OTHER BOOKS: BY PROFESSOR LANDAU: Differential and Integral Caleulus Elementary Number Theory Grundlagen der Analysis ‘Basdbuch der Lehre von der Ver- (eilung der Primzahlon, 2 Vols. ‘Wiefuhrung in die Elementare und Analytisehe Theorie der Alge- ‘beaischen Zahlen und der Ideale Omeetellung und Begrandung ‘Bisger Neuorer Ergebnisse der ‘Pysktionentheorie Werdesngen Uber Zahlentheorie, 3 Vals, fe Zablentheorie 11 of Zahlentheorie) FOUNDATIONS OF ANALYSIS THE ARITHMETIC OF WHOLE, RATIONAL, IRRATIONAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS A Supplement to Text-Books on the Differential and Integral Calculus BY EDMUND LANDAU AMS CHELSEA PUBLISHING American Mathematical Society + Providence, Rhode IslandPrimary 26-01, O1A75, PREFACE FOR THE STUDENT 1. Please don’t read the Preface for the Teacher. 2. I will ask of you only the ability to read English and to think logically—no high school mathematics, and certainly no advanced mathematics. number, no number, two eases, alll 7 ete, are completely unambiguous phrases. “Theorem 1,” "Theorem 2”... . “Theorem 301” (and the like in the case of axioms, definitions, chapters, and sections) and also 2)" (used for distinguishing cases) are simply ing the various theorems, axioms, det tions, chapters, sections, and cases, and are more convenient for yurposes of reference than if I were to speak, say, of “Theorem Light Blue,” “Theorem Dark Blue,” and so on. Up to “801,” as ‘a matter of fact, there would be difficulty whatever in introduc- itegers. The first difficulty—overeorfie Lee with the mysterious series of dots after the comma (in Chapter I, they are called natural numbers), in defining the arithmeti operations upon these numbers, and in the proofs of the pertin¢ ling material in each of the chapters in Chapter 1, for the natural numbers; in Chapter 2, for tive rational numbers; in Chapter 8, for the positive (rational and irrational) numbers; in Chap- ter 4, for the real numbers (positive, negative, and zero) ; and in Chapter 5, for the complex numbers; thus, I speak only of such numbers as you have already dealt with in high school. In this connection: 8. Please forget what you have learned in school; you haven’t learned it,Paorace For rue SrUDENT Please keep in mind everywhere the corresponding portions of your school work; you haven't actually forgotten them. 4. ‘The multip! table is not to be found in this book, not even the theorem 224; but I would recommend, as an exercise in connection with Chap- ter 1, §4, that you make the following definiti 2—141, 4= (+1) +) +1), and then prove the theorem. 5. Forgive me for “theeing” and “thouing” you.* One rea- son for my doing so is that this book is written partly in usum delphinarum:} for, as is well known (cf. B. Landau Vorlesungen liber Zahlentheorie, Vol. I, p. V), my daughters have been study- ing (Chemistry) at the University for several semesters already and think that they have learned the differential and integral calculus in College; and yet they still do nyayn. Berlin, December 28, 1929. Edmund Landau Professor Landau uses the fail [Prans.) 1 Delphin use. The Delphin classics were prepared by great French scholars for the use of the Dauphin of France, ton of King Louis X1V. [Prone ‘du (thou) PREFACE FOR THE TEACHER ‘This little book is a concession to those of my colleagues (u» fortunately in the majority) who do not share my point of vie ‘While a rigorous and complete exposition of elementary math: maties can not, of course, be expected in the high schools, th mathematical courses in colleges and universities should acquai ‘the student not only with the subject matter and results of math matics, but also with its methods of proof. Even one who studir mathematics mainly for its applications to physics and to oth seiences, and who must therefore often discover auxiliary math matieal theorems for himself, can not continue to take ste} securely along the path he has chosen unless he has learned ho to walk—that is, unless he is able to distinguish between true ar false, betwoen supposition and proof (or, as some say so nicel between non-rigorous and rigorous proof). I therefore think it right—as do some of my teachers and cc leagues, some authors whose writings I have found of help, ar most of my students—that even in his first semester the stude should learn what the basic facts are, accepted as axioms, fro which mathematical analysis is developed, and how one can pr ceed with this development. As is well known, these axioms c be seleeted in various ways; so that I do not declare it to be i correct, but only to be almost diametrically opposite to my poi of view, if one postulates as axioms for real numbers many of t ie main theorem of this bo: T do not, to be sure, pro the consistency of the five Peano axioms (because that can not done), but each of them is obviously independent of the precedi: ones, On the other hand, were we to adopt a large number of axion as mentioned above, the question would immediately occur to t student whether some of them could not be proved (a shrewd 0 would add: or disproved) by means of the rest of them. Since it h been known for many decades that all these additional axioms ¢ (Theorem 205, Dedekind’s TheoretTABLE OF CONTENTS Preface for the Student..........0. 7 v Preface for the Scholar. .......2.c0+++ Sees ivel Cuarren NATURAL NUMBERS §1. Axioms : 1 §2. Addition 8 §3. Ordering .... 9 §4, Multiplication 1 Cuaprer U1 FRACTIONS §1. Definition and Bauivalence.......0+ceceeeeseveeeees 19 §2. Ordering a tan E 26 a i 31 Rational Numbers and Integers. 35 Cuarren 1 curs §1. Definition . poate se tetas 43 §2. Ordering 7 ne Saag §3. Addition .. 48 §4. Multiplication ...... a 54 §5. Rational Cuts and Integral Cuts . 61 Cuseren TV REAL NUMBERS §1. Definition 22... ses 69 §2. enter 70 §3. 7 §4. 84 §5. Dedekind’s Fundamental Theorem. ....‘Tanis oF Conmenra Cuarren V COMPLEX NUMBERS 2 98 - 96 |. Subtraction... Hee : 101 Division : 102 mplex Conjugates 108 /- Absolute Value . sev -108 ;. Sums and Products as m2 . Powers .. 126 Incorporation of the Real Numbers into the System of ‘Complex Numbers at CHAPTER 1 NATURAL NUMBERS gl Axioms ‘We assume the following to be given: A.set (i.e totality) of objects called natural numbers, possessing the properties—called axioms—to be listed below. Before formulating the axioms we make some remarks about the symbols — and + which will be used. Unless otherwise specified, small italie letters will stand for natural numbers throughout this book. If z is given and y is given, then either 2 and y are the same number; this may be written wey (& to be read “equal or z and y are not the same number; this may be written ey (+ to be read “is not ogual to”) ‘Accordingly, the following are true on purely logical grounds » ame for every 2. 2) It poy then 3) If then2 1, Naren Nua [Axioms 15, ‘Thus a statement such as asbac=d, which on the face of it means merely that a=d, b=ee=d, contains the additional information that, say, swing properties: Axiom 1: 1 is @ natural number. ‘That Is, our set is not empty; it contains an object called 1 ‘Aviom 31 We always hove eK ‘That is, there exists no number whose successor is 1. ‘Axiom 4: If var then z=4. That is, for any given number there exists either no number or ‘oxactly one number whose successor is the given number. Axiom 5 (Axiom of Induction) : Let there be given a set 3 Ie then so does 2’ Thon 1 contains all the natural numbers. mis] 52 Ammon 8 g2 Addition ‘Theorem 1s If eee then vey. Proof: Otherwise, we would have vor and hence, by Axiom 4, sey. ‘Theorem 21 we. Proof: Let 3 be the set of all x for which this holds true, 1) By Axiom 1 and Axiom igs to MR, then vhs, and hence by Theorem 1, (yee, so that 2’ belongs to 9. By Axiom 5, 9 therefore contains all the natural numbers, ic. we have for each 2 that, vps ‘Theorem 3: If ea then there exists one (hence, by Axiom 4, exactly one) u such that Proof: Let 38 be the set 1g of the number 1 and of all for whieh there exists such a x. (For any such , we have nocessity that ca by Axiom 8.) 1) 1 belongs to 5.4 1. Navona, Noses ims, M1) If = belongs to m2, then, with w denoting the number 2, we have vow so that 2" belongs to 2. By Axiom 5, 90 therefore contains all the natural numbers; thus for each zel there existe au such that ‘Theorem 4, and at the same time Definition 1: To every pair of numbers 2, v, we may assign in exactly one way a natural num- er, called 2 + y C+ to be read “ plus”), suck that For every 2, 2) 24 of = (e+) for every # and every ¥. 2+ y ie called the sum of 2 and y, or the number obtained by addition of y to 2. |A) First we will show that for each fixed z there is of defining x + y for ally in such a way that rtl=z eiv=G@ty Let a, and b, be defined for al a=, for every y. and be such that ay = (, for every y. Let 97 be the sot of all 9 gare 1 belongs to 1. If y belongs to 9, then h 4, = Py hence by Axiom 2, therefore * =¢ 0 that yf belongs to 2. Hence mis the set of all natural numbers; Le. for every y we have 4, = by Def.) $2 Aum 5 B) Now we will show that for each = it is actually possible to define + y for all y in such a way that atias and aty—(ety) — for every Let m he the set of all x for which this is possible (in exactly fone way, by A)). 1) For zed the number sty=r is as required, since atleal=z, ety= Hence 1 belongs to ID) Let z belong to 9, so that there exists an z+ y for all y. ‘Then the number +m vtyaletyy is the required number for 2’, since #41 = e+)! = and 2 ty = ebyy om (een = ety" Hence 2" belongs to 8. ‘Therefore ® contains all = ‘Theorem § (Associative Law of Addition) : Gtyteartyte. Proof: Fix 2 and y, and denote by 98 the set of all for which the assertion of the theorem holds, (tM tl=Gt erty eat FD: thus 1 belongs to am. I1) Let = belong to 3. Then (etyte=24ta, hence: (ayes = (ety) tay = (outa = 4 tey = ete n 0 that 2 belongs to ‘Therefore the assertion holds for all z.6 1 Nasuna, Nuwpens Imo] Theorem 6 (Commutative Law of Addition) : ehusyta Proof: Fix y, and let ® be the set of all x for which the assertion holds 1) We have veiled, ‘and furthermore, by the construction in the proof of Theorem 4, lty=v, 0 that Ltyeytt and 1 belongs tom. M1) If x belongs to 28, then stysyts, therefore (tate ete. By the construction in the proof of Theorem 4, we have vt y=ty hence etymvew, 0 that 2° belongs to 9. ‘The assertion therefore holds for all z. ‘Theorem 7: vhoty Proof: Fix x, and let 3 be the sot of all y for which the asser- tion holds. nD L4e, Lee td; 1 belongs to %. If y belongs to wi, then wee hence 0 that y’ belongs to a. ‘Therefore the assertion holds for all y, Theorem 8 If then - etybete, $2. Avorniox 7 Proof: Consider a fixed y and a fixed such that us fand let SP be the set of all x for which rtypete, v wee, Ltubites 1 belongs to m2. If x belongs to 3, then rhypets, hence (+e to, Bybee te so that 2" belongs to Wt, ‘Thorefore the assertion holds always, ‘Theorem 9: For given x and y, exactly one of the following must be the case: > ae. 2) There exists a u (exactly one, by Theorem 8) such that roy tu 8) There exists a v (exactly one, by Theorem 8) such that yurte. A) By Theorem 7, cases 1) and 2) are incompat peytun(etetumrt(osm—wtwte ‘Therefore wo'can have at most one of the cases 1), 2) and 8) B) Let a be fixed, and let 5 be the set of all y for one (hence by A), exactly one) of the eases 1), 2) and 8) obtains, 1) For y=1, we have by Theorem 3 that ei aoiny (case eew=l Hence 1 belongs to sx. II) Let y belong tom. Then ‘either (case 1) for 7) =ute (case 2)) z=8 1. Navona, Nusa [re 20.12, hence Yoytlaztl (case 3) for v5 or (case 2) for y) eau hence it u=1, ‘thon zeytimy (ease 1) for 7); but if wel, then, by Theorem 3, usw=lte, ray t (tw) a(ytl) twa tw (case 2) for u's or (case 3) for ¥) verte, hence valet mete (case 8) for v7). In any case, yf belongs to ‘Therefore we always have ono of the eases 1), 2) and 3). Def, 25} $8. Onmaine ° 83 Ordering Definition 2: If zeytu then z>u (> to be read “is greater than.”) sf (< to be read “is less thar ‘Theorem 10: For any given x, y, we have exactly one of the onsee =n tH FK4 Proof: Theorem 9, Definition 2 and Definition 8. Theorem 1: If m>y then vce, Proof: Each of these means that zoytw for some suitable « ‘Theorem 12: If acy then ype. Proof: Each of these means that yarte xem e>y or ry ( to be read “is greater than or equal to.”) Definition 5: rsy10 1. Narunst, Nuamens (mas) acy or tmy. (S to be read “is less than or equal to.") ‘Theorem 13: If then Proof: ‘Theorem 11. Theorem 14: If then Proof: Theorem 12. ‘Theorem 15 (Transitivity of Ordering): If By U>H then Be ren 9a, Proofs etyaety Theorem 19: If 2>y or eayoracy then ste>ytsorstimyts or ztrcy ty respectively, Proof: 1) It then Ae saute rhe my tete = ety) te = uty td) = Otel tH, thesyts 2 aay then clearly chem yte 3) If then aces y>s, henee, by 1), peers, zhecyte Theorem 20: If aHEDyts oratemyty oretscyts,2 1, Navona, Nestuens (ther cis 2>y remy ore Proof: Follows from Theorem 1 both instances, mutually exclusive and exhaust all possi Theorem 21: If sinee the three e r>y 2>u ate>ytu Proof: By Theorem 19, we have ate>yte and vtemety>utuaatu, etepyte 2 If 5Eyr>uorr>y2By phe>y tm Follows from Theorem 19 if an equality sign holds in sis, otherwise from Theorem 21 yrem 23: If Proofs 0 us if two equality signs hold in the hypothesis; orem 22 does it. ‘Theorem 24 rz Proofs Either naw=uti>l. Theorem 251 If woe yert1. Proof: vertu «zh hence $9. Onmause 12 vert. ‘Theorem 26: If vert then vse Proof: Otherwise we would have w>e and therefore, by ‘Theorem 25, vert. rery nonempty set. of natural numbers one which is less than any other number ‘Theorem 27: In there ie a least one of the set). Proof: Let ® be the given set, and let 1 be the set of all 2 are = every number of 3 rs to MR; in fact, for each y of K the number y +1 does not belong to SR, since wtlow ‘Therefore there is an m in ® such that m +1 does not belong to m; for otherwise, every natural number would have to belong to Wi, by Axiom 5. Of this m I now assert that tia < every nof R, and that it belongs to. The former we already know. The indirect argument, as fol each n of Swe would have men hence, by Theorem 25, m+isn; thus m + 1 would belong to mt, contradicting the statement above by which m was introduced.2 IE Faacntons since ‘Theorem 114: If Z is the rational number corresponding to Definition 271 The U of Theorem 110 i ealled the quotient of X by Y, or the rational number obtained from division of X by Y. 1 wi be ented by & (tbe read oer Let X and ¥ be integers, say X =x and ¥—y. Then by Theo- rem 114, the rational number & determined by Definitions 26 and 27 stands for the class to which the fraction 5 Gin the earlier sense) belongs. We need not be afraid of confusing the two symbols Q since fractions as such will from now on no longer occur. % wi y forth always denote a rational number. Conversely, every rational henee- ‘number may be expressed in the form 5 » by Theorem 114 and Defition 2. Theorem 115: Let X and ¥ be given Then there exits a 2 wah that y aX > ¥. roots Z- iva rafonal number; by Theorem $9, there exist Integra (i our nw terminology), say # and, seh hat es ork By Theorem 111, we have enc, by Theorem 1065, Kea k= x(S0)= (x4 oz(xe)a—xtoxd =v, Def, 27-291 $1. Depron « CHAPTER It curs gl Definition Definition 28: A set of rational numbers is called a cut if 1) it contains a rational number, but does not contain alt rational aumbers; 2) every rational number of the vet i smaller than every rational number not belonging to the set; does not contain a greatest rational number (i.e. a number greater than any other number of the set) Iso use the term “lower class” for such a set, and the I rational numbers which are jwer numbers” and “upper numbers,” respectively. ‘Small Greek letters will be used throughout to denote cuts, except where otherwise specified Definition 29: py (<= to be rend “is equal to") if every lower number for § is a lower number for and every lower number for » is a lower number for & In other words, if the sots are identical. Otherwise, : (Cf to be read “is not equal to ‘The fol wree theorems are trivial: Theorem 116: fae ‘Theorem 117: If fa then a8 Theorem 118: If f= 4, 9=%, then gmt