WORK MANUAL

FOR

PLANNING AND DESIGN

OF

PORT AND MARINE STRUCTURE

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE 5

1.0 General 5
1.1 Determining Best Location of Harbour 5
1.2 Land Requirements for Port Development 6
1.3 Size and Shape of Harbour and Turning Basin 6
1.4 Type, Location and Height of Breakwaters 6
1.5 Location and Width of Entrance to Port 6
1.6 Depth of Harbour and Approach Channel 7
1.7 Number, Location and type of Docks 7
1.8 Shore Facilities for Marine terminals 7

2.0 Site Investigation 7

3.0 Hydraulic Modelling Studies 8

4.0 Planning approval 8

CHAPTER TWO 9

1.0 Design Consideration 9

1.1 Size and Layout of Wharf 9
1.2 Type of Design 9
1.3 Loads To Be Used in Design 9

2.0 Design Criteria 9

2.1 Design Vessel 9
2.1.1 Definition of Vessel Weight 10
2.1.2 Draft 10
2.1.3 Berthing Speed 10
2.1.4 Berthing Angle 10

3.0 Forces Produced by Ships 11

3.1 Berthing Force of Ship 11
3.1.1 Effective Berthing Energy of Ship 11
3.2 Wind Pressure on Ship 12
3.3 Fluid Pressure on Ship 12
3.4 Wave Forces Acting on Ship 12
3.5 Tractive Forces Acting on Bollard 13

4.0 Vertical Imposed Loads 13

CHAPTER THREE 18

1.0 Open Wharf Structural Design 18

1.1 Principle of Design 18
1.2 Arrangement and Dimensions 20
1.2.1 Size of One Block of Wharf and Arrangement of Piles 20
1.2.2 Dimensions of Superstructure 20
1.2.3 Arrangement of Ancillary Provision 20
1.3 Assumption Concerning Sea Bottom 20

2
 1.3.1 Determination of Gradient of Slope 20
1.3.2 Virtual Ground Surface 21

2.0 Deck System 22

3.0 Pile Foundation 24

3.1 Pile foundation Design Consideration 25
3.2 Analysis and Evaluation 25
3.3 Determination of Depth to fixity of Partially Embedded Piles 26
3.4 Load Distribution 29
3.5 Uplift Resistance 33
3.6 Batter Piles 33
3.7 Downdrag 33

4.0 Other Geotechnical Considerations 33

4.1 Slope Stability 33
4.2 Slope Protection 34

CHAPTER FOUR 35

1.0 Fender System Design 35

2.0 Fender Types 36

3.0 Fenders System Types and Selection 41

4.0 Fender Spacing And Layout 41

5.0 Design Parameters For Fendering System 43

5.1 Weight of Vessel 43
5.2 Effects of Surrounding Water 44
5.3 Berthing Speed 44
5.4 Eccentricity Factor And Berthing Point 44
5.4.1 Eccentricity Factor, K 45
5.4.2 Eccentricity Factor 46
5.5 Angular Effects 46
5.6 Calculation Formulas for Berthing 46
5.7 Energy absorption of Fenders 46

6.0 Limitations Under Berthing Conditions 47

6.1 Maximum Allowable Reaction Force 47
6.2 Allowable Installation Area 47
6.3 Maximum Allowable Height of Fender 47
6.4 Adaptability of the Existing Wharf 47

7.0 Limitations from Vessels 47

7.1 The hull pressure of the vessel 48
7.2 The curvature of the hull of the vessel 48
7.3 Curvature in A Horizontal Direction 48
7.4 Projection of the Vessel 49

8.0 Limitations from Natural Conditions 50

8.1 Tidal Range 50
8.2 Wind Force 50
8.3 Tidal Current 51

3
9.0 Fender Selection Procedures 51

4
CHAPTER ONE
PLANNING OF PORT
1.0 General

The decision to build a port and its location, generally will be determined by factors
having to do with (1) its need and economic justification, (2) prospective volume of
seaborne traffic, and (3) availability of inland communications by both land and water.
These considerations usually precede the technical studies and planning of the port and
are briefly described as follows:-

a The need and economic justification of various types of port has to be established
depending on their nature and functions served.
b Before embarking upon the construction of a port, extensive surveys and studies will
have to be made to determine the initial and future commerce anticipated from the
tributary area.
c The availability of inland communications and infrastructure has an important bearing
on the location of a port. Unless the tributary area is served with good highways,
railroads, and waterways leading to inland cities, or the terrain and conditions are
favorable for the development or enlargement of these arteries of communication, a
port will not flourish.

Assuming that the above studies have been made and the general location of the harbour
has been established, as well as its principal use and the type and tonnage of traffic to be
handled, the next step, which in some cases will have been initiated during the above
studies, will be to make preliminary studies and layouts of the port in preparation for
making a complete site investigation to gather all the information which will be needed in
making the final design of the port.

With the general requirements of the port having been established and preliminary site
information obtained, the next step will be to make preliminary studies of harbour and
port layouts, which will usually be supplemented with approximate cost estimates based
on certain assumptions which will have to be verified when making the site investigation.

This preliminary planning will include the following:-

1.1 Determining Best Location of Harbour

Unless the site is fixed by specific requirements of the port, several locations of the port
will have to be studied, to determine the most protected location involving the least
amount of dredging and with the most favourable bottom conditions as well as a shore
area suitable for the development of the terminal facilities.

5
1.2 Land Requirements for Port Development

The assessment of land requirements for a port must take into consideration the water
area necessary for a channel, turning basin, anchorage, berths, and disposal of spoil if
dredging must be done, in addition to the shore area needed for cargo handling and
storage, and port related facilities.

The depth and width of channel will depend on the dimensions of the largest vessel using
the waterway, whether the channel is in open water or restricted by banks, the quantity of
traffic expected which determines whether the channel is to be single lane or multilane,
and whether the allowable cost will permit the optimum design. In addition, there are a
number of secondary factors to be considered such as speed of ship, tide, wind, waves
and current, and alignment of channel.

The land requirements on shore for port development will normally cover space needed
for handling and storing general cargo, and passenger traffic. Space for parking and port-
related industries must also be taken into consideration. To provide space for the loading
and unloading of cargo, it is necessary to have an apron of suitable width, adjacent to the
ship, backed up by covered storage referred to as a transit shed. Space should also be
provided in the port area for warehouses for long term storage.

1.3 Size and Shape of Harbour and Turning Basin

The number and size of ships using a port will determine its size and shape to a large
extent, but existing site conditions and specific requirements will have an important
influence.

1.4 Type, Location and Height of Breakwaters

Breakwaters are required for the protection of artificial and semi-natural ports. Their
location and extent will depend on the direction of the maximum waves, the
configuration of the shore line, and the minimum size of port required for the anticipated
traffic in the port. The selection of the most suitable arrangement will depend principally
on the direction of the maximum waves, and its effectiveness in quieting the port may be
checked hydraulic modelling tests.

1.5 Location and Width of Entrance to Port

In order to reduce the wave height within the port, entrances should be no wider than
necessary to provide safe navigation and to prevent dangerous currents when the tide is
coming in and going out. The entrance width should be in proportion to the size of the
port and the ships using it.

6
1.6 Depth of Harbour and Approach Channel

For ideal operating conditions, the water in the approach channel, in the entrance, and in
the port should be of sufficient depth to permit navigation at lowest low water when the
ship is fully loaded. This depth must include an allowance for the surge of the ship, which
is about one-half the wave height and the out of trim or squat when in motion.

1.7 Number, Location and type of Docks

Docking facilities vary widely from port to port. The number of berths will depend on the
anticipated number of ships calling at the port and the time it will take to discharge and
take on cargo or passengers.

The selection of the type of dock and the material used for its construction will depend on
a number of factors, such as:-

a Special requirements or local customs and practice

b Site conditions
c Availability of materials
d Permanency of construction
e Economy of construction
f Size and weight of ships using the port
g Method of construction

1.8 Shore Facilities for Marine terminals

Onshore marine terminal facilities may consist of one or more of the following depending
on the size of the port and the services it renders:-

a Transit sheds
b Warehouses
c Container handling and storage facilities
d Bulk storage
e Terminal building
f Guard houses
g Stevedores warehouses
h Miscellaneous building

2.0 Site Investigation

After the preliminary layouts of the port have been completed and before starting the
final design, it will necessary, in most instances, to obtain additional site information.
The site investigation will generally consist of the following items of work:-

7
a A hydrographic survey of the port and channel area, including the sweeping of the
bottom, if required.
b A topographic survey of the marine terminal area on shore.
c Soil investigation by making borings and/or probings on water, and borings and/or
test pits on land, supplemented by soil testing and analysis, if required.
d Tide and current observations.
e Obtaining information on wind, waves and earthquakes if in an area of seismographic
disturbance, availability and cost of material and labour and availability of housing.

3.0 Hydraulic Modelling Studies

The port layout should be planned such that it would not cause any adverse effects on the
adjacent development, installation and the waterway upstream or downstream of the port
development. It would be more desirable if the port layout could enhance or improve the
existing conditions or environment. To achieve the above objectives, a series of hydraulic
model tests have to be carried out since probably no single factor has contributed so
much to placing the design of ports on a sound engineering basis as has the testing of
hydraulic models.

4.0 Planning approval

In-principle approval has to be sought from MPA COMET for the location and layout of
new ports. If dredging is required, it may be necessary to carry out an environmental
impact assessment study, depending on the scale of the operation to address the
authorities / technical agencies concerns.

8
CHAPTER TWO
DESIGN INFORMATION OF WHARF

1.0 Design Consideration

These will consist if, first, the development of the size and layout of the wharf, secondly,
the general type of design to be used; and thirdly, the loads to be used in the design.

1.1 Size and Layout of Wharf

These vary with the type of material and the machinery and other facilities required for
the particular cargo to be handled. General cargo terminals are quite conventional and
changed little over the years, other than to become larger and to place greater emphasis
on the handling of cargo by trucks, resulting in wider aprons. Because of larger ships
with greater cargo capacity, transit sheds have become larger, and the storage height has
become greater because of the practice of handling and stacking cargo on pallets by the
use of fork-loft trucks and other high-stacking equipment. All of these have resulted in
longer and wider wharf.

1.2 Type of Design

A wharf may be designed as rigid structure in which the lateral forces are taken by batter
piles or by rigid frame action. However, due to elastic deformation and bending, some
movement may take place, but this is usually ignored in absorbing the impact of the ship.

1.3 Loads To Be Used in Design

The lateral and vertical loads for which the wharf is to be designed consist of the
following:-

a Lateral loads from the mooring lines that pull the ship into or along the dock or hold
it against the forces of the wind or current.
b Docking impact caused by the ship striking the deck when berthing.
c Earthquake force will have to be considered if in an area of seismographic
disturbance.
d Vertical loads consist of the dead weight of the structure, termed the dead load, and
the live load which will usually consist of a uniform load and wheel loads from trucks,
railroad cars or locomotives, cargo-handling cranes and equipment.

2.0 Design Criteria

2.1 Design Vessel

The dimensions of the ships shall be determined appropriately, to insure that the port and
harbour facilities can accommodate these ships. The length, beam and draft of the ships

9
will have a direct bearing on the design of the approach channel, the port and the marine
terminal facilities, and the last will be affected also by the type of vessel and its capacity
or tonnage. When the dimensions of the ships are not known clearly, those may be
determined in reference to Table 2-1.

2.1.1 Definition of Vessel Weight

a Gross tonnage
Tonnage expressed by the mass of the vessel.

b Dead Weight Tonnage

Tonnage expressed by the weight actually loaded on the vessel, such as cargo, fuel,
bunker oil, drinking water, passenger and food.

c Displacement Tonnage
Tonnage expressed by the total weight of the vessel body, engine, cargo and all other
materials, loaded in it, is called Full Load Displacement where the cargo is loaded
until the draft line reaches the full draft line of the vessel.

Displacement where cargo has not yet been loaded is called Light Weight
Displacement, which is equal to the weight of the vessel body.

2.1.2 Draft

The draft of a ship, expressed in relation to the displacement as being loaded or light draft,
is the depth of the keel of the ship below water level for the particular condition of
loading.

2.1.3 Berthing Speed

Design berthing speed of a ship shall be determined in consideration of the dimension of

ship, the load condition, the location and structure of the mooring facility, the meteoro-
logical and sea conditions. Generally, the berthing speed of small vessels under 10,000
DWT is 0.1-0.3 m/s and that of medium vessels between 10,000-50,000 DWT is less than
0.2 m/s. for larger vessels over 50,000 DWT, the berthing speed is less than 0.15 m/s.

2.1.4 Berthing Angle

Berthing angle is defined as the angle that the vessels hull makes with the berthing
structure. When vessel approaches angularly to the berthing structure, energy is absorbed
by the non-uniform deflections of each fender in the system.

10
3.0 Forces Produced by Ships

External force produced by a ship at the time of berthing or mooring shall be determined
in consideration of the dimension of the ship (gross tonnage, overall length, molded
breadth and full load draft), berthing method and speed, structure of the mooring facility
and the effects of wind, wave and current.

3.1 Berthing Force of Ship

3.1.1 Effective Berthing Energy of Ship

a Where the wharf has a number of fenders installed, the effective berthing energy of
the ship can be calculated by the formula

Wv 2
E= (Eqn 2-1)
4g

where E : Effective berthing energy of ship (tf)

g : Acceleration of gravity (m/s2), g= 9.8 m/s2
W : Virtual weight of ship (tf)
v : Berthing speed of ship (m/s)

b Where the wharf has fenders provided at a larger spacing, the effective berthing
energy of sip can be calculated by considering the berthing method and the
arrangement of fenders, according to the formula.

Wv 2 1
E= (Eqn 2-2)
2g
1+
r

where : Length from the point of contact to the centre of gravity of the ship as
measured parallel to the wharf (m) (see Fig 2-1)
r : Radius of gyration about the vertical axis through the centre of gravity of the
ship in a horizontal plane (m)

c The virtual weight of the ship is the sum of the displacement tonnage of the ship and
the added weight. The displacement should be obtained from Table 2-1 and the added
weight can be calculated from the following formula.

Wa = D 2 L 0 (Eqn 2-3)
4

where Wa : Added weight (tf)

D : Draft of ship (m)

11
 L : Length of ship (m)
0 : Unit weight of sea water (tf/m3)

3.2 Wind Pressure on Ship

The wind pressure on a ship in moorage is calculated by the formula

1
R= CU 2 ( A cos 2 + B sin 2 ) (Eqn 2-4)
2

where R : Resultant force of wind pressure (kgf) (see Fig 2-2)

: Air density, = 0.123 (kgf.s2/m4)
U : Wind speed (m/s)
A : Area of projection of the front of the ship above water surface (m2)
B : Area of projection of the side of ship above water surface (m2)
: Angle of the wind direction to the centre line of the hull (degree)
C : Coefficient of wind pressure

3.3 Fluid Pressure on Ship

a The fluid pressure produced by the current in the direction of the bow is calculated by
the formula

R f = 0.14SV 2

where R f : Resultant force due to the current (kgf)

S : Submerged area of ship (m2)
V : Current Velocity (m/s)

b The resultant force due to the current in the direction of the ship side is calculated by
the formula

1
R= CV 2 B
2
where R : Resultant force due to current (kgf)
: Seawater density, p = 104.5 (kgf.s2/m4)
V : Current velocity (m/s)
B : Area of ship side below the draft line (m2)

3.4 Wave Forces Acting on Ship

12
In design of facilities where ships on moorage are subject to the action waves,
consideration shall be made on the force which the ships transmit to the facilities as the
result of the wave forces acting on the ships. In practice, wave forces vary periodically so
that moored ships generally oscillate. In such cases, the forces acting on the facility is
generally smaller than the component of the wave force acting on the fixed ship.

3.5 Tractive Forces Acting on Bollard

The tractive force acting on a bollard shall be a value shown in Table 2-2 corresponding
to the gross tonnage of the ship in a horizontal direction, and of said value in a vertical
direction, both acting on simultaneously.

The tractive forces of ships not specified in Table 2-2 (i.e. ships with a gross tonnage less
than 200 tonnes or in excess of 100,000 tonnes) and of the mooring facilities which
accommodates ships in rough weather and of the mooring facilities installed in water
areas of severe sea conditions, shall be determined from consideration of the weather and
sea conditions, the structure of the mooring facilities and the data measurement of the
tractive force.

4.0 Vertical Imposed Loads

The design loads are normally provided by the users and the common design imposed
loads are as follows:-

a Uniform live load

b Mobile crane
c Container stacking, if any
d HA and HB loadings
e Provision of possible type of crane with desirable gauge distance
f Any other loads as may be advised by the users

13
 (units in m)

Type Tonnage Overall Molded Molded Full Type Tonnage Overall Molded Molded Full
length breadth depth load length breadth depth load
draft draft

Gross tonnage Dead weight

tonnage
500 51 10.2 4.0 2.9 2,000 73 11.4 5.6 5.1
1,000 68 11.9 5.0 3.6 3,000 85 12.8 6.4 5.9
2,000 92 13.9 6.2 4.5 5,000 102 14.7 7.6 6.9
3,000 109 15.3 7.1 5.1 10,000 139 19.0 9.9 8.1
4,000 123 16.3 7.8 5.6 15,000 157 21.7 11.3 9.0
5,000 135 17.2 8.4 6 20,000 171 23.8 12.4 9.8
6,000 138 17.8 10.6 7.4 30,000 194 27.2 14.1 10.9
7,000 144 18.6 11.1 7.7 40,000 211 29.9 15.4 11.7
8,000 150 19.3 11.6 7.8 50,000 226 32.1 16.5 12.5
Passenger ship

9,000 155 20.0 12.0 8.0 70,000 250 35.9 18.4 13.6

Oil Tanker
10,000 160 20.6 12.3 8.2 100,000 270 39 19.2 14.6
15,000 181 23.1 13.9 8.8 150,000 291 44.2 23 17.9
20,000 197 25.1 15.1 9.2 200,000 325 47.2 24.5 19.0
30,000 223 28.2 17.0 10.0 250,000 348 51.8 25.6 20.0
Dead weight Dead weight
tonnage tonnage
700 51 8.5 4.6 2.9 10,000 140 18.7 10.5 8.1
1,000 58 9.5 5.1 3.6 15,000 157 21.5 11.9 9.0
2,000 74 11.7 6.3 4.5 20,000 170 23.7 12.9 9.6
3,000 86 13.2 7.2 5.1 30,000 192 27.3 14.5 10.6
4,000 95 14.4 7.8 5.6 40,000 208 30.2 15.8 11.4
5,000 103 15.4 8.4 6 50,000 222 32.6 16.8 11.9
Ore Carrier

6,000 124 16.9 9.5 7.4 70,000 244 37.8 18.7 13.3
7,000 129 17.6 10.0 7.7 90,000 250 38.5 19.7 14.5
8,000 135 18.3 10.4 7.8 100,000 275 42.0 23 16.1
9,000 139 18.9 10.8 8.0 150,000 313 44.5 24.7 18.0
General cargo ship

10,000 144 19.4 11.2 8.2 Gross tonnage

15,000 162 21.7 12.7 8.8 1,000 75 13.4 5.0 4.0
20,000 177 23.4 13.8 9.2 2,000 90 16.2 9.8 4.3
30,000 199 26.1 15.7 10.0 3,000 105 17.7 10.5 5.0
40,000 217 28.3 17.2 4,000 122 20.0 11.2 5.3
50,000 232 30.0 18.4 6,000 138 21.4 12.7 5.9
Ferryboat

Dead weight 8,000 155 21.8 13.2 6.1

tonnage
700 50 8.5 4.0 3.7 10,000 168 24.0 14.7 6.5
1,000 57 9.4 4.0 4.2 13,000 195 24.0 16.1 6.7

Table 2-1 Standard Size of Ships

14
 A

Center of
L l Gravity

.
B

Fig 2-1 Illustration of Berthing Ship

15
 U
a

Fig 2-2 Illustration of Ship for Calculating Wind Pressure

16
 Gross Tonnage Tractive Force on Bollard (tf) Tractive Force on bitt (tf)

200 ~ 500 15 10
501 ~ 1,000 25 15
1,001 ~ 2,000 35 15
2,001 ~ 3,000 35 25
3,001 ~ 5,000 50 25
5,001 ~ 10,000 70 35 (25)
10,001 ~ 15,000 100 50 (25)
15,001 ~ 20,000 100 50 (35)
20,001 ~ 50,000 150 70 (35)
50,001 ~ 100,000 200 100 (50)
The parenthesized values are for the force on a midship mooring post having no more than 2 spring lines.

Table 2-2 Tractive Forces of Ships

17
CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN OF OPEN WHARF STRUCTURES

Fixed structures to which vessels are secured directly include piers, wharves, bulkheads,
quays and dolphins. Structures may be generally categorized as being open, pile-
supported construction versus closed, fill-type construction. This work manual reviews
general design principles common to both types of construction and particular aspects of
open, piled supported structure design.

1.0 Open Wharf Structural Design

Final design of a wharf structure evolves from a preliminary design process based upon
design vessel requirements, which in turn dictate the water depth and site layout, the
general overall dimensions, cargo handling and deck loads, and berthing and mooring
load requirements. Design criteria for deck equipment and cargoes also must include
backing and turning radii, operating tolerances such as crane capacity versus reach and
swing, minimum deck storage area, space for handling a vessels lines, shore connections,
services, utilities, lighting, fire protection, and so on. Proper and ample deck drainage is
critical from both operations and maintenance viewpoint. In determining the structures
final layout and configuration, it is important to consider the possibility of future
expansion or upgrading. The design of pile foundations alike should be adequate for any
foreseeable future dredging.

The optimization of foundation systems and structural systems often involves a design
spiral process whereby pile spacing and capacities, for example, are optimized against
deck framing spans and loads. The structural design of wharf generally follows the
standard building codes of practice. Load factors and combinations for marine structures
may differ from those used on land. The nature of marine work necessitates that different,
usually more conservative, allowable stresses, larger minimum member sizes, and special
material quality requirements be applied. A corrosion allowance usually is added to the
required member sizes in steel design.

1.1 Principle of Design

The design of an open-type wharf is preferably made in the sequence shown in Fig 3-1.

18
Fig 3-1 Flowchart for Design of Open-type Wharf

19
1.2 Arrangement and Dimensions

1.2.1 Size of One Block of Wharf and Arrangement of Piles

The size of a block of wharf, pile intervals and pile row intervals shall be determined by
considering the following:-

a Apron width
b Location of shed
c Stability of sea bottom, especially of slope
d Condition of existing seawall
e Problems in the execution of work, such as capacity of concrete placing
f Value of surcharge and live load, dimension of handling equipment

1.2.2 Dimensions of Superstructure

Dimensions of the superstructure of an open-wharf shall be determined by considering

the followings:-

a Pile intervals and dimensions of piles

b Value of surcharge and live load
c Tidal level
d Problems in the execution of work such as shuttering forms and supports for placing
concrete
e Conditions of ground
f Arrangement of mooring posts
g Arrangement, type and dimensions of fenders

1.2.3 Arrangement of Ancillary Provision

The fenders and mooring posts on an open-type wharf are preferably arranged in order
that the eccentric external forces may not act on one block of the wharf as far as possible.

1.3 Assumption Concerning Sea Bottom

1.3.1 Determination of Gradient of Slope

When a retaining structure is placed behind a slope, it is preferable to avoid the area in
front of the slope indicated by a virtual ground line drawn from the toe of the slope with a
gradient shown by Eqn 3-1 (Fig 3-2)

= (Eqn 3-1)

20
 Slope Surface Virtual Slope

Design Water Depth =

Fig 3-2 Position of Retaining Wall Behind Slope

where = Gradient of the slope to horizontal plane (degree)

= Angle of internal friction of the main component of the slope material
= =tan 1 k 'h , k 'h is the horizontal seismic coefficient in water

1.3.2 Virtual Ground Surface

a In case of very steep slope, the lateral resistance and bearing capacity of piles can be
calculated by assuming that the virtual ground surfaces for respective piles are at the
mean depth of the water in front of the wharf and the actual ground surfaces at
respective piles (Fig 3-3)

Virtual Ground Surface

Fig 3-3 Virtual Ground Surface

b When the wharf is as wide as more than 20m with a very long slope, it is not
appropriate to use the above method.

21
2.0 Deck System

Fig 3-4 illustrates common types of concrete deck framing, the simplest being a one way
continuous cast-in-place flat slab spanning between pilecaps. Where longitudinal girders
are used, as for rail girders, two-way slab action may be attained. Another simple system
involves the use of precast/prestressed planks designed as simple spans over which a
cast-in-place topping is poured. The topping may be thick enough to contribute to
structural action, or it may serve only as a wearing surface. Unless the concrete topping
can be reinforce to resist the maximum negative moment condition over the pilecap, a
continuous nick joint with filter material should be made along the cap centreline.
Another alternative is the use of precast/prestressed planks, generally much thinner than
the topping and used as leave-in-place formwork designed to provide composite action
serving as positive moment reinforcing in the completed deck. Another method of deck
that is common in trestles and offshore terminals is the use of large elements such as
double tees, which may be used without any topping.

Where precast planks or elements are used, it is important that adequate lateral ties be
provided to prevent differential deflections between members acted upon by concentrated
loads. Where precast composite construction is employed, this is usually accomplished
by the thickness of cast-in-place concrete topping and lateral distribution of reinforcing
steel within it. Edge beams along the exposed wharf faces help to distribute berthing and
mooring point loads, provide a flat surface for mounting fenders, and contribute to the
overall deck system rigidity. Edge beams should be of a depth equal to or greater than
that of the pilecaps.

Deck slabs nearly always must be designed to support moving wheel and other
concentrated loads; so they should be reinforced top and bottom in both directions, in
order to distribute the loads and accommodate the changing sign of the moments with
load locations. It also is preferable to use a greater number of smaller well-distributed
reinforcing bars than a smaller number of larger bars of equal area in order to reduce
surface cracking and increase impact resistance. Slabs usually must be checked for
punching shear resistance under highly concentrated loads such as crane outrigger floats.

22
Fig 3-4 Concrete Deck System

23
3.0 Pile Foundation

Piles, which are used extensively in the marine environment to carry structural loads
through the water and soft marine deposits to suitable foundation soils or rock, may be
designed as either end bearing or friction-type foundations. As a result of the unique
environment in which they are used, marine and near-shore pile foundations are subjected
to different loadings and conditions from those of upland pile foundations. Marine piles
often are only partially embedded, leaving much of the pile material exposed to severe
environmental conditions. The design of piles, then, must consider corrosion, marine
organism attack, rot, abrasion, impact as well as cyclic and dynamic loading. Often the
presence of soft surface sediments or scour further increases the unsupported pile length,
thereby increasing applied moments and axial capacity. Marine piles are commonly
subjected to substantial uplift forces, lateral loadings and downdrag forces. The ability of
the piles to resist these forces is dependent on the pile material, pile section properties,
soil-structure interaction, and soil stress-strain characteristics.

The following sections briefly discuss several pile types that are used in the marine
environment:-

a Prestressed Concrete Piles and Spun piles

Prestressed concrete piles are among the most commonly used high-capacity marine piles.
The prestressed strands act as tension elements to resist bending and the large tension
stresses induced into the pile during driving. Although they are displacement type piles,
which perform well in friction, prestressed concrete piles often are driven as high-
capacity end bearing foundations.

Spun piles are being used in applications where high vertical as well as lateral capacities
are required. Spun piles provide moment capacities several times greater than those
obtained with solid piles of the same weight.

Splices should be designed to be located below the mudline whenever possible and in no
case should they end up in the splash zone.

b Steel Pipe Piles

Concrete-filled pipe piles are used in both friction and end bearing. Pipe piles also
provide relatively high section modulus-to-weight and capacity-to-weight ratio, and the
section properties are the same in all directions.

Pipes may be driven either open-or closed-ended. Either case results in a displacement-
type pile because of the formation of a soil plug in the open end of the pipe.

c Steel H-piles
The low-displacement, high-capacity H-pile generally is used where hard or dense soils
or bedrock must be penetrated. These piles are relatively light, are easy to handle, and can

24
withstand high driving stresses. With their low-displacement cross section, H-piles can be
driven close to existing structures without causing severe damage from heave.

3.1 Pile foundation Design Consideration

The structural design of a pile foundation system includes; the selection of a pile type
compatible with subsurface conditions; the determination of axial and lateral loads and
associated shears and moments; the wharf deck vertical and lateral load distribution to
individual piles; the attachment of the pile head to the deck framing; and the
determination of effective column length and end fixity conditions.

The pile to cap connection is a very important detail. Marine piles are often put into
tension in order for the structure to resist lateral loads, and the resulting uplift forces may
develop large pullout loads in the pile head. Further, even relatively rigid wharves with
batter piles to resist lateral loads will move under lateral loads, resulting in moments at
the pile head/cap connection. Residual stresses due to jacking piles into place during
construction also should be considered. The degree of moment restraints or fixity at the
pile head also affects the column length factor and the critical buckling load of the pile.

3.2 Analysis and Evaluation

Pile performance is a function of the pile-structure interaction, pile material and

configuration, soil-pile interaction, and soil properties. Evaluation of pile performance
generally is based on a combination of theory and empirical relationship. Pile
performance may be separated into axial capacity, lateral capacity, and buckling.

Axial vertical load capacity is dependent on either pile buckling above some point of
fixity in the soil or the pile-soil interaction below the mudline. Vertical pile capacity may
be evaluated by using static formulas based on (a) the ultimate capacity of the supporting
soil or (b) deflection determined from rheological modeling of the pile-soil system using
non-linear springs. Lateral load capacities also may be found by using limit equilibrium
methods or deflections based on subgrade reaction theory.

Analysis of the structure can follow two routes. First, the pile can be idealized as a
cantilevered as a cantilevered column that is fixed at some depth below the mudline (Fig
3.5). This simplified model is used for analysis of the pile-structure system as well as for
column buckling, but the method results in conservative moments and required pile
cross-sections below the mudline.

25
 Dummy Pile Length
with Equivalent
Shear, Moment and
Axial Load at
Mudline Mudline

Soft Sediment
D
Moment Lateral
Spring Spring
D = Depth to fixity Axial
(See Section 7.3) Spring

A. Actual Soil Structure B. Idealized Cantilever C. Foundation Simulation

System Column

Fig 3-5 Methods of Analysis For Waterfront Piles

3.3 Determination of Depth to fixity of Partially Embedded Piles

When partially embedded piles penetrate a surface stratum of weak marine deposits, only
moderate lateral piles support can be expected from these soils. As discussed previously,
an idealized model of this condition was developed to simplify the analysis of the pile-
structure system and to determine an effective unsupported pile length for column
buckling analysis. The idealized pile-soil reaction is represented by a cantilevered pile of
equivalent stiffness, fixed at some depth below the mudline. The depth between the
mudline and the point of fixity is called the depth of fixity ( D ) (Fig 3-6).

26
 D

lu
Loose Silt
Firm Bottom

Assumed
Depth of
Fixity le = 3D (minimum)

Fig 3-6 Pile Depth to fixity Definition Sketch

The depth of fixity ( D ) can be calculated from the following equations:-

a For granular soils, silts and normally loaded clays:

EI
D =1.8 5 (Eqn 3-2)
nh

b For preloaded clays:

EI
D =1.4 4 (Eqn 3-3)
ks

where E and I are the modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia of the pile,
respectively, nh is the coefficient of the horizontal subgrade modulus: and k s is the
subgrade modulus for clay, which can be taken as equal to 67 times the undrained shear

27
strength of the soil. In order for Eqn 3-2 and Eqn 3-3 to apply, the total pile embedment
must be equal to or greater than 3 times D (Fig 3-6). For piles than fetch up in end
bearing on rock or another hard stratum above a level of 3 D , the pile should be
considered as pin-ended at its tip. One should measure D from the top of the competent
soil stratum, discounting any loose, recently deposited, organic material or debris.

Where the bottom slopes steeply below the structure, D should be measured downward
from a virtual ground line defined by a line drawn halfway between the soil surface at the
given pile and the bottom (or dredged depth) at the face of the structure (Fig 3-7). For
batter piles, D should be measured vertically downward, not along the pile length. The
value of D usually lie within the range of 3.5 to 8.5 pile diameter (D).

Fig 3-7 Pile Fixity for Sloping Bottom and Batter Piles

In figuring the pile unsupported length ( l u ), consideration must be given to future

dredging or the removal of material by scour or prop wash. The axial capacity of a pile is
reduced as a function of its slenderness ratio, as given by K c l u / r , where K c is an
effective column length factor that accounts for the piles end fixity conditions, and r is
the least radius of gyration of the pile cross section. In general, it is desirable that K c l u / r
values be kept below 120 and preferably below 90 to 100. Theoretical column length
factor ( K c ) are as follows (fig 3-8):

K c = 0.5, both ends fully fixed

K c = 0.7, one end fixed/ one end hinged
K c = 1.0, both end hinged

28
Fig 3-8 Effective length of pile for various end conditions: (a) Ends not
fixed; (b) Top fixed, bottom not fixed; (c) Bottom fixed, top not fixed; (d)
both ends fixed. =effective length.

The above value of K c apply to structures that are rigidly braced or supported against
horizontal forces by batter piles, and thus are essentially translation-fixed. Structures
supported on unbraced cantilevered piles should be considered translation-free, and the
appropriate value should be confirmed by analysis. Note that for one end fixed in the soil
and the other rotation-fixed at the pile cap but subjected to translation, the theoretical K c
value equals 1.0, as for two pin ends. Considering that full fixity at cap and soil cannot
necessarily be guaranteed in most marine structures, a minimum design value of K c
equal to 0.75 generally is recommended even though fixed/fixed end conditions are
assumed.

3.4 Load Distribution

Analysis of the distribution of both vertical and horizontal loads to individual piles often
is simplified by reducing the general three-dimensional problem to the analysis of planar
pile bents. This approach is valid, as wharf structures usually consist of a greater number
of uniformly spaced pile bents. Longitudinal forces acting normal to the pile bent then are

29
dealt with separately by providing independent batter pile groups. Vertical loads usually
are reduced to bent loads by assuming a tributary area equal to the bent spacing for
uniformly distributed live loads.

The distribution of concentrated loads is carried out by elastic analysis, according to the
nature of the loading. Wheel loads, for example, should be placed directly over a given
pile to obtain maximum individual pile loads.

For the general case of a stationary concentrated load (Fv), the vertical load on an
individual pile (Pv) may be calculated from:

Fv Fv e x c x
Pv = + (Eqn 3-4)
n Ix

where n is the number of piles in the bent, ex is the eccentricity of the concentrated load
measured from the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the pile group, cx is the distance of the
individual pile from the c.g. of the group, and I x is the moment of inertia of the pile
group about its c.g. (Fig 3-9). This method assumes a rigid pilecap and deck system, and
that all piles have the same elastic properties.

Fig 3-9 Pile Load Distribution Definition Sketch

30
When batter piles are used, the load distribution problem becomes largely indeterminate,
as the lateral reactions must be balanced. Graphical methods such as the force funicular
polygon sometimes are used, or conservative simplifying assumptions regarding load
distribution are made. More accurately plane frame and three-dimensional analysis of pile
bents can be readily carried out on one of the many structural analysis programs available
for microcomputers.

Lateral loads may be considered to be distributed uniformly along the wharf face as a
presumption uniform load or as discrete point loads at mooring hardware or fender
locations. Fig 3-10 illustrates traditional assumptions regarding lateral load distribution
according to NAVFAC. In reality, wharf deck systems typically are very rigid, and even
point loads concentrated directly on a single bent will be well distributed throughout the
structure.

The percentage of the total vessel impact or other concentrated load taken by a given bent
will depend upon the number and spacing of batter piles and batter pile bents, the pile
batter and stiffness, the deck stiffness and the ratio of bent spacing to deck width, and the
location of the impact along the wharf length. In general, end bents are subjected to
relatively large share of impact and mooring point loads. The simplest, conservative,
approach is to assume that a given pile bent takes 100% of the point load.

31
Fig 3-10 Lateral Distribution of Berthing and Mooring Forces

32
3.5 Uplift Resistance

Because of the existence of relatively large uplift and lateral loads common to marine
structures, pile often must be designed for tension as well as compression. Uplift
capacities typically are calculated in the same way as shaft friction resistance for
compression piles.

3.6 Batter Piles

Batter piles, sometimes referred to as raker piles, often are used to resist lateral loads
applied to the structure. The pile heads must be attached to the structure or other piles in
order to adequately transfer loads. Because a batter pile transmits loads axially, any
horizontal load will have a resulting vertical component that must be resisted in order to
satisfy equilibrium. This vertical component of load may be resisted by the dead weight
of the pile cap and structure or by tension resistance in other piles.

Batter piles often are driven in opposite directions and coupled, so that when one pile acts
in compression, the other acts in tension. Compression loads are resisted by a
combination of shaft friction and end bearing. The tension load, however, can be resisted
only by friction.

Batter piles are susceptible to downdrag forces where compressible soils exist. Also,
because of the slope configuration of the pile, large bending stresses may be introduced.

3.7 Downdrag

Downdrag, or negative skin friction, is developed when all or a portion of the overburden
soil settles relative to the pile. The force mechanism is the same as normally calculated
for shaft resistance, but acts in the opposite direction. The downdrag forces are developed
not only in the layer that experiences settlement but also from all the natural soil or fills
above this layer.

4.0 Other Geotechnical Considerations

4.1 Slope Stability

An important consideration in slope design is stability, which depends on soil and rock
characteristics and controls the steepness and configuration of the slope. Generally
calculated in terms of the factor of safety against failure, stability can change with time.
Changes in the factor of safety can occur as a result of the consideration sequence, the
pore pressure response during or following construction, fluctuations in the groundwater
table, surcharge loadings, changes in slope configuration due to scour, erosion and
dredging.

33
4.2 Slope Protection

The exposed faces of slopes along the forefront must be adequately protected against
scouring and erosion due to current, wave action and propeller wash. Numerous methods
and materials are used to protect the exposed faces of waterfront slopes from scour and
erosion. A common method is to build up graded layers of stones with a protective layer
of riprap on the slope face. The individual stone size and thickness of the protective
layers will depend on the forces to which it will be subjected. Slope design must include
a filter to stop migration of fines from below. A layer of high- strength geotextile usually
is placed between the stone bed and the existing bottom soils to avoid washout of fines.

34
CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN OF FENDERS

1.0 Fender System Design

The design of marine fender systems usually begins with the determination of fender
energy absorption requirements and other fender type selection factor. Table 5-1 lists
some additional design considerations for specific facility types. The need to consider the
fenders performance while the vessel is moored cannot be over-emphasized. This is
especially true at exposed locations and for larger vessels subject to dynamic forces. The
fender load/deflection properties should be compatible with the elasticity of the mooring
lines at open sea berths, and berthing/mooring design requirements should be integrated.
The ultimate capacity of a fender unit and its supporting structure should be in the order
of twice the nominal design energy level, subject to site-specific studies which may
determine that a higher or lower figure is warranted. The overload factor also depends to
some degree upon the type of fender system, its mode of failure, and the consequences of
such a failure.

Vessel categories Features to be taken into account in the design of the

Types fendering system

Train and vehicle ferries Quick turn round

End berthing
High docking velocities
Intensive use of berth (see also notes 1, 2 and 4)
Roll on-roll off (Ro-Ro) vessels Loading ramps, slewed or end loading (vessel mounted or
shore based) end berthing (see also notes 1 and 2)
LNG/LPG carriers Shallow draught even at full load
Low berthing pressures on hull
Single type vessels using dedicated berth
Need to avoid fire hazards from sparking or friction
(see also notes 1 and 3)
Coastal tankers Very low amidships freeboard
Intensive use of berth
Need to avoid fire hazard from sparking or friction
(see also notes 3 and 4)
Containerships Flared clipper bows with liability to strike shoreside
installations (see also notes 1)
Bulk carriers Need to be close to berth to minimize shiploader out-reach
Possible need to be warped along berth for shiploader to
change holds
Large change in draught between empty and fully laden
condition (see also notes 1)
Passenger liners Little change of draught between empty and fully laden
condition (see also note 1)
Tankers Need to be close to berth reduce loading arm length
Large change in draught between empty and fully laden
conditions
General cargo vessels Need to be close to berth to minimize outreach of quayside

35
 cranes and/or ships gear
Large change of draught between empty and fully laden
conditions
Possible long occupancy of beams
Coastal cargo vessels Short straight run of body (see also note 1)
Miscellaneous tugs, supply, Need for very substantial fendering for heavy use
boats, barges, lighters, and Timber fendering usually provided (see also notes 2 and 4)
fishing boats
Yachts Need for soft fendering which is sometimes provided by
the yachts themselves
Note 1 : The vessels are possibly fitted with bulbous bows.
Note 2 : The vessels are possibly fitted with belting.
Note 3 : The vessels do not necessarily have manifolds at the amidships position.
Note 4 : The vessels may often berth without the aid of tugs.
*Form reference (3), reproduced with the permission of the British Standards Institutions

Table 5-1 Facility Type Fender Design Considerations

2.0 Fender Types

At most major marine terminals today, however, high-energy-capacity resilient rubber

units are employed. There are a wide variety of shapes and sizes of elastomeric units on
the market today. Fig 5-1 illustrates some of the more common generic types.

36
Fig 5-1 Elastomeric Fender Units

37
Fig 5-1 Elastomeric Fender Units (Contd)

38
Fig 5-1 Elastomeric Fender Units (Contd)

39
Fig 5-1 Elastomeric Fender Units (Contd)

40
3.0 Fenders System Types and Selection

A wide variety of fender system types are available to the designer. Fender systems may
dissipate impact energy in various ways: through conversion of kinetic energy to
potential energy, as in gravity and buoyancy-type fenders; by elastic deformation in
compression, bending, shear, and/or torsion, as in elastomeric-type units; by conversion
of energy into heat by friction, as in hydraulic units; and even by plastic deformation of
certain expendable-type fenders.

The selection of the optimum fender types for a given application depends upon the
following factors;

Energy absorption requirements

Maximum reaction force
Maximum deflection and load deflection characteristics
Vessel deceleration rate and fender rebound characteristics
Effect of angular impact on performance
Allowable hull pressure on the vessel
Coefficient of friction and vertical and longitudinal rubbing forces
Range of vessel sizes and hull shapes
Vessel standoff distance requirements
Range of tide and exposure conditions
Environmental exposure effects
Frequency of berthing and wear considerations
Factor of safety and overload capacity
Cost and long-term maintenance/repair costs
Local availability, costs, and construction practices

4.0 Fender Spacing And Layout

The vessels geometry affects fender spacing in particular, as well as the location and
number of fenders contacted. Fender spacing additionally depends on the type of fender
system and structural support, the range of vessel sizes to be accommodated, and the type
and arrangement of berth and mooring loads. The fender spacing should allow for the
smallest design vessel to safely lie at any location alongside. Spacing ranging from 8% to
15% of the vessels LOA has been proposed. Fig 3-2 illustrates typical fender spacing for
various berth types. Technically, a vessel alongside only require two points of contact
while in berth, although three or more are recommended, which means that the absolute
maximum spacing is controlled by the length of the vessels parallel sides. In general, the
ratio of a vessels parallel midbody length to its overall length is on the order of 35% to
55% of its LOA, usually being larger for longer vessels. The ratio often determines the
point of first contact with the vessels hull, which is usually at the end of the parallel
midbody, and also length of vessel available to contact fender under moored conditions.

41
Fig 3-2 Fender Spacing for Typical Berth Arrangement

42
The effect of the hulls curvature near the bow or stern on fender spacing is illustrated in
Fig 3-3. Vertical curvature of the hull and hull flare and overhangs and/or projections
such as bulbous bows also must be considered in fender system layout. The standoff
distance, from the face of the wharf to the face of the fender, should be minimized in the
interest of increasing the effective reach of loading equipment, but should also provide a
sufficient buffer zone to prevent contact of any parts of the vessel with the wharf face
with fenders at 50% compression.

Fig 3-3 Effect of Hull Shape on Fender Spacing

5.0 Design Parameters For Fendering System

5.1 Weight of Vessel

Generally, full load displacement is used for calculating berthing energy.

43
5.2 Effects of Surrounding Water

When a vessel moves through sea water, the surrounding sea water also moves which
acts to push the vessel towards the wharf at berthing. Therefore, when calculating the
berthing energy, the designer should use estimated weight of vessel ( W ), i.e. adding an
extra weight of sea water ( W 2 ) to the actual vessel weight ( W 1 ).

There are several concepts about the extra weight of sea water. The most prevailing
concepts in the world; additional weight, mass factor and hydrodynamic coefficient.

5.3 Berthing Speed

Berthing speed is one of the most important criteria for designing a fendering system.

5.4 Eccentricity Factor And Berthing Point

In most cases, a vessel berths with either the bow or stern at an angle of a certain degree
to the wharf or dolphin. At the time of berthing, the vessel turns simultaneously. For this
reason, the total kinetic energy held by the vessel is consumed partially as its turning
energy, and the remaining energy (E) is conveyed to the wharf. The remaining energy is
obtained from the kinetic energy of a vessel by correction with the Eccentricity Factor.

Fig 3-4 Berthing Model

where

L : Vessel length

44
CG : Centre of gravity
P : Berthing Point
: Distance of line parallel to wharf measured from the contact point to the centre of
gravity of the ship (m)
r : Radius of gyration about vertical axis passing through centre of gravity on
horizontal plane (m)
m : Distance along a line joining the centre of gravity and the berthing point
: Angle between m and the vessel speed vector V
: Berthing angle

Generally, two kinds of eccentricity factors, K or C E , are applied.

5.4.1 Eccentricity Factor, K

The eccentricity factor K is expressed by the following formula:-

1
K =

1 + ( )2
r

If the vessels horizontal cutting surface is assumed to be approximately a lean and long
ellipse or a rectangle, the turning radius of the vessel comes up to about of the length
of vessel L. In addition, a berthing at the so-called point is most frequent, K value
becomes 0.5. When berthing is not at the point L, the K value can be read from Fig 3-5.

Fig 3-5 Eccentricity Factor Curve

45
5.4.2 Eccentricity Factor C E

When we take the vessels speed-vector into consideration the eccentricity factor C E is
expressed by the following formula:-

r 2 + m 2 cos 2
CE =
r2 + m2

5.5 Angular Effects

When angular approach is expected, it is recommended to consider the energy lost due to
absorption by non-uniform deflection of each fender in the system. Correction factor for
angular loading is a ratio of the reaction force (R) and energy absorption (E) value at
angle ( ) divided by the corresponding value at zero angel ( = 0 ).

5.6 Calculation Formulas for Berthing

Several Formulas for calculating effective berthing energy have been applied and the
following is recommended:-

(W 1 + W 2 ) v 2
E = k
2g

where

E : Effective berthing energy ( ton-m)

W1 : Displacement tonnage (ton)
W2 : Additional weight (ton)
v : Berthing speed ( m / s )
g : Acceleration of gravity ( m / s 2 )
K : Eccentricity factor

5.7 Energy absorption of Fenders

The performance of a fender is determined by angular effects.

The angular performance obtained by multiplying the normal performance ( = 0 ) by the

angular correction factor should be equal to or larger than the energy effective for
berthing.

Besides the angular effect, other effects such as shearing also influence fender
performance.

46
6.0 Limitations Under Berthing Conditions

Several limitations under berthing conditions should be considered in selecting fendering

system. Typical limitations are:-

a Maximum allowable reaction force

b Allowable installation area
c Maximum allowable height of fender
d Adaptability of existing wharf

6.1 Maximum Allowable Reaction Force

Kinds and types of wharves vary in the reaction force allowed; especially the wharf
consisting of piles severely limit the allowable reaction force. The normal and angular
reaction force allowable for a selected fendering system should be less than the maximum
allowable reaction force.

6.2 Allowable Installation Area

When the installation area is limited due to the thickness of the wharf etc. the fendering
system should have a compact layout in a minimum area, while satisfying the required
performance.

6.3 Maximum Allowable Height of Fender

Protection of the fendering system should be within the regulated height owing to the
length of the loading arm etc. It is absolutely necessary to design a fendering system in
which the vessel will not hit the wharf even if the system is compressed up to the
designed deflection of the fender.

6.4 Adaptability of the Existing Wharf

When adaptable, the fenders can be fixed on to the existing quay wall. For such cases,
special anchoring such as the One Touch Anchor and the Resin Anchor are
recommended for proper fixing.

7.0 Limitations from Vessels

Several limitations from vessels should be considered in designing and selecting the
fendering systems. Typical limitations are:

a The hull pressure of the vessel

b The curvature of the hull of the vessel
c Projection of the vessel

47
7.1 The hull pressure of the vessel

The hull of a vessel is reinforced by longitudinal beams and transverse beams. The
pressure is determined, theoretically, by the strength of these beams, the distance between
each beam and the area contacting the fenders. When a small fender with a large reaction
force hits the hull of a vessel, some denting or serious damage to the hull may occur. In
order to prevent such trouble, a fender with face pressure smaller than the pressure
required of the hull should be selected. Generally speaking, in case of small vessels, the
spacing of these beams is closed together, so that the face of a fender may contact at least
one of these beams in the hull of the vessel. Such beams have, generally, enough strength
to withstand the reaction force of the fender. Therefore in case of small vessels, the hull
pressure or face pressure is not as important as for larger vessels. In case of middle-sized
and large vessels, the maximum allowable face pressure must be specified and is
increasingly used in designing.

7.2 The curvature of the hull of the vessel

As the hull of vessel has a very complicated curvature in horizontal and vertical
directions, the fender will be compressed in complicated shape by such curvatures. If the
fender is installed in a low position, the vessel might hit the wharf before the fender can
be compressed to the designed deflection as shown in Fig 3-6.

Fig 3-6 Effect of vertical Curvature of Vessels on Selection of Fender

7.3 Curvature in A Horizontal Direction

If a vessel has obvious curvature around the contact area as shown in Fig 3-7, it will be
necessary to determine the adequate spacing of fenders needed for preventing the vessel
from hitting the wharf.

48
Fig 3-7 Effects of Horizontal Curvature of Vessels on Selection of
Fender

7.4 Projection of the Vessel

Many small vessels have projections like a hull belting as shown in Fig 3-8. When the
projection contacts a fender directly, the fender may be compressed partially on scratched,
so that serious damage, such as cracking and cutting may occur.

Fig 3-8 Effect of Projection of Vessels on Selection of Fender

49
8.0 Limitations from Natural Conditions

There are various limitations from natural conditions which should be taken into
consideration for designing a marine fendering system. The tidal range, wind force and
tidal current, which have relatively strong influences, should especially be considered.

8.1 Tidal Range

When the tidal range is especially broad, it is necessary to decide where in the fendering
system the vessel will certainly contact because the contact point of the vessel differs
largely depending on the tide. It is recommended to locate the fendering system where
the top of the freeboard of the vessel will contact the higher position than the marine
fender as shown in Fig 3-9.

Fig 3-9 Effects of Tidal Range on Selection if Fender

8.2 Wind Force

Especially when the freeboard of the vessel is very high, such as when it is light weight
or in ballast, it is necessary to design a fendering system which will not be damaged from
over-compression by the vessel receiving force from a strong wind. When the vessel
contacts several fenders, the total reaction force of these fenders contacted should be
stronger than the wind force. However, if a fendering system whose reaction force is far
stronger than the wind force is selected, it will lead to extra reinforcement of the wharf
and an increase in costs, which is not desirable. It is important to select a fendering
system which has the smallest reaction force to withstand the wind force while absorbing
the required berthing energy.

50
8.3 Tidal Current

Tidal current is one of the factors which should be considered as well as wind force:
however, as wharf and its mooring facilities are designed not to be affected by tidal
current, it is not generally taken into consideration in designing the fendering system.

9.0 Fender Selection Procedures

The most important thing in selecting a proper marine fender is that it absorbs the
berthing energy of the vessel for safe berthing. The procedures for fender selection are
illustrated as follows:-

a To obtain the correct berthing energy. As there are many indefinite factors in
operating conditions, it is very difficult to determine the design criteria for a
fendering system for covering all these factors. It is important to make clear just
which criteria are used for designing among the many factors.
b To select fendering systems suitable for absorbing the berthing energy by considering
angular effects etc.
c To select fendering systems by considering several limitations, especially the
following:-
i. The reaction force of the fender should not exceed the maximum allowable
reaction force of the wharf under normal operating conditions.
ii. The fendering system should be installed in the designated area.
iii. The face pressure of the fendering system should be less than the allowable
hull pressure of the vessel.
iv. To decide the spacing of the fendering systems by considering the minimum
curvature of a vessel contacting it.

51