Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ANTICARIES AGENTS ANTICARIOGENIC AGENT; Anticavity Agent. They are incorporated as special substance in
Dentifrices to prevent dental caries, and if NOT, to delay its progression & spreading, which - when taken for granted
will lead to Tooth Loss. Ex. Fluoride ions, Like: Sodium fluoride, Sodium monoflurophosphate, Stannous fluoride,
etc.
The formation of caries (tooth decay) is attributed to the action of acids, mostly lactic acid, obtained from
oral bacterial metabolism of dietary carbohydrates. The build-up of plaque on the tooth surface usually aids the
decay process by forming pockets or crevices on the teeth surface in which food particles can lodge and can be
degraded by the bacteria of the mouth. One of the objectives of brushing the teeth is to remove material from the
tooth surface before it hardens into calculus, since a smooth surface makes it difficult for the adherence of food
particles and bacteria.
Currently accepted and documented approaches to caries prevention include flossing and brushing
accompanied by fluoride, administered either internally or topically to the teeth. When take internally, fluoride in
solution or in rapidly soluble salts is absorbed to somewhat variable degree. The absorbed fluoride is practically
deposited in the bone or developing teeth, with the remainder excreted by the kidneys. Careful analysis of teeth has
shown that the concentration of fluoride is greater in the surface layer of enamel in both erupted and unerupted
teeth.
When too much fluoride is present in the tissue fluids, the condition known as Dental
Fluorosis (mottled enamel) can develop. The enamel of mottled teeth is chalky and soft, indicating a loosely bound
structure. The pigments found in foods apparently adsorb to this modified enamel causing patches of darkening
giving a mottled appearance.
Dental Fluorosis usually occurs in areas where the fluoride concentration of drinking water exceeds 2 ppm.
It only occurs during excessive ingestion of fluoride during the period of teeth development and over a prolonged
period. Thus, a short-term accidental increase in the fluoride concentration during the addition of fluoride in
drinking water would have little or no effect. The lethal adult dose of sodium fluoride is 2 to 5 g, as compared to the
average ingestion of 2.2 mg NaF per day or its equivalent in drinking water containing 1-ppm fluoride.
The mechanism by which fluoride inhibits caries formation is still to be completely elucidated. There are two
current hypotheses:
1. That fluoride decreases the solubility of enamel in acid
2. Bacterial inhibition hypothesis, which is based on the enzyme inhibitory properties of fluoride.
FLUORIDE is administered by two routes: orally and topically. Both are effective but the oral routes places
fluoride into systemic circulation, allowing the fluoride to laid down in unerupted teeth as they are formed. The
most convenient dosage form is fluoridation of the public water supply. This is usually done by adding sodium
fluoride or a fluorosilicate, yielding a fluoride concentration of 0.7 to 1 ppm. This is the equivalent to average daily
intake of 2.2 mg of NaF based on a person drinking six (6) oz glasses of water.
DENTIFRICE They may be prepared in the form of a Bulk Powder, generally containing soap or detergent, mild
abrasive, and an anticariogenic agent.
S O A P A cleansing agent: a solid, liquid, or powdered preparation made by reacting potassium or sodium
hydroxide with animal or vegetable oils. Use: cleaning
It is a metallic salt combined with fatty acid: a metallic salt of a fatty acid, often made with calcium, copper,
aluminum, or lithium. Use: bases for waterproofing agents, ointments, greases.
DETERGENT cleansing substance: a cleansing substance, especially a synthetic liquid that dissolves dirt and oil.
SOAPcleansing agent or detergent, made from animal and vegetable fats, oils, and greases; chemically, the
sodium or potassium salt of a fatty acid, formed by the interaction of fats and oils with alkali.
Most soaps remove grease and other dirt because some of their components are surface-active agents, or
surfactants. Surfactants have a molecular structure that acts as a link between water and the dirt particles,
loosening the particles from the underlying fibers or other surfaces to be cleaned. The molecule can perform this
function because one end is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the other is hydrophobic (attracted to substances
that are not water soluble). The hydrophilic end is similar in structure to water-soluble salts. The hydrophobic part of
the molecule frequently consists of a hydrocarbon chain that is similar to the structure of grease, oil, and many fats.
The net result of this peculiar structure permits soap to reduce the surface tension of water (by increasing wetting)
and to adhere to and make soluble substances otherwise insoluble in water.
I. Soap Powder is a hydrated mixture of soap and sodium carbonate.
II. Powdered Soapwhich is used in dispensers, is a dry soap that has been pulverized to a fine powder.
III. Liquid Soap is a solution of soft potassium soap dissolved in water.
ABRASIVE substance used to grind or polish an objects surface or shape. Abrasives commonly are used in
household cleaning products and manufacturing processes. Most abrasives are hard, but some, such as talc, are
relatively soft. Familiar abrasives include sandpaper, steel wool, emery boards, and whetstones, but abrasives are
also used in the forms of powders, grains, chips, and blocks. The size, shape, and hardness of a substances particles
determine its characteristics as an abrasive. Coarse, larger grains normally remove material faster than smaller
grains.
I. NATURAL ABRASIVES: The first archaeological evidence of natural abrasives dates to about 20,000 BC, when
various peoples used sand and stone to shape weapons and tools. Ancient Egyptians and Romans used
Emery, a fine-grained mineral, to polish gems, marble, and metals. Other natural substances used as
abrasives include corundum, diamonds, garnet, pumice, talc, quartz, sandstone, and certain vegetable
fibers. The first abrasive sheets were made by gluing sand to a paper backing.
Many natural abrasives are mined in large amounts. These include SAND, which is granulated
quartz, and PUMICE, a hardened lava foam used in scouring powders and metal polish. Supplies of other
abrasives such as diamonds and other precious gems are much more limited.
II. SYNTHETIC ABRASIVES. Edward G. Acheson invented the first synthetic abrasive in 1891. While searching
for a way to make artificial diamonds, Acheson mixed clay and carbon, then heated the mixture to create
Silicon-Carbide crystals harder than all other substances except diamond. Since the early 1900s synthetic
abrasives have been used more widely than natural abrasives. The synthetics can be produced cheaply and,
if necessary, in large quantities. Among the most important are silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and boron
carbide. Silicon carbide, also called Carborundum, is widely used for making grinding wheels. Aluminum
oxide, made from bauxite, is used for cutting hard metals. Boron carbide, a compound of boron and carbon,
is one of the hardest abrasives. Carbide-coated products include saw blades and drill tips. Synthetic
Diamonds, first developed in 1955, are used in many types of drill bits and tool sharpeners.
A.RESPIRATORY AGENTS They used to act on the Respiratory System, thus, are used to treat Respiratory
Ailments.
1. INHALANTS a substance in the form of a vapor or gas that is inhaled, especially as a medicine or for its
soothing effect
OXYGEN USP XX (O2):Syn: Dephlogisticated Air; Aire Vital; Fire Air; Aire Puro
A. Commercial Production:
1. Fractional Distillation of Liquid Aire (Linde Process)
Air is liquefied by a combination of low temperature and pressure. If compressed air is allowed to expand
through a vale, heat is absorbed and the gas is cooled. By alternate compression, cooling and expansion of air, the
temperature is continuously lowered until air becomes liquid. During the cooling, water vapor and carbon dioxide
in the air condense to liquid are removed.
When liquid air is distilled, the first portion of vapor is richer in the lower boiling compartment. Hence, liquid
nitrogen (boiling point 195.8C) tends to distill over the first than oxygen (boiling point - 183C). Repeated
liquefaction and distillation gives almost 86% pure oxygen. Commercial nitrogen is thus obtained simultaneously.
2. Electrolysis of Water
When an electric current is passed through water containing 15% sodium or potassium hydroxide, the water
is broken down into its component elements, hydrogen and oxygen which are evolved as gases. Oxygen is liberated
at the anode while hydrogen gas is liberated at the cathode. The iron electrode are separated by an asbestos cloth
diaphragm.
In the laboratory, oxygen maybe conveniently obtained either by thermolysis of KClO3 with MnO2 as catalyst
or by the action of water on sodium peroxide.
Properties: Oxygen USP occurs as a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas which supports combustion more
energetically than does air. One volume dissolves in about 32 volumes of water and in about 7 columes of alcohol
at 20C and at pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
Oxygen is responsible for oxidative changes in plants, fats and oil, etc. Many materials and some
pharmaceuticals contain antioxidatns or reducing agent to lessen the effects of oxidation.
Commercial oxygen is stored in cylinder which are usually green-colored or carry a green label. Since oxygen
supports rapid combustion, there should be no smoking or open flames nearby and precautions should be taken
against ignition by sparks from electrical appliances, clothing, or bedding.
B.Standard Purity: USP XX requires that it contains 99% by volume of oxygen and limits the presence of carbon
dioxide, halogens, acids or alkalis and oxidizing substances.
Use: Official category: Inhalant
All pathological conditions accompanied by cyanosis and dyspnea (difficulty in breathing, e.g. congestive
heart failure, asthma, broncho-pnuemonia, etc.) are relieved by inhalation of oxygen. In these cases the oxygen
administered by nasal tubes, masks or in tents. Pure oxygen should be given only for a limited period of time since
uninterrupted inhalation for one or two days could cause harmful effects (edema of lungs, etc.) if the dose is not
regulated. It is also given in cases of poisoning by carbon monoxide, coal gas, nitrous oxide, chloroform, etc.
Carbon Dioxide USP XX (CO2): Syn: Carbonic acid gas; carbonic anhydride
Properties: Carbon dioxide USP occurs as an odorless, colorless gas. Its aqueous solutions are acid to litmus. One
liter at 0C and at a pressure of 760 mm Hg weighs 1.9977 g. One volume dissolves in about one volume of water.
Carbon dioxide is supplied in cylinders which are usually gray metallic color. It is administered in concentrations up
to 7% in oxygen which is stored in gray/green cylinders.
Carbon dioxide is capable of existing in gaseous, liquids or solid states, depending upon the conditions of
temperature and pressure. At 20C it is liquefied by a pressure of about 59 atmospheres. By allowing the gas or the
liquid to expand or evaporate suddenly. Cooling occurs when the temperature is reduced to about -79C by this
process, solid carbon dioxide is formed. This substance is sold commercially under the name Dry Ice and is used as
a refrigerant. One advantage lies in the fact that it is converted directly to a gas, the heat energy required for this
conversion being taken from the surrounding in which the solid carbon dioxide is placed.
Uses: Carbon dioxide is used in admixture with oxygen and air as a respiratory stimulant or persons suffering from
impairment of the respiratory organs in diseases such as pneumonia and in cases of asphyxiation. The frozen form of
carbon dioxide, dry ice, has been used in the treatment of such skin condition as acne, angiomas (a tumor made up
of lymph and blood vessels), corn and calluses, eczema, moles, psoriasis, and warts. Hence, it is used to destroy
tissue by freezing it.
The soft drink industry uses solution of carbon dioxide to make carbonated beverages. Pharmaceutically
most effervescent preparations sodium carbonate and an acid usually citric acid, which react when the patient mixes
the preparation with water. The USP permits carbon dioxide to be used to displace air in parenteral and topical
preparations that are easily oxidized but it must be so stated on the label.
B.RESPIRATORY AGENTS They used to act on the Respiratory System, thus, are used to treat Respiratory Ailments
I. RESPIRATORY STIMULANTS Agents which increases the Depth and Frequency of Breathing. Ex. Strong
Ammonia
Currently there is one inorganic agent still official as a respiratory stimulant, Aromatic Ammonia Spirit. The
two active ingredients are Ammonium Carbonate NF XV and Strong Ammonia Solution NF XV both of which cause a
reflex action of the patient taking a sudden deep breath. They have been used to revive as unconscious person who
may have fainted or had the wind knocked out of him.
Ammonium Carbonate NF XV
Synonyms: Preston salt; Sal Volatile; Bakers Ammonia; Ammonium Sesquicarbonate
Properties: Ammonium carbonate NF XV consists of varying proportions of ammonium bicarbonate (NH 4HCO3) and
ammonium carbamate (NH2CO2NH4) such that it yields between 40 to 34% ammonia, without empyreuma (the odor
of animal or vegetable matter when charred in a closed vessel) and having a sharp ammoniacal taste. Its solutions
are alkaline to litmus. On exposure to air, it loses ammonia and carbon dioxide, becoming opaque and is finally
converted into friable porous lumps or a white powder of ammonium bicarbonate. Ammonium carbonate is freely
soluble in water but is decomposed by hot water.
Although this salt actually contain little, if any normal ammonium carbonate, it is readily converted in to
normal carbonate by dissolving it in dilute ammonia. This reaction also occurs in the preparation of Aromatic Spirit
of Ammonia.
II. RESPIRATORY DEPRESSANTS Agents which Lessens the Depth and Frequency of Breathing, which, when
taken in strong dose, can lead to Respiratory Failure, and eventual Death. Usually given in Death Penalty Convicts.
Ex. Thiophental sodium, Pentothal sodium
C.EXPECTORANTS and EMETICS:
Expectorants are used orally to stimulate the flow of respiratory tract secretions. The rationale is that this
facilitated flow will allow ciliary motion and coughing to move the loosened material toward the pharynx more
easily.
Expectorants are used in the treatment of respiratory disorders in which secretions are purulent, viscid or
excessive. It is difficult to design a precise evaluation of these agents since adequate methods for measuring sputum
volume and viscosity have been devised. Agents commonly used are terpinhydrate, which may have a direct effect
on the bronchial secretory cells and ammonium chloride, glyceryl guaiacolate, syrup of ipecac, potassium iodide and
hydriodic acid syrup, which are all believed to act with a reflex action by irritating the gastric mucosa and thereby
stimulating respiratory tract secretion.
EMETICS in low doses have sometimes been used in cough preparations. The rational is that a mild emetic
response stimulates flow of respiratory tract secretions.
A. General Purpose ANTIDOTE: A Drug that reduces the effects of ingested poisons (or drug overdose) by
absorbing toxic material.
Ex. Activated Charcoal, Beaten Egg, Tannic acid, Milk, etc.
B. Specific ANTIDOTE: A Drug that reduces the effects of a systemic poison (or Drug Overdose) by a
Mechanism that relates to the Particular Poison.
Examples:
1. DIMERCAPROL (BAL) specific antidote for arsenic, Mercury, and Gold Poisoning (HEAVY METAL
POISONING).
2. Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate specific antidote & treatment of Mercury poisoning (Hydrargyrism
or Hydrargyria.
OFFICIAL ANTIDOTES: