pin, pin 20. That forces a reset of need to do a
active low will cause the flip flop the voice -recognition circuit. The professional
output to drop low again. pulse can be tapped by another job! .........__
A more sophisticated output CMOS gate (either inverting, as Top technicians and field service
circuit is shown in Fig. 9. On shown, or noninverting, or personnel prize their Jensen tool
power -up, both outputs will be both), and used to reset outlying kits. Our new 232 -page Master
high. When the ofT3 output of the circuitry. Given the imperfect Catalog will show you why. You'll
VCP200 is selected, that output nature of voice control, this cir- discover hard -to -find items, the
will be latched low. If the cuit is recommended. latest high-tech developments,
VCP200's REVERSE output is se- You now have some basic soldering stations, wire & cable
lected, the co OUT output will be accessories and many more quality
building blocks on which you can products you want and need.
toggled high and REVERSE OUT base your voice -control experi- Send for your free copy today!
will latch low. If a STOP signal from ments. Keep in mind that, even
4
the VCP200 is received, both flip though the command words un- JENSEN TOOLS INC.
flop outputs will be toggled high. derstood by the VCP-200 are best 7815 South 46th St.,
The circuit in Fig. 10 allows a suited for controlling a robot, Phoenix, AZ 85044-5399
complete reset of the voice recog- they can be used to control vir- . Phone: (602) 968-6231
FAX: (800) 366-9662
nition circuit and any outlying tually anything. R -E 57
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EASTERN STANDARD TIME
AX P93
In Canada add $fi.fis Postold Ilndudo. C S.T1 .111 Othcr r11re111 515151 $7.1111,0,14,
Estimated Monthly
Monthly Usage Consumption
Appliance Wattage (Hours) (kWh) Monthly Cost*l
Food Preparation
Broiler 1,140 6.3 7.2 $0.94
Home Entertainment
Color TV (tube) 240 180.0 43.2 $5.62
Refrigerator
Frost free, 10-15 years old - continuous 141.2 $18.36
Air Conditioning
Room AC, 6,500 BTU's*4 (before
1980) EER*2 7.2-930 116.0 108.0 $14.04
Room AC, 6,500 BTU's (after 1980) EER 8.5-770 116.0 89.0 $11.57
Room AC, 6,500 BTU's (after 1980) EER 9.5-680 116.0 79.0 $10.27
Notes*
1. The monthly cost is based on an average rate of 130/kWh.
2. Energy efficiency ratio.
3. Seasonal energy efficiency ratio.
4. BTU's/EER =watts.
All figures noted in this table were obtained from Long Island Lighting Company's (LILCO) Energy Conservation Department.
60
LINE VOLTAGE 0 OUTPUT TO VOLTMETER
VOLTAGE -
TO -PULSE
CONVERTER
LOAD CURRENT o
BARGRAPH
DISPLAY
letrA. 0.11111.X.X4012.-Nre,--,
90
POWER
PHASE
OUT
SHIFT
MI.DAVV4
ICI
PEAK DETECTOR
AND
VOLT. FOLLOWER
FIG. 2-THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE POWER CONVERTER section of the ECM.
0 .0
C 3 /1
IC1-b
R2 1N3034 TP2 0 R12
1/2 LM1458
TP1
0- G1 M R3 2.2K C2 lh LM1458 G9
470pf 110 Wt, 1F
D2 R5
HOOK
1N4002
47K 111*41.
IC5 5K 4
79L12
-r -
C3 s.6* C4 05 +18V
C 2.2pf 620
220g I + 1N34A
3.6K
-NIV4
R6 R9
2.2K
R7 R8
01
2N4402 7 6
R25
2.7K
5K 2.2K
R10 D6 LED1
10K 1N914 103-a
05? C6 C7
R21 1/4 LM339 D10
0.47 0.47 0.47 1N914
2.2K
R26
+ N't1/4 2.7K
4 2
LED2
103-b
/4 LM339 D11
Si 122
114914
*R13
10K
R15
10011
-Wr--1114-0 TP3
D8
1N34A -0 0 T
COUNTER
MODULE
1.5K
11
R27
2.7K
10 13
R18
LED3
NtN 150K 03-c
R14 R23 I/4 1.141339 D12
D9 1/4914
10K 680 0 -1-
102 114914 12 R28
LM741 2.7K
C10
8 14
1000pf
R16 R19 LED4
R17 R24 IC3-d
100K 10K
1.8K 12007, 1/4 LM339
network, which switches 01 on. R11 calibrates the peak detector output so that it pro-
duces 1 volt for every 100 watts consumed by the load. For greater power -handling
capability, R1 -a -R1 -d can be replaced by three 0.33-ohm, 10 -watt resistors.
unplugged, or in the event of a the previously lit LED is turned
power failure. off as the power increases, thus
At the heart of the bargraph is allowing no more than one LED
1C3, a quad comparator. The to remain on at a time.
power voltage drives all of the The power -supply section is
comparator's inverting inputs fairly straightforward. The trans-
while each of the non -inverting former's (T1) voltage is half -wave
inputs are tied to different volt- rectified, and is then filtered by
age references derived by the volt- Cl. The voltage divider R2 and R3
age divider network of R20 to is used to boost the output volt- GROUND Rla-d
R24. As the voltage signal in- age of regulator 1C4 to approxi- LUG
FIG. 5-HERE IS THE FINISHED pro-
creases above the reference volt- mately 18 volts. 1C4 could easily totype. It's a good idea to use standoffs to
age level, the open collector be replaced with a 7818 voltage mount the transformers so that R1-a-d's
output of that particular com- regulator, thereby eliminating connections are adequately spaced from
parator goes low, switching its the need for R2 and R3 (a short- the case. The author also used a fiber bar-
corresponding LED on. Diodes ing jumper would have to replace rier between the PC board and the AC
R3). Except for the voltage-divid- socket for added protection.
D14, D15, and D16 ensure that
cord and socket ground lead to a
PARTS LIST closed -loop connecter. Mount the
connector through the trans-
All resistors are'/4-watt, 5%, un- IC1-LM1458 dual op -amp former mounting screw and se-
less otherwise indicated. IC2-LM741 op -amp cure to the chassis ground
R1 -a -d-0.39 ohms, 5 watts IC3-LM339 quad comparator through a star washer to bite
R2, R6, R8, R21-2200 ohms IC4-LM7815 or LM7818 voltage through the painted or plated
R3-270 ohms regulator (see text) metal case. You can also sand the
R4-not used IC5-LM79L12 12 -volt negative volt- paint away to make a good con-
R5-47,000 ohms age regulator tact. Resistors R1 -a -R1 -d should
R7, R11-5000 ohms, trimmer LED1-red LED be adequately ventilated by using
potentiometer LED2-LED4-green LED a louvered enclosure top. Those
R9-22,000 ohms Other components resistors could get quite hot if
R10, R13, R19-10,000 ohms F1 -15 -amp fuse constant heavy loads over 1000
R12, R16-100,000 ohms S01-chassis-mount, grounded AC watts are monitored.
R14-10,000 ohms, trimmer socket Now it's time to mark a decimal
potentiometer T1-18 volts (or 24 volts), 200 mA
R15-100 ohms transformer
point on the counter display.
R17-1800 ohms T2-6 volts, 200 mA transformer Using a fine -tip black felt pen,
R18-150,000 ohms (connected as a step-up trans- mark the decimal point on the
R20-3600 ohms (see text) former) display between the third and
R22-1500 ohms Counter module-LCD electronic fourth digit so that, when the
R23-680 ohms counting module (Radio Shack monitor is properly calibrated,
R24-120 ohms number 277-302) each count represents '/moo of a
R25 -R28-2700 ohms S1-momentary SPST push button cent.
Capacitors switch When wiring T2, remember to
C1-470 F., 35 volts, radial Miscellaneous: 2 chassis -mount wire the 6 -volt winding across
electrolytic banana sockets, fuse socket, the shunt resistors R1 -a -R1 -d so
C2, C9-1 35 volts, tantalum strain relief, PC board, hardware, that you're using it in a step-up
C3-220 F, 63 volts, radial wire, metal enclosure (Radio mode.
electrolytic Shack 270-272A). Locating a 3.6K resistor for
C4-2.2 F, 35 volts, radial R20 may be rather difficult since
electrolytic NOTE: The following items are that is a non-standard value. The
C5, C6, C7-0.47 F, 100 volts, available from Paul Brule, 12L67 author happened to have a few of
polyester Harbourview Rd., Port Colborne, them in his parts collection, but
C8-not used Ontario, Canada L3K 5V4. An you may consider wiring a 3.9K
C10-1000 F, 16 volts, radial etched and drilled PC board, and a 47K resistor in parallel to
electrolytic $15.95; a kit consisting of all re-
C11-0.1 'IF, 50 volts, ceramic sistors, capacitors, semicon- obtain that value.
Semiconductors ductors and PC board for
D1, D2 -1N4002 diode $59.95; a lettered faceplate and Calibration and testing
D3, D4-1N475A, 30 volts, Zener template which fits a Radio Before applying power to your
diode Shack 270-272A case, $7.95. circuit, double check your wir-
D5, D8-1N34A germanium diode Please include $2.50 for ship- ing. If you're using IC sockets,
D6 -D12 -1N914 diode ping and handling. All prices are leave ICI, IC2, and IC3 out of the
Q1 -2N4402 PNP transistor in US funds. circuit. Apply power and check
for + 18 volts and - 12 volts at the
outputs of IC4 and IC5, respec-
er resistors, the negative supply ing correct polarity. The 7815 reg- tively. Those voltages may be
is basically a mirror image of its ulator should be fitted with a heat slightly lower by a fraction of a
positive counterpart. sink. You can do that by drilling a volt. If you have removed the IC's
1/2" x 1-1/2" x'/16" piece of alumi- and the voltages are okay, then
Construction num and mounting it to the unplug the unit, install the IC's,
Figure 5 shows the authors TO -220 case. re -apply power, and re -check the
completed prototype. Transfor- The ECM should be enclosed in supply voltages.
mers T1 and T2, S01, F1, a suitable metal case as haz- The next step is to check the
LED1-4, counter display, Si, JI ardous line voltage is present. It transformer phasing. In order to
and J2 are mounted on the en- is important to use no. 14 AWG or do that, temporarily install a
closure, while the remaining sec- heavier gauge wire for all primary jumper from ground to the cath-
ondary circuitry is installed on a wiring. Make sure the neutral ode of D5. Now connect a 100 -
single -sided PC board. The foil side of the plug corresponds to watt light to the load socket.
pattern is provided if you would that of the socket. The pho- Using a voltmeter on the AC
like to make your own, or you can tograph in Fig. 5 shows where scale, make sure the voltage be-
obtain an etched and drilled the hot (power supply black lead) tween TP1 and TP2 is lower than
board from the source men- and neutral (white lead) conduc- that measured between TP1 and
tioned in the parts list. Mount tors are connected. ground. If it isn't, reverse the two
and solder all components ac- Grounding should be made by PC -board connected T2 leads. Re-
cording to the parts placement terminating the green grounding check and remove the jumper.
diagram shown in Fig. 6, observ- conductor of the power -supply With NO LOAD connected to
8 -CONDUCTOR
cents per kilowatt-hour (check
RIBBON CABLE your billing statement or power
company for that rate). Adjust
R11 to read that value on the volt-
-528 -R22 ..--R23---, meter. That will enable you to cal-
t ro +1 D12-114-
,...- e3 ibrate R14 so that you obtain one
Cll
1+
53
1
i
D2
IC5 D11--1101-
r,.1- -526---- - ) IC3 524
pulse per second (1 Hz) at TP3. A
D1
--01-- 04 525
-521- -R20- doubling or halfing of VcA,
1D4
ri, R2
1
) ICI
C11 I
R13 I R15
R18 1
each pulse represents Vi000 of a
D7
cent.
95 Disconnect the jumper used in
+ CO1
LED34 the previous procedure and con-
R12 -C9- nect a 100 -watt light as a load.
fa Using an oscilloscope, monitor
01
LED2Nb,k; the waveform at TP2 and set R7
T1
T2 so that the sampling ends at the
COUNTER
TERM. #4
very peak of the incoming wave-
2
SO1
HOT form, which should look like the
1
waveform of Fig. 3-g.
T2 Finally, power calibration is the
OD
F1
11 G S1 last to be performed. With the
100 -watt light connected adjust
O
WI, mon=
R11 so that a DMM, connected to
'NM 4
0
the external voltmeter jacks, dis-
BLACK T1
3
0 plays 1.00 volt DC. You may want
LEAD
HOT
to verify that wattage by measur-
2 ing the voltages across shunt re-
WHITE
LEAD k)1 GROUND sistor RI, and the line. With
NEUTRAL TERMINATION those two voltage readings, the
power maybe calculated using
FIG. 6-PARTS PLACEMENT DIAGRAM AND WIRING connections. Use 14 AWG wire for the formula
all primary sure you wire the hot and neutral leads of the power aupply P(watts) = VSHUNT X VLINE/RSHUNT,
cord to the proper terminations on the AC socket. where RSHUNT is the shunt resis-
tance (four 0.39 -ohm resistors in
parallel = 0.0975 ohms). VSHUNT
4- is the voltage drop across R1 and
VLINE is the AC line voltage.
That completes the assembly
and calibration of the ECM.
ful, r t
pulse converter will not start un-
til there is a load of approximately
30 watts, meaning that the coun-
ter will not increment unless the
load is heavier than that value.
For those of you wondering if
How good
is your amplifier?
Our inexpensive
THD analyzer voltage level for voltage ampli- tion. After passing through fixed
fiers, or a desired power level for and variable attenuators, plus a
will let checking power amps up to 600 buffer amp (IC2), the signal
watts. It will detect THD levels emerges at output jack J1.
you know. down to 0.005 percent! It fea- The output signal from J1 driv-
tures a built-in one -percent THD es the input of the device under
calibrator, a full array of input test (DUT), usually an amplifier.
and output processing controls, The DUT's output, which in-
JOHN F. KEIDEL and uses your digital multimeter cludes some degree of distortion,
(DMM) as a readout device. is applied to the input of the ana-
lyzer at jack J2. The fundamental
HAVE YOU EVER WONDERED EXACTLY Circuit description frequency (1 kHz) is then re-
how good an amplifier is, or As shown in Fig. 1, an moved from the output signal of
whether it actually measures up NE5534N low -noise, low -distor- the DUT, leaving only harmonic
to the manufacturer's specifica- tion op -amp, ICI, is configured as distortion components.
tion of its ibtal Harmonic Distor- a Wien Bridge sine -wave os- Combination notch/high-pass
tion, or THD? Or are you curious cillator. Carefully matched RC filter circuits IC3 and IC4 (both
if the amplifier you've designed is values (R2 -C1 and R3 -C2) in the TL074's) perform the removal
better or worse than a store- frequency -selective positive feed- function. One feature of IC3's
bought one? If the answer is yes back network contribute to its three -stage RC active filter is that
to any of those questions, then low distortion level. Resistor R1 it maintains a constant 45 -dB
you should build our inexpensive and bulb LMP1 form the sta- notch depth over its full tuning
THD analyzer. You can use it to bilized negative feedback net- range. The filter is connected in
test "home-brew" amplifier work that provides a constant - series with an identical second
breadboard circuits or commer- amplitude output signal. DC off- filter (IC4), to provide a 90 -dB
cial equipment such as stereo re- set control R4 keeps DC current notch of the fundamental signal.
ceivers, preamps, and power out of LMP1, which minimizes The resultant frequency re-
amps. The analyzer uses an ul- second harmonic distortion con- sponse of the combined filters is
tra -pure 1 -kHz test signal to mea- tent. Filter network R6 -C6 fur- 27 dB down at 20 Hz, which
sure THD at a user -selected ther reduces any residual distor- helps suppress 60 -Hz hum and 67
IC7 + 15V
J4 7815
S6 o
INPUT
120VAC 24VAC INPUT1N4002 + C22
OUTPUT
24VAC
O
Fl
0.5A POWER
1N4002D3
04
220pF
G
C23 -t -- C24
1pF .33
(TO J4)
R46 X D5
68012S 1N4002 - 15V
R1
IC8 0
0
7915
-
43012 C25
G
R4 R5 + 1. 62011 OUTPUT LED1 220pF
C28
100K 22K = 44.44 C26 1 C27
LMP1
--M C3 C8
1pF 1pF -T .33
22pF
1CD 8
R6
5 tR11 + 15V
1K 1K
IC1
La.
5534 R53
R7 0d B0 R10A
3
4
C2 C6 - S1 10K
.01 20K w 5.6K
.1 ATTEN
*VW 4M
C5 20dB R10
CI R8 R52 C31 R54
OpF R9 50K
40dB 100K 100pF 10K
.01 -15V 2K 22012
-)f Nth
R3
15.8K C21
R2 t J5 C30 R51 ^ .01
THD 100K WV
15.8K S. .01 J6
R48 CAL. OUT + 15V R42
C29 +15V 444414
2K C32 1MEG
1 2 7 R45
7c .1 DVM
6 6200
7 R49 R50 IC6 J7-.
R47 t IC9-b 10.0K 2490 C9 -a CA3193
10K 1/2 CA3260 V2 CA3280 3
5
5 3 - 15V
J2 + 4 J3 C15 1
114A
INPUT SCOPE 22pF
+15V R43 R44
2 8 10K 10K
+ 15V 5 C16
C14 2
C9
,R - 4 S5 .01 C5
5534
Of NV*
.01 IC3-b THD/REF D2 R41
S2
7
R37
01
1N914
C191! 1MEG
C20
1/4 TL074 1N914 .1
<20V INPUT EF0 R36 4 10MEG
5 THD
OA 0 940 1K
R13 s R15
11
R35 t - 15V C17 R38
10.0K +
C18
1F
t R39
7 10K
R40
100K 7 >20V 1K
-15V 100K 7 .2 4.53K
"ST
R14 t
11K 7
x100
4M, o Aith
R32 x10 S4 R33
R25 R31
2.00K 18.2K
10K 9.09K THD AMP
AAA 2
R24 +15V
C13
NULL 10K 13 .01 IC4-a
o o 4/4A 4 R27 1/4 T1074
IC4-d 15.8K R30 IC4-b 3
Jul 4
50K 1/4 TL074
1/4 TL074
R34
o 0 12
IC4-c NULL 2 5
OPER 11 R26 R28 1K
1/4 TL074
5.1K 7.5K R29
- 15V 10
- C12 4404/ ? V4414 130K
7.001
R16
10K
10
IC3-c
1/4 11074
R19
R17
10K
8
R18
15.8K
R23
13
12
IC3-d
1/4 TL074
C11
01
14
^
R21
130K
R20
9.09K
R22
50K
NULL 1
2
3
IC3-a
1/4 TL074
I J8
ri771
OPTIONAL
EXT.
EARTH
GND.
5.1K 7.5K
C10
0011%
FIG. 1-SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM of the simple THD analyzer. An NE5534N op -amp (IC1) is
configured as a Wien Bridge sine wave oscillator. Carefully matched RC values in the
frequency -selective positive feedback network contribute to the low distortion level.
68 Resistor R1 and incandescent bulb LMP1 form the stabilized negative feedback network
that provides a constant -amplitude output signal.
other low -frequency noises.
Above the 90 -dB notch frequen-
cy, the response is flat ( 0.5 dB)
from 2 kHz to 100 kHz.
When S4, the THD/REF switch,
is in the THD position, a signal
containing only THD compo-
nents is channeled through from
the output of the x 1/ x 10 THD
amp (IC4) to the input of the AC -
to -DC converter, IC5. Although
both polarities of the applied sig-
nal are rectified by this circuit,
only the positive averaged signal
is fed to the low-pass filter R41 -
C20. The output buffer, IC6, is a
CA3193 precision op -amp, stable
enough to provide accurate volt,
millivolt, and microvolt DC level
output signals to an external
DVM.
Dual op -amp IC9, a CA3260,
serves as a calibrator. The first
stage affords precision half -wave
rectification of the master os-
cillator's signal. That same ap-
plied signal is AC coupled by C30
to the second stage, biased at 1/2
Vcc, for linear transfer to its out-
put. Voltage divider R49 -R50
mixes a very small portion of half -
wave output at pin 7 of IC9 with a
much larger full sine wave seen at
pin 1. Since the signal swings
slightly more positive from its
quiescent level than it does in the
negative -going direction, it is
considered to have a specific
amount of second harmonic dis-
tortion. That amount, by design,
is one percent.
Wall transformer Ti feeds half -
wave power diodes D4 and D5
through connector J4, fuse Fl,
and power switch S5. Capacitors
C22 and C25 are the principal
filters for the positive and nega-
tive supplies, respectively. Small-
er filters, C23 and C27, along
with high -frequency transient
suppressors C24 and C28, are in-
cluded at the output side of reg-
ulators IC7 (a 7815 +15 -volt
regulator) and IC8 (a 7915 -15 -
volt regulator).
Construction
Breadboard assembly of the 0
analyzer is not recommended, al-
though a seasoned builder may
wish to attempt it. It's best to ei- Ale INCHES
ther make your own PC board
from the foil pattern we've pro- FOIL PATTERN for the THD meter shown actual size.
vided, or order one from source
mentioned in the parts list. tion of all polarized parts as you line wiring, including the LED1
Mount all components as install them, and the use of IC indicator, uses two wires plus a
shown in Fig. 2. Check orienta- sockets is suggested. All power - shield. Connect the shield wires
J8 J4
EARTH POWER
IN
LED1
-R46 023
, - R5I - -R52- - !C31 b5 --- C24
G30
C25 026
'-' _ yt__ leg 4 C28
' FI4 1 - R54R50
R53 R49 - I 1
- 022
029 -- R48--
-C32- LI IC7
C10 R30
C'12
-
R22 Jul
R12 -R15 -
C15
IC5
!' R37
-- '1 C17
1 1
J6 .:)0J7
DVM
R8 R10A
SOLDER
TO FRAME
OF R10
FIG. 2-PARTS PLACEMENT DIAGRAM. Note that JU1 is actually an 8 -pin DIP socket in
which a jumper is placed in either the far -left or -right side (see text). Also note the six your DMM on its 20K resistance
components soldered to the front -panel -mounted controls. range, select two 15.8K resistors
that are the closest in value. If the
together and then to ground, to than their marked 1% values. If match is less than perfect, solder
prevent hum pick-up. Also, you don't own or can't borrow a a small -value resistor in series
ground the frame of potentiome- capacitance meter, you can build with the lower value to raise it to
ter R10. Bare ground wires for and use the simple circuit shown the exact value of the higher one.
each BNC connector may be in Fig. 3. Adjust the calibration You can mount two resistors in
wrapped around the connector potentiometer with any one of place of one by putting one
body prior to installing the re- the four 0.01 ILF capacitors (Cl, through each hole in the board
taining nut. The ground binding C2, C11, or C13) inserted as Cx, and soldering the raised ends to-
post (J8) on the rear panel pro- to read 1.000 volt on your DMM's gether. Again, the leftover 1%
vides an optional, external earth - 2 -volt DC range. (You can consid- 15.8K resistors can be used for
ground connection when mea- er the reading to be 0.01000 F.) R18 and R27 without having to
suring microvolt -level THD sig- Now measure the remaining be closely matched.
nals. Just connect J8 to circuit three capacitors and select the You may wish to build your
ground. The grommet used to two that are closest in value. Ab- own enclosure for the THD meter.
hold bulb LMP1 should have a 1/4 - solute value is not important; we A silk-screened front panel mea-
inch inside diameter. It is glued simply want them to be the same suring 93/4 inches wide by 3
to the top side over the hole for value. However, if one capacitor inches high can be purchased
maximum resiliency. measures 80 pF lower than an- from the source mentioned in the
In addition to the components other, you can solder an 82-pF parts list. If you decide to pur-
that are soldered to the circuit mica capacitor on the underside chase the front panel, and build
board, also note that five re- of the PC board in parallel with your own enclosure, build it to fit
sistors and one capacitor are sol- the selected capacitor. The left- the front panel and drill several 1/4
dered across the terminals of over 1% 0.01 ILF capacitors can be -inch holes in the top panel near
panel -mounted controls Si, R10, used for C11 and C13 without the voltage regulators to allow
S2, and J2 (see Fig. 2). having to be closely matched. heat to escape. Otherwise you
Capacitors CI and C2 must be Likewise, resistors R2 and R3 can purchase the same enclosure
matched to better tolerances must be close in value. Using used for the prototype; the exact
PARTS LIST
All resistors areY4 watt, 5%, unless R46-680 ohms LED1-Red light -emitting diode
otherwise indicated. R50-249 ohms, 1%, metal film Other components
R1-430 ohms R51, R52-100,000 ohms, 1%, metal S1 -Panel -mount, 2 -pole, 6 -position
R2, R3, R18, R27-15,800 ohms, film switch
1%, metal film Capacitors S2, S4 -S6 -Panel -mount miniature
R4-100, 000 ohms, PC -mount C1, C2, C11, C13-0.01 F,100 volts, SPDT toggle switch
potentiometer 1% Mylar S3 -Not used
R5-22,000 ohms C3, C7, C15-22 pF, 300 volts, mica JU1-8-pin DIP socket or jumper
R6, R11, R15, R34, R36-1000 ohms C4, C5-10 F, 25 volts, tantalum block
R7-20,000 ohms C6, C8, C20, C29, C32-0.1 F, 50 T1-120VAC/24VAC, 200 mA wall
R8, R48-2000 ohms volts, Mylar transformer
R9-220 ohms C9, C14, C21, C30-0.01 F., 50 J1 -J3, J5 -Panel -mount male BNC
R10-50,000 ohms, panel -mount volts, Mylar connector
potentiometer C10, C12-0.001 F, 100 volts, 1% J4 -Coaxial power input jack
R10A-5600 ohms Mylar J6 -J8 -Panel -mount binding post
R12, R45-620 ohms C16, C17-0.2 F, 50 volts, Mylar LMP1-Incandescent bulb, #327
R13, R35-100,000 ohms C18, C19, C23, C27-1.0 F, 25 Fl -Fuse, 0.5A, 120 VAC
R14-11,000 ohms volts, tantalum Miscellaneous: Project case (Jam-
R16, R17, R24, R25, R38, R39, C22, C25-220 F, 50 volts, eco Electronics H2507), two 1/2
R49-10,000 ohms, 1%, metal film electrolytic inch diameter instrument knobs,
R19, R2&-5100 ohms C24, C28-0.33 F, 50 volts, Mylar seven 8 -pin IC sockets, (not includ-
R20, R31-9090 ohms, 1%, metal C26-1 F, 50 volts, tantalum ing JU1), fuse holder, LED bezel,
film C31-100 F, 25 volts, electrolytic grommet, shielded cable, wire, sol-
R21, R29 130,000 ohms Semiconductors der, hardware, etc.
R22, R30-50,000 ohms, PC -mount IC1, IC2, IC5-NE5534N low -noise Note: The following items are
potentiometer op -amp available from Instrumex, P.O.
R23, R28-7500 ohms IC3, IC4-TL074 quad low -noise Box 490, Blue Bell, PA 19422:
R32-2000 ohms, 1%, metal film op -amp Etched, drilled, and plated PC
R33-18,200 ohms, 1%, metal film IC6-CA3193E precision op -amp board and silk-screened plastic
R37-10 megohms IC7-7815 positive 15 -volt regulator front panel (both to fit case men-
R40-4530 ohms, 1%, metal film IC8-7915 negative 15 -volt regulator tioned above -$25.00 + $3.00
R41, R42-1 megohm IC9 CA3260E dual MOSFET-input S&H
R43-10,000 ohms, PC -mount op -amp PA residents must include 6%
potentiometer D1, D2 -1N914 diode sales tax.
R44, R47, R53, R54-10,000 ohms D3 -D5 -1N4002 diode Allow 2-4 weeks for delivery.
DVM
INPUT
OUTPUT THD J2
J1 ANALYZER
OUT
AMPLIFIER
OR 8Q
INPUT
POWER RESISTOR
LOAD (IF REQ.)
THD MEASUREMENT
When a pure or undistorted sine wave is
applied to a circuit containing vacuum
tubes, transistors, or op -amps, which is
used to provide linear transfer of the sig-
nal, some degree of distortion always ap-
pears at the output.
As the near -perfect sine wave travels
through the device under test (DUT), its
shape is altered due to inherent non-
linearities within the circuit. Waveform al-
FIG. 4-THE COMPLETED PROTOTYPE. Notice how the incandescent bulb (LMP1) is teration is the equivalent of adding
protected from damage by a rubber grommet. harmonics, or multiples of the fundamen-
tal frequency, in varying phases and am-
plitudes to the fundamental signal. It can
be shown mathematically and by mea-
IC3-pin-1 side of R20. Adjust R22 position. It's important to note surement that these spurious harmonic
for a minimum reading on the that if the input signal to J2 goes components are vested within the output
scope CRT or voltmeter. Insert much higher than 20V peak to signal's waveshape.
the jumper previously placed in peak, and S2 is in the <20V posi- Spectrum analyzers are used to sweep
the NULL position in the C12 side tion, clipping will begin to occur. over the frequency range of interest, sep-
arating the fundamental and its harmon-
of the JIM jumper block. You may You can use the analyzer's cal- ics into individual signals. It provides a
be able to squeeze 1 or 2 dB more ibrator to check all remaining CRT display of these various signals, in-
null from the system by shifting functions. Connect a coaxial ca- cluding odd andior even harmonics in
the DMM to the DVM binding ble from J5 to J2. Set all toggle their proper amplitudes and frequency lo-
posts (J6 and J7), setting the switches to the upright posi- cations relative to the fundamental. Sim-
meter to its 200 mV DC range, tions, and connect your DMM to ilar instruments use digital signal
setting S4 to x 10, and trimming J6 and J7 set to read DC volts or processing techniques rather than a
the adjustments of R22 and R30. millivolts, as required. Now, if the sweep method to provide more in-depth
data including phase angles.
THD signal reads 24.0 mV, which Wave analyzers are essentially tuned
Checkout and use is 0.024V, and you switch the S5 filters that include a measurement window
Connect a scope or DMM scat to to "REF," the DMM should then that is manually frequency shifted through
read AC volts to output jack J1. read 2.40V, or a number very the range of interest. It offers meter -read-
Rotate Si and R10; the output close to that. When the resulting out amplitude measurements of the vari-
signal voltage should vary ac- fraction (0.24/2.4) is multiplied ous harmonics relative to the fundamental
cordingly. The controls are at- by 100 it should produce a THD frequency.
tenuators, not gain controls, so percent figure of one percent. THD analyzers are used to notch out
maximum signal occurs in the the fundamental from the DUT's output
Figure 5 shows the test setup signal leaving only the harmonic compo-
counterclockwise position. for THD measurements. Say that nents intact. It then measures the sum
Check the INPUT P -P switch S2 we are measuring percent THD of total of the residual signals in terms of
by applying the signal from J1 to a 50 -watt amplifier that's con- their RMS or average values, and com-
J2, setting S5 to "REF," and mea- nected to an 8 -ohm power re- pares them to the overall amplitude of the
suring the AC output at J3. The sistor load. By ohms law, it will output signal which is taken as a 100 per-
cent reference. The ratio of the THD mea-
output signal should be max- take 20 volts across 8 ohms to surement to the reference, multiplied by
imum with S2 in the <20V posi- produce 50 watts. Now let's say 100, equals the percent THD. R -E
72 tion and minimum in the >20V continued on page 128
phone and amplified by Ql. Re-
sistors R2-R5 set up the DC
operating bias of Ql. Capacitor
C3 serves to improve the AC re-
sponse to the audio voltage, and
C2 blocks the DC bias and cou-
ples the AC to the next stage,
where the RF action takes place.
The amplified AC voltage from Q1
is routed to the base of Q2. 11-an-
sistor Q2 and associated circuit-
ry (C5 and the inductor) form an
oscillator that operates in the
SIMPLE FM 80-130 MHz range. The os-
cillator is voltage -controlled, so it
is modulated by the audio voltage
that is applied to the base of Q2.
Resistor R6 limits the input to
TRANSMITTER the RF section, and its value can
be adjusted as necessary to limit
the volume of the input. That will
help control the amount of distor-
This handy FM transmitter tion you have on very loud in-
puts. Resistors R7-R9 set the DC
makes a great one -evening operating bias of Q2, another
2N2222 that's used as the os-
project, even for cillator and modulator of the
transmitter. Capacitor C5 is a
6-50 pF trimmer capacitor that's
first-time builders! used to tune the oscillator tank
circuit, and C4 routes the RF
from the oscillator to ground to
JAMES A. MELTON prevent unstable operation.
Construction
The FM transmitter is built on
a piece of perforated con-
struction board with 0.1 -inch
hole spacing. Component spac-
ing is not critical, but placement
is. You should place the compo-
nents on the board in a layout
that is similar to the prototype
shown in Fig. 2. Generally, you
THERE IS NO THRILL LIKE THE THRILL regulations regarding wireless will also want to make the trans-
you get from operating equip- microphones. (The emissions mitter as small as possible.
ment you have built yourself. If must stay within a band of 200 Let's start from the left side of
you have never built a project kHz, its output between 88 and the schematic and work to the
from a magazine before, let this 108 MHz, and the field strength right. You'll want to cut out a
FM transmitter be your first- of the radiated emissions must piece of perfboard that is 12 holes
you'll see how much satisfaction not exceed 50 Wm at a distance wide and 30 holes long. That will
and fun you can have! of 15 meters from the device.) If give you plenty of room to work
The FM transmitter is de- powered from a 9 -volt battery and with, but still produce a small
signed to run from a 9 -volt bat- used with an antenna no longer unit. First lay out two power lines
tery and is made from readily than 12 inches, the transmitter's on the board with bare wire; the
available parts. The author's pri- radiated power will be within the positive supply from the battery
mary use is as a baby monitor, FCC limits. The FCC takes a dim will be on top, and the negative
but the uses of a transmitter like view of persons operating out- (ground) will be on the bottom.
this one are almost limitless. It is side the legal power limits, so A 1K resistor (R1) supplies the
very sensitive, and easily capable please do not substitute any com- bias voltage for the microphone.
of picking up a conversation in ponents in this circuit which Remember to install the resistor
any part of a room. The dimen- would alter the output power. vertically, next to the positive
sions and values given here will supply line, and bend the other
allow static -free reception within Circuitry end of the lead to the board. Go
the perimeter of most homes. Take a look at the schematic in through the board and down to-
No license is required for this Fig. 1. Audio is picked up from ward the ground bus. Now insert
transmitter according to FCC the room by an electret micro- the microphone leads into the 73
about 1 inch of twisted wire, stop
+9V 6-12" and cut the looped end off leaving
ANTENNA about 1/2 -inch of twisted wire
(this forms the capacitor) and'/2-
inch of untwisted wire for leads.
Capacitor C7, a 0.1pF capaci-
tor, is one of the most critical
components in the circuit. You
must place it across the L1 -Q2 -
R9 assembly, as shown in Fig. 1,
to reduce the amount of RF feed-
LECTRET back you'll get into the rest of the
MICROPHONE
circuit. The antenna (more 24 -
*SEE TEXT
gauge wire) should be soldered to
FIG. 1-FM TRANSMITTER SCHEMATIC. When powered from a 9 -volt battery and used
the coil you made, about 2 turns
with an antenna no longer than 12 inches, the radiated power will be within the FCC limits. up from the bottom, or the tran-
sistor side, and should be about
8-12 inches long.
ANTENNA TRIMMER CAPACITOR HAND -MADE COIL
Operation
lb use the transmitter, set up a
radio in the area at least 10 feet
from the project. Find a blank
spot on the dial and turn the ra-
dio up so you can hear the static.
Connect a 9 -volt battery to the
transmitter and listen to the ra-
dio. Slowly adjust the tank capac-
itor (C5) until you "quiet" the
receiver; this is the tuned spot.
Note that when you remove your
hands from the transmitter, you
MICROPHONE HAND -MADE CAPACITOR will detune the circuit some-
FIG. 2-THE AUTHOR'S COMPLETED PROTOTYPE. Notice how the antenna is soldered what. It is usually best to leave it
to the coil, about 2 turns from the transistor side. detuned, and tune the radio in to
get the best reception. If you can-
board, making sure that the PARTS LIST not get the tuning range you de-
ground lead of the microphone sire, you can squeeze the coils in
can be soldered to the ground bus All resistors are Ye -watt, 5%. the tank circuit closer together to
on the board. Route the lead from R1, R6-1000 ohms raise the frequency, or pull them
R1 to the positive lead of the mi- R2-15,000 ohms apart just a little bit to lower it.
crophone and solder it. The R3-6800 ohms The circuit works best when
10-F capacitor, Cl, should be R4-10,000 ohms powered by a battery, but if a wall -
placed in the middle of the board, R5, R7-4700 ohms derived supply is needed, make
oriented as shown on the sche- R8-2200 ohms certain that the ripple voltage is
matic, and soldered to the micro- R9-220 ohms as low as possible, or you will get
phone/R1 junction. Capacitors hum in the receiver. R -E
This project requires two C1, C3-10 F, 25 volts, electrolytic
C2-2.2 1.LF, 25 volts, electrolytic
hand -made parts-coil LI and C4, C7-0.1 ,F, 25 volts, ceramic
capacitor C6-but you make C5-5--60 pF trimmer
both of them yourself using only C6-hand-made capacitor (see text)
wire and a common pencil for a Semiconductors
coil form. The inductor is made 01, Q2 -2N2222 NPN transistor
by winding two pieces of 24 - Other components
gauge insulated wire, laid side by L1-hand-made coil (see text)
side, around a pencil six times. Miscellaneous: perforated con-
Remove the coil you have formed struction board, 9 -volt battery, bat-
and unscrew the two coils apart tery clip, electret microphone, 24 -
from each other. One of these gauge insulated wire, bare wire,
coils, the better -looking of the solder. etc.
two, will be used in the tank cir-
cuit (L1) and the other can be
used in the next one you build. inch piece of 24 -gauge insulated
The other hand -made compo- wire, bend it over double and, be-
nent, capacitor C6, is part of the ginning 1/2 -inch from the open
oscillator feedback. lb make this end, twist the wire as if you were
small value capacitor, take a 4 - forming a rope. When you have
IT'S BEEN ONLY A DECADE SINCE COM-
pact disc digital audio was intro-
duced. In that short time, the
compact disc or CD has brought
high -quality audio reproduction
to the masses, and taught us to
appreciate good sound. We're not
exaggerating when we say that
the CD has changed the way we
listen to music.
It's rare for a new technology
and format to catch on so quick-
ly-especially one that threatens
to make its predecessors ob-
solete. CD was a success not only
because of consumer acceptance,
but because it also offered some-
thing to manufacturers, record-
ing companies, and retailers.
It wasn't the CD's "gee whiz"
appeal-nor was it the promise of
perfect audio reproduction-that
caused sales to catch fire. It was
convenience. When compared to
the LP that it replaced, CD's were
a dramatic breakthrough. They
can store more audio in a pack-
age a fraction of the size. They
can be lent to even your most
careless friends without getting
scratched. They even play back
more conveniently, because you
can skip tracks that you don't
want to listen to, or re -arrange
the order in which the songs play
back.
It's convenience, also, that
makes the venerable compact
cassette our music medium of
choice. (Cassettes outsold CD's
every year until last year.) They fit BRIAN C. FENTON
in your shirt pocket, and they
stand up reasonably well to
abuse. They're ideal for use in a
car or in a personal stereo be-
cause they're relatively immune Two new digital audio formats-Sony's
to shocks. So what if they can't Mini Disc and Philips' Digital Compact
come close to the audio quality of
a CD or even an LP?
Cassette-promise to battle each other as
How about DAT?
In the belief that consumers they create consumer confusion.
had fallen so much in love with
the idea of digital audio because chines to the U.S. The RIAA was general press.
of their exposure to CD, Japa- concerned about DAT's potential Although some DAT machines
nese manufacturers reasoned to make virtually perfect copies of were available on the "gray mar-
that Digital Audio Tape (DAT) CD's. (They seemingly missed the ket" of unofficially imported
would be to the CD what the com- fact that, for most people, cas- goods, DAT officially arrived in
pact cassette was to the LP Unfor- settes do the same thing. And de- the U.S. market in 1990-with
tunately, it didn't work out that spite that, pre-recorded cassettes generally disappointing results.
way for a number of reasons. have outsold both LP's and CD's Whether it was the years of delay,
First, the record industry, combined since 1982! They've the taint of the lawsuits, the ex-
spearheaded by the RIAA (Re- outsold blank tapes as well.) The pense of the machines, or the
cording Industry Association of threats of lawsuits were enough lack of pre-recorded software that
America), threatened lawsuits to stop DAT dead in its tracks, have killed DAT in the consumer
against any Japanese manufac- despite considerable accolades market, we'll never know for
turer who exported the DAT ma - for the format in the audio and sure. Perhaps DAT failed because 75
107.5
enter into the field of digital re- +100
cording." Tandy Corporation an-
nounced that they would be the so
0
T first U.S. licensee of Philips' tech-
nology, and would introduce a
home recording deck in late
co
11 40
so
< AVERAGE THRESHOLD
MINIMUM THRESHOLD
J
185
8x195=1560
2
4 1852.5
1992.
The most important feature of
DCC is that it doesn't make the
ci) 20
R7
er line, it activates a relay whose 100K
contacts are in series with the RY1
speaker; after two seconds the re-
lay disconnects the speaker until + 0- SEE
TEXT
the DC is removed. A fuse is inad- 12VDC
tector circuit's schematic. FIG. 2-THE POWER SUPPLY can be used for up to four individual protector circuits. The
optional 9 -volt DC output jack can be used to power an electric -guitar footpedal or
Circuitry fuzzbox.
The protector circuit's sche-
matic is shown in Fig. 1 and the comparator (IC1-a and ICI -b). with reference to the power -sup-
power supply is shown in Fig. 2. The outputs of IC1-a and IC1-b ply ground. When Cl reaches 9
Up to four individual prptector are open -collector stages, wired volts it triggers comparator IC1-c
circuits can be powered from one together, and pulled high causing its output to go high and
supply, although most applica- through R7. That forms a wired bias Q2 into conduction via R9.
tions will require only one or two ORfunction and completes the When turned on, Q2 grounds one
circuits per chassis. The optional window comparator. When the end of relay RY1 thereby activat-
9 -volt DC output jack can be used output of the R1 -R2 voltage divid- ing it and disconnecting the au-
to power a footpedal or fuzzbox, er exceeds the reference levels set dio passing through its contacts
eliminating the need for a DC by R4 and R5, the output of the from the speaker. The relay con-
wall transformer when the cir- window comparator goes low and tacts will remain open until the
cuit is used to protect guitar -am- removes the bias from Ql. The DC input is removed from the
plifier speakers. The power sup- input voltage at which that hap- protector circuit. Diode Dl pro-
ply can be modified for different pens is determined by the value tects Q2 against reverse -bias
applications, and we'll talk about of Rl. The formulas for calculat- spikes generated by the relay coil.
them later. ing R1 are presented later in this The circuit has two separate
Referring to Fig. 1, the voltage - article. 'flunsistor Q1 is turned grounds: a speaker ground and a
divider resistors R3-R6 are used off while the output of the win- power -supply ground. Under no
to bias the positive and negative dow comparator is low, thus al- circumstances should these two
inputs of the window comparator lowing timing -capacitor Cl to grounds be connected together. If
formed by IC1-a and ICI -b. The begin charging through R8. two circuits are used together,
inputs are biased at plus and Under normal input condi- then three entirely separate
minus 3 volts. The voltage divid- tions (an AC audio signal), the grounds will exist: a power -sup-
er also provides a 9 -volt reference output of the window com- ply ground and a speaker ground
for the negative input of com- parator will return to a high level for each circuit (see Fig. 3-a).
parator ICI -c. when the input returns to the Some stereo amplifiers, es-
Resistors RI and R2 form an plus and minus 3 -volt range. pecially those used in car -radio
input voltage divider fed from the That biases Q1 into conduction amplifiers, have differential or
speaker terminals of an audio and immediately discharges Cl. floating -ground outputs for each
amplifier. The input divider is ref- If a DC signal large enough to channel and cannot be con-
erenced to analog ground, and trigger the window comparator is nected together. Figures 3-a, -b,
the output of the divider is con- present on the input, then QI will and -c are AC model diagrams
nected to the negative and remain in its off state and Cl will showing the equivalent connec-
positive inputs of the window charge until it reaches 9 volts tion paths between two circuits
TABLE 1
-1- -r (sin-1(28.28/40))/360(20Hz)
= 45/7200
a = 6.25 ms
From those equations we can
conclude that, for the sine wave
of Fig. 4-a to travel from 0 to 28
volts (0.707 x peak value), it
0.7V takes 6.25 ms, or one eighth of
the total period (50 ms) of the
waveform. 6.25 ms is also the
ov r-- time it takes the sine wave to re-
turn to zero volts. Therefore:
6.25 ms(2) =12.5 ms
12.5 ms is the total time Cl will
f=20Hz
charge (4-c). The last step is to
t=50ing
calculate the voltage level of Cl at
H
t=12.5ms t =12.5 ms, and we'll assume
that ec is the capacitor voltage at
t, E is the power -supply voltage
100ni 1/ T (12V), e equals 2.718, t equals
12.5 ms,C equals 22 p,F, and R
equals 68K. Now we take the
equation:
ec =E(1- e-U(CR))
()V
and substitute values
=12(1- 2.718-12.5ms/(22I1F)68K)
=12(0.0084)
=100 mV
FIG. 4-SHOWN IS THE INPUT TEST SIGNAL (a), the 01 base voltage (b), and the 01 The speaker protector circuit
collector voltage (c). will disconnect the amplifier
from the speaker after a 2 -second
is between 28 and 40 volts, we'll interval using the values shown
first assume that e1 is the in- for R8 and Cl. That amount of
stantaneous voltage level (28.28 time will protect the speaker un-
VRMS), EM is the maximum or der most circumstances. Charg-
peak voltage level (40.00Vp), the ing time for Cl to reach 9 volts
frequency is f (20 Hz), pi (n) is can be calculated by rearranging
equal to 3.14, t is the time for sine that equation and assuming that
wave to reach 28.28 VRms, and e equals 2.718, In is the natural
that 27( radians equals 360 de- log (the inverse of ex), E is the
grees (and we'll stick to degrees power -supply voltage (12V), ec is
from this point on). That out of the capacitor voltage (9V), t is the
the way, from the equation: time for C to charge to 9V, C
equals 22 I.LF, and R equals 68K.
The rearranged equation is:
[..11
2 INCHES t = CR(ln(E/E - ec))
MAIN FOIL PATTERN shown actual size.
now we substitute values
t = (22 F(68K))(In(12/(12 - 9)))
Capacitor Cl will charge when- =1.49(1.39)
ever the input voltage exceeds the = 2.0 seconds
RMS voltage level necessary to lb change the time delay for the
produce 100 watts if R1 is equal speaker protector circuit to dis-
to 39.6K. Figure 4 shows the connect the speaker from a DC
analysis waveforms for the cir- voltage use the equation
cuit; shown is the input test sig- R8 = t/1.39C to recalculate the
nal (a), the Q1 base voltage (b), value of R8.
14111-011---- 2 INCHES
and the Q1 collector voltage (c).
Referring to Fig. 4-a, to calculate POWER SUPPLY FOIL PATTERN shown Construction
the time that the input waveform actual size. Construction of the protector
PARTS LIST
SPEAKER
INPUT
0 All resistors are 1/4 -watt, 10%.
RI-value depends on your setup
(see text and Table 1)
R2-4700 ohms
SPEAKER N-1 R3-R6-15,000 ohms
GROUND R7, R8-100,000 ohms
0 RY1
R9-2200 ohms
(SEE TEXT)
Capacitors
IG1 C1-22 p,F, 35 volts, radial
electrolytic
C2-470 ILF, 35 volts, radial
electrolytic
Semiconductors
ICI-LM339N quad open -collector
C1--+ voltage comparator
IC2-7812 12 -volt regulator
D1 -1N4004 diode
SPEAKER
OUTPUT
D2-ECG 5065A 3 -volt Zener diode
0 (required for optional 9-VDC out-
put, see text)
01, Q2 -2N2222 NPN transistor
BR1-ECG 5882 1 -amp bridge
rectifier
Other components
T1 -120/12 -VAC 300-mA
GND +12V
transformer
RY1-5- or 15 -amp relay (see text)
INPUT FROM J1-optional 9-VDC jack (whatever
POWER SUPPLY
type best suits your needs)
Miscellaneous: PC boards, AC plug
FIG. 5-PARTS-PLACEMENT DIAGRAM for the protector circuit. The 5 -amp relay will and line cord, 18 -gauge stranded
mount right on the board, while the 15 -amp relay must be mounted on the edge of the hookup wire, cabinet(s), speaker -
board using double -sided tape.
input and -output jacks (RCA jacks,
spring -terminal board, etc.), solder,
etc.
Note: The following items are
IC2 available from Applitron Elec-
+0 tronics, 2721 Creswell Road, Bel -
Air, MD 21014: Kit of parts for the
12VDC speaker protector circuit includ-
OUT -C2 - ing an etched and drilled PC
-o board and all parts that mount
on it for $14.95. Please specify
the value of R1 you desire (stan-
ti SECONDARY Ti PRIMARY dard 10% values only) and P.A./
guitar, home stereo, or auto-
13R1
motive version. Add an addi-
r\-+ tional $3.50 for the optional
high -current (15 amp) relay. A kit
of parts for the 12 -volt supply is
also available that includes an
etched and drilled PC board and
all parts that mount on it for
$14.95. Include $1.95 postage
and handling for each kit or-
0 dered and allow 3-4 weeks for
I 20v/V: delivery. Maryland State resi-
INPUT dents must add 5% sales tax.
FIG. 6-PARTS-PLACEMENT DIAGRAM for the power -supply board.
circuit depends on the intended place R4 and R5 with 3 -volt Zener levels below 100 watts, you can
use. Once you have a clear idea of diodes. That will ensure that the use the 5 -amp relay shown in the
the application, then you can window -comparator reference parts list; above 100 watts, you
customize the circuit to meet voltages, with respect to analog must use a 15 -amp relay.
your needs. To use the circuit to ground, will be independent of The parts -placement diagram
protect car -stereo speakers, re- the DC supply voltage. For power continued on page 129 83
IF YOU THOUGHT A MUSIC ON -HOLD line's 48 volts
feature for your telephone was DC from enter-
only for high -budget profession- ing the ampli-
als, think again. Well show you fier. The ring-
how you can add FM music on - ing -voltage is
hold to any analog telephone line limited by RI
with a 'Much lbne telephone. It's and R2. The
ideal for home offices or for peo- ratio of R3 to R1
ple who want to project a high- sets the gain of
tech appearance. IC3-d to 0.1. Re-
Some of the features of this de- sistor R4 biases
sign include; LED status indica- IC3-d between
tor, audio volume control, built- its supply volt-
in antenna, only one operating age and ground
adjustment, and a mute function allowing, it to
to eliminate "hiss" in between operate from the
stations. You can build this im- single + 6.0
pressive device in under three volts DC power -
hours, for only $70. supply line. The
Construction, test, and align- output of the
ment is made easy due to the use balance ampli-
of specialized IC's, namely a sin- fier passes
gle FM receiver chip, IC4, and a through coup-
DTMF decoder, IC1. There are no ling capacitor
special coils to wind, and no C3 and is then
tricky circuit adjustments are re- decoded by IC1,
quired. All you need is a DMM to a Motorola
test and align the circuit. Let's MC145436 dual -
now take a look at how the unit tone multi -fre-
works. quency (DTMF)
decoder IC.
On -hold circuit The output of
A block diagram of the unit is IC1 is a 4 -bit
shown in Fig. 1, and the sche- word, whose
matic in Fig. 2. The FM on -hold codes are listed
device connects to an analog tele- in Table 1. It is connected to IC2- such as music, that occur during
phone line via an RJ11 modular b, a 4082 dual quad -input AND normal telephone usage.
jack. It's powered by an external gate, so that the output of that IC When the "" key is depressed,
+ 15 -volt DC, 150-mA power pack (pin 13) is normally low, and goes IC2-b pin 13 goes high, which in
that plugs into a standard 120 - high only when the "" key is turn charges C4 and turns on
volt AC outlet. The 15 -volt DC pressed. Therefore, when the "" switching transistor Ql. That ac-
supply passes through polarity - key is decoded by IC1, pins 1, 2, tivates relay RY1. Diode DI pre-
protection diode Dli to the input and 13 are high while pin 14 is vents DC voltage from bleeding
of IC5, a 7812 + 12.0 -volt DC volt- low. lb switch the output of IC2-b back into IC2-b pin 13. The time -
age regulator. Capacitors C24 high, four logic -high inputs base oscillator for ICI is formed
and C25 provide decoupling and must be present. The high in- from a 3.58 -MHz crystal XTAL1
anti -oscillation protection for the puts are provided by IC1 pins 1, 2, and R5.
regulator. The regulated output and 13 and IC2-a pin 1. The normally open contacts of
of IC5 is fed to the input of IC6, a In order for IC2-a's output to go RY1 close and D7, R9, RY2, R10,
78L05 voltage regulator, to pro- high, it must also have four logic - C5, LED1, transformer Ti (Sec),
vide a 5 -volt supply for IC4, a high inputs.1Wo of those are pro- and the four diodes from the po-
TDA7000 FM receiver. Decoup- vided by R7, D10, and C27. Those larity bridge (D3-D6) are con-
ling and anti -oscillation protec- components ensure that the in- nected across the telephone line
tion for IC6 is provided by C26. ternal power supply is operating. and effectively "seize" it. That
Voltage divider R16-R17 provides That will prevent the unit from combination of components is
the + 6 -volts DC power -supply seizing the phone line if power is referred to as the seizure net-
output, which is filtered by C28. lost or removed while it is con- work. The unit is now in a
When a key on any ibuch Tone nected to the phone line. The re- "standby" mode and LEDI lights
telephone is depressed, the sig- maining two inputs are provided dimly. If jumper J1 is in the IN
nal is passed through IC3-d, an by a logic high from IC1 pin 12, position and a station is tuned in
LM324N balanced amplifier. The which is the DV, or DATA VALID, on the FM tuner, that station will
purpose of this amplifier is two- output pin. DV assures proper op- be heard on the telephone line. If
fold; it acts as a balanced to un- eration of IC1 by providing inter- J1 is in the OUT position, the sta-
balanced matching network, and nal checks. When those checks tion will not be heard until the
its gain is set to 0.1 to act as a are valid, Dv will output a logic phone is hung up.
line -voltage attenuator. Capaci- high. That prevents false trigger- RY1 will stay activated for ap-
84 tors Cl and C2 block the phone ing due to voice or other tones, proximately four seconds. That
To return to quency -locked loop system with
the call, the tele- an intermediate frequency (IF) of
phone can be 70 kHz. The IF can be chosen by
picked up. The active RC filters. The only func-
loop current tion that needs tuning is the os-
flowing through cillator's resonant circuit, which
the seizure net- selects the reception frequency.
work is reduced The antenna is made up from
because of the the telephone line and the RJ11
double termina- cable. The RF signal travels
tion (the tele- through that path and is coupled
phone and sei- via DC blocking capacitor C6 to
zure network). the RF input bandpass filter. This
RY2 deactivates, broadband low -Q filter consists of
and the seizure C10, C11, and Ll. Its primary pur-
network is dis- pose is to pass RF energy in the
connected. 88.0- to 108.0 -MHz range while
Kick -back ca- attenuating RF energy from
pacitor C5 en- above and below that frequency
sures the loop range. The bandpass filter serves
current is re- to suppress potential interfering
duced below the energy from outside the commer-
drop -out cur- cial FM broadcast band.
rent for RY2. The bandpass filter also acts as
`That reduction a split -capacitor (also known as a
in current turns tapped capacitor) input imped-
off LED1, dis- ance -matching network to IC4. It
connects the matches a 75 -ohm RF input im-
music, and re- pedance to IC4's 1.5K input im-
connects the pedance. The reverse RF input is
caller. decoupled by C12.
If the tele- After the RF signal passes
phone is not through the input bandpass fil-
hung up within ter, it goes to the input of the in-
the four -second ternal Gilbert cell mixer where it
time-out period, is mixed with the local oscillator
Impress your callers by RY1 will deacti- (LO) signal. As mentioned earlier,
adding an FM music on -hold vate and the the frequency of the LO is de-
project will be signed to produce an IF of 70
feature to your telephone. taken out of the kHz. The tunable LO, connected
"stand-by" between pins 5 and 6 of IC4, con-
mode and sists of tank components L2 and
placed in the D9.
delay is determined by the RC "normal" mode. Varactor diode, D9, is DC -volt-
network of R6-C4. Diode D2 pre- LEDI will not be lit, and the caller age tuned by the voltage -divider
vents relay -coil induction -induc- will be disconnected if the tele- circuit consisting of R13, R18,
ed "spikes" from appearing on phone is hung up. and R12. The low end of the tun-
the + 12 -volt DC power -supply Latching push-button switch ing range is set by R13 while the
line. S1 is used to tune in the desired high end is set by R12. A high
If the telephone is hung up station. When it is in the IN posi- impedance path to the oscillator
within the four -second time-out tion, the seizure network is is provided by R11, keeping it
period, additional loop current placed across the telephone line from appearing on the DC tuning
will flow through the seizure net- and the output of the tuner is control voltage. C21 acts as an RF
work and activate RY2. That also connected (regardless of the "short" to ground which prevents
causes normally open contacts of status of J1). That allows you to the oscillator's RF from entering
RY2 to close. The project is now hear the output of the FM tuner D9. The IF output of the mixer is
in the "on -hold" mode, LED1 will and adjust the station tuning routed to a three -stage broad-
be brightly lit, and the selected and volume. (A feature of the re- band low -Q IF filter network.
radio station will be heard in the ceiver is the elimination of inter - The first section (C20 and C19)
telephone line regardless of the station "hiss," therefore no audio determines the cut-off frequency
position of jumper J1. After the will be present until a station is for the second -order low-pass IF
four -second time-out period, RY1 tuned in.) filter. The second section (C8 and
will deactivate. The loop current C7) determines the upper and
flowing through RY2 keeps the FM receiver circuit lower passband. The third sec-
seizure network across the tele- At the heart of the receiver cir- tion (C9) determines the pass -
phone line and the unit remains cuit is IC4, a TDA7000 Signetics band of the third section of the
"on -hold." FM receiver. This IC has a fre- low-pass filter network. 85
TABLE 1-DTMF DECODER
ON -HOLD LOGIC OUTPUT CODES
IC2-b RY1
0 Digit 138 D4 D2 D1
IC1
INPUT FROM
IC3-d DTMF ro-
PHONE LINE
DECODER
1 0 0 0 1
0 2 0 0 1 0
"." KEY I Yis. IC2-a
BALANCE
DECODE
3 0 0 1 1
ANTENNA AMPLIFIER
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
SEIZURE 6 0 1 1 0
RY2
NETWORK 7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
AUDIO
A 9 1 0 0 1
AMPLIFIER
FM RECEIVER T
* 1 0 1 1
1,1 J
IC4 # 1 1 0 0
IC3-c 0
TUNER A 1 1 1
B 1 1 1 0
C 1 1 1 1
D 0 0 0 0
FIG. 1-THIS IS THE BLOCK DIAGRAM of the FM on -hold unit. The circuit consists of three
basic sections; a DTMF decoder/on-hold logic, seizure network, and an FM receiver.
After the signal is passed of C22 and R14. A load for the Construction
through the IF filter section, it is audio output current source is The author's prototype is
demodulated. The quadrature also provided by R14. shown in Fig. 3. The entire FM
detector is tuned by C14. The fre- The audio signal passes on -hold circuit is mounted on
quency -locked loop (FLL) filter, through C23 and R15 to the in- one double -sided PC board. The
which suppresses IF harmonics verting input of audio amplifier use of a single -sided board will
and prevents them from appear- IC3-c. Feedback resistor R19 con- work as long as the jumper wires
ing at the output of the demod- trols the gain of the amplifier are added to the top where neces-
ulator, is controlled by C18. from 0 to 10. Transformer T1 sary. We recommend that a PC
The demodulated audio signal matches the amplifier's output board be used because of the VHF
from pin 2 passes through a impedance to the telephone line range involved in this project. We
deemphasis network consisting impedance. have provided foil patterns of the
PARTS LIST
All resistors are 1/4 -watt, 5%. C28-100 p.F, 25 volts, 20% T1-audio transformer, 500 -ohm pri-
R1, R2, R11-100,000 ohms electrolytic mary, 2 0 0 -ohm secondary
R3, R4, R7, R13, R15-10,000 ohms Semiconductors (Mouser no.42TM002)
R5-1 Megohm D1-D7, D10, D11 -1N4003, 1 amp S1-DPDT latching push button
R6-39,000 ohms 200 PIV rectifier diode switch
R8-2000 ohms D8-not used XTAL1-3.58-MHz parallel resonant
R9-2700 ohms D9-MV209 varactor diode crystal, HC -18/U case
R10-1200 ohms (Motorola) or ECG -604 J1-O.1-inch single inline jumper bar
R12-130,000 ohms LED1-Red LED and strap
R14-20,000 ohms ICI-MC145436 DTMF decoder Miscellaneous: Male power jack,
R16, R17-470 ohms (Motorola) female PC board -mounted lug re-
R18, R19-100,000 ohms horizontal IC2-4082 dual 4 -Input AND gate ceptacles, 117 -VAC power pack (15
PC -mounted potentiometer IC3-LM324N quad op -amp VDC at 150 mA), PC board, 6 -foot
Capacitors. All are 50 volts DC, IC4-TDA7000 FM Receiver (Sig- modular line cord, male RJ11 to
10% tolerance, mono or ceramic netics-Philips) lugs, project case (Builder's
disc unless otherwise indicated. IC5--7812 +12-VDC, 1 -amp Choice), and 3 14 -pin IC sockets
C1, C2, C6-0.022 F, 250 WVDC, regulator
20% tolerance IC6-78L05 + 5-VDC, 0.1 -amp
C3, C13, C17, C23-C26-0.1 pf regulator
C4, C27-10 1.L.F, 10 volts, 20% Q1-MPSA13 NPN Darlington
tantalum transistor
C5-47 p.F, 63 volts, 20% electrolytic Other components
C7, C20, C21-3300 pF, 50 volts L1-0.138 p.H fixed inductor
C8, C14-330 pF (Coilcraft no. 132-09 or
C9-150 pF equivalent)
C10, C11-39 pF ceramic disc L2-0.060 1.1.Ft shielded variable in-
C12, C22-2200 pF ductor (Coilcraft no. 150-02J08S or
C15-220 pF TOKO no. MC122)
C16, C18, C29-0.01 p,F, 20% RY1, RY2-DPDT relay 12 VDC (Aro-
C19-180 pF mat no. DS2YE-S-DC12)
86
+6V +6V Q1 +12V
41 51 61 MPSA13
Vol, GT XEN
t14 D1 R6
PHONE LINE C3 3 13 10
08 1N4003 39K
0 7
EN
1 12 IC2-b 13
D2
D2
C1 Al AIN 11 MC14082
12 2 1N4003
.022 100K Xour
D1
11
9 C4
IC3-d XTAL1m IC1
ATB
100-
LM324N 3.58MHz MC145436
2_ 4
10 DV
5 IC2-a 1
GND D4 MC14082
1MEG 6V R7 81 114
3 w D3 w D5
1N4003
C2
.022
R2
100K
R4
10K
OK
4.44
- 2 7
-- 1N4003
+6V
D104
y D6
0
1N44003 1N4003
1N4003 10pF
RY1
ANT. 0 A.A4
C6
022 R12 81-a R8
10 IF 10 INT 9 2K
+5V C8
FILTER CAP CAP j_ C20 130K v --0-
3300pF. it+ ""-r-
330pFii IF 2nd INT 8 R18 1 0
FILTER CAP CAP C19 )1-1 100K
C7
3300PF
C9
150pF IF LIMITER 10 INT
180pF R11
R13 A_+_0 R9 = D7
12 7 09 100K? 2.7K 70 1N4003
CAP 10K
CAP
MV20
C10 VCO 9114-*
C12
2200IpF
I C11
39pFK
L1 0
13
RF IN IC4
TDA-7000
1,
c,
1
.060pH
I-2
"3300pF
C21 RY2
+6V
475F^
.t R10
-)/
401,39pF .13807 14
MIXER v
C13
.1
LOOP
T en
4 '2' .01
\S1 -b J1
LED1
15
SOURCE CAP FILTER CAP C18IE.
.01
16 NOISE 3
GND
SOURCE Nh R19
C14 R15 Pa
330pF 10K 100K
7 AUDIO 2
DEMOD CAP FRED OUT 8
C15 C16 C22 10
+6v IC3-c
220pFN 18 CORRELATOR
CAP
MUTING
CAP
.1C17
VI2200pF
It .01 11 LM324N
IC6
78L05
0+5V
C26
0
+0 IC5 0 0+12V
15VDC 17812CV R16
011
150mA C 47051
POWER 1N4003
C24
C25 0+6V
JACK
1117 C28
4700 100pF
0
FIG. 2-SCHEMATIC OF THE FM ON -HOLD unit. The output of IC1, a DTMF decoder, is a 4 -
bit word that controls the on -hold logic. The FM receiver, IC4, uses a frequency -locked ual semiconductors as well as the
loop system with a 70 -kHz intermediate frequency, which is tuned by a tank circuit completed circuit board.
consisting of L2 and D9. Spurious reception is eliminated by a mute circuit in the IC.
Component leads-Pre-form
component leads before install-
component side and solder side ment diagram of the unit. Before ing them in the board.
of the PC board if you wish to you begin construction, there are Non -polarized capacitors-
make it yourself. If you choose a few things to keep in mind: When installing these compo-
not to use a PC board, the use of a Use proper soldering tech- nents, orient them so their val-
prototype style board is recom- niques-The importance of prop- ues can easily be read. This will
mended. You should note that er soldering cannot be empha- help if troubleshooting is needed
the use of wire wrapping will not sized enough for VHF circuits. later on.
work for the receiver portion of We recommend that the flux resi- Resistors-Mount resistors so
this project due to ground return due be removed from the com- they can be read from left to right
path impedance problems. You pleted PC board using a mild and top to bottom. This also aids
can use IC sockets for all IC's ex- non-CFC cleaner that's not in troubleshooting.
cept IC4, the TDA7000 FM re- harmful to plastics. Always read T1-Bend the tabs flush
ceiver. The use of an IC socket at the manufacturer's label. against the PC board. The audio
VHF frequencies should be avoid- Static sensitive devices-Ob- transformer has a "P" indicating
ed. serve electrostatic discharge pre- the primary side. The primary
Figure 4 shows the parts -place- cautions when handling individ- mounts towards the outside of
the board. If in doubt, the pri-
mary should measure about 500
ohms.
C6-Mount vertically with the
body in the hole closest to D4 and
D6.
LI, L2-It's important the
shield have a good electrical con-
nection with the PC board
mounting pads. Don't leave the
soldering iron on too long as this
plastic part might melt.
IC4 (TDA7000)-When solder-
ing this chip, be careful not to
keep a hot soldering iron on the
pins too long.
LED1-For proper mounting
height of the LED, cut two 1/2 - + 15VDC PHONE LINE R18 R19
inch pieces of insulating tubing. INPUT TUNING VOLUME
Insert the tubing over both leads. FIG. 3-THE AUTHOR'S PROTOTYPE. Do not use an IC socket for IC4, and be careful
Install the LED with the flat side when soldering it as excessive heat can damage the chip.
(short lead) toward T1.
D9-Mount flush against the
board. That will minimize any PHONE LINE
stray capacitance effects. 1)
IC sockets-Mount three 14 - 106
pin IC sockets (IC1-IC3) flush 0251'
cort 1
CHUM o
0
00o
O 0 o o0 cm in 0 o 0 0 button and hang up the phone.
0 00 0 0
00
El
ES
KB
mi 0 0
0
0 You can check for proper opera -
000 71)0 00 0 00 0 00 0 0
O tion by having a friend call and be
placed on hold by depressing the
00 =I gm N 00o
LI MO 000 O 0\c, 000 star "*" key (LED1 lights dimly)
O gm ix
412.0 0 0 and then hanging up the phone.
ca o 0
O EN az 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 00
/
az mis
0 Installation and use
0 o c .3
0 000 A special feature of this project
O
.- 000 O +0
0 allows you to select when the mu-
O00 0 0 0 sic is present in the handset.
o
Some telephone services (call
waiting, call forwarding, voice
L 413he INCHES
mail) require the use of the "a"
key. With J1 in the OUT position
COMPONENT SIDE foil pattern shown actual size. (circuit open), music will not be
heard in the handset when the
"*" key is depressed. It will, how-
ever, be heard by the caller when
the phone is hung up. With J1 in
the IN position (circuit closed),
music will be heard every time
the "*" key is depressed. Install
the jumper according to your
service requirements.
If you would like to connect an
external antenna or RF source,
such as cable, to the tuner, you
can connect it to the junction of
C6, C10, and Cll. It may be ad-
vantageous to disconnect the
phone -line antenna by breaking
the connection at C6.
It's easy to use the FM on -hold
unit. To place a caller on hold
press the star "s" key on any
Touch Tone telephone. That
places the unit in a standby mode
and the LED lights dimly. The
telephone must be hung up with-
in four seconds for the caller to be
SOLDER SIDE foil pattern shown actual size. placed on hold. When that's done,
the LED lights brightly. If it's not
TABLE 2-CHECKOUT MEASUREMENTS hung up within 4 seconds, the
unit resets itself and the LED
Parameter Low Limit High Limit Actual Reading goes out. The caller will be dis-
connected if the phone is hung
Output of Power Pak +13.50 + 28.00 VDC up.
Input Current 31.00 34.00 mA After a caller has been placed
IC5 output + 11.40 + 12.60 VDC on hold, all you have to do is pick
IC6 output + 4.75 + 5.25 VDC up the telephone to return to the
+6.0 VDC output + 4.50 + 6.50 VDC conversation (any telephone con-
IC3-d pin 12 + 4.50 + 6.50 VDC nected to the line, lbuch Tone or
IC2-a pin 2 + 4.50 + 6.50 VDC rotary). When the handset is
IC1 pin 3 + 4.50 + 6.50 VDC picked up, the brightly lit LED
IC2-b pin 14 + 4.50 + 6.50 VDC will extinguish, the music will go
IC3-c pin 10 + 4.50 + 6.50 VDC off, and you will be connected to
IC3-d pin 4 + 11.40 + 12.60 VDC the caller. R -E 89
THE PURIST WILL TELL YOU THAT IF poetically described as a blend of which has to do with the fact that
something's worth doing at all, straw and chicken manure. Pre- at high frequencies, alternating
it's worth doing well-and that's dictably, he soon became dissat- currents tend to travel mainly at
the case with the author of this isfied with the quality of the rec- the outside surface, or skin, of a
story. The author always loved ord player, and his junior -high conductor. Since the skin effect
music, and was probably doomed and high-school years were essentially removes current from
to permanent audiophilia from marked by repeated attempts to the center of a conductor, effec-
day one. Even in 1960 at age 12, upgrade the equipment without tively reducing it's cross-sec-
when he and his sister pooled re- spending any money. tional area, it causes an increase
sources to buy their first 45 -RPM Along came the late '70's, and a in the impedance of a conductor
record (Pat Boone's "Love Letters new product was aimed at the pu- at high frequencies.
in the Sand"), he recalls that, rists: beastie cables (the name Actually, when frequency is
even on a monophonic, crystal - has been changed to protect the high enough, a tube or pipe will
cartridge record player, there was author!), which are expensive have the same effective resis-
an audible difference between heavy -gauge speaker cables. The tance as a wire of the same diam-
the quality of a decent LP and the old purism surged forward, re- eter. That fact can be used
45. Even though it should have membering the effects of cable re- simplistically to account for the
sounded better than an LP, the 45 sistance on damping factor and use of waveguides rather than
was bassier, noisier, and some- the effect of cable capacitance on wiring at microwave frequencies.
what distorted, being pressed on high -frequency response-but But concerning high frequen-
what a broadcast engineer later the ads also spoke of skin effect, cies, how high is high?
Supposedly, the skin effect be-
comes important above about 30
MHz, but a recent ad for speaker
cables claimed perceptible bene-
fits from reducing skin effect at
20 kHz. Soon after, articles ap-
WILL
"DEASTIE"
SPEAKER
CADLES a
IMPROVE
YOUR AUDIO?
8
0Z
- CC
u
Fc
w
a_
This article tells how we f out for sure!
w
x
w
90 RICHARD A. HONEYCUTT
peared in professional trade jour- RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE, in series with the speaker. Since
nals mentioning the likes of Lu- AND CAPACITANCE OF CABLE
the simple loss calculation in Fig.
casfilm using the enormous ca- 2 depends upon the combined re-
bles, so some real research was in sistance of the speaker and the
order. cable, the resistive power loss will
The goal was to find out Zo
(OF AMP)
} ROUGH
APPROXIMATION
be related to the damping factor.
whether beastie cables did in OF SPEAKER Thus we can find a relationship
fact: between damping factor and low -
Reduce the amount of power frequency loss. In the Audio
lost in the cable enough to pro- FIG. 1-THIS CIRCUIT IS roughly equiv-
Cyclopedia Howard Itemaine es-
vide a significant improvement alent to an amplifier, speaker, and length tablished that there is no value in
in efficiency, or of cable. trying for a damping factor great-
Increase the damping factor of er than 204. That is based on the
the speaker/amplifier system cable for amplifiers up to 100 fact that the speaker's voice -coil
enough to provide audible im- watts feeding impedances of 8 resistance appears in the circuit,
provement, or ohms or more with runs of 25 feet and its value-typically 6 to 7.5
Provide any significant benefit or less. For each halving of im- ohms for an 8 -ohm speaker-
in the frequency response of the pedance or doubling of amplifier sets a practical limit on the bene-
system. power or distance, the wire size fits of reducing other resistances.
No other benefits are claimed for would increase by two gauges; 16 The effective damping factor is
these cables, so it is not neces- gauge for 100 watts into 8 ohms equal to:
sary to look for undiscovered or at 50 feet or 4 ohms at 25 feet, etc.
presently unmeasurable effects. That rule of thumb includes a TOTAL
The problem was attacked both safety factor so that the loss will CABLE
RESISTANCE
analytically and experimentally. always be less than 10%.
The equivalent circuit of a real The National Electrical Code
loudspeaker driven by a real am- specifies cable gauges based SPEAKER
IMPEDANCE
plifier through real cables is upon safety considerations; if a
shown in Fig. 1. Any effects pro- wire carries too much current
duced by the cables must show over a long enough period of 1. CABLE RESISTANCE =
up in the cable resistance, capac- time, it can become dangerously 0.1 x SPEAKER RESISTANCE
itance, or inductance. The effi- hot and start a fire. Going back to 2. RESISTANCE PER FOOT =
TOTAL CABLE RESISTANCE
ciency and damping -factor ques- the rule of thumb, a speaker with TWICE THE AMPLIFIER -TO -SPEAKER DISTANCE
tions depend almost exclusively an average impedance of 8 ohms 3. SELECT GAUGE FROM TABLE 1
upon the cable resistance, where- fed by a 100 -watt amplifier will
FIG. 2-HERE'S THE TRADITIONAL meth-
as the frequency -response ques- draw about 3.5 amperes at full od normally used to determine speaker -
tion is mainly a function of the power. However, even running at cable gauge by loss.
capacitance. Wire inductance is full tilt, it's unlikely that the aver-
so small compared with the semi - age power will be greater than
inductive nature of speaker im- one-third of your amplifier's max- ZSPEAKER
pedance at high frequencies that imum, so the rule of thumb pro-
it can be ignored, as we will see. vides a large safety margin from a RVOICE COIL + RAMP + RCABLE
The cable resistance is made fire -prevention standpoint. A stated amplifier damping fac-
up of three components: the con- The damping factor can be de- tor of 20 would represent a total
tact resistance, the ohmic resis- fined as the ratio of a speaker's resistance of 8 ohms divided by
tance of the wire, and any impedance to the total resistance 20, or 0.4 ohms in series with the
contribution from skin effect. amplifier. That would give an
The ohmic resistance can easily effective damping factor of:
be found from wire tables in most TABLE 1
electronics reference books. Ta- 81/
RESISTANCE OF COPPER WIRE - 1.25
ble 1 shows the resistance of a Gauge Resistance 611 + 0.41/
representative sampling of cop- (ohms foot)
assuming a 6 -ohm voice -coil re-
per cables, listed according to sistance. With most amplifiers
gauge. For years, selection of ca- 0 0.000098
having output impedances on
ble gauge has been made accord- 2 0.000156
ing to the criterion of 10% loss. In 4 0.000249 the order of 0.1 ohm or less, this
other words, for a given cable 6 0.000395 would mean that the cable resis-
length, what resistance will give 8 0.000628 tance could be 0.3 ohms. The loss
no more than 10% (0.46 dB) 10 0.000999 in dB corresponding to an 8 -ohm
power loss at the speaker? Figure 12 0.00159 speaker fed through a 0.3 -ohm
2 shows the calculations involved 14 0.00253 cable is:
16 0.00402
in determining that value. For 811
short cable runs, the resulting 18 0.00639 = 201oglo(
8fi+ 0.312
- 0.32dB
gauge is surprisingly small. Note: The wire must make a com-
About fifteen years ago when plete round trip, so there's 20 feet of That means that for an op-
the author was an audio consul- wire in a 10 -foot speaker cable. timum effective damping factor,
tant, he would specify 18 -gauge the resistive cable loss should be
less than 0.32 dB. Just for com-
parison purposes, a 1 -dB cable TABLE 2 -MEASURED CHARACTERISTICS OF CABLES
loss, which would result from a
0.9 -ohm cable resistance, would Cable Type C L R*
result in an effective damping (pF/ft) (H/ft) (ohms/ft)
factor of 1.14, which is not much
lower than 1.25. 22-ga. cheap 10.7 0.29 0.0178
As mentioned earlier, skin 18-ga. zip 14.0 0.28 0.007
effect increases the effective im- 20-ga. twist 18.0 0.36 0.0107
pedance of a wire, and can be 4-ga. cable 50.8 0.29 0.0007
best explained by looking at Fig. 16-ga. "drop cord" 22.4 0.38 0.006
3. The skin depth of a conductor shielded "guitar cord" 105.8 0.30 0.048
16-ga. zip 12.5 0.23 0.0127
is the distance into that conduc-
tor, measured from the outside *One-way resistance, not loop resistance; that includes the contact resistance of
surface, at which current density the terminations.
is l/e times that at the surface.
(The symbol e stands for the base
of natural logarithms, and nificantly above 1, skin effect may using stranded wire that has less
equals approximately 2.72.) For a begin to matter. We say may, be- skin effect.
direct current, the current densi- cause it only matters if the total The actual resistance, capaci-
ty (amperes per unit cross-sec- resulting increase in cable resis- tance, and inductance of a cable
tional area) is the same through- tance causes a perceptible effect are distributed evenly along its
out the wire. For AC, the current in the reproduction. For a fre- length. Telephone engineers
density is less at the center of the quency of 15 kHz, RAc/Rpc found out long ago that, for anal-
wire and greater at the surface. equals 1.1 when a 15 -gauge solid ysis purposes, a cable's R, C, and
At low frequencies, the skin wire is used. Larger wires will ex- L can be lumped into a single
depth (which depends on Charac- hibit a greater proportional in- component if certain conditions
teristics of the bulk conductor crease in resistance as frequency are met. The conditions depend
material) is usually greater than increases. Of course, since the re- upon the attenuation constant
the radius of the conductor, sistance of large wires is lower to and length of the cable. The at-
which means that for all practical begin with, the actual change in tenuation constant (a) is given
purposes the current density is measured resistance may or may by:
the same throughout the con- not matter. a = V(R2 + w2L2)(G2 + w2C2) +RG - 032LC/2
ductor. Larger -diameter conduc- Stranded wire is extremely dif- where R, L, C, and G are the ca-
tors can exhibit measurable skin ficult to analyze. Naturally, each ble's resistance, capacitance, in-
effect at relatively low frequen- strand has a certain surface area, ductance, and leakage con-
cies, including audio frequen- so that all the strands connected ductance per unit length, and (0
cies. in parallel would have a very large is the angular frequency, or 27(1.
The simplest indicator of skin surface area. In actuality, The author does not like to lie
effect is the ratio RAc/RDc, where though, much of the surfaces of awake nights solving equations
RAc is the resistance per unit the individual wires are in con- like that, and tables of attenua-
length of a wire to alternating tact with each other, making the tion constant versus frequency
current of a certain frequency actual effective surface area vir- are not generally available for the
and Rpc is the ohmic resistance tually impossible to determine - kinds of cables used for speaker
per unit length. As long as RAS unless the individual strands are leads. However, tables for 19 -
RDC equals 1, skin effect is negli- insulated from each other, as in gauge pulp -insulated telephone
gible. When RAc/Rpc rises sig- litz wire. At any rate, we can use cable indicate that a 3 -kilometer
solid wire as a worst case to ana- cable section can be analyzed
lyze, knowing that we'll really be using the lumped -constant
OUTSIDE SURFACE
OF CONDUCTOR
SKIN
DEPTH
2
CURRENT DENSITY HERE IN
AMPERES PER SQUARE METER IS -3
1/2.72 TIMES THE CURRENT DENSITY
-4
AT THE CONDUCTOR SURFACE. 20 50 100 200 500 11( 21( 511 10K 20K
LEGEND FREQUENCY (Hz
FIG. 3 -THE SKIN EFFECT increases the - - 22 -GA CHEAP --- 18 -GA. ZIP 4 -GA. CABLE
effective resistance of a wire. The skin GUITAR CORD 16 -GA. ZIP
depth is the distance into the conductor at
which the current density is approximate- FIG. 4-A COMPUTER SOLUTION, or prediction, of the model in Fig. 1 yielded these
ly 1/3 of that at the surface. results. The worst -case loss is well under 1 dB at 20 kHz.
method at 1 kHz with a total at- 16
speaker cables anywhere near FIG. 6-THE MEASURED IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS of the test speaker.
that far, we can safely use the
lumped -constant method with +4
were used in the calculations. In- 22 -GA. CHEAP - 18 -GA. ZIP 4 -GA. CABLE
used ones that were on hand, in- FIG. 7-SEE HOW THE ACTUAL MEASURED CABLE LOSSES compare to the predicted
cluding a very large (4 -gauge) losses of Fig. 4.
stranded cable. If those cables
showed no measurable detri- always trustworthy, so the actual amplifier and, if the distance is
mental effects on efficiency, response of the cables was mea- short, no serious detriment to
damping -factor, or frequency re- sured on the setup shown in Fig. efficiency will result. Damping
sponse, then the alleged beastie 5. The impedance characteristic factor is degraded slightly when
benefits would turn out to be so- of the test speaker is shown in cables lighter than 18 -gauge are
lutions to a nonexistent problem! Fig. 6. Although the amplifier used, as shown by the loss ex-
A computer solution of the cir- was flat within 0.2 dB from 20 ceeding 0.32 dB. But what will
cuit of Fig. 1 yielded the results Hz to 20 kHz, the amplifier's cal- happen if longer cables are used?
plotted in Fig. 4. A 10 -foot length ibration curve was nevertheless From previous measurements,
was assumed for each cable, and subtracted from the measured ordinary Romex house -wiring ca-
it included the effects of cable ca- results in order to provide max- ble is found to have about the
pacitance and inductance, but imum accuracy. The test results highest capacitance per foot of
not the skin effect. Notice that are shown in Fig. 7. any common wire. With the fac-
the worst -case loss was well un- Initial results seem to indicate tors mentioned earlier that con-
der 1 dB at 20 kHz. that virtually anything can be trol skin effect, it is also clear that
Computer solutions without used to connect a speaker to an small wires will not experience
experimental verification are not
1
X -Y RECORDER
o TRACKING
0 OSCILLATOR
o OUTPUT ,-
tcc7-7 POWER
CABLE
UNDER TEST _. _ _ _ ______ 4 - -
-
? o 0 -- AMP
SPECTRUM
DUMMY -2
LOAD
ANALYZER OR -3
TEST
SPEAKER
-4 ,
+2
+1
EIS 0
ELE RONIC N_ 1
0
-2
COMPONENTS cc
-3
Whether you order 1 part or
all 41,361...MOUSER stocks -4
and...can ship today!! -5
20 500 2K 5K 10K 20K 50K
FREQUENCY (Hz)
CALL...
INCLUDING SKIN EFFECT
(800) 992-9943 - -- R, L, AND C ONLY
FIG. 9-SIGNAL LOSS OF 100 FEET of 12 -Gauge Romex cable.
for your
FREE significant skin effect, and large are shown in Fig. 9. Here, at last,
CATALOG ones will, but even a large per- is something the beastie people
centage change in a large wire's can sink their teeth into! Anyone
2401 Hwy 287 N. small resistance is of little con- who can hear 50 kHz will find a
sequence. Trying the RAc/RDc full 4.5 -dB drop resulting from
Mansfield, TX 76063 values for various cable diame- the use of 100 feet of 12 -gauge
ters in conjunction with the com- Romex-providing, of course,
MOUSER puter analysis, 12 -gauge solid
wire is found to have about the
worst skin effect of any cable.
they're using an amplifier and
speaker that can reproduce it. Of
course, the skin effect is still only
ELECTRONICS Therefore, if any type of speak- about half a dB, and effective
Sales & Stocking Locations Nationwide er cable could cause frequency - damping is not degraded, so
CIRCLE 93 ON FREE INFORMATION CARD
response problems, the high ca- maybe they'd better drop those
pacitance and the skin effect of points from their ads.
12 -gauge Romex should make it The results of that rather in-
the ideal bad example. Another volved bit of research clearly indi-
Try the run was made using a 40 -foot cate that ordinary speaker ca-
length of Romex, both into a bles, including the ones that any
dummy load and into the test knowledgeable audiophile would
Electronics
NOW.
speaker. In the graph of Fig. 8, we sneer at, do not significantly de-
see a hefty'/2-dB droop at 20 kHz, grade frequency response. They
bulletin board compared to the response at 20 vindicate the rule -of -thumb ad-
system Hz. The overall signal loss and vice (18 -gauge for 100 watts, 25
damping -factor degradation are feet, into 8 ohms) except for a
(RE-BBS) less than those of the smaller ca- slight degradation in damping
516-293-2283 bles that are shown in Figure 8, factor; 1.21 with a 25 -foot cable
due to the lower resistance of 12 - run. For optimum damping fac-
The more you use it the more gauge cable.) tor, that rule should be changed
useful it becomes. Since that still wasn't signifi- to 18 -gauge for 100 watts, 20 feet,
We support 1200 and 2400 baud cant, a computer simulation of into 8 ohms. Also, only 20 -gauge,
operation.
100 feet of 12 -gauge Romex was 22 -gauge, and guitar -cord cables
performed, with response run are a serious detriment to damp-
Parameters: 8N1 (8 data bits, no clear out to 50 kHz. The results ing factor. R -E
33 24
SW7 DE3
34 35
CHIME DE4
..
GROUND
LINE INPUT
DOES THE DISPLAY NO
r i NEED TO BE UPDATED? FIG. 3-THE PINS ON THE 8749 micro -
SEGMENT
I I
1
controller are assigned various func-
END DATA
tions by the HyperClock program.
RETURN TO MAIN PROGRAM I BUFFER I
L-- - .1
YES the outputs labeled DEO-DE4
(pins 21-24 and 35) control the
L UPDATE LED SEGMENT anode drivers for the display via
SEGMENT DATA
TO BUFFER
DATA BUFFER
demultiplexer chips, which
we'll discuss later.
The pins labeled S1 -S7 (pins
27-34) are used as function -
INPUT KEY SWITCH ROUTINES switch inputs. The switches
FOR PROGRAMMING CLOCK
OPERATION
connected to those inputs
(DISPLAY MODE, DISPLAY DATE, DIS-
PLAY ALARM. INCREMENT HOUR/
MONTH/MODE, INCREMENT MINUTE/
CHIME SOFTWARE FUNCTIONS DAY. SNOOZE/TIDE ADVANCE, and
ALARM TOGGLE, respectively) ac-
tivate various chip functions by
ALARM SOFTWARE FUNCTIONS grounding those pins. A com-
plete explanation of the switch-
es' functions will be presented
FIG. 2-HYPERCLOCK'S SOFTWARE can be broken down into two distinct code later.
segments: a clock -scheduled interrupt routine, and a main -program loop. Low -going pulses from the
pin labeled CHIME (pin 34) acti-
ms. Using an interrupt -pro- mode. In that mode it shuts off vate the chime circuit, which is
gram segment in this way al- the display and allows the mi- composed of discrete compo-
lows the display's fading effect crocontroller to "invisibly" keep nents. The microcontroller trig-
to appear gradual because the track of time via a 6 -MHz crys- gers the chime circuit with a
process of updating the display tal. The main loop also pro- 12.8 -ms wide low -going pulse at
occurs at regular intervals. This cesses input from the clock's one -second intervals. When not
routine is also responsible for switches (we'll talk more about in alarm mode, the chime sig-
checking a powerline-frequency that later). nals the hour by chiming an ap-
input on the microcontroller to For all that goes on inside the propriate number of times, and
determine if a powerline cycle microcontroller, the functions signals each half-hour by chim-
has passed. If so, it informs the assigned to its pins by the Hy- ing once.
main loop of the program. perClock program (see Fig. 3) When the microcontroller is
The main loop keeps track of are relatively easy to under- in the "alarm" mode, the chime
the number of cycles that pass stand. Let's take them one circuitry is used as an alarm an-
so it knows when to update the group at a time. nunciator. In this mode the
segment -data buffer or initiate The pins labeled through G
A clock does not chime on the
the alarm or chime. If no and DP (pins 12-19) in Fig. 3 are hour and half hour. That per-
powerline cycles are detected, the outputs for the display -seg- mits you to use the HyperClock
the main loop assumes AC ment data. They indirectly con- as an alarm clock without the
power has been terminated and trol the cathode drivers for the chimes disturbing you until the
puts the clock in power -fail multiplexed display. Similarly, appointed time. 97
SECOND/TIDE ANODE DRIVERS
799
697
\019 EN4 12
5 98
\ DIG EN2 13
4 95
\ DIG EN1 14
3 D4
\ DIG ENO 15
A 2 D3
92
091 +12V 4 +129 +129 +124 +129 +129 +12V .129
IC5
7410145 015
94 41 S 94 42 010 R447 R45 013 4446 014 R47 R483 016
411 211299131 4% 212:67 p'7138 2:11 7 2942987 4.76 dg8, 4.76 282887 4.711 2142147 4.7K 2342987
R40
/b-46-.
10 33011
AME
R39
0131
4241."1-4) R25
4.7K
9428 121-.4) R28
A2--
47K
43.4
629
4.71(
AAA.
R30
4.7K
1131
4.76
0;0
1C7.0 4 715
0182083 33051
AAA4
CO?
CBI cet
i/C) 81 60 C81 6,LJ 8
rr
IC7-1
171/12003 5 2 330t4
1138
0
SSA
IC7-e R17
4 13 Limnos 33001 CB3 '42 C133 ,,,;(0 CB3 4 CB3 6, 13,3 B3 83 CB3
"
YEA
Ciro 1136
33013 134 CB4 A,( CB4 ,,;, CB4 //0 114 fr;,,C) B4 84 C84 ifr
/
ULN20113 85 #(e
14
W!
IC7c
0182003
635
3301 CAE
CB CB5 CB5 CB5 :0 CB5 BS 85
r(
4E057- 1ED60
0
2 5
IC7-b
161/6
634 CB6
rr CB6 CB6 CB6 .(0 CB6 ,60 86 86
0182003 163M 7 SECOND OR
D 018
282222
81871103
012
34;1.1 COB
C88 C08 CBS cet rrlJ 88 /0.0 ea C88
LED9 - LED16 1E017 -1E024 LED25- 1ED32 1E033 -1E040 1E041- LED48 1E049 -1E056
2112222
0
LED61 1E062
LED CATHODE SEGMENT DRIVERS C88 c8e_
C138
DIGIT ANODE DRIVERS 4.-eA,.
0
5
41,"
\ DIG EN3 12
4
35
\ DIG EN2 13 1E065
3
\ DIG ENI 14 93
\ DIG ENO 15
A
92
+121/ 29 4-1
.12V +129 +129
ICE
7413145 R544 852 F151
10 *
41
t 07
3149
4.7
zT
,< DIG ENO 41
.574 28(21 4.7K
2112997
4.7KP 282947
R21 622
2X2997
R23
2821107
132 1
51
a2 b2 10 CB2 CB2 15 51 al82 52 00
C82 CB2 15 Al a2 II? 10 C132
83 3
41
I2 lb? 12
CB3 CB3
CO4
3
cl 511 112 152
6
CB3
CB4
CO3
C84
3
2
Cl ill big I12 42 8
C83
C84
84 2 02 6 CB4 2
41 dl 42 6
5 CB5 CB5 C85 1
e2 5 C85
135 1
el 22
1
el e2 6 et
102 la
e
1412 I c2 11 8',11
CBE
8
12
12 Q86 93161 el gcl I 12 CB6 C86 18
11
Lef 12 12
C86
FIG. 4-THE HYPERCLOCK DISPLAY is controlled by only 13 data lines from the the A-G and DP pins of the micro -
microcontroller.
controller. The A-G signals are
sent to a ULN2003 buffer/driver
The LINE input (pin 6) is used tainly not least, are the 5 -volt (IC7) which contains seven
by the IC to accept a 50- or 60 - power inputs (pins 5, 26, and high -current drivers. Each out-
Hz square wave. The square 40) and the grounds (pins 7 and put is capable of providing 500
wave is used for time keeping 20). Those inputs of course, are mA of peak drive current. Since
and to detect AC -power failure self explanatory. the ULN2003 contains only
as mentioned earlier. The seven of the eight cathode driv-
50Hz/60Hz input (pin 1), tells The display circuit ers required, a Darlington driv-
the 8749 what frequency to ex- While the microcontroller er was made out of two 2N2222
pect at the line input. If pin 6 is does a great deal, the Hyper - transistors to drive the DP line.
low, the 8749 assumes the line Clock requires some additional The DEo through DE4 outputs
signal is at 60 Hz, but if that pin circuitry to make it a complete generated by the micro -
is high the 8749 prepares for timepiece. For example, the mi- controller are decoded by two
50 -Hz operation. crocontroller cannot provide 74LS145 decoder/driver IC's
As its name implies, the nearly enough current to drive (IC5 and IC6). Only one decoder
RESET input (pin 4) initializes the LED display. For that reason output is driven low at any time.
the microcontroller. A low at additional anode and cathode Each 74LS145 output supplies
that input will erase all modes drivers were included in the de- current to a 2N2907 drive tran-
and settings previously entered. sign. They are shown along with sistor that sources current for
The xi and X2 inputs (pins 2 the other display components the anodes of a group of LED's
and 3) need to be connected to in Fig. 4. or a display digit.
the 6 -MHz crystal, XTAL1, men- The control signals for the Note that there are additional
tioned previously. Last, but cer- LED cathodes originate from LED's to provide an AM/PM in-
-I- CI 261 40
20pF 5 Vcc 12
)(TAU
Jill Vcc -L 6MHz 2
CC
13
C2 IC4
X1 B B
03 50Hz 20pF 8749
14
X2 C
2 15
31+ C RESET D D
1 60Hz C7 16
E
2.2f 17
50/60 F
18
LINE G G
J2 EXTERNAL SWITCH CONNECTOR 19
DP DP TO DISPLAY
8 3 21 DIG ENO (SEE FIG.4)
S7 DEO
7 32 22 DIG EN1
S6 DE1
6 31 23 DIG EN2
S5 DE2
30 24 DIG EN3
5 S4 DE3 N
.4 29
S3 DE4
35 DIG EN4
28 S2
3 CHIME 34
2 27 S1 GND GND
EN(07471DIG EN(0..4)
0 0 0 DIG
17 420
0 S7 0Li1$6 0115 0114 0113 00112 0111
ALARM SNOOZE MINUTE HOUR DISPLAY !DISPLAY DISPLAY tir
TOGGLE /TIDE /DAY /MONTH ALARM DATE MODE
Vcc
Vcc
J1
/MODE
BATTERY
D2
1N4004
SELECT
+12V
5 VOLT
0
0
W
VA
Vcc
{R12
t R6
47K
R57
4.7K
R56 R13 47K
4.7K 470K
IC2-a
02 1/2 LM393 4
019
2N2222 JU2
2N2907 1/4 LM324
R55 74.- C13 CHIME
4.7K 1F VOLUME
R10 JUMPER
D3
47K C12 14
1N914A 560pF
IC3-d
01 01
R11
100 I/4 LM324
2N2222
R14 11 GI 47K
R16
4.7K = IC3-a 4.7K ? 47K
1/4 LM324
FIG. 5-THIS SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR THE HYPERCLOCK circuit (less the display
components) shows the support circuitry required by the microcontroller.
0.47 seconds. The exponen-
tially decaying signal produced
dication (LED61), tell you if the controller generates a low -going by the discharge is buffered
alarm -mode is active (LED62), pulse on pin 34, it activates through a unity -gain amplifier
and provide a winking second Q19. That transistor then pro- (IC3-a) to a 1N914 diode (D3).
display (LED63 to LED65). vides sufficient current to drive The cathode of D3 is con-
That's all there is to the display Q1 into saturation. nected to the output of a 50%
circuit. With Q1 on, the negative side duty cycle 5 -kHz square -wave
of C13 is effectively grounded, oscillator consisting of IC2-a,
The remainder which causes it to charge. When R7, C10, and Q2. Transistor Q2
The most noteworthy of the Q1 is turned off, C13 discharges serves to provide a dynamic
clock's remaining circuitry through a 470K resistor (R13). pull-up for that oscillator since
(shown in Fig. 5) is the chime The resistor/capacitor com- the LM393 is an open -collector
circuit. When the micro - bination has a time constant of type comparator. The 5 -kHz 99
PARTS LIST
All resistors are '/4 -watt, 5%, unless IC3-LM324 quad -op -amp Miscellanlous: T-220 style heatsink,
otherwise indicated. IC4-8749 microcontroller with Hyper - PC board or perforated construction
Clock program board, battery clip, shorting blocks,
IC5, IC6-74LS145 1 -of -8 solder, etc.
R1, R6 -R8, R10 -R12, R16, R17- decoder/driver Note: The following items are avail-
47,000 ohms 1C7-ICLN2003 high -current driver able from SkiTronix, P.O. 9685,
R2, R3, R5, R14, R15, R18 -R32, D1, D3-1N914A diode Spokane, WA 99209:
R41 -R57-4700 ohms D2 -1N4001 diode A pre-programmed HyperClock
R4, R13, R56-470,000 ohms Q1, 02, 017, Q18 -2N2222 NPN 8749 microcontroller with firmware
R9-2700 ohms transistor license -$11.00.
R33 -R40-330 ohms, 1/2 -watt, 5% 03-016, Q19 -2N2907 PNP transistor An etched and drilled PC
BR1-1-amp, 50 volts PIV bridge board -$25.00.
Capacitors
rectifier The foil pattern artwork suitable
DISP1, DISP3-Panasonic LN524RA or for conversion to film -$3.00.
C1, C2-20 pF ceramic
similar 7 -segment display (for the Software on floppy disk -$5.00
C3-1000 1.1.F, 16 volts, electrolytic
smaller digits) postpaid
C4, C5, C15, C16-0.1 ceramic
DISP2-Panasonic LN526RA or similar A complete kit of parts including
C6-22 fiF, 16 volts, electrolytic
7 -segment display (for the larger digit) the PC board, programmed 8749
C7-2.2 pf, 16 volts, electrolytic
C8, C9-0.01 ceramic
LED1-LED65-light-emitting diodes IC, LED's, displays, electronic
Other components components, and the wall -mount
C10, C14, C17-0.0033 j.LF, ceramic
XTAL1-6-MHz crystal transformer -$75.00.
C11, C12-560 pF, ceramic
T1 -9 -VAC 500-mA wall -mount A detailed drawing of the HyperClock
C13-1 I.LF, 16 volts, tantalum
transformer wood case, will be supplied with all
BZ1-piezo transducer orders. Please include $4.00 for
Semiconductors S1 -S7 -miniature momentary -contact shipping and handling. Wash-
IC1-LM340T-5 5 -volt regulator pushbutton switch ington residents must include an
IC2-LM393 dual -comparator B1 -9 -volt battery additional 8.0% sales tax.
square wave present at the ply. The 12 -volt supply powers The line input (pin 6) of the
emitter of Q2 is clamped in am- the display circuitry, op -amps, microcontroller cannot be driv-
plitude by the buffered expo- the comparators, and an en directly from the 12 -VAC wall
nential waveform from IC3-a, so LM340-5 (IC1) 5 -volt regulator. transformer. So the trans-
the 5 -kHz signal decays in am- The regulator in turn powers former signal is conditioned by
plitude in step with the dis- the 5 -volt supply line. a Schmitt -trigger circuit to gen-
charge of C13. If AC power is interrupted, a erate a suitable square wave.
The decaying 5 -kHz signal is 9 -volt battery connected to J1 First the signal's amplitude is
fed through C14 to a second - sources current to the regulator reduced by a voltage divider
order low-pass filter tuned to ap- to keep the HyperClock func- consisting of R1 and R58, and
proximately 5 kHz. The filter is tioning. If you plan to unplug its positive excursions are lim-
composed of a LM324 op -amp the clock for any length of time, ited to about 5 volts by Dl. The
(IC3-d), C11, C12, C14, R10, and the battery should be discon- limited signal is then sent to the
R11. It removes the high -fre- nected to conserve its life. inverting input of the LM393
quency components contained comparator. Positive feedback
in the decaying square wave to A BIT ABOUT TIDES is applied to the comparator's
smooth it out. From there the non -inverting input by R4 to
signal is passed to two more op - Predicting the tides in any given locale prevent it from generating false
amps (1C3 -b and IC3-c) that is not a simple job. Tides are affected by signals. The comparator drives
form a push-pull amplifier, many cyclic astronomical forces: the the microcontroller's line input
which provides the piezo trans- declination in the orbits of the moon and with the resulting square wave.
sun relative to a point on the Earth, and
ducer with a 10 -volt peak -to - the local geography of the coast line in
peak drive signal. the area in which you live, to name a few. Construction
0
While the output signal is not HyperClock predicts the tidal levels from In order to build a Hyper -
0 exactly a pure sine wave, the au- the most predominate of these forces, Clock, you'll need a pro-
dible result sounds pretty much the moon. The moon requires 29.53 grammed 8749 microcontroller.
a
z like a small bell. If you feel the days to orbit Earth, and that combined A preprogrammed and tested
with the 24 -hour solar day causes a high
chime is too loud, you can elimi- and low tide in every 12 hour and 25.5
microcontroller is available
cr nate half of the push-pull ampli- minute interval. HyperClock tracks the from the supplier mentioned in
w fier by jumpering one side of the the parts list. The executable
moons primary affect on the tide. You
zw transducer to the 5 -volt supply, can find out about the level of local tides code to program an 8749 is
2 which is available via JU2. in your area from your newspaper or available from the RE-BBS
The entire circuit receives library. The information can be used to (516-293-2283, 1200/2400,
w
initially set the tide indication on your
o_
xw power from a 9 -VAC wall -mount HyperClock to a low or high point. From
8N1), as a file called
w transformer. The 9 -VAC supply then on the graphic display will be an aid HYPER.HEX. The file is sup-
is fed to a full -wave bridge rec- in the determination of the relative level plied in Intel's Hex format,
tifier and filtered by C3 to act as of the tides in your locality. which is directly compatible
100 an unregulated 12 -volt DC sup - with most EPROM program-
LED60 LED1
7
R24
I 1 I R41
R47 R48 '
1140 I R31 1) BZ1
t
IC5 C5 IC6 JU2
RP6 1 R27 R28 I An
R43 R44 c145 I R4
0,,,0
SOFT LOUD
ED50 Itz *4
,i3,
R18
R54 RS3 I Rig
R20
R$1
R21
R22
R50
R419
R23
t1161 R1
R17 R T C12
,1
014
R131, R8
E34 , lt?
e LED63
1155
e DISP1
e50
LED62
C10 0
.171\60
IC7 R2 R3
Cl 7
I tc(
R12
99 R7
C2-* 4
'R4_-_ LED20
a #6-32 NUT
LED.40.
CS
1C4-
WIRE TIE-
\E.,
kt)"-(1)
LEM)
FIG. 6-DISPLAY-SIDE PARTS -PLACEMENT diagram can be used to locate most of the
HyperClock's components.
connector pads on the board so
mers. The software is also avail- nique, so we'll discuss that you can run wires to the switch-
able on floppy disk from the briefly later on. es should your cabinet design
source mentioned in the parts Figures 6 and 7 show the require that they be located off m
m
list. parts -placement diagrams for the PC board. Figure 8 shows a x
A 6.5- x 6.5 -inch octagon - the HyperClock (6 shows the completed HyperClock board. m
shaped PC board is also avail- display side and 7 shows the The design readily lends itself
able from that supplier to help solder side) for those of you that to many different project cases. m
z-4
you assemble a HyperClock of will use a PC board. All compo- However, make sure that the m
your own. If you wish, you can nents, except for the wall - cabinet you choose has some
make your own double -sided mount transformer, are shown openings in the back to allow a
printed -circuit board from the mounted on the circuit board. little cool air to flow around the z
foil patterns included in this ar- Note that the switches can be clock's 5 -volt regulator and heat co
ticle or using artwork from the placed on either side of the sink. If you like the case used for 0
0
supplier listed in the parts list. board, depending on the cab- the prototype, you can build one
Of course, you could even use a inet you wish to place the clock out of a length of wood molding
point-to-point wiring tech- in. There are some additional as the author did. 101
The PC board was designed to
work with many different dual -
digit displays, so you don't nec-
essarily have to restrict yourself
to the Panasonic units men-
tioned in the parts list. Just
make sure that whatever you
use is a pin -for -pin same -size re-
placement. If you do use the rec-
ommended units, be sure to
raise the two minute displays
up from the board so that their
viewing surfaces are flush with
that of the hour display.
Lastly, the PC board provides
some holes for wire ties to hold
the 9 -volt battery and the wall -
mount transformer leads. You
should take advantage of them.
Remember to install the 9 -volt
backup battery and connect
JUl and JU2 to select 50- or 60 -
Hz operation and the volume of
the chime, respectively.
When you connect the clock
to power it should come up at
12:30 AM and will be ready to BATTERY CLIP
#6-32 SCREW
accept the current time, alarm WIRES
time, date, and the tide level if
desired. If you run into any diffi- HEATSINK
BATTERY TIE WRAP
culty, you may find some of the
troubleshooting tips provided TO
J2
in the following section useful.
However, if all is well, you can FIG. 7-THIS PARTS -PLACEMENT DIAGRAM should be used to position the regulator,
proceed to the "operating" sec- battery, a capacitor, and the switches.
tion to prepare the clock for use.
"minutes before the hour" is required to drive the LED's
Point-to-point wiring mode. sufficiently.
Working with perforated con- It is also suggested that you If the power -supply circuitry
struction board and point-to- don't place tilt, -'splay compo- is okay, check the wiring
point wiring gives you the free- nents on the same side of the around the LM393 (IC2) from
dom to design your own display board as the heatsink/regulator the bridge rectifier and going to
layout. One nice alternate de- assembly, C3, and the 9 -volt IC4 pin 6; the microcontroller
sign would be to place the 60 battery. Doing so would in- looks at that line and if there is
LED's in the form of a full cycle crease the profile of the display no line frequency at that input,
of a sine wave, especially if you side of the board, forcing you to the clock will shut down the
set the clock to display the tide place the LED lens at an un- LED drivers (as we explained
level. desirable distance from the dis- earlier).
An early prototype of the clock play components. Since most of the wiring in
was built using wire wrap. Re- Aside from those sugges- the clock runs between the LED
gardless of the wiring tech- tions, layout is not critical, so if drivers and the LED's, it is likely
nique, you should invest in a you observe good construction that you could have made an er-
large enough piece of perforated and wiring techniques you ror in one or more of those con-
construction board (at least 6 x should not have any problem nections. If you observe that any
6 inches) so that you can make getting the clock to function. active LED segments do not
your custom display with plenty However, if you should encoun- form numbers, then you should
of room to spare for all the sup- ter some difficulty, the following check the connections from IC4
port electronics. hints ought to help: to IC7 and the corresponding
Furthermore, when you are If no LED's are illuminated connections to the cathodes of
shopping for the hour and min- when you apply power, first the LED displays. A mistake be-
ute displays, select minute dis- check the unregulated supply tween IC4 to IC5 and IC6 will
plays that are somehow dis- for a minimum of 10 volts DC. make the displayed digits and/
tinctly different than the hour While only 2 to 3 volts of over- or seconds appear out of order.
display. That will make the dis- head are required to operate the An error in wiring from the out-
102 play more easily readable in the 5 -volt regulator, at least 10 volts puts of the 74LS145's to the
TABLE 1-MODES AND THEIR FEATURES
Mode
Feature
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fading Updates
Plain Updates
Before -The -Hour Display
Plain Display I
Tide Light Chaser
Seconds Light Chaser
FIG. 8-A FINISHED HYPERCLOCK. The
PC board makes assembly neat and
straightforward.
.-!-'-..-1-\ t
.
--7 1..4.7.---"-._____47,
:f1-------4
..".:J!4, L--..-',/.A
.1.14
-1--\'.-.
. ~vita./
?
..
tli.i 0; 114: el? ;,...). r-.-: -,!
:%::::. :.(;,'_.,
.1".
2-:lt***-14 n 111
.-
-t* --
._....i....,.
-.. alvil...--. ---. .... :-- -_,..--. .__..
1.1 _j, 1 .__.
.-- ..... !;-.
----.,r
1'
----....1...4 4,0
,.L. !J..
. ...... ,err," -4111 . .
0-0
......
../
7--.._
-0_4:__; -.- 0.
....1-,,,,...,111-._,
-
..-- '
,____..- 40i
_1 r
.
.......... . ..,-,
. [3
---.
Ir :
-
411.,"
wiDE SIDE
THE DISPLAY -SIDE FOIL PATTERN can be used to generate one THIS FOIL PATTERN can be used to generate the solder side of
side of the clock's PC board. the clock's PC board.
driver transistors, which con- modes and the features they on power -up the hour chime is
nect to the LED anodes, will support are listed in Table 1. enabled and the alarm is dis-
cause the same effect. If you depress and hold switch abled. If S7 is pressed once, the
S2 (the Display -Date button) alarm is turned on and the hour
Operation the current month and day are chime is disabled. Depressing
The functions performed by displayed. With that switch de- the switch again will turn off
S4 and S5 in the HyperClock pressed, the month and day can both the alarm and the hourly
depend on the state of the three be advanced by pressing S4 and chime.
display switches (S1 through S5, respectively. The Snooze/Tide Switch (S6) m
S3). If none of the display Activating switch S3 will has a dual purpose. If the Hyper - m
switches are depressed, press- cause the clock to display the Clock's alarm was armed and 0
m
ing S4 advances the current time the alarm is set for. By goes off, that button will silence
hour displayed and pressing S5 pressing S3 along with S4 you the alarm for an additional ten am
advances the minute display. can alter the hour setting, and minutes. You can forestall the z
That is how you set the time. by pressing S3 and S5 simulta- alarm in this way as many times m
Pressing and holding down neously you can change the as you like. If the alarm is dis-
S1 (the Display -Mode button) minute setting. abled, and the clock is in a mode
causes the clock to display the Moving on to the last two that supports the tide -level dis- z
number of the current operat- switches, the Alarm Toggle play (modes 4 through 7), press- C
ing mode, which can be altered switch (S7) determines the ing S6 will advance the tide
by pressing S4 (S5 will do state of the alarm and the hour indication on the 60 -LED dis-
nothing). The various operating chime of the clock. For example, play to set its position. R -E 103
LINE POWER
FROM
12 VOLTS
Build a appliances
40 -watt from your
DC -to -AC automobile
inverter, and cigarette
power AC lighter.
DAVID CUTHBERT
WOULD YOU BELIEVE THAT THIS ARTI- never know the difference. The cy. The 75 Hz, rather than 60 Hz,
cle was written on an electric rectangle -wave operation greatly is used to avoid transformer sat-
typewriter while the author was increases efficiency. The wave- uration. Some electric clocks will
sitting next to a stream on a form would look similar if dis- run fast with that frequency, but
camping trip? The typewriter played on an oscilloscope. most electronic gear will work
was powered from our 40 -watt in- just fine. Decade counter IC2
verter that can be plugged into an Operation controls the timing of the refer-
automobile's cigarette lighter The inverter, the schematic of ence signal and the gating -on of
socket. The unit has enough which is shown in Fig. 2, is actu- the error -amp signal to the prop-
power for many items that nor- ally a push-pull audio amplifier. er set of FET's.
mally don't go on camping trips, The "input," or reference signal, Figure 3 shows the timing rela-
such as a TV, a stereo, an electric is a 5 -volt square wave. The out- tionships in the inverter. When
razor, or a desk lamp. However, it put is 340 -volt peak -to -peak AC IC2 pin 3 goes high, the output of
also has some uses that may not signal. The feedback signal is buffer IC1-c is high. That reverse
be as obvious; it can be used to rectified in order to match the DC biases DI and allows the error
power items such as an os- reference signal. On one half of amp signal to reach Q1, Q2, and
cilloscope or soldering iron when the AC waveform, the upper three Q3. At the same time, IC2 pin 4 is
doing electronics work in the FET's are gated on, and on the low, which causes the output of
field. On road trips, the inverter other half the lower three FET's buffer IC1-d to be low. That
can be used to power a camcorder are on. grounds the gates of Q4, Q5, and
battery charger. Normally, 120 -volt AC outlets Q6 thereby turning them off.
0 The inverter draws a max- have one side at ground and one Pins 2 and 7 of IC2 are also low, so
0 imum of 5 amps, which is com- side that's "hot." The hot side al- Q7 is off. A 5 -volt reference from
z pletely safe for an automobile ternates from - 170 to +170 regulator IC3 is now present at
cigarette lighter socket, and the volts. The inverter output is a lit- the error -amp's (IC1-b) non -inver-
(I) no-load current is only half an tle different. On one half of the AC ting input. The reference -signal
cc
amp. The output voltage is regu- cycle, one side is near ground rise time is slowed by R12 and C2
z lated and remains fairly constant and the other is at +170 volts. in order to avoid output over-
from no-load to full -load. Figure 1 During the other half of the cycle shoot, and the gain and frequen-
I shows the output -voltage wave- the situation is reversed. cy response of the error amp is
form superimposed over a sine Op -amp IC1-a and its associ- set by R15, R25, and C3.
wave. The rectangular output ated components form a 300 -Hz Next, pin 2 of IC2 goes high,
waveform has the same RMS and clock oscillator, and counter IC2 which turns Q7 on and the refer-
peak voltage as the sine wave, so divides the clock signal by four to ence signal is pulled to ground.
104 the device being powered will obtain a 75 -Hz inverter frequen- Pins 3 and 4 of IC2 are now low
nected. Although the FET's have Q3 share a 1.5- by 4 -inch heat -
no current -equalizing source re- sink, and Q4, Q5, and Q6 share
sistors, they still share current another: the heat sinks are made
fairly equally. (When a FET "hogs" of aluminum sheet. Figure 4
current it heats up more and its shows an internal view of the in-
on resistance increases, causing verter. In the prototype, the FET's
it to draw less current.) were not insulated from the heat -
L_ sinks because the heatsinks are
FIG. 1-BECAUSE THE OUTPUT -VOLT- Construction isolated from ground and all
AGE waveform, which is shown here su- The inverter circuit was built other circuitry. If you use any
perimposed over a sine wave, has the on a perforated construction other heatsinking configuration,
same RMS and peak voltage as the sine board. 11-ansistors Ql, Q2, and the FET's should be insulated.
wave, the device being powered will never
know the difference.
PARTS LIST Semiconductors
and the FET gates are grounded, IC1-LM324 quad op -amp
turning them off. Pin 4 of IC2 IC2-4017 CMOS decade counter
now goes high and the other All resistors are 1/4 -watt, 5%, unless IC3-LM7805 or LM340-5 +5 -volt
otherwise noted. regulator
three FET's are gated on. The ref- R1-R7-100 ohms D1-D7-1N4003 diode
erence signal now rises to 5 volts. R8-1000 ohms 01-06-IRF511 60 -volt 3.5 -amp
and the other half of the AC out- R9-1000 ohms, 1/2 -watt MOSFET
put waveform is generated. The R10, R11-4700 ohms Q7 -2N2222 or 2N3904 NPN transistor
next clock pulse causes IC2 pin 7 R12-R16-10,000 ohms Other components
to go high; all FET's are now off R17 -10,000 -ohm potentiometer T1-120/12.6 volt center -tapped 3 -amp
R18-R21-22,000 ohms, 1/2 -watt power transformer
and the reference is set to zero. R22-R26-100,000 ohms J1-banana jack, red
The following clock pulse resets R27, R28-470,000 ohms J2-banana jack, black
IC2 and another cycle begins. R29-1 megohm J3-AC power receptacle
A filter that protects the CMOS Capacitors F1 -5 -amp slow -blow fuse
circuitry against alternator C1-0.001 I.LF, ceramic disc S1-SPST 6 -amp switch
NE1-neon indicator light with
spikes and reversed input polar- C2-0.01 III, ceramic disc
C3-0.0047 F, ceramic disc series resistor
ity is formed by R7, C8, and D7. C4-0.05 p.F, 200 volts, ceramic disc or Miscellaneous: fuse holder, perforated
Components R9 and C4 filter metal film construction board, enclosure, alumi-
output spikes, and R18-R21 are C5-C7-0.1 1.11, ceramic disc num for heatsinks, standoffs for mount-
pre -load resistors to stabilize the C8, C9-470 p.F, 35 volts, electrolytic ing circuit board, wire, solder, etc.
inverter when no load is con-
R17 Ws,
+I(C8 R16 R28
10K R15 C3 D3 D4
4700 10I< 470K
VOLTAGE 10K .0047
1N4003 x 4
TX ADJUST wasosh-R- R1
1000
D7141
1N4003 R26 R25
D6 W D5
CO -L.
1 LM7805
IC3 3
100K
',As*
100K
R10
4.7K
R2
1000 IRF511
0.1' 2 C6 ICI -b
R7 0.1)1 , 6
1/4 LM324
R3 02 R18 R19
10052
R8$ tR12 7 1000 IRF511 22K 22K
F1
1K .1' 10K
)1 11 OUT
J1 5A
o- C2
R11
03
120VAC
IN SI 01 07 R9 t
C9 IRF511
2N2222 4.7K
12VDC 4700 1K 3,
12.6V.=. J3
441%, 120V NEt.
J2 R4
R13
04
10 15 1000 IRF511-1' LLL
10K
70.116 W 1 01 .05 L
33
m
-"V
2 R14 1N4003 R5 m
R29 R27 10K 14
1C2 10 1000 -o
1MEG " 470K
4017
R20 R21
m
IC1-c 22K
`.'C1 1 14 +1,4 22K 33
LM324
+ 3
3 ICI -a 12 m
+ 14
1/4 LM324 DRAIN 01-Q6
R24 13 m
100K 8 13 D2 0 33
IC1-d 1N4003 cr)
R22 R23 1/4 LM324 IRF511
.71001( 100K z
SOURCE G CI SI
0
0
FIG. 2-THE INVERTER is actually a push-pull audio amplifier where, on one half of the AC 0
waveform, the upper three FET's are gated on, and on the other half the lower three FET's
are on. 105
IGITAL VIDEO STABILIZER
ELIMINATES ALL VIDEO COPYGUARDS
ICI
PIN 1 (CLOCK)
j--L-L_-L_-L.
While watching rent- FEATURES IC2
al movies, you will PIN 3
notice annoying pe- Easy to use and a
riodic color darken- snap to install
ing, color shift, State-of-the-art IC2
unwanted lines, Microchip technol- PIN 2
flashing or jagged ogy
edges. This is 100% automatic
caused by the copy Compatible to all
protection jamming types of VCRs and IC2
signals embedded TVs PIN 4
in the video tape, The best and most
such as Macrovision exciting Video Sta-
copy protection. THE bilizer in the IC2
DIGITAL VIDEO STABI- market PIN 7
UZER: RXII COMPLETELY Light weight (8
ELIMINATES ALL COPY ounces) and com-
PROTECTIONS AND JAM- pact (1x3.5x5")
MING SIGNALS AND Uses a standard 9 IC1
BRINGS YOU CRYSTAL Volt battery ( last 1- PIN 5 (REF)
CLEAR PICTURES. 2 years)
WARNING Fast UPS delivery
Air shipping avail-
THE DIGITAL VIDEO STA-
BILIZER IS INTENDED FOR able
UNCONDITIONAL
PRIVATE HOME USE
ONLY. IT IS NOT IN- 30 day money
back guarantee
AC OUTPUT
(LINE TO LINE)
d
TENDED TO COPY RENT-
AL MOVIES OR 1 year warranty
COPYRIGHTED VIDEO
TAPES THAT MAY CON- (Dealers Welcome)
STITUTE COPYRIGHT IN- FREE 20P Catalog
FRINGEMENT.
FIG. 3-THE TIMING RELATIONSHIPS in the inverter. When IC2 pin 3 goes high, the output
of buffer IC1-c (pin 8) is high. That reverse biases D1 and allows the error amp signal to
To Order: $59.95 ea +$4 for p & h reach 01, Q2, and 03. At the same time, IC2 pin 4 is low, which causes the output of buffer
Visa, M/C, COD Mon -Fri: 9-6 EST
IC1-d to be low. That grounds the gates of 04, 05, and 06 thereby turning them off.
1-800-445-9285
ZENTEK CORP. DEPT. CEHA
3670-12 WEST OCEANSIDE RD. OCEANSIDE, NY 11572
The horizontal
output transistor is
a critical component
in any TV set.
Let's examine some
of the procedures
involved in
measuring its output.
BRIAN PHELPS
FOR ANYONE WHO HAS EVER TRIED TO It generates 15,000-30,000 must be capable of measuring,
repair a television with defective volts DC for the picture tube. and have input protection up to 2
signals throughout, or changed a It generates 3,000-8,000 volts kilovolts or more. Also, a digital -
horizontal output transistor only DC for the focus circuit. readout oscilloscope, although
to have it fail once more, we have It delivers "trace -derived" high - not essential to troubleshooting,
a technique that can save hours current DC power from 16 to 30 will make it easier to make the
of work and needless replace- volts to operate most circuits. measurements.
ment of parts. All you have to do It delivers "retrace -derived" The first thing to check when
is check the "HOT pulse," or the low -current DC power of 185 to analyzing the horizontal output
signal at the collector of the hori- 220 volts. pulse is the wave shape; it should
zontal output transistor. Let's see It provides 6.3 volts for the look like the one shown in Fig. 1,
why this waveform is so impor- pulse current of CRT filaments. and be symmetrical in shape dur-
tant, and some key procedures It is a critical safety feature. ing the retrace time. A wide peak
for measuring the signal. It provides accurate pulse volt- at the top of the retrace, or deep
The HOT pulse is important ages for the tuner's frequency - saddle conditions, can be caused
because it performs many func- synthesis power source. by an off frequency or glitch in
tions other than just sweeping the horizontal transistor base -
the CRT beam horizontally. Some What to look for drive signal. Such problems are
of the key functions of the hori- The horizontal output pulse often caused by a change in the
zontal output waveform are: supplies operating voltages for value of the output -transistor
It generates 0.7 amps of hori- the entire TV. It is therefore the timing capacitors, or by an exces-
zontal deflection current every most important waveform to sive load on a B + supply.
63.5 microseconds. check on every TV before and Any excessive ringing or noise
It generates a 700-1,500 volts after changing parts. Note: In is a clear indication of deflection -
peak -to -peak retrace pulse every order to make any of the follow- system problems, such as a
63.5 microseconds. ing measurements, your scope cracked integrated high voltage
107
an amplitude reaching 1500 volts
DC peak -to -peak. The noise could
cause symptoms from drive lines
in the video picture to faint noise
throughout the TV's circuits.
First measure the DC voltage
level of the horizontal waveform.
In Figs. 1 and 2 you can see that
the digital display shows approx-
imately 118 VDC, which is the
regulated B + voltage. Next mea-
sure the peak -to -peak voltage of
p
the waveform. As you can see
from Fig. 3, the display shows
905 volts peak -to -peak.
The frequency of the waveform
must also be measured. That's as
INTENSITY
CH, SY A CM ]NB ASSI VECTOR r"'S simple as pushing a button on a
digital scope. Figure 4 shows the
108
BUILD THIS
MAGNETIC FIELD METER
Determine your exposure
to line -frequency magnetic -fields
with our easy -to -build portable
ELF gaussmeter.
REINHARD METZ
11171Iiii. ?
"21...-W
00
co
II
1 ri 11
? .7
'717 \
It;j 41,
t (---
t
0
z - Et.
P
IF:=I1 1:311
er . "-
r ......
cc
w
H
z
Lu t. i-- :1
IS
6; I
11=111111
IS
O
-
POWER GENERATING STATION STEP-UP TRANSFORMER TRANSMISSION LINES STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION LINES
(20KV), 3.0mT 5 -20pT (69 - 765KV) 5-20T (4 - 35KV)
5-70T, WITH 1 - 5pT, WITH MAGNETIC
MAGNETIC FIELD DROP-OFF FIELD DROP OFF AT 1/r2
AT 1/r2
%op
Mai
REFRIGERATOR
0.1 - 1pT, SOURCE
OF MAGNETIC FIELD
IS FROM MOTOR IN
BACK OF THE APPLIANCE,
ELECTRIC RANGE TELEVISION
SO EXPOSURE IS LOW, DROP-OFF 6-200p,T, MAJOR SOURCE 2-50T, MOSTLY
IS 1/r3 OF MAGNETIC FIELD RF FIELDS BUT
IS RESISTIVE HEATING POWER TRANSFORMER
ELEMENTS, DROP-OFF AND VERTICAL SWEEP
IS 1/r3 PRODUCE MAGNETIC FIELDS, 33
DROP-OFF IS 1/r3 m
m
-o
m
m
z
m
33
cn
ELECTRIC BLANKET VACUUM MIXER HAIR DRYER
1-5T, HEATING ELEMENTS 200-1000AT, 50-600T, DROP-OFF 10 - 2000T, DROP-OFF
ARE CLOSE TO BODY, AND FIELD DROP-OFF IS 1/r3 IS iir3 z
EXPOSURE CAN LAST OVERNIGHT,
IS 1/r3 0
03
DROP-OFF IS 1/r2 0
0
FIG. 2-HERE ARE SOME PRIMARY SOURCES of magnetic field exposure with the range
of field intensity in teslas, and drop-off rates. 111
+9V 40 5 21
+9V TP2 TP1
0 R19 R18
0 0 39 4 20113
B1
/0-
S1
46.4K
W*
51.1K
R25
C13
330PF
VW
R28
100K
8
:CC21
7108 1C
19
18
DISP 1
1C LCD -002
10
OSC3 1D
(ONE 9V
C11 22.1K 37 17
ALKALINE I
TEST 1E 1E
100pF
BATTERY)+, 36 6 22
R26 REFH 1F 1F
20K 7 23
REFL 1G 1G
SCALE
34 12 25
C+ R 10A
C4 R11 C14.1 24
10B
R15
33.2K .1
10pF 33.2K R20 15
C -R 10C19 10C
42.2K
D2 32 9 14
IC3-c R27 COM 10D 10D
R12 1N4148
IC3-b 1/4 LF347 1MEG 14 13
+9V C8 31
10K R16 +IN 10E 10E
1/4 LF347 10 IC3-d
4 7pF 42.2K C15 13 26
R9 1/4 LF347 1OF 1OF
100K 8 +I( .1 25 27
W C7 11 12
14 0
29
IN 10G
23 30
10G
D1 23100A
C5
1
VA +9V
1N4148
C16.1 R29 16 29
100A
6.8pFb R13 100B 1008
R17 C12 4%4664K
100K 8 24 11
C9 , 4.7MEG
R21
221.tF'-% BUF 100C
15 10
100C
I""
.1 POL -14-9 BAT P2
C3
IC3-a
1,
1161 P1
1/4 LF347
Li
I.1 R4
1052 TP4 3
0 IC2-a
1/4 4070
02 R24
+9V 1MEG
4
6) IC2-b
R8
1/4 4070
464K R23
Wt. 1MEG 10
9 ) IC2-c
+9V 1/4 4070
R22 14
13
1MEG 11
12 IC2-d
1/4 4070
FIG. 3-SCHEMATIC OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD METER. The magnetic field is picked up
by L1 and appears as a voltage that is proportional to the field strength at the input of IC3-
a, which amplifies the signal to 100 V per p.T. The signal is then further amplified by IC3-b
and IC3-c to achieve the three tesla ranges.
PARTS LIST
All resistors are 1/4 -watt, 1%, unless C3, C7, C15-0.1 F, polyester L1-18 turns, 3" diameter remote -sensing
otherwise indicated. C4, C6, C10-10 p,F, electrolytic coil (optional, see text)
R1, R3, R12-10,000 ohms C5, C9-6.5 pF, ceramic disc or mica B1 -9 -volt alkaline battery, with connector
R2, R11, R15-33,200 ohms C11-100 1.LF, 10 volts, electrolytic Case-Pac-Tec, HPS-9VB
R4-10 ohms C12-22 p.F, 10 volts, electrolytic
R5 -R7, R22 -R24, R27-1 megohm C13-330 pF, polyester NOTE: The following items are avail-
R8, R29-464,000 ohms C16-0.047 p.F, polyester or ceramic disc able from A & T Labs, P.O. Box 4884,
R9, R13, R28-100,000 ohms C17-0.68 iLF, polyester Wheaton, IL 60187: A kit of all parts
R10, R14-1000 ohms Semiconductors including PC board and case, with-
R16, R20-42,200 ohms D1, D2 -1N4148 switching diode out battery, $79.00; an etched, drilled
R17-4.7 megohms Q1, Q2 -2N4124 NPN transistor and plated through PC board with
R18-51,100 ohms ICI-1CL 7106 A/0 converter solder mask and silk-screened parts
R19-46,400 ohms IC2-4070 or 4030 quad 2 -input placement, $15.00; a fully assembled
R21-1-megohm potentiometer, 5% exclusive -OR gate and tested unit, $109.00. Add 6.75%
R25-22,100 ohms IC3-LF347 quad JFET input op -amp sales tax for Illinois residents, 5%
R26 -20,000 -ohm potentiometer, 5% DISP1-LCD-002 liquid crystal display shipping and handling in U.S., 12%
Capacitors Other components shipping and handling in Canada.
C1, C8-4.7 ILF, 10 volts, electrolytic S1-MSS1200, SPST (Alco) Check or Money order (UPS COD in
C2, C14-0.1 electrolylic or polyester S2-MSS4300, SPDT (Alco) contiguous U.S. only) is accepted.
112
ing, an external field coil probe
can be used. Figure 3 shows the
complete schematic of the cir-
cuit. The magnetic field picked
up by the coil appears as a volt-
age, which is proportional to field
strength and frequency at the in-
put of a cascaded amplifier IC3-a,
-b, and -c. With a first stage am-
plifier gain of 3.3 set by R12 -R10,
the overall sensitivity is 100 V
per RT, or 100 mV per mT. The
meter sensitivity is nominally 2
volts full scale, leading to the
lowest level sensitivity of 20 mT
full scale.
Op -amp IC3-a amplifies the
signal to a normalized level of 100
p.V per 1T. That voltage is fur-
ther amplified by 1, 100, or
10,000 by IC3-b and -c. The three
amplifier stages provide the three FIG. 4 -THIS IS AN INTERNAL VIEW of the magnetic field meter. Assembly is easy, just
magnetic field ranges of 2 mT, install all components below the LCD first.
200 p.T, and 2 uT (full scale).
Components R3 -C3 and R12 -C7 TP49 0 TP3
establish a frequency roll -off
characteristic that compensates
for the frequency -proportional Si
sensitivity of the pickup coil, and L12
set the 20 -kHz cut-off point.
Finally, IC3-d is a precision rec- R1--ok
tifier and peak detector. Its out- -R21
put drives ICI, a combination R15-0
- R3-9-
0,01441- -
analog -to -digital (A/D) converter - R17-* t*. 002-1411-
- 017
and LCD driver. Components -R18 9 - C16 -
R25-R29 and C13-C17 are used R4 ----
by ICI to set display -update C1 -C3
IC3
R'27
times, clock generation, and ref- -R13-4"
R29
/..1123 -R22-*
Fig. 4 uses a double -sided PC S2 626
board, which is available from
the source mentioned in the
parts list. We also show the com-
ponent side and solder side of the FIG. 5 -PARTS PLACEMENT DIAGRAM.
PC board if you choose to make it
yourself. You can, however, build ities. If you are using the internal the battery connector. You are
the circuit on a perforated con- sensing coil, install jumpers be- now ready for power -up and
struction board if you like, but tween Ll-TP3 and LI-TP4. checkout.
remember to include the 18 -turn If you are using the case spec- With power on, adjust R26 for
remote sensing coil, LI, as indi- ified in the parts list, raise and 1.000 volt between TP1 and TP2.
cated in the Parts List. Mount all angle the display as necessary Then, select the 20 mT range and
parts below the LCD display first. with wire -wrap IC sockets. Make short the pickup coil with a very
It's easier to fix assembly prob- holes in the front panel for S1 and short lead between TP3 and TP4.
lems if a socket is used with the S2. Mount the finished PC board Adjust offset -null potentiometer
LCD. Install all parts as shown in in the case using a spacer for the R7 for a display of 0.00. Remove
Fig. 5 paying attention to compo- single screw holding the center the jumper, and the meter is com-
nent valves and capacitor polar - bottom of the board, and attach plete. 113
8 INCH
HOT TROUBLESHOOTING
DIAMETER
continued from page 108
rate digital readings when it is
unsealed.)
Select the dual -channel mode,
couple channel B to ground, and
40 TURNS
16 AWG PLACE MAGNETIC FIELD
align the trace so it lies on the
1 METER STRENGTH METER HERE 10% graticule marking. Select
the time -measurement mode,
and set the "begin" and "end"
80 VOLTMETER
knobs so that the intensified
trace section is as shown in Fig.
5. The digital display should
show between 11 and 14 microse-
conds. (The display in Fig. 5
IpEAK=1.4 x VOLTSRMS
8 OUT
shows 12.83 microseconds.)
13=Nxlx4n10-7 (T)
If you measure, say, 9 microse-
AUDIO conds, instead of 11-14 microse-
=40)47004 xl AMP conds, even though the peak -to -
=5.03x10-5 I (T)
IN peak value, the DC voltage, the
1 AMP WILL GENERATE 60 Hz
SINE -WAVE
wave shape, and the frequency
GENERATOR
are correct, the TV will work for
awhile, but will more than likely
fail at some point. That's because
the horizontal output system
FIG. 6-USE THIS TEST SETUP TO accurately calibrate your meter. A known current is sees a 35.7% reduction in retrace
passed through a coil whose field intensity is known. A sine -wave generator providesthe time-meaning that retrace is
60 Hz frequency, and an audio amplifier is coupled to the coil by an 8 -ohm resistor. faster and generates higher volt-
Measure the voltage across the resistor, and use the calculations shown. age. Therefore, the horizontal
output transistor is on longer at
Calibration range is indicated by a display of full -scan conduction, producing
Calibration of the meter is 1 followed by three blanks. In increased heat, increased scan -
basically determined by the pick- most cases, the 2T range is sat- derived power supply levels, and
up -coil characteristics, amplifier isfactory. higher voltages throughout the
gains, and meter reference -volt- set. All the circuits are now
age setting. The amplifier gains, Measurement interpretation stressed working at the higher
as we previously discussed, are A great deal of controversy ex- voltages. That, in time, will cause
chosen to match the coil charac- ists in the emerging understand- components to fail.
teristics as closely as possible. ing of potential health hazards of Your scope can also be used to
If you desire to calibrate your low -frequency magnetic fields. watch for an instantaneous
meter more exactly, you will need The International Radiation Pro- start-up pulse. Simply connect
to generate a known magnetic tection Association (IRPA) has set the scope and preset it to view the
field intensity. One way to do that some interim standards based HOT pulse. Then, watch the CRT
is to pass a known current on 1984 World Health Organiza- as you apply power to the TV's
through a coil configuration tion guidelines. Those IRPA stan- circuitry. If you see a pulse appear
whose field pattern charac- dards specify a continuous and then disappear, your start-
teristics are known. Figure 6 maximum magnetic field ex- up circuitry is operating and the
shows such a calibration setup. A posure for the general public of set is in the shut -down mode.
good controllable signal source is 100 uT, and 500 1.LT as the max- If that happens, service the
a sine -wave generator and an au- imum occupational exposure al- chassis in a "powered -down"
dio amplifier, whose output is lowed over the entire working condition by either halving the
0 coupled to a coil through an 8 - day. normal B + level separately, or re-
0 Some European countries ducing the AC input power to
co
0 ohm resistor. Measuring the volt-
z age across the resistor gives the have already adopted strict mag- 60-90 VAC. Then monitor the
current. Then, calculate the mag- netic field emission require- collector of the horizontal output
U)
cc netic field according to Fig. 6. ments for video display termi- transistor with your scope.
Lu
(Note that while all references to nals, but the United States is Many underlying performance
I-
z field strength here are made in taking a more cautious approach problems can be uncovered by ex-
Lu
2 teslas, gauss are also commonly about developing and enforcing amining specific characteristics
I used. The conversion is easy: 1 such guidelines. of the "HOT pulse." The wave-
x tesla = 10,000 gauss.) Whatever studies and data you form shape, symmetry, and duty
Place the meter inside the coil think are accurate, now you have cycle of horizontal output tran-
I and turn it on. Use the highest a way to measure your own ex- sistor is critical in diagnosing
sensitivity scale that does not posure and take whatever action and troubleshooting electrical
114 overrange the display. An over - you believe is prudent. R -E malfunctions in your TV set. R -E
This solid-state
electronic
compass uses
Hall -effect sensors
to keep you
heading in
the right
direction.
BUILD AN
ELECTRONIC
ANTHONY J. CARISTI has no moving parts and elimi-
-
IC:4
about 25 mA and, since it's usu- LED1
ally powered for only a few sec-
3
--R2- 1C2
R7
onds at a time, battery life is 3 --R1 -
extremely long; several hours of S1 CI1
2 IC3
-C3-
continuous compass operation is -r 1 - 03 --- -R6-
also possible. Circuit stability IC1 2
C2 -- R5 - - -C4
with a falling battery voltage is 1
sembled into the enclosure. (Use $2.00; IC2, $2.00; set of 10 met- when drilling; some plastics will m
the "north" indication of Fig. 4 to al -film resistors, $4.95. Please shatter if subjected to excessive z
determine the relationship be- add $3.00 postage/handling. stress. Be sure to properly orient 37
tween the PC board and compass the top of the enclosure in accor- rn
scale when final assembly is dance with the final position of z
done.) bility of the circuit with varying the PC board.
Many of the resistors specified ambient temperature changes,
in the parts list are metal -film and reduces the need to Checkout 8
types. The use of such compo- periodically adjust the sensitivity. When you are satisfied that all
nents ensures maximum sta- control. Ordinary carbon re- wiring is complete and correct, 117
the checkout procedure must be netic fields nearby, and the proj-
performed, and be sure to use a ect is not shielded by a large mass
fresh 9 -volt battery. Checkout re- of iron or steel.
quires a DC voltmeter connected While holding the unit hori-
to ground and the output termi- zontally in any direction, apply
nal of ICI. Apply power to the cir- power and carefully adjust R9 so
cuit check for +4.75 to +5.25 that the LED is at the switch -over
volts. Measure the resistance be- point between on and off; allow at
tween the 5 -volt bus and ground; least 10 seconds for the circuit to
a normal reading is about 600 stabilize. Flicker of the LED is
ohms. Measure the terminal volt- normal as the circuit switches
age of the battery to be sure that back and forth. Once R9 is set,
it is delivering at least 7 volts un- rotate the compass over a 360 -
der load to IC1. Replace a weak degree arc (full circle) and note
battery if necessary. that the LED will be on over part
Next, measure the output volt- of the arc, and off over the rest. If
age of IC2 pin 1, and verify the necessary, readjust potentiome-
voltage range of potentiometer ter R9 very slightly to obtain this
R9. (Compass orientation is not result. The optimum setting for
important at this time.) The volt- R9 will be at the point where the
age should be about 2 to 3 volts arc of illumination is as small as
DC. Measure and record the DC possible.
voltage that you observe at IC2-a As the compass is rotated over
pin 1. the illuminated arc, note the two
FIG. 5-EXAMINE THE COMPLETED on/off points. When the compass
Measure the voltage change at board for shorts, opens, and cold solder
IC2-c pin 8 as the sensitivity con- joints before installing it in a plastic case. is positioned halfway between
trol is rotated over its entire those points, it is facing the mag-
range. The difference between netic north pole, and the scale
the highest and lowest readings indications on its face indicate all
should be about 0.45 volts. Ide- other directions.
ally, the center of the measured
voltage range should be close to Using the compass
the voltage recorded earlier at IC2 Always be sure that the battery
pin 1. is reasonably fresh, and take
If necessary, change the value along an extra one before start-
of R8 and/or R10 so that the volt- ing out on an excursion with the
age range obtained at IC2-c pin 8 compass. (A weak battery will be
is somewhat centered about the indicated by a dim or totally unlit
voltage reading at IC2-a pin 1. LED.) Avoid taking a compass
This ensures proper adjustment reading in any area where there
range of the sensitivity control may be a magnetic field from a
for the particular pair of Hall gen- nearby device, or where Earth's
erators that are used in your FIG. 6-USE A PHOTOCOPY of this art-
magnetic field is shielded by a
compass project. work for the top of the compass, and glue large mass of metal.
Once the sensitivity range is it in place on top of the case. Hold the compass in a horizon-
correct, rotate R9 over its range tal position and rotate it full cir-
while observing the LED. At one r 1 cle while observing the LED.
end of the setting, the LED T
Adjustment of the sensitivity
should be extinguished, and at control is indicated if the LED is
the other end it should be illumi- totally on or totally off as the com-
nated; if not, check the polarity of pass is rotated. Always allow at
LED1 and the orientation of Ql. least 10 seconds operating time
Check pin 14 of IC2-d to be cer- for the circuit to stabilize. Once
tain it swings from about zero to the sensitivity control is ad-
battery voltage as R9 is rotated justed, it should not require read-
over its range. Check pin 13 of justment unless the project is
IC2-d for a voltage of about 3.4 subjected to an extreme change
volts as set by R11 and R12. Prob- in temperature.
lems in this area may warrant re- Don't forget that the electronic -
placing IC2 if everything else compass circuit can be used for
checks out alright-check your things other than a simple direc-
soldering before changing the IC. tion finder. It provides an elec-
When the LED operates as de- tronic means of finding north, so
scribed, the project is ready to be it should be easy to interface the
tested under actual operating compass to other devices that
conditions. Before you start, FOIL PATTERN for the electronic com- may need to know where north
make sure that there are no mag- pass, shown actual size. is-a robot, for example. R -E
Oi
--11101-
I
4
.1
-41
---K I(
)1
D U LE i-f% 3JOU
)1
)1
I
L
)I
I
1(----4------;-1(
Y
K
)1----e--)
x
I(
4---)1 I I
Full -wave doubler
(-9-
N N.
___
1(
i
)I
)1
1
I I
(
)1-4-- -
N ---)1-
Unlike the half -wave voltage
doubler, the full -wave version has
two capacitors across RL rather
than one. Whereas Cl shown in
Fig. 1 is cut off and unsupplied
for half of every cycle, Cl and C2
in Fig. 3 are supplied on alternate
half cycles. When the capacitor
corresponding to the diode that's
cut off discharges, it can only do
so through the capacitor being
supplied, slightly decreasing
both its current and the max-
imum voltage it reaches.
Measuring high -voltage DC
Voltage measurements will be
OM.=
Of
11
the peak AC voltage of 170 volts, possible only to about the second
Half -wave doubler or about 340 volts peak across or third stage of a cascaded volt-
Figure 1 shows a half -wave volt- RL. For the first half -cycle (a), D2 age doubler with most volt-
age doubler; we'll assume that Cl is cut off and DI conducts, so meters. Beyond that, youll need
and C2 are initially discharged. that Vc, equals approximately to use either a high -voltage DC
During the first half -cycle shown 170 volts DC. On the next half - meter or an external voltage di-
in a, the upper input terminal is cycle (b), the positive voltage is vider for use with a standard
positive and the bottom negative, replaced by a negative voltage, so high -impedance voltmeter (10
so D1 conducts and Cl charges to D2 conducts and DI is cut off. RL megohms or more).
about 170 volts peak. Diode D2 goes across Cl and C2 in series, A good voltage divider that can
can't conduct, since it's back -bi- effectively creating a doubled be used for the purpose of high -
ased, so C2 discharges through level of about 340 volts DC. voltage measurements is the
RL. In the second half -cycle (b), RCA SK3868/DIV-1, a high -volt-
the analysis is similar, except age DC divider; it's used in TV's to
that D2 conducts and C2 Warning!! This article deals with and reduce the final anode voltage go-
charges. involves subject matter and the use of ing to the CRT to the level re-
The circuit is really a transfor- materials and substances that may be quired for the focus voltage. It
merless voltage amplifier. While hazardous to health and life. Do not at- consists of resistors RI (200
T1 can provide isolation, as well tempt to implement or use the information megohms) and R2 (40 megohms) 33
as increase the AC voltage ini- contained herein, unless you are experi-
enced and skilled with respect to such
in series, as shown in Fig. 4. m
tially going into the doubler, the subject matter, materials, and sub- There are three leads, one for the
amplification due to the doubling stances. Neither the publisher nor the au- free ends of each resistor, and the m
action would occur without it. thor make any representation as for the other at their juncture. If you put
When the polarity reverses, both completeness or accuracy of the informa- both a 10-megohm meter (shown m
the input voltage and the charge tion contained herein, and disclaim any
liability for damages or injuries, whether
as ZM in Fig. 4) and a 2.7- z
across Cl are in series like two caused by or arising from the lack of com-
megohm resistor (R3) in parallel rn
batteries, producing about 340 pleteness, inaccuracies of the informa- with the 40-megohm resistor
volts peak. One problem, though, tion, misrepresentations of the directions, (R2), you can achieve almost ex-
is that a half -wave doubler can't misapplication of the information, or other- actly 100:1 range multiplication, 0
be used with a load that draws wise. co
for a full-scale deflection of 20 0
much current. kilovolts DC. 0
119
_ C1 + D2 04
-
120VAC 170V C1
C2 DISCHARGES
RL SLIGHTLY, IF
PREVIOUSLY
CHARGED
D2 C2
a HV 4 - 6Vs
HVDC TV CRT FOCUS DIVIDER
(RED WIRE) RCA PART #SK3868/DIV-1
R1
C5
200MEG
120VAC -25VDC R2
'#.#4,40M EG
2 4V5
WHITE R3 BLACK
b
WIRE 2.7MEG WIRE
Z C3
10MEG
+ -
0 2V$
DC
VOLTMETER
C1
FIG. 4-TO MEASURE HIGH VOLTAGES
with an ordinary 10-megohm meter, you
can use the RCA SK3868/DIV-1 high -volt-
Vs
age divider. The circuit provides a 1:100
voltage division, allowing 20 kilovolts to
be measured on a 200 -volt scale.
FIG. 2-TWO HALF -WAVE RECTIFIERS,
one with a positive output (a) and one
negative (b), combine to make a full -wave
Cl C3 C5 FIG. 6-THIS VOLTAGE DOUBLER is the
voltage doubler (c). same as the one shown in Fig. 5, although
it's drawn differently. You should be able
to recognize both versions.
Cascaded voltage doublers
Figures 5-8 show four addi- C2 C4 C6 sing noise. (We'll shown you how
0 tional voltage doublers. The one to demonstrate the "wind" later
0 shown in Fig. 5 is the most FIG. 5-THIS CASCADED DOUBLER uses on.) The circuit delivers 3.75
0 1N4007 diodes rated at 1 kilovolt PIV, and
z straightforward. If you build it, capacitors from 0.068-0.1p.F with a 400 - kilovolts DC when powered from
use 1N4007 diodes with peak in- volt DC working voltage. 120 volts AC, or 7.5 kilovolts DC
co verse voltage (PIV) ratings of 1 when powered from 240 volts AC.
cc
w kilovolt for D1-D6, and stabilized for moderate -current The output of a cascaded volt-
zw
I -
0.068-0.1 RF capacitors with applications; it's called either a age doubler should be termi-
working voltages of 400 volts DC. Cockcroft -Walton or Greinacher nated with no less than 200
Figure 5 is electrically identical to cascaded voltage doubler. megohms, and only then be al-
w lowed to extend beyond a protec-
a. the one in Fig. 6, so keep that in You can use a sewing needle as
w mind if you should come across an emitter for the doubler shown tive plastic case, for safety.
w either format. Figure 7 shows an in Fig. 8 to generate "corona Voltages as high as 5 megavolts
extended version that's better wind." That will sound like a his - DC have been generated using
120
cascaded voltage doublers, es- should all have infinite resis-
pecially when operating in a pres- tance.
surized atmosphere. The biggest To properly discharge capaci-
advantage to using voltage dou- tors, build a discharging wand
blers is that they use inexpensive like the one shown in Fig. 10. Use
low -voltage parts. Otherwise, if a 2 -foot wooden (or plastic)
all the parts had to be of the high - dowel, and connect a stiff wire tip
voltage variety, you would have to
use expensive and rather large
capacitors like the one shown in FIG. 12-A TYPICAL CASCADED voltage
doubler. Note the wide spacings between
Fig. 9. the diodes, the long connecting wires,
If you have problems with the and the smooth solder joints.
circuit in Fig. 8 (or any other
high -voltage circuit), you must
discharge every capacitor (we'll
tell you how in a minute) before
you check for malfunctions.
When examining the circuit for
problems, closely check the sol-
FIG. 9-HIGH-VOLTAGE CAPACITORS. A
der connections, and then the di- 0.25 ktF, 7.5 -kilovolt capacitor is on the
ode directions and continuity. left; a 100 pF, 15 -kilovolt capacitor is in the
The 1N4007's should have a re- middle; and 0.0005 a F, 5 -kilovolt capacitor
sistance of 1.1K when forward - is on the right. FIG. 13-THIS IS THE DOUBLER from Fig-
biased and be open when reverse - ure 12, after being sealed in candle wax.
biased, while the capacitors TIP For better protection, you can immerse it
IWATER WIRE) in pure paraffin oil.
PIPE
SEWING NEEDLE
We AS EMITTER
ELECTRODE
-2"" FOR CORONA WIND
3.75/7.5kVDC
FIG. 8-THIS 25 -STAGE VOLTAGE DOUBLER will generate "corona wind." It delivers 3.75
kilovolts DC when powered from 120 volts AC, or 7.5 kilovolts DC when powered from 240
volts AC.
121
good for corona generation and
electron emission. The sharp-
ened ends will have a small radi-
us of curvature (a tight curve or
bend), giving rise to a highly dis-
torted electric field at its surface.
The high electric field is what
tends to ionize air molecules in
the vicinity.
Another experiment you could
try involves holding a fluorescent
tube near the emitter. The tube
will glow, but be careful not to
touch the terminals on the ends,
or you'll get a shock.
Lines of force of an elec-
trostatic field can be demon-
strated by placing the electrodes
(the high -voltage DC output and
ground) in a tray covered with
FIG. 14-CORONA WIND DEMONSTRATION. The flame will deflect toward the ground castor oil containing some
plate. Note the black ground wire attached near the screw threads. farina. The farina will produce
the pattern of the electric field
RIVET
When you build a cascaded lines; similar to iron filings
voltage doubler, you can encase shaken lightly on a piece of paper
the circuit in pure paraffin oil or in the presence of a bar magnet.
candle wax to reduce the chances If you place two round door
WIRE of getting shocked. It will also knobs on insulated stands made
SOLDER WIRE
minimize corona loss, so the from plastic cups filled with can-
ONTO SIDE high -voltage DC arrives where it's dle wax, and then charge them,
FIG. 15-THIS ION -MOTOR ROTOR, when
needed. Figures 12 and 13 show a then a plastic ball suspended
placed on top of the sewing -needle emit- typical ladder -type voltage dou- from a string will be drawn to and
ter, will spin in a circle. bler before and after being sealed touch the positive electrode, and
in wax. fall back to center when the
SPHERICAL SPHERICAL spheres are discharged (see Fig.
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE Experiments 16-a). A plastic ball coated with
There are many experiments conductive lacquer swings to-
chat can produce observable ward the positive electrode like a
effects due to the high -voltage DC pendulum; when the ball and
PENDULUM produced by voltage doublers. doorknob touch, the ball be-
USING LAC-
QUER -COATED
With a high -voltage emitter comes positively charged, so they
PLASTIC BALL pointed at a ground plate (used to repel one another. It then swings
a attract ions), with a burning can- toward the negative side, ab-
SPHERICAL SPHERICAL dle placed in between them (see sorbs electrons, becomes nega-
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
Fig. 14), you'll see the candle tively charged, and is repelled
flame deflect toward the metal back to the positive. The process
plate. repeats indefinitely as long as the
VERY You can make a rotor for an ion high -voltage DC is present, and it
LIGHT motor, using a light pivot made will continue to operate for some
COTTON
BALL
from a rivet with thin, stiff wire time after it's shut off. The charge
(like piano wire) attached, as exchange is slow, and there'll be
shown in Fig. 15. The rotor must arcing at the positive electrode.
FIG. 16-TWO CHARGED DOOR KNOBS be balanced on top of the sewing - A grounded metal ball alter-
cause a suspended, lacquer -coated plas- needle emitter (much as in a nates between both electrodes,
8 tic ball to behave like a pendulum (a). A compass) used for the doubler like the conducting plastic ball.
light cotton ball will bounce back and shown in Fig. 8. (We ran a similar However, the arcs are smaller due
forth without being suspended on a string construction project in Radio - to its greater weight, and should
rn
(b).
Electronics, February, 1991.) be observed at both ends, but
cc
w
Libertyville, IL 60048, tel. When powered up, the rotor will more on the positive side.
312-680-7400), Model 2061 is spin and a hissing sound will be A light cotton ball should be
w rated at 20 amps, 250 volts, and heard. Both ends of the wire are drawn to the positive electrode
itw 50-400 Hz. The high -voltage DC bent at opposite right angles, so and hang there by itself, as
switch in Fig. 11 also uses an old the emitted electrons propel the shown in Fig. 16-b. It's then re-
CL
X 100 -amp fuse box, shown on the wire in a circle. You should pelled 0.5 -inch toward the nega-
w right; it may look like an antique, sharpen both ends of the rotor tive electrode, and the process
but it will prevent any shocks. wire to provide a sharp surface should repeat indefinitely.
122
Build this powerful serial -bus
analyzer for a fraction of the cost
of commercial units-and learn
about the ever -popular 68705
microcontroller in the process.
TERMINAL/MONITOR
built-in serial port, a second one frequency of exactly 2.4576 MHz
STEVEN AVRITCH has been implemented in soft- in order to generate the correct
ware. However, the second port baud rates. The keyboard is a
HAVE YOU EVER BEEN FRUSTRATED still requires a 12 -volt RS -232 surplus unit from an old TI -99/4
by a problem with an RS -232 interface. The schematic is personal computer; the keyboard
line? Inexpensive breakout boxes shown in Fig. 1, and the wiring is inexpensive and readily avail-
with five or six LED's suffice for diagram is shown in Fig. 2. able through many suppliers.
solving simple problems, but A Maxim MAX232 RS -232 A beeper may be connected to
they don't provide enough infor- transceiver (IC2) provides the pin 19 (port B7) of the micro -
mation to debug the serious transmission portion of the in- controller. The beeper will sound
kind. On the other hand, full -fea- terface; it converts TTL signals whenever the monitor detects a
tured serial bus analyzers (SBA's) from the microcontroller to bell character (ASCII 07 or Cntl-
give you all the debugging infor- RS -232 levels. Unlike most G). The beeper must be TTL-com-
mation you need, but can cost RS -232 transceivers, which re- patible (meaning that it must be
close to $1000. quire separate +12- and -12 - powered from a 5 -volt supply and
However, you don't really have volt power supplies, the MAX232 draw less than 3 mA).
to spend that much. Now you can has built-in charge pumps that The low power consumption of
build a powerful RS -232 monitor generate the required voltages the microcontroller allows it to
that does most of what the expen- from a single 5 -volt supply. A operate over a wide range of input
sive SBA's do, yet doesn't cost standard 1489 device (IC4) con- voltages (8-15 volts DC); IC3 pro-
much more than a quality break- verts incoming 12 -volt signals vides voltage regulation. The out-
out box. In addition, this project to TTL levels. put of IC3 is 6 volts; diode D2
can also be used as a portable, Switch SI is a DPDT unit that drops voltage even further, to
battery -operated terminal. Fea- selects terminal or monitor about 5.3 volts. DI provides re-
tures are summarized in Table 1. mode. In terminal mode the CPU verse -polarity input protection.
controls the logic levels of both
Hardware design lines. However, in monitor mode, Operating modes
The heart of the project is all lines from the primary port The RS -232 Terminal/Monitor
Motorola's MC68HC705C8 sin- (J1) are directly connected to the has four basic modes of opera-
gle -IC microcontroller, a 40 -pin secondary port (J2), in which tion, as shown in Table 2. You use
DIP containing built-in PROM, case all signals pass straight the keyboard to select mode, as
RAM, serial and parallel I/O through and the device simply well as a variety of operational pa-
ports, timer, and clock. monitors TxD and DTR. rameters. In use, you must place
The monitor requires two se- Other notable components in- Si in the germinal position when
rial receivers: one for the TXD line clude XTAL1 and the keyboard. in terminal mode, and in the
and one for the axn line. Because The crystal is a standard, readily Monitor position when in any of
the microcontroller has only one available device; it must have a the three display modes. 123
The terminal -mode display is
similar to a dumb ASCII termi- TABLE 1-FEATURES
nal, except that the display is lim- 40 -character x 2 -line LCD display
ited to forty characters by two Full keyboard
lines. The CPU converts key- Selectable baud rate (300 -19,200)
board characters to ASCII, then Selectable protocol (number of data and parity bits)
transmits them over the serial Programmable scroll rate
link. Conversely, received charac- Recall of last two lines displayed
ters are displayed in ASCII on the 8- to 15 -volt DC power (9V battery is perfect)
LCD screen. CMOS design for low current drain and long battery life
The Display Bits mode contin-
uously displays the status of the
six primary RS -232 signals, as
shown in Fig. 3-a. The Display TABLE 2-MODES OF OPERATION
ASCII mode shows activity on the
TXD and Rxp lines. TXD data ap- Terminal The unit acts as a simple RS -232 "dumb" terminal. The unit
pears in ASCII on line one and can be connected anywhere a dumb terminal is needed.
RXD data on line two (Fig. 3-b).
The Display Hex mode is similar, Display Bits Displays status (high or low) of the six primary RS -232 lines
except that each character ap- (TXD, RXD, RTS, CTS, DSR, DTR).
pears in hexadecimal format, as Display ASCII Displays TXD (line 1) and RXD (line 2) activity in ASCII
shown in Fig. 3-c. (A period "." format.
indicates that the line was inac-
tive when a character was re- Display Hex Like Display ASCII mode except hexadecimal display.
ceived on the other line.)
6 RXD J1
RI IN R1 OUT Vcc
D SPLAY
12 MODULE
R2 IN R2 OUT
2
T1 OUT Ti IN
IT T2 IN
10.
3 .3 R1
4
C1+ IC2 C2+ +C9 1
2 3 4 8 6 7
a
2 2
7 7
8
-t
-= 8
b
20 TER- 20
MI NAL . CO 42 . . 77 90 44 22 . . .
J4 J5
MONITOR SECONDARY
55 54 22 88 42 43 44 45 56 66 76
PRIMARY
0
S1
C
TERMINAUMONITOR
FIG. 3-DISPLAY SAMPLES. The Display Bits mode is shown in a; the ASCII mode is
FIG. 2-WIRING DIAGRAM for the termi- shown in b, with TXD on top and RXD on the bottom; and the hex mode is shown in c,
nal/monitor. Connectors J4 and J5 are again with TXD over RXD.
standard DB-25 males.
During operation in ASCII or
hex mode, you can press Cntl-S
TABLE 3-FUNCTION REQUESTS
to halt input temporarily and
read what is displayed. Then sim-
1st Description 2nd Description ply press Cntl-Q when you're
ready to continue.
M Select mode 1 Terminal The monitor has several keys
that can produce more than one
2 Display Bits symbol. For example, the ques-
tion mark symbol is located on
3 Display ASCII the front of the "I" key. lb produce
a question mark, press I and the
4 Display Hex FCTN key simultaneously.
0 Display current parameters
Function requests
1 Set baud rate 0 19,200 You can change several operat-
ing characteristics by pressing
1 9600 special key combinations, as
shown in Table 3. To set a given
2 4800 parameter, press FCTN and the
key shown in column one of the
3 2400 table.
4 1200
Select Mode. Press FCTN-M,
then press 1-4 to select mode.
5 600 Current Parameters. Press
FCTN-0 to view current settings
6 300 for mode (terminal), baud rate
(1200), protocol (7E1), scroll rate
2 Set Protocol 0 8N1 (0), scroll mode, linefeed status
(enabled), and on/off-line status
1 7N1 (on-line). (Default values shown
2 7E1
in parentheses.)
Set Baud Rate. Press FCTN-1
3 Set scroll rate delay 0-9 0 = off, 9= max to set baud rate. The monitor
runs from 300 to 19,200 bits/sec,
4 Toggle scroll/two- line mode but the maximum rate in ASCII
and Hex Display modes is 9600.
5 Enable/disable linefeed Protocol. Press FCTN-2 to de-
6 Recall last two lines
fine the number of data bits (7,
8), parity (Even, Odd, None), and
L Toggle local/online modes
stop bits (1, 2) in each byte sent
or received. The terminal cur-
H Display help information rently supports three popular for-
mats: 8N1, 701, and 7E1. 125
..L-+ 8 TO +15VDC
PARTS LIST I NPU1
tiometer d, J3 TO J4,J5
IIDi
R2-10 megohms CA
C:3 d2 IC2
R3, R13-10,000 ohms Rd 112 IC4
R4-R12-10,000 ohms, SIP SIF') - 02 - 013 1C10 01
Capacitors 10
C1-1 16 volts, radial electrolytic XTA L1
adapter. tioned in the parts list if you check the wiring of the RS -232 m
'lb use the device as a monitor, don't want to make your own. driver (IC2). -0
m
connect it in series with the two Using Fig. 4 as a guide, assem-
devices (host and terminal, host ble the PC board starting with Wrapping up m
and modem, etc.), place Si in the passive components. Then The author housed his pro- zm
Monitor position, and choose mount sockets for the IC's, con- totype in a custom-built en-
one of the terminal modes. Then nectors J1 -J3, and don't forget closure that resembles a mini-
all you have to do is set protocol, the two jumpers. Check your ature RS -232 terminal. You could z
baud rate, etc. work carefully, correct any mis- use an off -the -shelf metal or plas-
takes, and then insert the IC's tic case just as well. Just keep in
Software into the sockets. Connect the ca- mind that, however you package 7
The MC68HC705C8 software bles from the keyboard and LCD it, this terminal/monitor is a
consists of an assembly -language module. Then make the connec- useful and fun project. R -E 127
THD ANALYZER
REPRINT
Electronics BOOKSTORE
continued on page 72
we drive the input of the ampli-
222 Popular Electronics (1992 back issues) $5.00
Write in issues desired fier with a 1 -volt pure sine wave
Write in issues desired 107 Radio -Electronics (1987 back issues) . $5.00
Write in issues desired
and we obtain the 20 volts re-
221 Popular Electronics (1991 back issues, quired at the output. Since 20
Jan., Mar. not available) $5.00 volts RMS is 56 volts peak -to -
Write in issues desired REPRINTS
220 Popular Electronics (1990 back issues) $5.00
REPRINTS peak, S2 must be set to >20V.
Write in issues desired
169 Think Tank (133 Circuits) ..... $3.50 With S5 in "THD" position a read-
119 Popular Electronics (1989 back issues) $5.00 169A Think Tank Vol. 2 $3.00 ing of 1.4 mV (0.0014V) DC is ob-
Write in issues desired 168 Fact Cards (#34-66) $4.00 tained. In the "REF" position we
118 Hands -On Electronics (1988 back issues) 168C Fact Cards (#67-99) ...... $3.50 read 2.00V. Always read the
$5.00
168D Fact Cards (#100-132) $3.50 range on the DMM that affords
Write in issues desired
167 Designing With IC's $4.00 the best resolution. Now make
117 Hands -On Electronics
(1987 back issues) $5.00 166 Collected Works of Mohammed Ullyses Fips the calculation: 0.0014/2.00 X
Write in issues desired (62 pages, April Fools Collection) $5.00 100 equals 0.07 percent THD.
EFI92 Experimenters Handbook (1992) .... $5.00 165 How to Repair CD Disc Players $5.00 Voltage amplifiers are mea-
EH91 Experimenters Handbook (1991) .... $5.00 164 Modern Electrics (April 1908) $3.00 sured in the same manner, but
EH90 Experimenters Handbook (1990) .... $5.00 163 Receiving Satellite TV $5.00
without the requirement of a load
EH88 Experimenters Handbook (1988-89) $5.00 162 Build Your Own Satellite TV Receiver $5.00
resistor. Such amplifiers will
EH87 Experimenters Handbook (1987) ...$5.00
$4.00
probably show lower THD voltage
161 Descrambling (Feb. 1984)
HH92 Hobbyist Handbook (1992) $5.00 readings. If the THD voltage is
160 New Ideas - 42 Circuits $3.50
too low on the DMM's mV range,
HH91 Hobbyist Handbook (1991) $5.00
HH90 Hobbyist Handbook (1990) $5.00 159 Low Frequency Receiving Techniques set S4 to " x 10." In this case,
HH89 Hobbyist Handbook (1989) $5.00 Building and using VLF Antennas $5.00 however, divide the displayed
212 Radio -Electronics (1992 back issues) $5.00 158 Electro Importing Co. Catalog THD voltage by 10. For example,
211 Radio -Electronics (1991 back issues) . $5.00
(Circa 1918) $5.95
0.8 mV on the meter is read as
Write in issues desired 157 All About Kits $2.00
0.08 mV, since it was amplified 10
210 Radio -Electronics (1990 back issues) . $5.00 156 How To Make PC Boards $2.00
times to 0.8 mV.
Write in issues desired
109 Radio -Electronics (1989 back issues) .$5.00
155 IBM Typewriter To Computer $2.00 If the measured THD percent is
Write in issues desired
154 How To Repair VCR's $3.50 three times or more greater than
108 Radio -Electronics (1988 back issues) . $5.00 150 Pay TV Decoder (1981) $3.00 the analyzer's measurement
"floor," no correction of the mea-
sured value is required. If it's less
To order any of the items indicated above, check off the If you need a copy of an article that is in an issue we
indicate is unavailable you can order it directly from us.
than three times, a good approx-
ones you want. Complete the order form below, Include
your payment, check or money order (DO NOT SEND We charge 500 per page. Indicate the issue (month & imation of the true THD percent
CASH), and mail to Claggk Inc., Reprint Department, year), pages and article desired. Include payment in is given by the formula D (DUT)
P0. Box 4099, Farmingdale, NY 11735. Please allow full, plus shipping and handling charge. Make checks = VD2 (measured) - D2 (floor).
4-6 weeks for delivery. payable to Claggk Inc. That means if you measure a pre -
amp's THD at 0.005%. and the
measurement floor is 0.004%,
the true THD of the preamp is
ARTICLE 0.003%.
Depending upon the depth of
the notch and how closely the
YEAR
RC's in the oscillator's frequency
PAGES MONTH
selective network are matched,
the "floor" should typically be
0.003 to 0.005%. You can check
@HO each TOTAL PRICE the "floor" value in the same way
TOTAL PAGES
you measured the 1% THD cal-
ibrator, explained earlier. Instead
8co MAIL TO: Claggk Inc.
All payments must be in U.S. funds of using the calibrator signal,
Reprint Bookstore, P.O. Box 4099, Farmingdale NY 11735
SHIPPING CHARGES IN USA & CANADA
feed in a maximum signal level
$0.01 to $5.00 $1.50 $30.01 to 40.00.... $5.50 SORRY - We only ship to USA & from output J1. If you use the
U) $5.01 to $10.00 $2.50 $40.01 to 50.00 .... $6.50
Canada
x 10 position, it may be neces-
cc
w
$10.01 to 20.00 $3.50 $50.01 and above... $8.00
$4.50
sary to connect J8 to an external
$20.01 to 30.00
Total price of merchandise
earth ground.
w
2 Shipping Charge (see chart) Finally, you should know that
Subtotal THD measurements above 10
w Sales Tax (New York State Residents only)
percent are less accurate than
X
w Total Enclosed those below 10 percent. since the
Name
w
Address
reference includes distortion
cc plus the fundamental -not just
City State _Zip EN93 the fundamental. R -E
128
SPEAKER PROTECTOR COLOR BAR GENERATOR SPECIAL FROM ETT
continued from page 83 continued from page 55
TTL1 -
for the protector circuit is shown chroma on the white bar (the first TTL POCKET GUIDE,
Volume 1,
in Fig. 5. The PC board is config- bar after horizontal sync) with 7400 - 74200
ured for on -board mounting of R10 and R9. $18.95.
the 5 -amp relay that the author Adjustment with Monitor
used. If you have a monitor, hook up
A compatible relay with a dif- the video output of the video gen- El TTL2 -
ferent pinout can be used. How- erator to the monitor's video in- TTL POCKET GUIDE,
ever, it may have to be mounted put and do all the adjustments Volume 2,
on the edge of the board using looking at the white color bar on 74201 - 74640
double -sided tape; it will then the left side of the screen. If the $18.95.
have to be hardwired to the red, green, and blue video levels
board. The parts -placement di- are set up properly the white bar
agram for the power -supply should be full brightness and TTL3 -
TTL POCKET GUIDE,
board is shown in Fig. 6. white. If it is not, adjust R8 for Volume 3,
After mounting all compo- the overall brightness and then 74641 - 7430640
nents, solder leads of adequate adjust R10 and R9 for a pure S18 95
length to the boards, and use dif- white bar.
ferent colors for the speaker and We hope you've learned some-
power ground leads to avoid con- thing about color video from this
necting them together. Next, con- project. Everything is neatly TTLX -
nect the power leads between broken into fairly simple blocks ALL THREE GUIDES,
boards, and connect an AC line so you can be assured of success. Vols 1, 2, & 3
cord to the power supply. The au- If you have an IBM Clone comput- (save $6.00)
thor's completed unit, con- er with a CGA board (or other vid- $50.85.
taining a protector circuit for eo card with NTSC-compatible
both the left and right channels sync) you can use just the en- Each volume provides a comprehensive list-
and one power supply, is shown coder section to generate NTSC- ing of all commonly used TTL integrated
in Fig. 7. compatible sync and RGB video circuits within the range of types noted. The
The completed boards can be outputs. R -E combination of three volumes covers 7400
through 7430640 TTL products from all ma-
jor manufacturers. All current families are
covered: standard, low power, Schottky, low
power Schottky, advanced Schottky, ad-
vanced low powered Schottky, high speed
and fast Schottky. There are eight sections to
the book. Section 1 illustrates the device
schematic using a clear and simple logic di-
agram. Next a brief description of the compo-
nents, providing quick reference to the
internal structure. The next section details
input signals or levels at individual pins. The
fourth section lists major applications and is
followed by a summary of essential data.
Below this, a table indicates the TTL families
in which the device is available, and finally,
FIG. 7-HERE'S THE AUTHOR'S PRO- device description and type number are high-
TOTYPE. It contains a protector circuit for lighted for easy reference. A manufacturer's
both the left and right channels and one index at the back of the book shows in tabular
power supply. The entire unit is only about
4 inches wide by 6 inches long. You Need form which companies manufacture each
package.
mounted in a case like the one Tree City USA MAIL TO: Electronic Technology Today, Inc.
P.O. Box '240
pictured in Fig. 7. When drilling Massapequa Park, NY 11762-0240
holes in plastic cases, start with a ity trees add the soft touch
small drill bit and work your way Cof nature to our busy lives. SHIPPING CHARGES IN USA AND CANADA
up. I hey cool our cities, fight pollu- $0.01 to $5.00...51.50 $30 01 to $40.00. $5.50
tion, conserve energy, give $5.01 to $10.00..$2.50 $40 01 to $50.00. $6.50
As a final word, the circuit is $10.01 to $20.00. $3.50 $50 01 and above $8.00
designed to protect speakers wildlife a home, and make our $20.01 to $30.00. $4.50
from excessive DC levels caused neighborhoods more liveable. SORRY, No orders accepted outside of USA and
by amplifier failure. However, it Support Tree City USA where Canada
will not protect a speaker that's you live. For your free booklet, Total price of merchandise S
2245 Perimeter Park, Dept. VP3 51, Atlanta, Georgia 30341 Suite 717
BP234-TRANSISTOR SELECTOR GUIDE $10.00. Companion volume to E RADIO -100 RADIO HOOKUPS $3.00. Reprint of 1924 booklet presents radio
BP235. Book covers more than 1400 JEDEC. JIS, and brand -specific devices. Also circuits of the era including regenerative, neutrodyne, reflex & more.
contains listing by case type, and electronic parameters. Includes Darlington
transistors, high -voltage devices, high -current devices, high power devices.
I BP42-SIMPLE LED CIRCUITS..... $5.50. A large selection of simple applications
I BP99-MINI-MATRIX BOARD PROJECTS $5.50. Here are 20 useful circuits for this simple electronic component.
that can be built on a mini -matrix board that is just 24 holes by ten copper -foil strips.
i BP117-PRACTICAL ELECTRONIC BUILDING BLOCKS-Book 1 $5.75. BP122-AUDIO AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION $5.75. Construction details for
Oscillators, Timers, Noise Generators, Rectifiers. Comparators, Triggers and more. preamps and power amplifiers up through a 100 -watt DC -coupled FED amplifier.
SHIPPING CHARGES IN
ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY TODAY INC. USA AND CANADA SORRY No orders accepted Number of books ordered ri
P0 Box 240, Massapequa Park, NY 11762-0240 outside of USA & Canada
$0.01 to $5.00 $1.50 Total price of merchandise $
$5.01 to $10.00 $2.50 Shipping (see chart)
Name
$10.01 to 20.00 $3.50 Subtotal
Address $20.01 to 30.00 .. $4.50 Sales Tax (NYS only)
$30.01 to 40.00 . $5.50 Total Enclosed $
City State Zip
$40.01 to 50.00 . $6.50
E H93 $50.01 and above .. $8.00 All payments must be in U.S. funds
Countersurvei ance
Never before has so much The professional discussions seen on
professional information on the art the TV screen in your home reveals how
to detect and disable wiretaps, midget
of detecting and eliminating
electronic snooping devices-and
CALL radio -frequency transmitters, and other
how to defend against experienced NOW! bugs, plus when to use disinformation to
information thieves-been placed SRRVEIEEAMCE confuse the unwanted listener, and the
in one VHS video. If you are a 11.0101% technique of voice scrambling telephone
Fortune 500 CEO, an executive in communications. In fact, do you know
how to look for a bug, where to look for a
any hi -tech industry, or a novice bug, and what to do when you find it?
seeking entry into an honorable, Bugs of a very small size are easy to
rewarding field of work in build and they can be placed quickly in a
countersurveillance, you must matter of seconds, in any object or room.
view this video presentation again Today you may have used a telephone
and again. handset that was bugged. It probably
contained three bugs. One was a phony
Wake up! You may be the victim of bug to fool you into believing you found a
stolen words-precious ideas that would bug and secured the telephone. The sec-
have made you very wealthy! Yes, profes- ond bug placates the investigator when
sionals, even rank amateurs, may be lis- 1-516-293-3751 he finds the real thing! And the third bug
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Wake up! If you are not the victim, VISA or MC CARD more bugs.
then you are surrounded by countless vic- AVAILABLE The professional is not without his
tims who need your help if you know how tools. Special equipment has been de-
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"sweep" a room clean. residence into the most sophisticated re- a room so that he can detect voice -acti-
There is a thriving professional service cording studio the world had ever vated (VOX) and remote -activated bugs.
steeped in high-tech techniques that you known. The building had to be torn Some of this equipment can be operated
can become a part of! But first, you must down in order to remove all the bugs. by novices, others require a trained coun-
know and understand Countersurveilance tersurveillance professional.
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this highly rewarding field is made possi- The open taps from where the informa- vision screen reveal information on the
ble by a video VHS presentation that you tion pours out may be from FAX's, com- latest technological advances like laser -
cannot view on broadcast television, sat- puter communications, telephone calls, beam snoopers that are installed hun-
ellite, or cable. It presents an informative and everyday business meetings and dreds of feet away from the room they
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field who know their industry, its tech- counselling on how to eliminate this in- computers yield information too easily.
niques, kinks and loopholes. Men who formation drain. Basic telephone use cou- This advertisement was not written by
can tell you more in 45 minutes in a pled with the user's understanding that a countersurveillance professional, but by
straightforward, exclusive talk than was someone may be listening or recording a beginner whose only experience came
ever attempted before. vital data and information greatly reduces from viewing the video tape in the pri-
the opportunity for others to purloin vacy of his home. After you review the
Foiling Information Thieves meaningful information. video carefully and understand its con-
Discover the targets professional tents, you have taken the first important
r step in either acquiring professional help
snoopers seek out! The prey are stock CLAGGK INC. EH
brokers, arbitrage firms, manufacturers, P.O. Box 4099 Farmingdale, NY 11735 with your surveillance problems, or you
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The Dollars You Save
egies, customer lists, product formulas, Amount of payment S_ To obtain the information contained in
manufacturing techniques, even adver- Sales tax (N.Y.S. only) the video VHS cassette, you would attend
Total enclosed
tising plans. Information thieves eaves- a professional seminar costing $350-750
Bill n E VISA L! MasterCard
drop on court decisions, bidding (.ard No.
and possibly pay hundreds of dollars more
information, financial data. The list is Expire Date if you had to travel to a distant city to
unlimited in the mind of man-es- Signature attend. Now, for only $49.95 (plus
pecially if he is a thief! Name $4.00 P&H) you can view Countersur-
You know that the Russians secretly
Address
veillance Techniques at home and take
cite State ZIP
installed countless microphones in the refresher views often. To obtain your
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concrete work of the American Embassy cassette. No foreign orders.
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building in Moscow. They converted