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Subject: Pharm Chem -1 LEC (Chemistry & Pharmacy of Inorganic Medicinals)

Year& Section: BS PH- 3A, 3B & 3C and 3D


Schedule: 3A = 5-6 pm, MWF; 3B = 1-2 pm, MWF; 3C = 4-5pm MWF; 3D- 8:30-10:00am

Unit VIII: DENTAL PRODUCTS 3 Hours


1. Anticaries agents 2. Dentifrices

ANTICARIES AGENTS ANTICARIOGENIC AGENT; Anticavity Agent. They are incorporated as special substance in
Dentifrices to prevent dental caries, and if NOT, to delay its progression & spreading, which - when taken for granted
will lead to Tooth Loss. Ex. Fluoride ions, Like: Sodium fluoride, Sodium monoflurophosphate, Stannous fluoride,
etc.

The formation of caries (tooth decay) is attributed to the action of acids, mostly lactic acid, obtained from
oral bacterial metabolism of dietary carbohydrates. The build-up of plaque on the tooth surface usually aids the
decay process by forming pockets or crevices on the teeth surface in which food particles can lodge and can be
degraded by the bacteria of the mouth. One of the objectives of brushing the teeth is to remove material from the
tooth surface before it hardens into calculus, since a smooth surface makes it difficult for the adherence of food
particles and bacteria.
Currently accepted and documented approaches to caries prevention include flossing and brushing
accompanied by fluoride, administered either internally or topically to the teeth. When take internally, fluoride in
solution or in rapidly soluble salts is absorbed to somewhat variable degree. The absorbed fluoride is practically
deposited in the bone or developing teeth, with the remainder excreted by the kidneys. Careful analysis of teeth has
shown that the concentration of fluoride is greater in the surface layer of enamel in both erupted and unerupted
teeth.
When too much fluoride is present in the tissue fluids, the condition known as Dental
Fluorosis (mottled enamel) can develop. The enamel of mottled teeth is chalky and soft, indicating a loosely bound
structure. The pigments found in foods apparently adsorb to this modified enamel causing patches of darkening
giving a mottled appearance.
Dental Fluorosis usually occurs in areas where the fluoride concentration of drinking water exceeds 2 ppm.
It only occurs during excessive ingestion of fluoride during the period of teeth development and over a prolonged
period. Thus, a short-term accidental increase in the fluoride concentration during the addition of fluoride in
drinking water would have little or no effect. The lethal adult dose of sodium fluoride is 2 to 5 g, as compared to the
average ingestion of 2.2 mg NaF per day or its equivalent in drinking water containing 1-ppm fluoride.

The mechanism by which fluoride inhibits caries formation is still to be completely elucidated. There are two
current hypotheses:
1. That fluoride decreases the solubility of enamel in acid
2. Bacterial inhibition hypothesis, which is based on the enzyme inhibitory properties of fluoride.
FLUORIDE is administered by two routes: orally and topically. Both are effective but the oral routes places
fluoride into systemic circulation, allowing the fluoride to laid down in unerupted teeth as they are formed. The
most convenient dosage form is fluoridation of the public water supply. This is usually done by adding sodium
fluoride or a fluorosilicate, yielding a fluoride concentration of 0.7 to 1 ppm. This is the equivalent to average daily
intake of 2.2 mg of NaF based on a person drinking six (6) oz glasses of water.

Sodium Fluoride USP XX (NaF)


Properties: Sodium fluoride USP XX occurs as a white odorless powder which is soluble in water and
insoluble in alcohol.
Uses: Sodium fluoride is officially solely as dental prophylactic. 2% aqueous solutions of NaF have been
widely used topically. The usual procedure is a series of four treatments given several days apart, beginning at the
age on three for the deciduous teeth. Other applications are then given at ages 7, 11, and 13 as permanent teeth
erupt.

Stannous Fluoride USP XX (SnF2): Synonym: Tin Fluoride


Properties: Stannous fluoride occurs as a white crystalline powder and has a bitter salty taste. It melts at
about 2.3C. Stannous fluoride is freely soluble in water and is practically insoluble in alcohol, ether and
chloroform.
Uses: Stannous fluoride is extensively used for topical fluoride application. A simple application of a freshly
prepared 2% solution to 6 to 12 month intervals is used. Stannous fluoride requires only one application per
treatment as compared to a series of four applications per treatment of sodium fluoride. A solution is applied to
cleaned, dry teeth.

DENTIFRICE They may be prepared in the form of a Bulk Powder, generally containing soap or detergent, mild
abrasive, and an anticariogenic agent.
S O A P A cleansing agent: a solid, liquid, or powdered preparation made by reacting potassium or sodium
hydroxide with animal or vegetable oils. Use: cleaning
It is a metallic salt combined with fatty acid: a metallic salt of a fatty acid, often made with calcium, copper,
aluminum, or lithium. Use: bases for waterproofing agents, ointments, greases.
DETERGENT cleansing substance: a cleansing substance, especially a synthetic liquid that dissolves dirt and oil.

SOAPcleansing agent or detergent, made from animal and vegetable fats, oils, and greases; chemically, the
sodium or potassium salt of a fatty acid, formed by the interaction of fats and oils with alkali.
Most soaps remove grease and other dirt because some of their components are surface-active agents, or
surfactants. Surfactants have a molecular structure that acts as a link between water and the dirt particles,
loosening the particles from the underlying fibers or other surfaces to be cleaned. The molecule can perform this
function because one end is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the other is hydrophobic (attracted to substances
that are not water soluble). The hydrophilic end is similar in structure to water-soluble salts. The hydrophobic part of
the molecule frequently consists of a hydrocarbon chain that is similar to the structure of grease, oil, and many fats.
The net result of this peculiar structure permits soap to reduce the surface tension of water (by increasing wetting)
and to adhere to and make soluble substances otherwise insoluble in water.
I. Soap Powder is a hydrated mixture of soap and sodium carbonate.
II. Powdered Soapwhich is used in dispensers, is a dry soap that has been pulverized to a fine powder.
III. Liquid Soap is a solution of soft potassium soap dissolved in water.

ABRASIVE substance used to grind or polish an objects surface or shape. Abrasives commonly are used in
household cleaning products and manufacturing processes. Most abrasives are hard, but some, such as talc, are
relatively soft. Familiar abrasives include sandpaper, steel wool, emery boards, and whetstones, but abrasives are
also used in the forms of powders, grains, chips, and blocks. The size, shape, and hardness of a substances particles
determine its characteristics as an abrasive. Coarse, larger grains normally remove material faster than smaller
grains.
I. NATURAL ABRASIVES: The first archaeological evidence of natural abrasives dates to about 20,000 BC, when
various peoples used sand and stone to shape weapons and tools. Ancient Egyptians and Romans used
Emery, a fine-grained mineral, to polish gems, marble, and metals. Other natural substances used as
abrasives include corundum, diamonds, garnet, pumice, talc, quartz, sandstone, and certain vegetable
fibers. The first abrasive sheets were made by gluing sand to a paper backing.
Many natural abrasives are mined in large amounts. These include SAND, which is granulated
quartz, and PUMICE, a hardened lava foam used in scouring powders and metal polish. Supplies of other
abrasives such as diamonds and other precious gems are much more limited.

II. SYNTHETIC ABRASIVES. Edward G. Acheson invented the first synthetic abrasive in 1891. While searching
for a way to make artificial diamonds, Acheson mixed clay and carbon, then heated the mixture to create
Silicon-Carbide crystals harder than all other substances except diamond. Since the early 1900s synthetic
abrasives have been used more widely than natural abrasives. The synthetics can be produced cheaply and,
if necessary, in large quantities. Among the most important are silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and boron
carbide. Silicon carbide, also called Carborundum, is widely used for making grinding wheels. Aluminum
oxide, made from bauxite, is used for cutting hard metals. Boron carbide, a compound of boron and carbon,
is one of the hardest abrasives. Carbide-coated products include saw blades and drill tips. Synthetic
Diamonds, first developed in 1955, are used in many types of drill bits and tool sharpeners.

PUMICE USP XX : Synonyms: Pumice stone; Piedra Pomez


Definition: Pumice is a substance of volcanic origin, consisting chiefly of complex silicates of aluminum,
potassium, and sodium.
Properties: It occurs as very light, hard, rough, porous grayish masses, or as a gritty gray powder. There are
several grades of fineness:
1. Pumice Flour or Superfine Pumice 3. Fine Pumice
2. Coarse Pumice
PUMICE is odorless and tasteless, stable in air, practically insoluble in water and is not attacked by acids.
Uses: The official category is dental abrasive.

Unit IX. Miscellaneous Pharmaceutical Agents 3 Hours


A. Respiratory Agents
1. Inhalants 2. Respiratory Stimulants 3. Expectorants/Emetics
B. ANTIDOTES

A.RESPIRATORY AGENTS They used to act on the Respiratory System, thus, are used to treat Respiratory
Ailments.
1. INHALANTS a substance in the form of a vapor or gas that is inhaled, especially as a medicine or for its
soothing effect
OXYGEN USP XX (O2):Syn: Dephlogisticated Air; Aire Vital; Fire Air; Aire Puro
A. Commercial Production:
1. Fractional Distillation of Liquid Aire (Linde Process)
Air is liquefied by a combination of low temperature and pressure. If compressed air is allowed to expand
through a vale, heat is absorbed and the gas is cooled. By alternate compression, cooling and expansion of air, the
temperature is continuously lowered until air becomes liquid. During the cooling, water vapor and carbon dioxide
in the air condense to liquid are removed.
When liquid air is distilled, the first portion of vapor is richer in the lower boiling compartment. Hence, liquid
nitrogen (boiling point 195.8C) tends to distill over the first than oxygen (boiling point - 183C). Repeated
liquefaction and distillation gives almost 86% pure oxygen. Commercial nitrogen is thus obtained simultaneously.
2. Electrolysis of Water
When an electric current is passed through water containing 15% sodium or potassium hydroxide, the water
is broken down into its component elements, hydrogen and oxygen which are evolved as gases. Oxygen is liberated
at the anode while hydrogen gas is liberated at the cathode. The iron electrode are separated by an asbestos cloth
diaphragm.
In the laboratory, oxygen maybe conveniently obtained either by thermolysis of KClO3 with MnO2 as catalyst
or by the action of water on sodium peroxide.
Properties: Oxygen USP occurs as a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas which supports combustion more
energetically than does air. One volume dissolves in about 32 volumes of water and in about 7 columes of alcohol
at 20C and at pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
Oxygen is responsible for oxidative changes in plants, fats and oil, etc. Many materials and some
pharmaceuticals contain antioxidatns or reducing agent to lessen the effects of oxidation.
Commercial oxygen is stored in cylinder which are usually green-colored or carry a green label. Since oxygen
supports rapid combustion, there should be no smoking or open flames nearby and precautions should be taken
against ignition by sparks from electrical appliances, clothing, or bedding.

B.Standard Purity: USP XX requires that it contains 99% by volume of oxygen and limits the presence of carbon
dioxide, halogens, acids or alkalis and oxidizing substances.
Use: Official category: Inhalant
All pathological conditions accompanied by cyanosis and dyspnea (difficulty in breathing, e.g. congestive
heart failure, asthma, broncho-pnuemonia, etc.) are relieved by inhalation of oxygen. In these cases the oxygen
administered by nasal tubes, masks or in tents. Pure oxygen should be given only for a limited period of time since
uninterrupted inhalation for one or two days could cause harmful effects (edema of lungs, etc.) if the dose is not
regulated. It is also given in cases of poisoning by carbon monoxide, coal gas, nitrous oxide, chloroform, etc.

Carbon Dioxide USP XX (CO2): Syn: Carbonic acid gas; carbonic anhydride
Properties: Carbon dioxide USP occurs as an odorless, colorless gas. Its aqueous solutions are acid to litmus. One
liter at 0C and at a pressure of 760 mm Hg weighs 1.9977 g. One volume dissolves in about one volume of water.
Carbon dioxide is supplied in cylinders which are usually gray metallic color. It is administered in concentrations up
to 7% in oxygen which is stored in gray/green cylinders.
Carbon dioxide is capable of existing in gaseous, liquids or solid states, depending upon the conditions of
temperature and pressure. At 20C it is liquefied by a pressure of about 59 atmospheres. By allowing the gas or the
liquid to expand or evaporate suddenly. Cooling occurs when the temperature is reduced to about -79C by this
process, solid carbon dioxide is formed. This substance is sold commercially under the name Dry Ice and is used as
a refrigerant. One advantage lies in the fact that it is converted directly to a gas, the heat energy required for this
conversion being taken from the surrounding in which the solid carbon dioxide is placed.
Uses: Carbon dioxide is used in admixture with oxygen and air as a respiratory stimulant or persons suffering from
impairment of the respiratory organs in diseases such as pneumonia and in cases of asphyxiation. The frozen form of
carbon dioxide, dry ice, has been used in the treatment of such skin condition as acne, angiomas (a tumor made up
of lymph and blood vessels), corn and calluses, eczema, moles, psoriasis, and warts. Hence, it is used to destroy
tissue by freezing it.
The soft drink industry uses solution of carbon dioxide to make carbonated beverages. Pharmaceutically
most effervescent preparations sodium carbonate and an acid usually citric acid, which react when the patient mixes
the preparation with water. The USP permits carbon dioxide to be used to displace air in parenteral and topical
preparations that are easily oxidized but it must be so stated on the label.

Helium USP XX (He)


Properties: Helium USP occurs as colorless, odorless, tasteless gas which is not combustible and does not support
combustion. It is very slightly soluble in water. Helium is usually supplied in brown cylinders and also as a mixture
containing 20% or 40% oxygen in brown/green cylinders.
USES: Because of the relatively low density of helium and consequently high diffusibility, a mixture consisting of 80
parts of it with 20 parts of oxygen is used in respiratory diseases, to overcome difficulty in respiration. The mixture
has only one third the density of air and since the ease with which the gas can diffuse through a small orifice is
related to the density of gas, the 80% helium-20% oxygen mixture penetrates the restricted respiratory passages
with greater facility than does air.
Because helium has a much lower water and fat solubility than nitrogen, helium-oxygen mixture are used in
high pressure, underwater diving. This has reduced the risks of bends (formation of bubbles in blood) and the time
of decompression when bringing the diver up. Helium being lighter than air, causes the pitch of sounds uttered by
the vocal cords to be increased, producing unintelligible speech with a Donald Duck sound.

Nitrous Oxide USP XX (N2O):


Synonyms: Laughing gas; nitrogen monoxide; dinitrogen monoxide
Properties: Nitrous Oxide USP in a coercible (condensable) gas, colorless, with a slightly agreeable odor and sweetish
taste. It is quite soluble in water at low temperatures at which it imparts its odor and taste. Nitrous oxide, like
oxygen maintains and revives the combustion of many substances because it decomposes easily into its elements. It
may be distinguished from oxygen using the following test: with nitric acid, oxygen forms reddish brown vapors of
NO2 and N2O3 while nitrous oxide will not have any reaction. When inhaled in small doses it produces a form of
INERBRIATION hence, its name laughing gas. In larger doses or mixed with 1 volume of oxygen it reacts as an
anesthetic.

Nitrogen USP XX (N2): Synonyms: AZOTE


Properties: Nitrogen USP occurs as colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It is non-flammable and does not support
combustion. It is usually sold in black cylinder.
Uses: Nitrogen has little therapeutic use. It is used in pharmacy and is official as a pharmaceutical aid to displace air,
usually to increase the shelf life of an easily oxidized product. The USP permits the use of nitrogen to displace air in
parenteral and topical preparations provided it is so indicated in the label.

B.RESPIRATORY AGENTS They used to act on the Respiratory System, thus, are used to treat Respiratory Ailments
I. RESPIRATORY STIMULANTS Agents which increases the Depth and Frequency of Breathing. Ex. Strong
Ammonia
Currently there is one inorganic agent still official as a respiratory stimulant, Aromatic Ammonia Spirit. The
two active ingredients are Ammonium Carbonate NF XV and Strong Ammonia Solution NF XV both of which cause a
reflex action of the patient taking a sudden deep breath. They have been used to revive as unconscious person who
may have fainted or had the wind knocked out of him.

Ammonium Carbonate NF XV
Synonyms: Preston salt; Sal Volatile; Bakers Ammonia; Ammonium Sesquicarbonate
Properties: Ammonium carbonate NF XV consists of varying proportions of ammonium bicarbonate (NH 4HCO3) and
ammonium carbamate (NH2CO2NH4) such that it yields between 40 to 34% ammonia, without empyreuma (the odor
of animal or vegetable matter when charred in a closed vessel) and having a sharp ammoniacal taste. Its solutions
are alkaline to litmus. On exposure to air, it loses ammonia and carbon dioxide, becoming opaque and is finally
converted into friable porous lumps or a white powder of ammonium bicarbonate. Ammonium carbonate is freely
soluble in water but is decomposed by hot water.
Although this salt actually contain little, if any normal ammonium carbonate, it is readily converted in to
normal carbonate by dissolving it in dilute ammonia. This reaction also occurs in the preparation of Aromatic Spirit
of Ammonia.

Aromatic Ammonia Spirit USP XX


Properties: Aromatic Ammonia spirit contains in each 100 mL 1.7 to 2.1 g of total ammonia and ammonium
carbonate corresponding to 3.5 to 4.5 g of (NH4)2CO3. In addition there are volatile oils and as a solvent, ethyl
alcohol.
Tradition called for the use of translucent pieces of ammonium carbonate to be dissolved in a diluted
ammonia solution, generating narmal ammonium carbonate. However, it has been shown that by using additional
ammonia solution and decomposed ammonium carbonate NF XV a preparation meeting the analytical standards of
the official spirit can be made.
Use: Respiratory Stimulant by inhalation of vapors.

II. RESPIRATORY DEPRESSANTS Agents which Lessens the Depth and Frequency of Breathing, which, when
taken in strong dose, can lead to Respiratory Failure, and eventual Death. Usually given in Death Penalty Convicts.
Ex. Thiophental sodium, Pentothal sodium
C.EXPECTORANTS and EMETICS:

Expectorants are used orally to stimulate the flow of respiratory tract secretions. The rationale is that this
facilitated flow will allow ciliary motion and coughing to move the loosened material toward the pharynx more
easily.
Expectorants are used in the treatment of respiratory disorders in which secretions are purulent, viscid or
excessive. It is difficult to design a precise evaluation of these agents since adequate methods for measuring sputum
volume and viscosity have been devised. Agents commonly used are terpinhydrate, which may have a direct effect
on the bronchial secretory cells and ammonium chloride, glyceryl guaiacolate, syrup of ipecac, potassium iodide and
hydriodic acid syrup, which are all believed to act with a reflex action by irritating the gastric mucosa and thereby
stimulating respiratory tract secretion.
EMETICS in low doses have sometimes been used in cough preparations. The rational is that a mild emetic
response stimulates flow of respiratory tract secretions.

Ammonium chloride USP XX (NH4Cl)


Synonyms: Sal Ammoniac; Salmiac; Ammonium Muriate
Properties: Ammonium chloride USP occurs as colorless crystals or as a white fine or coarse crystalline powder which
has a cool, saline taste and is somewhat hygroscopic. It is freely soluble in water and in glycerin or even more
soluble in boiling water
Uses: Ammonium ion markedly increases the secretions, especially the salive, mucuc, and sweat. Hence, ammonium
chloride is valued s an expectorant not only because of the increased amount but it is rendered less viscous and less
tenacious. The crude form of Sal Ammoniac is used largely in solution and electrolyte for voltaic batteries. Its
official category is as systemic acidifier and chloride replenisher.

POTASSIUM IODIDE USP XX (KI)


Synonym: Kalium Jodatum
Preparation: Potassium iodide USP is a saturated solution prepared by dissolving 1000 g of the salt in 680 mL of hot
purified water, cooled to room temperature and diluted exactly one liter; filtered if necessary.
Properties: Potassium iodide occurs in cubicle crystals, either transparent and colorless or somewhat opaque and
white or as a white granular powder. It is slightly hygroscopic and its solutions are neutral or alkaline to litmus. One
gram dissolves in 0.7 mL of water.
Uses: Potassium iodide is official as an expectorant, employed in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, emphysema,
and sinusitis. It is also used as an antifungal agent and by taking advantage of its expectorant action, as an
antitussive agent.
Potassium iodide is valuable in the treatment of goiter and to avoid the latter. Small amount of potassium
iodide is added to table salt.

II.ANTIDOTES: Agents used to counteract Poisoning.


The mechanism of antidotal action usually occurs in one of three ways:
1. By counteracting the effects of poison by producing other effects (physiological antidote)
Example is sodium nitrite, which converts hemoglobin into methemoglobin in order to bind cyanide.
2. By changing the chemical nature of poison (chemical antidote)
Example is sodium thiosulfate, which causes the conversion of the systemically toxic cyanide to non-toxic
thiocyanide.
3. By preventing the absorption of the poison into the body (mechanical antidote)
Examples are activated charcoal and kaolin, which adsorb the poison prior to absorption across the
intestinal wall and magnesium sulfate and cupric sulfate which inactivate and precipitate the toxic material
as insoluble salts.

A. General Purpose ANTIDOTE: A Drug that reduces the effects of ingested poisons (or drug overdose) by
absorbing toxic material.
Ex. Activated Charcoal, Beaten Egg, Tannic acid, Milk, etc.

B. Specific ANTIDOTE: A Drug that reduces the effects of a systemic poison (or Drug Overdose) by a
Mechanism that relates to the Particular Poison.
Examples:
1. DIMERCAPROL (BAL) specific antidote for arsenic, Mercury, and Gold Poisoning (HEAVY METAL
POISONING).
2. Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate specific antidote & treatment of Mercury poisoning (Hydrargyrism
or Hydrargyria.

3. FLUMAZENIL complete or partial reversal of the sedative effects of Benzodiazepines.


4. N-acetylcysteine (MUCOMYST) specific antidote for Acetaminophen or Paracetamol Poisoning.
5. Copper sulfate pentahydrate specific treatment for Phosphorus Poisoning.
6. Calcium sodium versenate & Calcium disodium edetate Specific antidote for LEAD Poisoning
(PLUMBISM).

OFFICIAL ANTIDOTES:

Sodium Nitrite USP XX (NaNO2): Synonyms: Natrium; Nitrosum


Properties: Sodium nitrate USP occurs as a white to slightly yellow granular powder or white opaque, fused masses
or sticks. It has a mild saline taste and is deliquescent in air. Its solutions are alkaline to litmus. It is freely soluble in
water and sparingly soluble in alcohol.
Uses: Official category is antidote to cyanide poisoning given in the form of 2% solution administered intravenously.

SODIUM THIOSULFATE USP XX (Na2S2O3.5H2O))


Synonyms: Antichlor Hypo: incorrectly called Sodium Hyposulfite which is really Na2S2O4
Properties: Sodium thiousulfate USP occurs as large, colorless crystals or as a coars, crystalline powder. It is
deliquescent in moist air and effloresce in dry air at temperature above 33C. It is very soluble in water and insoluble
in alcohol.
Uses: Official category is antidote for cyanide poisoning. It is also used in iodine poisoning.
The term Hypo is still used in photography. As a fixer in photographic film because of its solubilizing action
on silver halides. As antichlor in bleaching paper pulps is another use.

Activated Charcoal USP XX : Synonyms: Carbon ligni


Definition: The residue from the destructive distillation of various organic materials, treated to increase its
adsorptive power.
Preparation: Charcoal is obtained by incomplete combustion of wood out of contact of air, the residue left being
composed of almost pure carbon. The product, however, may have variable adsorptive powers in many instances
almost devoid of such characteristics. Charcoal is usually inactivated by heating 500C to 900C in the presence of
steam. This process is known as activation, undoubtedly removes those substances previously adsorbed and most
probably reduces the biggest particles into smaller particles having greater surface area. It is said that 1 mL of finely
divided activated charcoal has a total surface area of about 1000 sq meter. Charcoal be preserved in a well closed
container.
Properties: Activated charcoal is a fine, black, odorless powder free from gritty matter.
Uses: Official category is general purpose antidote.

CUPRIC SULFATE USP XX (CuSO4.5H2O)


Synonyms: Blue vitriol; Blue stone; Copper sulfate; Caparrosa Azul; Piedra lipis.
Preparation: Cupric sulfate USP occurs as deep blue, triclinic crystals or as blue crystalline granules or powder. It has
a nauseous, metallic taste nd it effloresces slowly in dry air. Its solutions are acid to litmus. It is freely soluble in
water and in glycerin. It is very soluble in boiling water and slightly soluble in alcohol.
Uses: Official category is antidote for phosphorus poisoning. Occasionally it is used as emetic, in doses of 300 mg; as
an astringent or tonic, from 10 to 30 mg.

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