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In addition to infections at barrier surfaces, Candida albicans is also the leading cause of fatal
fungal bloodstream infections. The increased rate is thought to result from increased use of
immunosuppressive agents, anticancer treatments, increased antimicrobial resistance, and the
frequency of invasive surgeries [1]. The genetic susceptibilities associated with systemic candi-
diasis as well as infections of gastrointestinal and female reproductive organs differ signicantly
from those associated with CMC [2]. Unlike CMC patients, who have defects in type 3 immunity,
1
Department of Dermatology, Center
genetic defects upstream or downstream of IL-17 have not been implicated in patients with
for Immunology, University of
disseminated candidiasis [3]. Instead, type I interferons (IFNs) have been demonstrated to play Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455,
an important role in patients with systemic infections. In mice, IL-17 plays a role in systemic USA
2
Departments of Dermatology and
candidiasis, but IFN-g from type 1 T helper (Th1) and natural killer (NK) cells have been recently
Immunology, University of Pittsburgh,
appreciated as key players in the host response [47]. Susceptibility to gastrointestinal and Pittsburgh, PA 15216, USA
vulvovaginal candidiasis is largely dictated by microenvironmental factors such as local nutrients,
pH, bile acids, and local commensal ora [8,9]. The host response to C. albicans infection in
*Correspondence: dankaplan@pitt.edu
tissues other than the skin has been recently reviewed in depth [810].
(D.H. Kaplan).
STAT3 HIES due to defective IL-23R and IL-6R signaling and [101,102]
decreased Th17
Mouse models of OPC and cutaneous candidiasis demonstrate high delity to the human
disease. Mice with genetic defects as those found in patients with CMC have greatly increased
susceptibility to skin and mucosal C. albicans infections [10]. Unlike humans, C. albicans is not a
commensal fungus of mice [11]. Thus, mice allow the examination of primary innate and adaptive
immune responses against C. albicans. Cutaneous candidiasis models include either application
of C. albicans onto stratum corneum-stripped epidermis or direct intradermal inoculation
[12,13]. The well-characterized nature of the skin-resident and circulating leukocytes of the
skin make the murine skin an ideal site to study both innate and adaptive antifungal immune
responses. Specically, the IL-17 cytokine family has been identied to be essential against host
defense, driving neutrophil recruitment and antimicrobial peptide production [10]. It has been
appreciated that IL-17 can be produced by leukocytes from both the innate [e.g., innate
lymphoid cells (ILCs), gd T cells] and adaptive immune systems (e.g., CD4+ T cells) [5,14]. This
review focuses on recent advances in understanding the mechanisms by which the primary
innate and the secondary adaptive type 3 immune response develop during C. albicans
infection. Better understanding these mechanisms can assist in the development of vaccines
against C. albicans and other extracellular pathogens as well as provide insight into type 3
autoimmune diseases of the skin.
Humans with SNP variants of Dectin-1 and mutations of Card9 develop CMC [17,18]. These
patients demonstrate impaired IL-1b, IL-6, IL-22, and IL-17 production alongside impaired
Deciency for TLRs or for the adapter protein Myd88 signicantly alters the survival of mice to
intravenous C. albicans infection in vivo, and Myd88 deciency in Langerhans cells (LCs) renders
mice unable to mount a Th17 response to C. albicans skin infection [27,28]. However, deciencies
for IRAK-4 or Myd88 lead to recurrent pyogenic bacterial infections and cold abscesses but do not
lead to CMC in humans [29,30]. Mutations of IkBa, which acts downstream of TLRs and of the T
cell receptor (TCR), lead to CMC. Given the disparity of CMC susceptibility in IkBa variant patients
compared to those with Myd88/IRAK4 deciency, it is likely that the role of T cells trumps that of
pattern recognition through TLRs in human resistance against CMC [29].
Stromal Cells
The uppermost layer of the avascular epidermis is the corneed envelope that consists of dead
keratinocytes (KCs), keratin, and various hydrophobic lipids; this provides a physical barrier
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against the environment and potential pathogens. In addition, the corneed envelope contains
antimicrobial and anti-Candida peptides, such as b-defensins and cathelicidins, which are
produced by KCs in response to infection or colonization [41]. Notably, mice decient for a
key component of the corneal layer ceramide synthase 3 are susceptible to C. albicans skin
infections [42].
Beneath the corneed envelope are the granular, spinous, and basal layers that are composed of
KCs that express PRRs. These KCs initiate the early cutaneous immune responses. C. albicans
has been shown to adhere to human KCs and induce proinammatory cytokine secretion in vitro
but their role in directly activating KCs in vivo is unknown [43]. KCs constitutively express
receptors for TNF-/, IL-17A, and IL-22. TNF-/ and IL-17 act on KCs and epithelial cells to drive
production of antimicrobial peptides, such as b-defensins and S100 proteins, and chemokines
to drive the recruitment of neutrophils and inammatory cells [44]. IL-22 acts on KCs to drive their
proliferation by downregulating genes involved in terminal differentiation [45]. Recent studies
have also identied the role of KCs in initiating immune responses through control of dendritic cell
migration and recruitment of memory T cells into the skin [4648]. Thus, the interaction between
C. albicans and epithelial cells of tissues is a crucial topic of investigation going forward.
In addition to KCs, melanocytes can also respond to C. albicans. Melanocytes are located in the
basal layer of the epidermis and synthesize melanin to provide skin pigmentation. In invertebrates,
melanocytes modulate melanin production during infection, and inammation can lead to hypo- or
hyperpigmentation in humans [49]. Melanin has also been demonstrated to have antimicrobial
properties [50]. While early studies demonstrated that C. albicans negatively regulates the
transcription of melanogenesis genes, more recent studies have shown that melanocytes may
recognize C. albicans via TLR4 to increase melanization and inhibit infection (Figure 1) [51,52].
Cutaneous Nerves
The skin is also a sensory organ that is highly innervated by terminal nerve bers. Neuro-immune
interactions have been appreciated in human and in mouse inammatory and infectious disease
models [53]. Myeloid cells in the dermis and epidermis have been shown to localize closely with
cutaneous nerve bers, specically bers expressing calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP)
[54,55]. CGRP is a neuropeptide produced and released by sensory neurons that mediate pain
signaling, as well as other functions. In the context of C. albicans vulvovaginal infection, C.
albicans has been shown to stimulate pain, allodynia, and the development of CGRP+ nerve
bers [56]. In addition, zymosan, a derivative of yeast cell walls, has been used as an experi-
mental trigger of pain in rodent models [57]. Recently, pathogens such as C. albicans and S.
aureus have been shown to directly activate sensory neurons taken from murine dorsal root
ganglions [14,58]. Zymosan can activate sensory neurons directly, while Staphylococcus aureus
can activate neurons both directly and by causing membrane permeability in nerves through its
secreted toxins [14,58]. Thus, is possible that neurons may be activated by recognition of cell-
wall products through neuronal PRRs as well as through secreted microbial products. C.
albicans can also metabolize host arachnoid acid to byproducts that can directly activate
nociceptor transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1), suggest-
ing that multiple pathways of activation may exist [59].
Melanin
LC
AMPs
Melanocyte Keranocyte
PMN
CD301b+
dDC
CGRP IL-17
NK
T cell cell
IL-23
TLR-4
TRPV1+ Nerve
Figure 1. Innate Immunity Against C. albicans Skin Infection. The skin has a layered innate immune system. C.
albicans directly activates cutaneous sensory nerves to induce the release of calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP). CGRP
acts on CD301b+ dermal dendritic cells (dDC), which subsequently release IL-23. IL-23 acts on dermal gd T cells to drive IL-
17 production in the skin, leading to anti-C. albicans resistance through the presumed activation of neutrophils and
antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as b-defensins [14]. In addition, melanocytes in the basal epidermis can also recognize
C. albicans via TLR-4 to drive production and release of melanin granules, which are antimicrobial in nature [52]. Finally,
Langerhans cells (LC) of the epidermis can suppress liver-derived CD49a+ natural killer (NK) cells in response to C. albicans
through unknown mechanisms [73]. Abbreviation: PMN, polymorphonuclear leukocyte.
Addition of CGRP in RTX-treated mice reversed the increased fungal burden [14]. Thus, pain
sensation via TRPV1 channels and CGRP secretion by sensory nerves is crucial for cutaneous
host defense against C. albicans.
IL-23 has been demonstrated to be produced by dendritic cells after C. albicans infection in mice
and humans [14,69]. The skin harbors three major subtypes of dendritic cells. LCs are the only
MHC-II positive cells in the epidermis, while CD11b+ dermal DCs (dDCs) and CD103+ dDCs
make up the majority and minority of the DC subsets in the dermis, respectively [70]. The
requirement of skin DC subsets for imiquimod-induced psoriatic inammation is unclear, with
reports showing both LCs and CD11b+ dDCs are nonredundant producers of IL-23 in vivo
[71,72]. In response to C. albicans skin infection, LCs are not required for IL-23 production or
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innate immune resistance against the fungus. Mice decient for LCs, however, have exagger-
ated NK cell-mediated inammation in response to heat-killed C. albicans application to the
footpad (Figure 1) [14,73]. In addition, ablation of LCs in mice induces exaggerated contact
hypersensitivity (CHS) and delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses, suggesting that LCs
are immune-suppressive in these contexts [7476].
Furthermore, mice decient for both LCs and CD103+ dDCs have intact immunity against C.
albicans. Mgl2-DTR mice that can be depleted of CD11b+ dDCs and tissue-resident macro-
phages have decreased IL-23 transcription, IL-17 production, and increased fungal burden in
skin after infection with C. albicans [14]. Mixed bone-marrow chimeric mice in which CD11b+
dDCs lack IL-23 production have a defective immune response to primary C. albicans skin
infection, particularly owing to decreased IL-17 production by dermal gd T cells (see below) [14].
Thus, CD11b+ dDCs are both necessary and sufcient for IL-23-driven anti-C. albicans
responses. Interestingly, CD11b+ dDC reside alongside dermal nerve bers and also express
the receptor for CGRP [14,55]. CGRP released by sensory nerves after C. albicans infection acts
on the CD11b+ dermal DCs to stimulate IL-23 production. Thus, the sensory nervous system
and CD11b+ dermal DCs participate in a crucial cutaneous inammatory circuit that drives host
resistance to C. albicans.
Th17 cells have been long considered the predominant source of IL-17 during C. albicans
mucocutaneous infections (see below). Recently, tissue-resident type 3 innate lymphoid cells
(ILC3s) and gd T cells have been appreciated as primary producers of effector cytokines at the
site of C. albicans infection in mouse models [81,82]. In humans, loss of function STAT3
mutations lead to decreased number and function of IL-17-producing unconventional
mucosa-associated invariant T cells [83]. Unlike CD4+ T cells, which are primed by DC antigen
presentation and signals in secondary lymphoid organs to become IL-17 producers, innate
lymphoid cells and gd T cells are pre-programmed into the IL-17-secreting lineage in the bone
marrow and thymus, respectively [84]. In humans, gd T cells have been shown to make IL-17 in
response to IL-23 produced by DCs after C. albicans stimulation [69]. Thus, these cells may
serve as primary responders in patients who have not yet developed C. albicans-specic effector
or memory T cells and may augment early immunity. In mouse models of OPC, some groups
have found that gd T cells and innate-like CD4+ T cells in tissues are both crucial for resistance
while other groups have demonstrated the need of ILCs for protection [81,82]. In the skin, dermal
gd T cells are the obligate source of IL-17 after epicutaneous C. albicans [14]. Most IL-17-
secreting dermal gd T cells have a Vg4 TCR [85]. These embryonically derived gd T cells with
Neutrophils
It has long been appreciated that IL-17 is a crucial cytokine that drives the recruitment and
activation of neutrophils [86]. Neutrophils have been demonstrated to be required for protection
against mucosal and systemic C. albicans infections [77]. Recently, neutrophils have also been
shown to constitutively express RORgt and to produce and respond to IL-17 in a mouse model
of Aspergillus fumigatus [86]. Neutrophils are also crucial for phagocytosis of C. albicans
because they sense pathogen size via Dectin-1 and release neutrophil extracellular traps in
response to Candida albicans laments but not to yeast [87]. In addition, adoptive transfer of
neutrophilic myeloid-derived suppressor cells have been shown to improve mice survival
following invasive C. albicans infection [88]. Neutrophils in response to C. albicans infection
have been studied extensively and are reviewed elsewhere, but their role in cutaneous host
defense against C. albicans skin infections remains an open area of investigation [2,23,89].
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C. albicans Figure 2. Adaptive Immunity Against
C. albicans Skin Infection. The skin
generates heterogeneous T helper
LC response that provides compartmenta-
lized immunity against C. albicans. In
the epidermis, C. albicans exists as
yeasts. C. albicans yeasts are recognized
by Dectin-1 on Langerhans cells (LCs).
Dectin-1 engagement on LCs leads to
production of IL-6 in the secondary lym-
Decn-1 phoid organs that differentiate nave CD4+
TLR-2 T cells to the type 17 T helper (Th17) cell
CD103+ lineage. These Th17 cells provide protec-
dDC
tion against secondary cutaneous infec-
tions but not against secondary systemic
infections. Conversely, C. albicans
invades as lamentous pseudohyphae in
Lymph node
the dermis. Recognition of C. albicans
laments by CD103+ dermal dendritic
IL-12 cells (dDCs), presumably through TLR-
2, leads to Th1 cell differentiation in the
IL-6
secondary lymphoid organs. These Th1
Naive cells provide protection against second-
CD4+ 1 ary systemic infections but not against
Th17 T cell Th 1 secondary skin infections [5,12]. Thus,
Th17 h1 Th recognition of distinct morphology of C.
Th17 T 1 albicans via different DC subsets leads to
Th17 Th
a tailored immune response that provides
Th17
T h1
protection against specic subsequent
routes of infection.
Skin IL-17 Systemic IFN-
As discussed previously, CD11b+ dermal DC are required for innate immunity against C.
albicans and for Th17 generation against bacterial and fungal pathogens in other tissues
[93]. CD11b+ dermal DCs also express Dectin-1 but are not required for Th17 generation
after C. albicans infection because of the inaccessibility of pseudohyphal Dectin-1 ligands in
the dermis [5,12]. Unlike LCs and CD11b+ dermal DCs, CD103+ dermal DCs do not
express Dectin-1 and suppress Th17 cell differentiation presumably through anti-Th17
cytokines such as IL-27 and IL-12 [5]. While CD103+ dDCs and CD11b+ dDCs are not
required for Th17 differentiation, they do play a role in activating and differentiating
bystander IL-17-secreting CD8+ T cell responses that can protect against C. albicans
[12,94].
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